feminism india feminism india set movements aimed defining establishing defending equal political economic social rights equal opportunities indian women pursuit women rights society india like feminist counterparts world india seek gender equality right work equal wages right equal access health education equal political rights indian fought culture specific issues india society inheritance laws practice widow known history feminism india divided phases phase beginning mid nineteenth century initiated male european colonists began speak social second phase indian independence incorporated women movements movement independent women organisations began emerge finally phase post independence focused fair treatment women home marriage work force right political despite progress indian feminist movements women living modern india face issues discrimination india culture process gaining land ownership rights access education challenging past decades emerged disturbing trend sex selective abortion indian seen worth struggling west criticism feminist movements india especially criticised focusing women privileged needs representation poorer lower women led creation specific feminist organisations movements definition indian context women role pre colonial social structures reveals feminism differently india west india women issues began addressed state commissioned report status women group feminist researchers activists report recognised fact india women oppressed system structural period indian influenced western debates conducted violence women difference historical social culture india debate favour indian women conducted creatively certain western ideas rejected women issues began gain international prominence decade declared women historical circumstances values india caused develop feminism differs western feminism example idea women powerful accommodated culture religion retained visibility sections society provided women traditional cultural spaces furthermore west notion self rests competitive people described born free chains india individual usually considered larger social collective survival individual dependent cooperation self denial greater good valued indian women negotiate survival array oppressive family structures age status relationship men family origin marriage attributes examples attributes include sons etc community village market state noted communities india certain clans families exhibit tendencies communities head family oldest woman oldest man culture regarded relatively gender neutral india communities recognised national constitution scheduled tribes known according interviewer society scholarly assessment mothers forefront social activism society women power visible historical reasons ruled strong need expansions borders crushing outsider threats etc engaged men women charge home muslim families women men considered equal sense teaches minds males females work differently generally different islam grants different rights husband wife right wife owes husband head household indian experience reveals multiple contributing existence multiple feminism india singular theoretical orientation changed time relation historical cultural realities levels consciousness perceptions actions individual women women group widely definition awareness women oppression exploitation society work family conscious action women men change situation acknowledging daily life attempting challenge eliminate mutually exclusive notions determined categories opens way society men women male female polar times refuted indian context men initiated social reform movements social women family adverse women pitted women powerless times intense debates indian women movements relationship western indian indian simultaneously claim specific indian sensitivity international feminist solidarity groups individuals worldwide rise liberal feminism west 1970s focused deeply demands equal opportunities education employment ending violence women large extent emerging feminist movement india influenced western ideals called education equal rights adapted appeals local issues concerns related violence women sex selective abortion rape indian suggested issues specifically indian nature wider trend oppression women history unlike western feminist movement india movement initiated men later joined women efforts men included widow death burning husband funeral custom child marriage introducing marriage upper hindu promoting women education obtaining legal rights women property requiring law acknowledge women status granting basic rights matters adoption 19th century period saw majority women issues come spotlight reforms began early reforms indian women conducted men late 19th century joined efforts wives sisters daughters individuals directly affected campaigns carried women education late 20th century women gained greater autonomy formation independent women organisations late new narrative began constructed women activism newly researched expanded vision create logical organic links feminism anti anti etc constitution india guarantee equality sexes created relative women movements 1970s formative years women rights movements difference sexes taken granted roles functions aims desires different result differently treated differently course time difference major reason initiating women movements early 19th century argued difference men women reason women society later opinion particular difference women roles society example mothers need proper care women rights formation women organisations participation campaigns roles mothers stressed different light time argument women rights speech education emancipation image women mother symbol underwent changes time emphasis family creation mother figure deep images phase colonial venture brought concepts democracy equality individual rights rise concept nationalism practices brought social reform movements related gender relations phase feminism india initiated men social widow allow widow child marriage reduce regulate age consent ensure property rights legal intervention addition upper hindu women rejected constraints faced traditions efforts improving status women indian society somewhat thwarted late nineteenth century nationalist movements emerged india movements resisted colonial gender relations particularly areas family relations mid late nineteenth century national form resistance colonial efforts hindu family included age consent controversy erupted government tried raise age marriage women indian states ruled women british colonial advance including second phase period struggle colonial rule intensified nationalism pre eminent cause claiming indian superiority tool cultural resulting model indian similar victorian special separated public