apollo initially designated manned mission united_states apollo program ultimate goal manned lunar landing low earth test target launch date february cabin fire launch rehearsal test january cape kennedy air force station launch complex killed crew members senior pilot edward white pilot destroyed command module apollo chosen crew officially retired nasa commemoration april immediately fire nasa convened apollo accident review board determine cause fire houses united_states congress conducted committee inquiries oversee nasa investigation source fire determined electrical fire spread rapidly material high pressure pure oxygen cabin atmosphere rescue prevented plug door hatch opened higher internal pressure cabin failure identify test hazardous based fact rocket led rescue hampered poor emergency congressional investigation senator publicly revealed nasa internal document citing problems prime apollo contractor known phillips report disclosure embarrassed nasa administrator unaware document existence attracted controversy apollo program despite congressional displeasure nasa lack congressional committees ruled issues raised report bearing accident manned apollo flights suspended months command module hazards addressed development testing lunar module saturn moon rocket continued saturn launch vehicle apollo test flight apollo successful manned apollo mission flown apollo backup crew october crew backup crew april december second backup crew december january apollo manned test flight plans manned test flight earth orbit launched saturn rocket test launch operations ground tracking control facilities performance apollo saturn launch assembly lasted weeks depending spacecraft performed flight number built block version designed lunar orbit rendezvous landing strategy chosen lacked capability docking incorporated design lessons learned test flown ready moon landing flights mercury astronaut grounded director selected apollo crew january command pilot white senior pilot rookie pilot shoulder twice aboard training aircraft undergo surgery january replaced nasa announced crew selection march named backup crew september named prime crew second block flight nasa planned follow test flight manned mission dual flight designated launch manned rendezvous dock launched march nasa studying possibility flying apollo mission joint space rendezvous final mission november delays making apollo ready flight extra time needed incorporate compatibility impractical readiness spacecraft caused quarter target date missed mission rescheduled february mission background declared intent craft orbit days newspaper article published august referred flight apollo arrived kennedy space center august labeled apollo packaging october nasa announced flight carry small television camera broadcast live command module camera allow flight controllers monitor spacecraft instrument panel flight television cameras carried aboard manned apollo missions insignia crew received approval june design mission patch apollo design center depicts flying southeastern united_states florida launch point prominent moon seen distance symbolic eventual program goal yellow border carries mission astronaut names border set stars stripes trimmed gold insignia designed crew artwork employee spacecraft preparation bigger far complex previously implemented spacecraft design october named manager responsible managing design construction spacecraft review meeting held august week delivery crew expressed concern material mainly cabin technicians found convenient holding tools equipment place gave spacecraft passing grade meeting gave crew portrait posed heads hands prayer inscription isn don trust joe time decided head gave staff orders tell north american remove cabin supervise issue personally north american shipped spacecraft kennedy space center august certificate flight significant incomplete planned engineering changes completed additional engineering change orders completed delivery frustrated inability training engineers spacecraft changes took lemon tree house hung altitude chamber september combined system testing performed altitude testing performed prime backup crews october december testing command module found design flaw sent manufacturer design changes returned leaked water returned second time time tank service module testing prompting separation removal chamber tested signs tank problem tests negative december second block flight canceled unnecessary reassigned backup crew apollo crew promoted prime crew mission designated launch vehicle place manned mission planned launch saturn elliptical medium earth orbit scott started training plant california apollo accident occurred outstanding hardware problems fixed spacecraft finally completed successful altitude chamber test backup crew december according final report accident investigation board post test backup flight crew expressed satisfaction condition performance spacecraft appear account given lost moon astronaut trio climbed ship clear pleased seen later warned wrong ship point makes uncomfortable doesn ring right sign trouble following successful altitude tests spacecraft removed altitude chamber january saturn launch vehicle pad january sort mind possibility catastrophic failure course happen flight happen plan best care trained crew fly accident test launch simulation january pad test determine spacecraft operate nominally simulated internal power detached cables passing test essential making february launch date test considered non hazardous launch vehicle spacecraft loaded fuel systems disabled est january white entered command module fully pressure suited seats hooked spacecraft oxygen communication systems immediately noticed