Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed
Jared Diamond
 In the prologue, Diamond summarizes his methodology in one paragraph: Diamond identifies five factors that contribute to collapse: climate change, hostile neighbors, collapse of essential trading partners, environmental problems, and failure to adapt to environmental issues. He also lists 12 environmental problems facing mankind today. The first eight have historically contributed to the collapse of past societies: #Deforestation and habitat destruction #Soil problems (erosion, salinization, and soil fertility losses) #Water management problems #Overhunting #Overfishing #Effects of introduced species on native species #Overpopulation #Increased per-capita impact of people Further, he says four new factors may contribute to the weakening and collapse of present and future societies: #Anthropogenic climate change #Buildup of toxins in the environment #Energy shortages #Full human utilization of the Earth’s photosynthetic capacity Diamond also writes about cultural factors, such as the apparent reluctance of the Greenland Norse to eat fish. The root problem in all but one of Diamond's factors leading to collapse is overpopulation relative to the practicable (as opposed to the ideal theoretical) carrying capacity of the environment. The one factor not related to overpopulation is the harmful effect of accidentally or intentionally introducing nonnative species to a region. Diamond also states that "it would be absurd to claim that environmental damage must be a major factor in all collapses: the collapse of the Soviet Union is a modern counter-example, and the destruction of Carthage by Rome in 146 BC is an ancient one. It's obviously true that military or economic factors alone may suffice" (p.&nbsp;15).