space expanded indian women public activities initiating non violent civil movement british feminine roles caring self sacrifice tolerance carved niche public arena peasant women played important role rural women organisations like emerged women issues relating scope women political participation women franchise communal awards leadership roles political parties 1920s new era indian women defined feminism responsible creation women associations associations emphasised women education issues developed strategies working class women organised national level women associations closely affiliated leadership worked nationalist anti freedom movements mass women integral indian nationalism women important nationalist anti colonial efforts including civil movements 1930s independence continued operate formed women wing known feminist movements active right india independence nationalist nation building took precedence feminist issues women participation struggle freedom developed critical consciousness role rights independent india resulted introduction franchise civic rights women indian constitution provision women action maternal health child care provision equal pay equal work etc state adopted role women example india constitution states women weaker section population need assistance function equals women india struggle basic rights women west ended soon social cultural structures failed honour newly acquired concepts fundamental rights democracy post independence began extent women allowed engage workforce prior independence accepted sexual divide labour force 1970s challenged established fought reverse included unequal wages women women spheres work restricting women reserve army labour words aim abolish free service women essentially cheap capital feminist class consciousness came focus 1970s recognising men women power structures tribe language religion region class etc posed challenge shaping campaigns focus efforts ensure fulfilling demands group create early century focus indian feminist movement gone treating women useful members society right having power decide course personal lives right self determination female prime minister india served prime minister india consecutive terms fourth term assassinated state viewed ideal progressive leader women rights movement india states maintains high relative levels female literacy women health greater female inheritance property rights example study conducted found women india fathers inherited land daughters women able state important shown measures improve access property economic independence channels education directly improve women capabilities reduce risk exposure marital sort domestic violence indian family court mumbai ruled husband wife wearing jeans forcing wear amounts cruelty inflicted husband ground seek divorce wife granted divorce ground cruelty defined section special marriage act judgment delhi high court public ruled eldest female member hindu undivided family issues despite paper problems remain women fully taking advantage new rights opportunities india traditions customs important indian culture hundreds years religious laws expectations personal laws specific religion conflict indian constitution eliminating rights powers women legally despite legality indian government interfere religion personal laws hold religions like women faithful servants god husbands term called describes wife accepted service devotion husband family ultimate religion duty indian society largely composed systems families communities broken age sex position relationships families lineage wealth relationship ruling power community emerge family based social convention economic need girls poorer families suffer twice impact vulnerability stability birth girls automatically entitled food education girls expect entitled brothers girls access family income assets exacerbated poor rural indian families start understood females work exhausting responsibilities rest lives little compensation recognition india society definition describes cultures males fathers husbands assumed charge official heads households system society descent inheritance traced male line men generally control distribution family resources traditions ways indian life effect long type lifestyle women accustomed expect indian women advantage constitutional rights properly aware informed women tend poor voting rights possess low levels political awareness sense political women encouraged informed issues political parties invest time female candidates perception wasted investment female male ratio india showing numerically fewer women country men factors including commonly female poor care female women outlawed highly popular rural india continuing prominent fact especially rural areas families afford female children pay daughter gets married like payment illegal frequent prevalent occurrence rural india women considered worthless husbands able produce male child face abuse case birth ratio years female male ratio population india fell girls boys girls boys parts country experience decline richer indian states female male ratio fell sharply female male states evidence inequality indication sex selective abortion indian parliament banned use sex determination techniques enforcement law largely ignored marriage average indian woman life spent marriage women married legal age non marriage low india raising children priorities early adulthood indian women enter workforce far later indian men urban indian men reach peak labour force participation ages urban indian women ages women time acquisition skills fewer opportunities job improvements poor representation women indian workforce females percent higher drop rate males middle primary schools lower levels literacy men unemployment high india easy employers manipulate law especially comes women indian culture women argue men additionally labour unions women needs women settle jobs comply obligations wives mothers muslim personal law major issues aspects islamic law known muslim personal law muslim family law issues way far formulated include divorce custody children maintenance marital property addition issues underlying assumptions legislation example assumption man head household dress code issue concerns women dress code expected islam requires men women dress concept known covers wide interpretation behavior mixed opinion extremes externally imposed control women religions expected follow dress codes theology hindu feminism hindu religion partial success terms gender equality reform laws family law major advancement relative religions india complete triumph terms feminism relieving oppression came term women power concept hindu religion gods exclusively male sheds positive light females considered complement