second persian invasion greece second persian invasion greece occurred persian wars king persia sought conquer greece invasion direct delayed response defeat persian invasion greece battle marathon ended attempts greece death son spent years planning second invasion enormous army navy led greek resistance tenth greek city states joined allied effort remained neutral submitted invasion began spring persian army crossed marched persian advance blocked pass small allied force king simultaneously persian fleet blocked allied fleet straits famous allied army held persian army seven days mountain path allied rearguard trapped annihilated allied fleet days persian attacks battle news reached disaster withdrew fell persian army captured burnt athens larger allied army fortified narrow protecting persian conquest sides sought naval victory decisively alter course war general succeeded persian navy narrow straits huge number persian ships beaten allied fleet allied victory prevented quick conclusion invasion fearing trapped europe retreated asia leaving general finish conquest elite army following spring allies assembled largest army marched north confront ensuing greek infantry proved superiority inflicting severe defeat killing process day allied navy destroyed remnants persian navy battle double defeat invasion ended persian power severely greeks offensive eventually europe islands war finally came end background greek city states athens supported unsuccessful revolt relatively young prone revolts subject peoples spent considerable time revolts rule revolt threatened integrity empire vowed punish involved especially empire saw opportunity expand empire world preliminary expedition secure land approaches greece ended conquest forced fully subordinate kingdom persia previously vassal early late 6th century remained having autonomy fully subordinate sent greek city states asking gift earth water token submission having demonstration power previous year majority greek cities duly obliged athens ambassadors trial executed simply thrown meant effectively war persia ambitious task force attacked receiving submission task force moved besieged destroyed finally moved attack athens landing bay marathon met heavily outnumbered army ensuing won remarkable victory resulted withdrawal persian army asia began raising huge new army meant completely greece egyptian subjects revolted indefinitely greek expedition died preparing march egypt throne persia passed son crushed egyptian revolt quickly restarted preparations invasion greece persian preparations scale invasion required long term planning stock conscription decided set allow army cross europe canal dug rounding persian fleet destroyed feats exceptional ambition contemporary state campaign delayed year revolt egypt roughly years preparation began muster troops invasion europe gives names nations troops drafted persian army gathered asia minor summer autumn armies eastern gathered led passed winter early spring moved joined armies western army mustered marched europe crossing bridges size persian forces army numbers troops mustered second invasion greece subject endless dispute numbers given ancient sources large claimed total million military personnel accompanied equivalent number support personnel poet contemporary talks million based persian records gave total number army support personnel assembled suggested sources access official records forces involved expedition modern scholars tend reject figures based knowledge persian military systems logistical capabilities greek countryside supplies available army route modern scholars generally attribute numbers given ancient sources result run war topic debated modern consensus revolves figure real numbers clear anxious ensure successful expedition overwhelming numerical superiority land sea army died starvation disease returning asia tells army navy moving halted inspection recounts numbers troops found present doubles number account support personnel reports army numbered men ancient sources similarly large numbers poet near contemporary talks million gave total number army assembled early influential modern historian set tone expressing numbers given admit overwhelming total near obviously impossible main objection supply problem problem detail reject account altogether citing reporting careful methods accounting supply years drew attention contradictions ancient sources major limiting factor size persian army suggested sir british transport officer supply water suggested region men animals supported rivers region greece suggested confused persian terms leading factor early modern scholars estimated land forces participating invasion soldiers based logistical systems available note giving names major commanders leaders basic unit persian infantry numbered strong land force roughly men proponents larger numbers suggest figures historian accepts realistic infantry plus cavalry including support reasons including size area army drafted modern day libya pakistan land troops fleet troops infantry cavalry persian troops greek troops fleet size persian fleet disputed according persian fleet numbered transport supply ships including gives detailed breakdown persian records number battle despite losses earlier storms battle claims losses reinforcements records greeks unspecified number ships greek islands fought claims faced warships fast ships independently claim number outset given