strange odor air circulating suit compared sour simulated countdown held air samples taken cause odor found countdown resumed accident investigation found odor related fire minutes count resumed hatch installation started hatch consisted parts inner hatch stayed inside cabin outer hatch spacecraft heat shield outer hatch cover boost protective cover entire protect aerodynamic heating launch launch escape rocket exhaust event launch boost hatch cover partially fully place flexible boost protective cover slightly distorted run provide simulated internal power spacecraft fuel cell loaded test sealed air cabin replaced pure oxygen psi kpa psi kpa higher atmospheric pressure movement detected spacecraft measurement unit astronaut sensors indicated increases oxygen flow sounds stuck open microphone evidence identify movement related fire stuck microphone problem communications loop connecting crew operations building complex control room poor communications led remark going moon talk buildings simulated countdown held attempts communications problem countdown functions simulated internal power transfer successfully completed count remained hold minus minutes fire crew members time run increase bus voltage occurred seconds later listeners laboratory analysis indicate hey fire followed seconds sounds open microphone immediately followed believed listeners supported laboratory analysis saying got fire cockpit seconds silence second badly transmission occurred interpreted listeners fighting bad fire let open got bad fire let burning reporting bad fire getting transmission believed listeners white lasted seconds ended cry pain witnesses said saw white television monitors reaching inner hatch release handle flames cabin spread left right intensity fire fed pure oxygen caused pressure rise psi kpa command module inner wall initial phase fire flames gases rushed outside command module open access panels levels pad service structure intense heat dense smoke ineffective gas masks designed toxic heavy smoke hampered ground crew attempts rescue men fears exploded soon fire solid fuel rocket launch escape tower command module likely killed nearby ground personnel possibly destroyed pad pressure released cabin convective rush air caused flames spread cabin beginning second phase phase began oxygen consumed replaced atmospheric air essentially fire causing high concentrations carbon heavy smoke fill cabin large amounts deposited surfaces cooled took minutes pad workers open hatch layers drop inner hatch cabin floor intended pushed way cabin lights remained lit unable find dense smoke smoke cleared found bodies able remove fire partly melted white space suits connecting life support system removed restraints lying floor spacecraft white restraints burned found lying sideways hatch determined tried open hatch emergency procedure able internal pressure found right hand seat procedure called maintain communication white opened hatch large strands melted cabin interior removing bodies took nearly minutes investigation result flight failure mission march nasa deputy administrator wrote implemented management instruction april defining mission failure investigation policy procedures modified nasa existing accident procedures based military aircraft accident investigation giving deputy administrator option performing independent investigations major failures officials normally responsible declared nasa policy investigate document causes major mission failures occur conduct space activities appropriate actions result findings recommendations immediately apollo fire avoid appearance conflict interest nasa administrator asked president allow nasa handle investigation according established procedure promising assessing blame appropriate leaders congress informed directed establishment apollo chaired director included astronaut spacecraft designer february professor left board replaced day north american chief engineer apollo left immediately ordered apollo hardware software released control board thorough stereo photographic documentation interior board ordered procedures tested identical conducted thorough investigation board reviewed autopsy results interviewed witnesses sent weekly status reports investigation progress board issued final report april cause death according board suffered severe degree burns body destroyed white suffered degree burns half body quarter melted away suffered degree burns quarter body small portion damaged autopsy report confirmed primary cause death cardiac arrest caused high concentrations carbon burns suffered crew believed major factors concluded occurred happened fire melted suits oxygen tubes exposing lethal atmosphere cabin major causes accident review board identified major factors combined cause fire deaths source probably related vulnerable carrying spacecraft power vulnerable carrying pure oxygen atmosphere higher atmospheric pressure cabin sealed hatch cover quickly removed high pressure extensive distribution materials cabin inadequate emergency rescue medical assistance crew escape source review board determined electrical power momentarily failed found evidence electric arcs interior equipment unable identify single source determined fire likely started near floor lower left section cabin close spread left wall cabin right floor affected briefly board noted silver copper wire running environmental control unit near center couch stripped repeated opening closing small access door weak point ran near junction water cooling line prone leaks solution silver discovered hazard capable causing violent reaction mixture pure oxygen atmosphere experiments confirmed hazard existed silver wires copper copper july directed north