pronounced medieval welsh poem consisting series men kingdom allies according conventional interpretation died fighting place named traditionally ascribed survives manuscript book book manuscript later 13th century dated 7th early 11th centuries text partly written partly old welsh early date place oral composition soon battle presumably old north written dialect consider work poet wales 9th 10th 11th century 9th century date oldest surviving welsh works poetry known roman times held territories southeast scotland northumberland poem tells force picked warriors assembled far year din edinburgh attacked usually identified north yorkshire days fighting overwhelming odds nearly warriors killed poem similar heroic poetry emphasis heroes fighting primarily glory narrative manuscript contains connection considered stanza particular received attention mentions king arthur passing earliest known reference character book manuscript early manuscript book thought date second half 13th century currently accepted view manuscript contains work usually known wrote poem left blank page writing related poems known wrote material added material later apparently access earlier manuscript material added wrote variants given given stanza incomplete missing end manuscript material lost differences material added material shows signs partial remainder retention features explains suggesting started partially copied tired copied remaining older manuscript suggested sources called correct material books sources poem poem series warriors fell battle vastly superior numbers verses refer entire host individual heroes tell ruler gathered warriors kingdoms provided year drinking halls din launching campaign killed fighting overwhelming odds poetry based fixed number syllables language oral transmission uses rhyme end rhyme internal parts use number open words example men went dawn collection appears compiled different versions according verses men survived warriors survivors addition poet certainly counted warriors names eighty warriors given poem book begins introduction sang stanza appears prologue composed death pan want pan claim behalf presence court gentle wall battle slain earth covered parted second stanza praises individual hero man youth years swift long thigh handsome youth quicker field blood wedding quicker feast burial beloved friend wrong beneath sad wonder land son slain praise entire host example number men went high spirits life span drank gold sweet year merry red swords let blades remain white shields sided men mentioned suggestion linked deaths led 19th century editors assume warriors went battle drunk williams explained stood warriors received lord return expected pay loyal lord unto death similar concept found anglo saxon poetry heroes commemorated poem mounted warriors references horses poem references spears swords shields use armour latin references indicate christians example altar enemy described features seen stanza men went war cry dark armour shields spear shafts held high spear points sharp edged coats mail swords led way thrust armies companies fell blades gave gold altar rich reward simon evans suggested references point christianity later additions personal names given recorded sources warriors williams identifies mentioned old personal recorded sources arthur mention arthur formed original poem earliest reference arthur bravery stanza poet praises warriors fed black fortress arthur powerful ones battle rank warriors lands places mentioned thought area area leeds called came example came reference mountains thought territory chief fort warrior come came north wales included manuscript connection subject matter remainder associated southern scotland northern england wales stanza celebrates victory kingdom described grandson welsh king battle saw array came brought sacrifice holocaust saw second array come settlement grandson saw mighty men came dawn head stanza appears separate cycle poems associated poem entitled cradle song addressed baby named describing father goes hunting fishing thought added poem written written space manuscript incorporated poem later failed realise belong stanza example stanza text book jackson suggested probably inserted blank space page original manuscript according reconstruction stanza deliberately added text analysis interpretation date date subject debate scholars early 19th century poem composed soon battle fall recorded reign king event thought meant collapse kingdom later composition latest date ascribed determined second text usually considered 9th 10th centuries scholars consider 11th century debate date poem employed linguistic arguments believed time battle british language transitioning daughter languages primitive form welsh wales southwestern britain brittany northern britain concludes majority changes transformed british belong period middle 5th end 6th century involved loss final syllables poem dates time written early form usual speech jackson suggested primitive dialect spoken time gives example found british middle final lost text laid foundations modern scholarly study poetry considered regarded likely late 6th century origin transmitted period written cast doubt date composition arguing unlikely end 6th century developed language notably earlier ninth century suggests poetry composed 9th century traditional themes attributed jackson considers real substance arguments points poetry transmitted long period written case language rule date suggests earlier date suggests poem existed written form 7th century earlier usually thought reviewing arguments date poetry states today possibility outright modern literary concept early welsh tradition longer contention spectrum alternatives ranges corpus literary creation wales based fairly slender thread traditions old north corpus large text actually composed earlier time place believes considerable poem dated 6th century considered language poem 9th century 6th century writing stated linguistic evidence dating poem 9th 10th century approach dating poetry look historical point view writing concluded historical arguments suggest poem authentic work establish essential nature poem surviving versions favourable circumstances establish wording original commenting attempts establish poem said case authenticity exactly mean proven mean fact great majority warriors mentioned poem known sources forward authors argument idea poem later composition poems known later clearly written purpose example strengthen claims particular dynasty men commemorated appear welsh dynasty breeze comments difficult later poet trouble commemorate men poem forgotten background poem set area southern scotland england year area included number kingdoms apart kingdom occupied area covered parts lancashire south lay kingdom leeds area areas later known welsh old north known british period occupied territory area head far south modern terms lands included borders regions capital period called known edinburgh time area later invaded increasingly occupied anglo saxon kingdoms attributed reference poets area 6th century having mentioned founder royal line ruled goes time father muse famous poetry called time renowned british poetry preserved work poems attributed published considered comparable antiquity poetry praises son refers lord interpretation narrative poem series heroes died battle history familiar original listeners context poem worked text interpretations events recorded poem 19th century welsh scholar identified linked poem king mac king edition translation book claimed poem referred battle text fit theory generally accepted interpretation battle forward published williams interpreted text refer person modern welsh version king chief seat modern edinburgh year gathered selected warriors far din year launched attack williams agrees identifying hands opposed larger army anglo saxon kingdoms battle seen attempt resist advance angles probably occupied lands modern north eastern england kingdom time battle angles absorbed kingdom possibly fall capital incorporated kingdom interpretation accepted modern scholars jackson accepts interpretation suggests force men small undertake task demanded considers mounted warriors accompanied larger number foot soldiers considered worthy mention poem follows williams interpretation jackson suggested fall kingdom poem preserved maintained independence centuries considers written period oral transmission reached wales manuscript form end 8th end 9th century particular interest matters relating founding myth kingdom involved coming alternative interpretation published new study involved attempt reconstruct original poetry written terms work included new different interpretation background poetry draws attention poem entitled battle gwen men arise day battle victorious cattle rich sovereign senior leader reference slightly later poem addressed thought composed lines poem translated fierce wrought great renowned mortality identifies kings fought alliance draws attention mention sons enemy stanza points according old welsh kings descendants considers view references poems case identifying attack recorded battle gwen date poem favoured williams interprets having fought power struggle allies sides alliance points according son baptized princess father subjects real victor battle person personal description meaning mountain feast mountain chief aspects view historical context criticised example makes point reference men state battle fought according baptized editions translations known translation printed latin translation book specimens poetry welsh published text printed time english translations poem published followed translations ancient books wales produced copy book edition translation reliable edition notes welsh published new translations based work published modernized welsh text colour edition manuscript introduction published new edition aimed recreate original text appeared number translations aim present literature subject scholarly study examples translation earliest welsh poetry translation cultural influence number references later medieval welsh poetry known 12th century poem praises war band heroes uses model slightly later poet eulogy addressed wishes inspired sing sang day sang period poetry forgotten wales centuries discovered manuscript late 18th century early 19th century onwards allusions welsh poetry english major influence long poem reflects witnessed world war jones quotation beginning seven sections poet writing english basis difficult admired poem fallen written memory son tom poem welsh dead opens line men went original poem comment contemporary conflict poem inspired number historical novels including british industrial band test brought album entitled words poem set music original english translation collaboration welsh avant garde theatre company performed wales germany italy netherlands scotland
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