teacher claims gives number ships speaking general terms refers ships numbers ancient standards consistent interpreted number correct modern scholars accepted number suggesting number lower recent works persian wars reject number seen reference combined greek fleet generally claim launched warships greek preparations preparing war decision taken guidance politician build massive fleet necessary greeks fight man power fight land sea require alliance greek city states sent ambassadors greece asking earth water making deliberate omission athens support began states alliance congress states met late autumn confederate alliance formed confederation power send envoys asking assistance dispatch troops member states defensive points joint consultation abstract union simply calls greeks greeks sworn alliance translation greeks banded translation referred allies athens leading role congress interests states played determining defensive strategy little known internal workings congress discussions meetings approximately greek cities sent representatives remarkable greek world especially city states attendance technically war majority city states remained neutral awaiting outcome confrontation major suspected willing aid invasion force arrived agreed policy loyalist joined allied force according possible interpretation notable city actively siding dominated severely weakened force led annihilated army size allied forces allies standing army requirement form fighting home territory muster armies required different sized allied forces appeared campaign numbers discussed fully article battle spring macedonia having crossed europe april persian army began march greece major food depots set path white territory river estuary asian army linked balkan allies river modern day food sent asia years preparation campaign animals bought local populations months ordered grind grains flour persian army took roughly months travel unopposed journey miles joined fleet reorganized troops tactical units replacing national formations earlier march allied congress met spring delegation suggested allies muster narrow borders block advance force allies led pass warned alexander bypassed passes army overwhelming allies retreated shortly received news crossed abandonment meant submitted cities north pass help forthcoming second strategy suggested allies route southern greece require army travel narrow pass easily blocked allies despite overwhelming number furthermore prevent bypassing sea allied navy block straits dual strategy adopted congress cities fall plans defend come women children athens evacuated city august allies received news clearing paths mount intending march period truce accompanied olympic games festival warfare considered considered threat grave king personal bodyguard men case elite young soldiers replaced veterans sons supported contingents cities allied forces picked route allies proceeded occupy pass rebuilt wall built point pass waited arrival arrived mid august initially waited days allies disperse eventually persuaded allies intended contest pass sent troops attack greek position suited warfare persian contingents forced attack head allies days battle throw end second day betrayed local resident named revealed mountain path led allied lines sent elite guards night march allied aware maneuver route dismissed bulk allied army remaining guard rear day battle remaining allies forth wall meet slaughter ultimately allied rearguard annihilated pass opened simultaneous battle allied naval force defended directly persian fleet caught gale coast losing ships probably muster ships start battle day detached ships sent sail eastern coast ships round block line retreat allied fleet allies remaining engaged late afternoon allies having better engagement capturing vessels evening storm occurred majority persian detachment sent second day battle news reached allies lines retreat longer threatened resolved maintain position staged hit run attack ships capturing destroying day persian fleet attacked allies lines force day savage fighting allies held position suffered severe losses half fleet damaged allies inflicted equal losses persian fleet evening allies received news fate allies allied fleet badly damaged longer needed defend flank retreated island september victory meant fell cities resisted captured razed left open invasion remaining population athens evacuated aid allied fleet began prepare defensive line building wall road abandoning athens athens fell small number eventually defeated ordered athens captured greece expected defiance greeks priority complete war quickly possible huge invasion force supplied indefinitely probably wish fringe empire long shown frontal assault defended greek position little chance success allies dug little chance conquering rest greece land defensive line allies defeated required use persian navy allied navy summary destroy allied navy strong position force greek surrender hope concluding campaign season conversely avoiding destruction hoped destroying persian fleet greeks avoid conquest final sides prepared stake naval battle hope decisively altering course war allied fleet remained coast september despite imminent arrival athens fell advancing persian army allied fleet remained coast trying lure persian fleet battle partly result navies finally engaged cramped straits large persian numbers active ships struggled manoeuvre seizing opportunity greek fleet