complete male counterparts important note deity knowledge deity wealth female criticism groups indian feminism tends represent upper upper class hindu women ignoring interests women debates gender oppression backward class members different political parties arguing state assemblies lower women interests best represented women working end women formed organisations focus implications based violence oppression ways women suffer urban poverty displacement islamic feminism hindu muslim communities india treated differently government separate types concessions community order accommodate separate religious laws regulations case begun example attempting concessions muslim community turn secure support congress year old muslim woman divorced husband years marriage according muslim law husband required pay challenged decision supreme_court ultimately ruled favour ordered husband pay monthly maintenance caused chaos muslim denounced judgement suggested religion islam attack country fear losing overall muslim support succumbed pressures conservative muslims community party backed bill muslim women days divorce caused outcry muslim hindu nationalists found muslim males congress political purposes wrong feminism challenged minority groups entirely addressing needs minority populations suggested mainstream feminism upper hindu orientation address concerns minority women led formation mumbai largely muslim city muslim community personal laws considered harmful rights muslim women muslim personal law allows impact western educated indians introduced equality early nineteenth century term gain meaning operational principle indian life country gained independence adopted democratic government indian constitution granted equality freedom discrimination based gender religion guaranteed religious freedoms seven year plans developed provide health education employment welfare women sixth year plan declared women partners development employment general rural sections indian society form major percentage total population women seen economic contributions productivity invisible domestic contributions overlooked indian women contributing nearly percent total employment agriculture related activities nearly percent service sector nearly industry sector year high rates women lower paying jobs job security men agricultural jobs work men women highly similar women likely paid type work men bollywood group artist hair association created rule allow women obtain makeup artists ruled rule violation indian constitutional guarantees granted article right equality freedom carry profession article right liberty judges stated ban women makeup artist members rationale cause sought achieved unacceptable inconsistent constitutional rights guaranteed citizens court found illegal rule mandated artist female male work industry status years state intend work announced woman registered costume artist hair association concerned impact women india argue led economic changes raised social economical challenges women particularly working class lower women multinational companies india seen exploit labour young women free trade zones sweat shops use young lower middle class educated women centres women effective labour rights rights collective action addition multinational corporations seen advertise image ideal women country argued cause increase women bodies manifested form nationalist pride exhibited indian women winning international beauty according developments offered women greater sexual autonomy control bodies feel female bodies served purpose feeding male fantasies education main reasons girls likely reach optimal levels education include fact girls needed assist mothers home raised believe life domestic work destined occupation mothers educate children economic men subject child marriage poor families marry daughters early money unable complete education created india government launched programme called focus empowerment women programme goal create learning environment women realise potential learn demand information find knowledge charge lives certain areas india progress increase girls schools teachers begun increase literacy women exceeded overall female population statistics low compared world standards male literacy india efforts improve level education females receive match male students modern influences affecting younger generations parts india girls beginning traditional ways indian life break gender stereotypes parts country idea dating specifically openly dating come play terms girlfriend boyfriend women landed highly respectable careers seen bollywood billboards advertisements norm country women face resistance anti country severely male dominant movements sex gender traditions india indian deals especially gender inequality social exclusion property development president author social reformer work reflected women roles society scholar focus women education founder feminist author founder online global lobby working raise awareness female india public activist women founder early feminist founder women organisations india scientist feminist senior academic fellow critic violence couples refusing arranged marriages life member known scholar gender studies authority political economy social history state india daughter renowned member parliament early social reformer pioneered formation educational women activist women issues founding members poet writings depicted domestic lives indian middle class women founder scholar field feminist economics woman member vice president president forum promote greater social justice strengthen human rights especially women founded magazine journal women society devoted feminism gender studies activism secretary india founding director feminist scholar journalist author standing american woman struggle soul islam social worker politician advocates women rights post independence india nationwide movement end violence women india woman win award literature reformer champion emancipation women british india poet woman honours graduate india journalist issues feminism racism director prize winning documentary films women rights human rights activist politician memoir described experiences woman activist activist work considered modern indian feminist text prominent leader movement prominent daughter feminist best remembered leading role participated women suffrage groups including secret documents revealed identity law breaker diaries revealed maintained contacts leaders indian nationalist movement like activist author lesbian gay studies gender studies british south asian literary history founded magazine journal women society devoted feminism gender studies activism critic expert modern feminism thoughts written articles books feminism english
Feminism in India