history history examines human effort understand life earth tracing historical development discipline natural science dealing organisms traditionally treated plants rudimentary botanical science began based plant lore passed generation generation oral traditions hunter written records plants revolution years ago writing developed settled agricultural communities plants animals writings human curiosity plants uses appears teachings aristotle student ancient athens considered starting point modern europe early botanical science soon overshadowed medieval medicinal properties plants lasted years time medicinal works classical antiquity reproduced manuscripts books called china arab world roman work medicinal plants preserved extended europe renaissance 14th 17th centuries heralded scientific revival gradually emerged natural history independent science distinct medicine agriculture replaced books described native plants local regions invention microscope stimulated study plant anatomy carefully designed experiments plant physiology performed expansion trade exploration europe new plants discovered subjected increasingly rigorous process naming description classification progressively sophisticated scientific technology aided development contemporary botanical plant sciences ranging applied fields economic notably agriculture forestry detailed examination structure function plants interaction environment scales large scale global significance vegetation plant communities ecology small scale subjects like cell theory molecular biology plant introduction greek grass fodder plant historically core disciplines biology history closely associated natural sciences chemistry physics geology distinction botanical science pure sense study plants applied science studies human use plants early natural history divided pure main streams morphology classification anatomy physiology external form internal structure functional operation obvious topics applied forestry agriculture like science plant economic lie outside modern courses origin botanical science progressive increase scope subject technology opened new techniques areas study modern molecular example principles techniques taxonomy molecular biology computer science number sub disciplines focus particular plant groups range related studies anatomy morphology etc included algae fossil plants histories treated bar list added study fungi treated plants ranked unique kingdom ancient knowledge nomadic hunter societies passed oral tradition knew observations different kinds plants food shelter ceremonies rituals etc uses plants pre societies influenced way plants named classified uses embedded folk way grouped according use everyday communication nomadic life style drastically changed settled communities established centres world revolution extended years ago depending region communities came development technology skills needed plants animals emergence written word provided evidence passing systematic knowledge culture generation plant lore plant selection revolution plant knowledge increased obviously use plants food medicine today staple foods prehistoric times gradual process selection higher yielding varieties took place possibly hundreds thousands years cultivated continents regular diet rice wheat middle_east times popular food plants today including listed named varieties early manuscripts botanical authority observed cultivated plants mankind vital precious heritage remote antiquity glimpse known illustrations plants read descriptions impressive gardens egypt pre scientific written record plants begin food born medicinal literature egypt china india botanical historian notes agriculture occupation poor medicine realm socially influential priests physicians likely record knowledge early early example ancient indian plant classification found collection sanskrit hymns plants divided trees herbs useful humans subdivisions sacred hindu text divides plants classes spreading branches leaves long clusters plants expands growth plants plants joints plant kingdom trees shrubs spreading branches herbs spreading plant plant spreading ground examples early indian taxonomy include law book plants major categories elaborate occur ancient china ancient china lists different plants purposes date time chinese writers centuries contributed written knowledge includes notable work famous 11th century scientists compiled learned natural history medicine origin botanical science 6th century busy trade centre confluence egyptian cultures height greek mediterranean philosophical thought period ranged freely subjects evolutionary theory crude species natural selection physician avoided prevailing day approached healing close observation test experience time genuine non curiosity plants emerged major works written plants extended description medicinal uses topics plant geography morphology physiology nutrition growth reproduction foremost scholars studying greek frequently referred father student close friend aristotle succeeded head educational establishment like modern university athens tradition philosophy aristotle special treatise plants lost botanical observations scattered writings assembled little insight botanical thinking tradition systematic observation connections critical experiment rational challenged medicine employed physicians day called control medicine exerted authority tradition aristotle alexander great military conquests carried scientific resources day garden probably containing botanical trophies collected campaigns distant lands garden gained plant knowledge major botanical works plants causes plants lecture notes opening sentence reads like botanical manifesto consider distinctive characters general nature plants point view morphology behaviour external conditions mode generation course life books applied dealing forms classification plants economic examining techniques agriculture relationship crops soil climate water habitat described plants detail including descriptions habitat geographic distribution recognised plant groups