attacked scored decisive victory sinking capturing persian ships ensuring according loss attempted build causeway straits attack place attempt battle case project soon abandoned naval superiority removed feared greeks sail destroy bridges according volunteered remain greece complete conquest hand picked group troops advising retreat asia bulk army persian forces abandoned able return burnt city winter autumn winter siege tells persian general having escorted men began return journey neared thought right people found revolt despite attempts capture city forced siege months attempting use unusually low tide attack town sea persian army caught returning tide drowning survivors attacked boats forced lift siege return remnants men siege besieging decided revolt town held tribe driven having taken town defenders handed town people june winter tension allies particular protected fleet key security felt hard demanded allied army march north following year allies failed commit fleet probably refused join allied navy spring navy command king remnants persian fleet sides unwilling risk battle similarly remained knowing attack pointless allies refused send army outside moved break stalemate offering peace self government territorial expansion aim removing fleet allied forces alexander sure delegation hand hear offer rejected athens evacuated marched south took possession repeated offer peace refugees athens sent demanding assistance threatening accept persian terms time celebrating festival delayed making decision days delivered ultimatum amazed hear task force fact marching meet heard allied army march retreated near trying draw allies open terrain use cavalry allied army command regent stayed high ground protect tactics ordered hit run cavalry attack greek lines attack unsuccessful cavalry commander killed outcome prompted allies position nearer persian camp high ground result allied lines communication exposed persian cavalry began intercept food deliveries finally managed destroy spring water available allies allied position undermined ordered night time retreat original positions went leaving isolated separate hills contingents scattered away near seeing better opportunity attack ordered army forward persian infantry proved match heavily armoured greek broke bodyguard killed persian force dissolved rout troops managed escape road rest fled persian camp trapped slaughtered allies victory afternoon battle tells allied victory reached allied navy time coast morale boosted allied marines fought won decisive victory battle day destroying remnants persian fleet soon marched north fleet joined rest allied fleet fleet able match sailed persian fleet based ships poor state repair decided risk fighting instead drew ships beach army men left fleet joined building camp protect ships decided attack camp allied fleet marines seeing small size allied force emerged camp proved superior destroyed persian force ships abandoned allies burnt sea power marking allied fleet aftermath twin victories second persian invasion greece threat future invasion greeks remained worried try time apparent persian desire conquer greece diminished ways represents start new phase conflict greek counterattack victory allied fleet sailed break bridges found sailed home remained attack held region allies strongest town region laid siege protracted siege fell ended siege years greeks primarily dominated expel islands peace persia came peace finally ending half century warfare tactical analysis greek style warfare preceding centuries revolved members middle classes afford armour necessary fight manner standards time heavily armoured originally bronze probably stage flexible leather version helmet large round shield armed long spear evidently significantly longer persian spears sword fought formation exact details completely clear close formation presenting uniform overlapping shields spears enemy properly assembled formidable offensive defensive weapon occasions recorded happened took huge number light infantry defeat relatively small vulnerable cavalry caught wrong terrain heavy armour long spears excellent troops hand hand combat gave significant protection ranged attacks light troops shield stop missile reasonable chance armour persian infantry invasion group drawn empire according general type armour style fighting troops generally speaking armed bow short spear sword carried shield wore leather exception ethnic persian troops worn scaled armour contingents armed somewhat differently instance renowned elite contingents persian infantry ethnic foremost infantry royal guards armed aforementioned style cavalry provided probably fought lightly armed missile cavalry style fighting probably stand enemy bows equivalent wear enemy closing deliver coup grace spear sword encountered battle cavalry easily routed probably exhausted greeks battle marathon shown superiority persian infantry albeit absence cavalry slightly surprising bring greek regions especially control asia equally tells egyptian marines serving navy armed performed greek marines egyptian contingent served army completely trusted recently revolted persian rule case questioned greek egyptian contingents navy allies evidently tried play persian fears reliability persian service far tell performed particularly persian navy simply included army serving fleet coastal regions persian empire appear sent contingents army major land battles invasion allies