american ensure silver silver coated electrical contacts existed vicinity possible apollo spacecraft pure oxygen atmosphere test run simulate launch procedure cabin pure oxygen nominal launch level psi kpa psi kpa standard sea level atmospheric pressure times psi kpa partial pressure oxygen atmosphere provides environment materials normally considered highly burst flame high pressure oxygen atmosphere consistent mercury programs pressure launch deliberately greater ambient order drive nitrogen containing air replace pure oxygen seal plug door hatch cover launch pressure gradually reduced flight level psi kpa providing sufficient oxygen breathe reducing fire risk apollo crew tested procedure spacecraft operations building altitude vacuum chamber october backup crew repeated december investigation board noted tests command module fully pure oxygen times total hours minutes half hours longer test materials cabin review board cited types classes material close sources nasa crew systems department installed square feet spacecraft like found high pressure oxygen environment states book men earth material removed crew august complaints order replaced august delivery hatch design inner hatch cover plug door design sealed higher pressure inside cabin outside normal pressure level launch psi kpa ambient created sufficient force prevent removing cover excess pressure emergency procedure called open cabin vent valve allowing white remove cover prevented valve located left initial wall flames system easily vent normal pressure flow capacity utterly incapable handling rapid increase psi kpa absolute caused intense heat fire north american originally suggested hatch open outward use explosive bolts blow hatch case emergency nasa agree arguing hatch accidentally open flight manned spacecraft center designers rejected explosive design favor operated apollo programs fire apollo recommended changing design outward opening hatch slated inclusion module design according testimony house investigation accident based ease exit end flight emergency exit emergency board noted test planners failed identify test hazardous emergency equipment gas masks inadequate handle type fire fire rescue medical teams attendance spacecraft work access areas contained emergency response steps sliding doors sharp turns choice pure oxygen atmosphere designing mercury spacecraft nasa considered nitrogen oxygen mixture reduce fire risk near launch rejected based considerations nitrogen flight pressure reduction carried clear risk sickness known bends decision eliminate use gas oxygen accident occurred april test pilot passed seriously injured testing mercury cabin atmosphere system vacuum chamber problem found nitrogen rich oxygen poor air leaking cabin feed suggested oxygen nitrogen mixture apollo nasa overruled pure oxygen design judged safer complicated lighter weight monograph deputy administrator wrote nasa single worst mistake engineering judgment run fire test test episode bbc documentary series nasa triumph tragedy said nasa idea oxygen atmosphere influence burning similar remarks expressed documentary film shadow moon oxygen incidents fires high oxygen test environments occurred apollo fire colonel smith conducting test space suit colleague pure oxygen chamber san_antonio texas fire broke destroying chamber smith partner narrowly escaped oxygen fire occurrences documented reports archived fire blast sic medicine fire prevention manned spacecraft test chamber oxygen nasa general working paper october incidents occurred soviet space program government policy secrecy disclosed west apollo fire died march burns sustained fire participating day endurance experiment high oxygen isolation chamber weeks manned space flight disclosed january mission march completely seal spacecraft hatch historic walk space spacecraft environmental control system responded leaking air adding oxygen cabin causing concentration level rise high crew ground controllers worried possibility fire remembering death years earlier political fallout committees houses united_states congress oversight space program soon launched investigations including chaired senator manned space flight administrator director called testify anderson committee february hearing senator asked knew report extraordinary problems performance apollo contract replied deferred subordinates witness panel phillips responded unaware report late year accident phillips headed tiger team investigating causes inadequate quality schedule delays cost apollo saturn second stage north american prime contractor gave oral presentation team findings presented memo north american president strongly memo questioning known phillips report afraid actually seen hard copy phillips presentation responded contractors occasionally subjected site progress reviews information referred continued refer report despite phillips refusal characterize angered perceived deception important program problems congress questioned nasa selection north american prime contractor later wrote cab ride leaving hearing information led disclosure phillips memo issued statement defending nasa november selection north american prime contractor apollo followed june filing seven page memorandum documenting selection process eventually provided controlled copy phillips memo congress senate committee noted final report nasa testimony findings phillips task force effect accident lead accident related accident stated recommendations notwithstanding nasa judgment contractor later significant progress overcoming problems committee believes informed situation committee object position administrator nasa details government contractor relationships public domain position way argument bringing