The Ultimate Combo: Boosting Adversarial Example Transferability by
  Composing Data Augmentations
Zebin Yun Achi-Or Weingarten Eyal Ronen Mahmood Sharif
Transferring adversarial examples (AEs) from surrogate machine-learning (ML)
models to target models is commonly used in black-box adversarial robustness
evaluation. Attacks leveraging certain data augmentation, such as random
resizing, have been found to help AEs generalize from surrogates to targets.
Yet, prior work has explored limited augmentations and their composition. To
fill the gap, we systematically studied how data augmentation affects
transferability. Particularly, we explored 46 augmentation techniques of seven
categories originally proposed to help ML models generalize to unseen benign
samples, and assessed how they impact transferability, when applied
individually or composed. Performing exhaustive search on a small subset of
augmentation techniques and genetic search on all techniques, we identified
augmentation combinations that can help promote transferability. Extensive
experiments with the ImageNet and CIFAR-10 datasets and 18 models showed that
simple color-space augmentations (e.g., color to greyscale) outperform the
state of the art when combined with standard augmentations, such as translation
and scaling. Additionally, we discovered that composing augmentations impacts
transferability mostly monotonically (i.e., more methods composed $\rightarrow$
$\ge$ transferability). We also found that the best composition significantly
outperformed the state of the art (e.g., 93.7% vs. $\le$ 82.7% average
transferability on ImageNet from normally trained surrogates to adversarially
trained targets). Lastly, our theoretical analysis, backed up by empirical
evidence, intuitively explain why certain augmentations help improve
transferability.