species tree family found south central_america caribbean described french species tree produces new set leaves year requires relatively high levels light grow grows rapidly conditions lives relatively short time panama flowers dry season february march costa_rica dry season flowers later march july species trees male female produce male female flowers small yellow flowers thought insects resulting fruits dispersed animals including birds fruit eating bats seeds dispersed leaf cutter ants studied extensively scientists attempt understand tree gain better understanding ecology general studies conducted panama biological station costa_rica particular interest competes species individuals species different stages life cycle normally limited light nutrients found growing considered relatively light demanding compared species young individuals likely survive grow away parents individuals growing near able escape diseases plant investigated leaves tree differ depending location forest canopy finding thicker canopy thinner measured water potential leaves changes open close day findings suggest closing control water loss controlled leaf area instead population examined way genes vary local scale range genetically diverse indicating gene flow occurs populations seeds dispersed leaves eaten species particularly genus species ants live tree grow tree bark people range treat diseases exported europe eighteenth century treat illnesses number compounds isolated bark shown effects local people use wood tree purposes grown plantations harvested timber exported description grows heights metres maximum trunk diameter maximum estimated age years compound leaves long long leaf long wide end compound leaf tending smaller flowers occur length widely branched densely covered flowers flowers small long pale yellow colour thought insects small bees panama tends flower dry season end january end april weeks year costa_rica flowers slightly later march july peaking april fruits form months occurs fruits brightly colored green black approximately long contain large seeds occur groups seeds stay dormant dispersed seed weighs approximately species new flush leaves growing january april dry season highest light levels occur thought allow effectively new leaves efficient replace visible indistinct growth rings average wide study individuals panama found grow average diameter year costa_rica growth rates fast year recorded stem grows constantly year vessels mature trees range diameter vessels present branch density wood lower species fast growing light demanding shade species typically straight pole compound leaves point growth allows achieve greatest vertical growth minimum start branch tall study forest dynamics plot found individuals died mortality highest small individuals large trees relatively rare averaging trees compared trees taxonomy described type species genus described suggested species described described wright regarded separate species flora published considered synonymous species occur continent distinguished continental species having smaller flowers fruit straight curved leaves bluish grey green colour underside common names known common names known brazil colombia called ecuador french peru venezuela europe known names nineteenth century medicine names included bitter ash mountain wood distribution natural range range extends guatemala north south ecuador west east coast brazil introduced islands puerto_rico caribbean_sea puerto_rico mature trees found frequency ecuador french genetic analysis populations suggests relatively common range grows rare primary forest light demanding habit populations display high levels indicating genetically diverse consistent tree large distances long distance flow sufficient long distance gene flow populations counteract effects genetic drift study plants populations south_america found occurred population study plants found varied scored occurred plant reproduction individuals typically reproduce trunk diameter mature trees produce flowers year females produce fruit year flower morphology typical small insects bees reported non authors questioned correct seed dispersal seeds dispersed mainly large birds mammals including spider leaf cutter ants observed disperse seeds dense form areas dump waste material die dispersal ants thought determining long term patterns recruitment dispersal seeds eaten likely seeds fruit eating bats noted disperse seeds aid regeneration forests disperse seeds later species feed based modelling data seed traps estimated average dispersal distance seeds studying parent trees dna revealed fact average grow away parents standard range forest seeds beneath reproductive females genetic data indicate unlikely nearby adults dispersed fed tree moved feed canopy seeds physiology aspects physiology studied leaves indication rate water mature trees midday range leaf water midday range averaging widespread trunk close occurs normally considered tree leaf water potential beneficial hydraulic branches taller trees higher branches smaller trees phillips bond ryan suggested probably branches taller trees having lower leaf ratio small branches shows common branches concluded water controlled structural leaf area closing means leaves absorb light active radiation par spectrum high efficiency efficiency decreases longer generally plants absorb par higher values found thought high humidity habitat leaves low optical properties mass leaves vary depending location forest canopy leaves thicker efficient height canopy increases weight leaves efficient capturing light leaves canopy concentration found higher underneath female individuals underneath males total concentration equal concluded difference females changing availability females growing areas high availability thought caused fruit containing high levels fall tree fruits attracting animals deposit beneath females possible sexes produce different root affect community affecting availability woody tissues found rate rate positively growth rate stem maintenance calculated rate positively volume physiology experiments trenches dug gaps canopy relative growth rate increased shows growth normally limited ground competition light ground competition nutrients water competition light normally important shown growth rate increasing times mortality decreasing placed gaps compared gaps trench dug round prevent ground competition growth increased demonstrating gaps limited ground competition significantly increase growth showing normally limited competition light larger likely survive dry season smaller density dependent occurs likely survive areas fewer growing study individuals found pattern caused differences soil insect fungal observations based distance parents indicate hypothesis applies likely survive away parents escape plant common underneath parent trees physiology light demanding found brighter areas compared study biological station found leaves weigh approximately dry weight similar double weight capacity leaves higher species averaging dark average higher species maximum rate stem diameter vertical growth light thought important growth study found grew height diameter average compound leaves leaf area index total surface area leaves cm2 lowest leaf area likely die study larger leaf area grew faster study centimeters diameter found growth vary depending species grew near contrary predictions density dependence occurs model based findings predicted diameter able grow maximum rate tree diameter growing growth reduced indicating affected trees growing away affect growth ecology relatively rare mature individuals compared trees having growing suggested trees having large leaves mechanism reduce number unknown smaller individuals fewer woody species tree forests members genus recorded eat new shoot tips costa_rica larvae butterfly species feed exclusively species observed living panama dead wood nesting gallery branch bullet ants found nest base trees found uses materials locally producing paper furniture matches construction grown plantations bright lightweight timber highly sought european markets use making fine furniture wood rapidly easy work normal tools white light yellow colour coarse texture straight grain treated prevent fungi wood eating density noted best species timber grown amazon rapid growth characteristics recommend consumers ensure timber certified contribute wood animal leading poisoning horses dogs medical leaves bark medicine treat malaria illnesses areas grows exported france treat effective treatment effectiveness study soldiers military hospital given tea bark treat study found effective treating humans 1990s scientists demonstrated kill common cause species bacteria cause main active compounds found group reported kill cause malaria human cells anti properties investigated scientists found chickens bark extract body weight strong activity patent filed united_states extract skin care product
Simarouba amara