clearly adjusted tactics persian advantage numbers cavalry occupying pass staying high ground path allied position revealed failed adjust tactics situation position chosen limit persian options allied positions cavalry successful tactic forcing nearly disastrous retreat brought general melee infantry resulted persian defeat events reveal similar story persian infantry committing melee disastrous results suggested little evidence complex tactics persian wars simple greek tactics played strengths seriously strength failure adapt facing allied infantry contributed eventual persian defeat strategic analysis beginning invasion clear held advantages regardless actual size clear brought overwhelming number troops ships greece unified command system king hugely efficient bureaucracy allowed undertake remarkable feats planning persian generals significant experience warfare years persian empire established furthermore excelled use intelligence diplomacy warfare shown nearly successful attempts divide conquer greeks greeks comparison fragmented city states actively opposing persian invasion prone quarrel little experience large scale warfare largely restricted small scale local warfare commanders chosen primarily basis political social standing experience expertise asks fail persian strategy probably simply progress greece overwhelming force cities territory army passed forced submit risk destruction happened cities initially resisted forced submit advanced conversely allied strategy probably try stop persian advance far north possible prevent submission potential allies possible allies realised given overwhelming numbers little chance open battle opted try defend geographical bottle persian numbers count allied campaign seen context initially attempted defend pass prevent loss realised defend position chose northerly position axis allied performance initially effective failure properly guard path undermined strategy led defeat fleet scored successes withdrew losses sustained defeat position irrelevant far persian strategy succeeded allied strategy disaster failed defence allies changed nature war attempt attack land realising probably breach essentially reduced conflict naval proposed strategic allied campaign lure persian fleet battle straits successful need fight win war suggested finish campaign allied victory partially ascribed persian strategic persian strategy changed sought exploit allies order fracture alliance particular sought win leave allied fleet unable oppose persian landings tells keen fight decisive battle actions run particularly consistent willing accept battle terms waited allies attack alliance collapse allied strategy mess agreed march north order save alliance appears allied leadership little idea force battle win attempt retreat finally delivered allies battle terms victory need attack allies played main allied tactical strength combat melee allied victory seen partially result persian mistake persian failure seen partly result strategic mistakes handed allies tactical advantages resulted decisive defeats allied success seen result free men fighting freedom played certainly greeks interpreted victory terms crucial factor allied success having formed alliance remained true despite odds appear occasions alliance doubt ultimately defeat meant occupation greece allies defeated exemplified remarkable fact citizens athens chose carry fighting exile submit ultimately allies succeeded avoided catastrophic defeats stuck alliance took advantage persian mistakes possessed advantage real advantage start conflict allowed destroy persian invasion force significance second persian invasion greece event major significance european history large number historians hold greece conquered ancient greek culture lies basis western civilization developed extension western civilization obviously impossible know clear time greeks understood significant happened militarily way tactical strategic innovation persian invasion commentator suggesting soldier war soldiers generals won war good example use terrain force ruse good example use deception warfare major lesson invasion events superiority close quarters fighting lightly armed persian infantry taking lesson persian empire later war start recruiting relying greek mercenaries ancient sources translation books histories digital library translation modern sources holland tom world empire battle west isbn green peter persian wars philip greek persian wars isbn defence greece isbn burn persia greeks cambridge history iran volume median elite series battle west isbn barry naval encounter saved greece western civilization new_york simon hardcover isbn paperback isbn bury history greece death alexander great 4th revised edition history greece size army invasion greece vol history art war reprint edition translated walter volumes warfare classical world isbn alexander great logistics army london joseph companion ancient macedonia sons isbn scott thoughts reliability classical writers reference size army vol vii antique fleet studies des leipzig cambridge ancient history vol des forces greeks october force conquered southwest asia magazine issue september october editions athens strategic dimension persian wars war history magazine october sources citation invention translated leeds moses introduction history war translated isbn summer casualties parameters college archived original june retrieved
Second Persian invasion of Greece