situations attention committee freshman senators jointly wrote section committee report nasa strongly anderson having disclosed phillips review congress wrote strongly accusing nasa lack attitude congress refusal respond fully legitimate congressional inquiries concern corporate time national tragedy potential political threat apollo blew large support president time measure influence congress experience staunch supporter nasa inception recommended moon program president skilled portraying kennedy legacy relations nasa north american deteriorated assignment blame north american argued unsuccessfully responsible fatal error spacecraft atmosphere design finally contacted demanded chief resign elected fire storms nasa resorted alcohol order help cope nasa administrator increasingly worried mental state asked extended voluntary leave absence refused threatening resign leave compromise agreed meet psychiatrist independent assessment psychological fitness approach remove position unsuccessful finally months fire superiors reassigned nasa headquarters washington felt new post non job left months program recovery called meeting staff days accident delivering speech subsequently nasa principles speaking errors overall attitude surrounding apollo program accident stated schedule blocked problems saw day work element program trouble reminded team endeavor stated new requirement member team mission control tough competent requiring perfection nasa programs following space shuttle columbia disaster nasa administrator quoted speech applying columbia crew redesign fire apollo program grounded review redesign found extremely hazardous instances assembled example found cabin decided remaining block spacecraft saturn test flights manned missions use spacecraft command module design changes cabin atmosphere launch adjusted oxygen nitrogen sea level pressure psi kpa ascent cabin rapidly psi kpa releasing approximately gas originally present launch vent closed environmental control system maintained nominal cabin pressure psi kpa spacecraft continued vacuum cabin slowly space simultaneously replaced oxygen nitrogen concentration fell zero day new cabin launch atmosphere significantly safer oxygen contained times oxygen present ordinary sea level air oxygen necessary ensure sufficient partial pressure oxygen removed helmets reaching orbit psi psi compared psi kpa psi kpa sea level air environment pressure suits changed rapid drop cabin suit pressures ascent sickness likely nitrogen tissues launch breathe pure oxygen starting hours launch removed helmets orbit avoiding bends considered worth risk oxygen accelerated fire suit block suits replaced suits beta cloth non highly melt resistant fabric woven coated planned use completely redesigned hatch opened outward opened seconds concerns accidental opening addressed cartridge nitrogen drive release mechanism emergency instead explosive bolts materials cabin replaced self versions covered protective aluminum replaced steel joints possible thorough implemented documenting spacecraft construction maintenance new mission naming scheme asked apollo reserved flight husbands april associate administrator manned space flight announced change officially recorded apollo manned flight failed ground test apollo missions previously occurred mission saturn test flight designated subsequent flights numbered order flown flights renumbered names apollo unused manned flight hiatus allowed work catch saturn encountering delays apollo flew november apollo saturn rocket taken later launch complex launch earth test flight lunar module january second saturn flew apollo april backup crew finally flew test mission apollo october memorials buried arlington national cemetery buried grounds west_point new_york names died line duty listed space mirror memorial kennedy space center visitor complex florida president awarded posthumously october president bill_clinton awarded white december apollo mission patch left moon surface manned lunar landing crew members apollo mission left surface moon tiny memorial statue plaque containing names apollo including soviet perished pursuit human space flight apollo fire subsequently launch later dismantled concrete launch pedestal remains site concrete steel reinforced structures pedestal bears plaques commemorating crew year families apollo crew invited site memorial includes site tour historic launch sites january granite benches built college classmate installed site southern edge launch pad bears military service insignia stars landmarks moon mars apollo frequently aligned spacecraft navigation platforms determined positions relative earth moon sighting sets stars optical instruments practical joke apollo crew named stars apollo catalog introduced nasa documentation middle spelled backwards second spelled backwards roger spelled backwards names quickly stuck apollo accident regularly later apollo crews moon hills mars named civic memorials remains public display accident spacecraft removed taken kennedy space center facilitate review board order investigate cause fire investigation complete moved virginia placed secured storage warehouse february parts moved approximately feet newer environmentally controlled warehouse weeks earlier brother publicly suggested permanently concrete remains popular culture apollo accident briefly depicted opening scene film apollo accident aftermath subject episode apollo hbo miniseries earth moon starring apollo mission accident covered abc television series episodes rendezvous launch pedestal memorial plaque briefly depicted scenes film feature film armageddon apollo disaster inspired song fire cockpit band album
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