Errors and Expectations
 Errors and Expectations devotes a chapter to eight of the (at the time) most salient considerations in basic writing. Each chapter follows a three-pronged format: first, a range of examples; second, an explanation of causes of the problems; third, suggestions with which to approach the problems. Although more than thirty years have passed since the book’s original publication date, the majority of the information remains pertinent and insightful today. Chapter 1: Introduction. Shaughnessy discusses the background of the open admissions movement, detailing her own experience when she begins to grade the essays produced by her first group of open admissions students and finds herself unprepared to proceed in spite of previous years of experience in teaching composition. She also provides a rationale for her focus on error, explaining the realities of academia, the ways in which errors are viewed, and the relationship between reader and writer. Chapter 2: Handwriting and punctuation. After briefly discussing handwriting, the bulk of the chapter (27 of 29 pages) focuses on the myriad ways in which basic writers use and misuse punctuation. In order to understand the logic behind the errors, Shaughnessy explores the concept of the sentence and the differences between spoken and written English. Commas, periods, and capitalization are the primary elements examined. Chapter 3: Syntax. Four general categories of error are examined (accidental errors, blurred patterns, consolidation errors, and inversions) in the context of the academic tone which college students are expected to adopt and with which basic writers often struggle as they expand their writing ability. Chapter 4: Common errors. Shaughnessy provides examples in the primary problem areas of verbs, nouns, pronouns, and subject-verb agreement before discussing the discouragement felt by teachers and students alike as they approach the recurring common errors present in student writing. She offers simple suggestions for reducing error and provides a thorough diagnostic test. Chapter 5: Spelling. Shaughnessy first makes a distinction between misspelling and incorrectly inflecting various parts of speech before classifying spelling mistakes under four heads: problems with the spelling system, incongruities between spoken and written English, ignorance of spelling rules, and the inexperienced eye. She suggests nine steps in addressing spelling problems and warns against two general assumptions—that adult students can’t be taught how to spell correctly and that spelling can only be taught one way. Chapter 6: Vocabulary. Basic writing students enter college without having developed the vocabulary of academia, a slow-growing task that generally takes years to accomplish. Shaughnessy compares the writing of basic, intermediate, and advanced freshman writers to discuss their vocabulary skills and the depth of ideas investigated through vocabulary. She also indicates basic writing students’ needs as they approach vocabulary-rich courses (such as biology or anatomy). Chapter 7: Beyond the sentence. Although many teachers complain that basic writing students lack ideas, Shaughnessy claims that their ideas are hidden by their novice skills and attempts at elaboration. She suggests three needs specific to BW students: how to arrive at a main idea, how to see and create structure in writing, and how to recognize specific patterns that link together sentences and paragraphs. Chapter 8: Expectations. Shaughnessy discusses the powerful link between expectations and achievement, showing sample essays from the beginning and end of a semester course and citing statistics that demonstrate the effectiveness of basic writing courses.