spotted known pet trade sized native tropical asia species genus formally described named based distinct scale like feather markings breast belly adult brown dark conical bill species subspecies range differ slightly size colour eats mainly grass seeds apart small insects forage flocks communicate soft calls species highly social species species found tropical plains breeding pairs construct dome shaped nests grass bamboo leaves species endemic asia occurs india sri_lanka east indonesia philippines introduced parts world feral populations established puerto_rico hispaniola parts australia united_states_of_america bird listed concern taxonomy bird species originally described 10th edition given assigned genus combination subspecies range assigned generally accepted subspecies include nominate form found plains including pakistan india bangladesh sri_lanka indian population populations include eastern southern china thailand philippines sumatra island populations include java southeast borneo range includes northern pakistan india northeast sri_lanka range includes bangladesh northeast india west range includes southern china southeast south north northeast range includes southern thailand southeast china taiwan vietnam range includes philippines northern borneo coastal west range includes south singapore sumatra range includes southern borneo western southern java western riley range includes range includes northeast java range includes western range includes central eastern east range includes southeastern borneo description centimetres long weighs grams adult dark bill typical grain eating birds brown dark brown head white dark scale markings sexes similar males darker markings underside darker throat females immature birds pale brown lack dark head found adults uniform buff confused juveniles species asian island populations black parts india sri_lanka populations wide distribution range variations plumage color size species thought originated asia species introduced parts world popularity cage bird populations established wild behavior ecology form flocks birds individuals communicate calls include short whistle variations sharp alarm note flick tails wings vertically horizontally tail motion evolved intention movement exaggerated version tail movement undergone social signal tail species acts signal indicating intent fly helps flocks sit close contact bird center birds flock bird usually showing chin usually limited face neck rarely hostile birds quarrel breeding breeding season summer rainy season mainly june august india vary laboratory studies found long day illumination high humidity trigger growth song male soft complex variable close range song described consists series high notes followed ending whistle singing male sits called slope posture erect head feathers raised types slope posture pre ordinary pre behavior includes sequence actions involves male female playing nest material soon bird arranged nest material bill begins fly path bird lands close partner male bends female bill male sings movements body female invites mounting tail nest large structure loosely woven blades grass bamboo leaves entrance placed tree house study southern india found preferred nesting trees montana especially short ones areas low canopy cover nest opening located face frequent wind direction northern india preferred isolated non urban areas urban gardens clutch usually contain eggs contain sexes build nest eggs hatch days juveniles typically weeks sexes reach sexual maturity early months birth captivity wild maturation impacted variable daylight humidity sexes months reach sexual maturity depending time year typical life years food foraging feeds mainly seeds eats small bill suited crushing small grains lateral movements lower help european seeds like feed algae rich protein source prior breeding season ease maintaining birds captivity popular studying behavior physiology feeding behavior predicted optimal foraging theory animals minimize time energy spent maximize food intake theory tested studying strategies increase feeding flock size studies foraging examined effect group size reducing time spent predator increasing feeding efficiency according eyes hypothesis reduction individual time spent threats larger groups allows time spent searching food feeding greatest solitary individuals reduces group size increases birds collect seeds quickly larger groups reflecting decrease individual decrease handling time increase search speed focus foraging individuals advantage group foraging joining members found food options seek food join discovered food involves information sharing studied termed producer models cost associated group foraging increased resource competition turn reduce anti predatory intensity foraging studies increased competition results decreased feeding rate foraging models foraging search individuals search found food join economic consequences decision join modeled ways producer model information sharing model models based differ degree compatibility assumed food joining opportunity search modes information sharing model assumes individuals search concurrently finding joining opportunities producer model assumes search modes mutually exclusive head facing downward observed associated frequencies bird joining finding respectively expected stable frequency tactic altered changing availability seeds relative frequency head changed accordingly seed distribution tactic frequency head diminished appears support predictions producer model studies tend adopt tactic food group size increases adopt time taken discover new food patches greater social search food avoiding predators suggested individuals play virtue head position alert predators contribute tactic compatible increase lead detection joining opportunities joining stationary head tactic shown associated scanning aid thought tactic incompatible specialized foraging variable competitive behaviors allow exploit scarce resources foraging alternatives producers food available steal food found producers studies choices lead stable group individuals free choose producer frequency dependent selection results stable mixture behaviors receives similar studies indicate population consists producers behavior favored natural selection plenty food steal hand birds exhibit competition stealing great producing favored account consistent foraging individuals food source variation differences frequency dependent choice food source variation hypothesis individuals use skills costly specialist foraging differences hypothesis proposes individuals differ ability use foraging skill profitable pattern expected stable number individuals use given skill depends composition flock frequency dependent choice hypothesis proposes individuals profitable skill alternative decreases number identical gradually skill initially given equally profitable alternatives individual independent pattern individuals flocks adjusted use skills birds flock specialized different skill resulting variant food source variation hypothesis frequency dependent choice hypothesis experiments conducted captive flocks tested producers reach predicted stable frequency stable strategy individuals free choose behavior numbers choosing producers strategies shown converge stable frequencies demonstrating variation tactics arise frequency dependent pay offs choice different feeding strategies furthermore foraging birds feed actively substrate pick grains dropped ground strategies chosen according situation early departures occur expected searching time decreases competition intensity increases competition intensity expected increase present patches smaller prey producers search food wait opportunities join prey producer specific cost shifts producer prey resulted increased eat seed increased number detection errors presence competitor negatively affected foraging efficiency backgrounds foraging efficiency individuals previously competitor cryptic seeds remained low competitor removed costs foraging cryptic prey greater social solitary resource defence recent models economic defence group foraging context predict frequency aggressive interactions decline resource density increases studies intensity aggressive encounters highest patch location signaled effect changing resource density depended patch location signaled signaling patch location equivalent making resources predictable changing patch density effect number aggressive encounters location food signaled food location signaled increasing patch density resulted predicted decrease number aggressive encounters habitat distribution found range usually close water grassland india especially common fields considered minor pest account feeding grain found mainly plains observed foothills present altitudes near found altitudes summer pakistan restricted narrow region west avoiding desert zone occurring india east area species observed rare outside native range escaped birds frequently establish areas suitable climate new areas nearby escaped cage birds established wild populations recorded west_indies puerto_rico hawaii australia japan southern united_states mainly florida california hawaii compete habitats tend rare competitor present status conservation abundant species classified concern species occupies extremely large range population large stable globally threatened common common range populations scarce areas regarded agricultural pest feeding large flocks cultivated rice southeast_asia trapped large numbers buddhist ceremonies birds later released
Scaly-breasted munia