recognised modern day plant families names like persisted today second book causes plants covers plant growth reproduction akin modern physiology like aristotle grouped plants trees shrubs herbs important botanical observations noted plants noticed difference growth details floral structure including degree fusion position lecture notes comprise clear exposition plant anatomy physiology morphology ecology presented way matched eighteen centuries study medicinal plants neglected synthesis ancient greek compiled greek physician roman army work proved definitive text medicinal herbs oriental years dawn copied period rich medicinal information descriptions medicinal herbs botanical content work extremely limited romans contributed little foundations botanical science laid ancient greeks sound contribution knowledge applied agriculture works titled roman writers contributed published renaissance set principles practice agriculture authors particular 4th century roman elder deals plants books volume highly influential work frequently quotes lack botanical insight draw distinction true hand farming medicine estimated time plants recorded west knowledge medicinal plants early middle ages western_europe passed bleak period years little progress early insights lost europe entered middle ages 5th 15th centuries period indifference learning china india arab world enjoyed golden age chinese philosophy followed similar path ancient greeks chinese dictionary probably dates describes plants classed trees shrubs common illustration new works produced including accounts compiled chinese imperial court free myth carefully researched descriptions nomenclature included cultivation information notes economic medicinal uses elaborate ornamental plants experimental method analysis plant sexual system nutrition anatomy year period 9th 13th centuries time islamic culture science texts preserved copied extended new texts emphasised medicinal aspects plants biologist ibn known founder arabic book plants describes species discussing plant development including details flowers fruits philosopher physician influential figure canon medicine landmark history medicine enlightenment india simple artificial plant classification systems botanical work author science life trees close observations cells leaves divided plants classified akin modern floral families important medieval indian works plant physiology include silk road following fall constantinople newly expanded ottoman_empire welcomed european capital turn sources plants regions east traded empire following century times plants entered europe transported previous thousand years mainly acquired primarily alleged medicinal value initially italy benefited new knowledge especially venice traded extensively east new plants rapidly spread rest western_europe age 16th centuries lives european citizens based agriculture printing arrived type illustrations agriculture published lists medicinal plants descriptions properties virtues plant books known showed medicine ancient history authors university gardens derivative compilations classic texts especially need accurate detailed plant descriptions meant botanical medicinal german contained descriptions species new science combined accurate illustrations fellow described plants found nearby woods fields illustrated edition pioneered formal botanical description detailed flowers fruits anatomy including number chambers type observations distinguished types volume published years early death aged holland included descriptions new species netherlands scientific arrangement england published names descriptions native british plants contributed setting train science plant description classification botanical illustration 17th century medicine books medicinal aspects eventually omitted plant lore modern omitted medicine botanical evolved modern compilations plant descriptions backed specimens deposited collection dried plants verified plant descriptions given transition flora marked final separation medicine renaissance age enlightenment revival learning renewed interest plants church feudal aristocracy increasingly influential merchant class supported science arts world increasing trade sea exploration returned botanical treasures large public private newly established gardens introduced eager population novel crops drugs asia new world number scientific publications increased england example scientific communication causes facilitated learned societies like founded founded support activities botanical institutions like paris oxford influence renowned private gardens wealthy early 17th century number plants described europe risen 18th century enlightenment values reason science coupled new distant lands phase plant identification nomenclature description illustration flower painting possibly best period history plant trophies distant lands decorated gardens europe powerful wealthy period enthusiasm natural history especially referred likely 18th century sciences considered appropriate educated women system widespread educated women painted plants attended classes plant classification collected specimens emphasis healing properties plants plant reproduction overtones sexuality women began publishing botanical topics children books appeared authors like smith cultural authorities argued education created culturally scientifically aware citizens thrust improvement characterised enlightenment early 19th century recognition official science women excluded discipline botanical gardens public private gardens strongly associated historical botanical science early botanical gardens gardens medicinal plants described generally associated universities academic institutions plants study directors gardens eminent physicians educational role scientific staff institutions produced published botanical gardens modern tradition established northern italy founded medical faculty chair essentially chair established reader established similar garden collections pressed dried specimens called garden dry plants accumulation plants way including use plant press attributed buildings called housed specimens mounted card descriptive labels stored systematic order preserved easily transferred exchanged institutions taxonomic procedure today 18th century gardens transformed order beds demonstrated classification systems devised day accommodate influx curious beautiful new plants pouring exploration associated european colonial expansion flora plant classification systems 17th 18th centuries related plants man marking return non botanical science promoted years england latin english mainly compilations translations continental european works limited relevance british isles included unreliable work systematic attempt collect information british plants later issue revision work johnson physician organise botanical expeditions local flora organised expedition mountains compiled local flora began findings european scholars forming early network knowledge sharing friends places including started developing latin names plants addition common names exchange information specimens scholars associated founding botanical gardens end founded earliest university france western_europe making discoveries vegetable kingdom way compiled flora spain austria hungary propose dividing plants classes switzerland regular swiss alps native discovered new plants proposed groups genera plants said genus composed species defined similar flowers fruits principle organization laid future wrote important shortly death flanders established maintained botanical gardens encountered approach coupled new system nomenclature resulted plant medicinal information called described illustrated plants growing particular regions 17th century marked beginning experimental application rigorous scientific method improvements microscope launched new discipline plant anatomy foundations laid careful observations englishman italian years botanical exploration new lands opening european colonial powers botanical returned european description romantic era botanical explorers plant hunters significant botanical collections came west_indies china islands george china west_africa devised classification scheme crude theory species canada iceland new_zealand captain chief botanist classification morphology middle 18th century botanical booty resulting era exploration accumulating gardens needed systematically task plant plant classifications changed time artificial systems based general habit form pre evolutionary natural systems expressing similarity characters leading post evolutionary natural systems use characters evolutionary relationships italian physician studied medicine taught years eventually director sixteen volume described plants pages mounted specimens remains proposed classes based largely detailed structure flowers fruit applied concept genus try derive principles natural classification reflecting overall similarities plants produced classification scheme advance day produced influential publications brought order species described synonyms influenced thinking insisted taxonomy based natural precision description classification compiled needed botanical terminology stood test time english botanist built work establish elaborate classification system day observations started local plants cambridge lived circa later expanded synopsis essentially british flora provided step world flora included plants travels continent extended natural system precise definition higher classification levels modern families process asserted parts plants important classification recognised variation arises internal external environmental causes taxonomic significance experimental regarded botanical synthesis textbook modern according botanical historian ray influenced theory practice decisively single person half seventeenth century ray family system later extended student achieved notoriety botanical expeditions emphasis floral characters classification reviving idea genus basic unit classification swedish eased task plant adopted sexual system classification important characters important publications gave species setting path future accepted method designating names organisms thought books dominated world taxonomy nearly century sexual system later elaborated nephew extended include orders present day families apart extending current system family names emphasized natural classification based consideration characters later given different emphasis according value particular plant group method essence followed day 18th century plant taxonomy bequeathed 19th century precise nomenclature botanical terminology system classification based natural clear idea ranks family genus species taxa placed ranks remains subject taxonomic research anatomy half 18th century beginning descriptive science experimental science microscope invented late 17th century lens grinding provided resolution needed major discoveries important general biological observations foundations plant anatomy laid englishman anatomy plants begun anatomy plants explored called developmental anatomy morphology carefully observing describing drawing developmental transition seed mature plant recording stem wood formation work included discovery naming physiology plant physiology research interest focused movement absorption substances roots experimental observation calculation noted increase weight growing plant derived purely soil concluded relate water englishman established experiment water plants loss water influenced environmental conditions distinguished root pressure leaf noted major direction flow woody tissue upward results published vegetable noted air makes considerable substance vegetables english chemist noted discovery oxygen called production plants later jan observed sunlight green parts plants absorb air release oxygen rapid bright sunlight night air released parts results published experiments vegetables foundations 20th century studies carbon laid observations cycle carbon nature composition carbon dioxide resolved studies plant nutrition progressed sur study scientific demonstrated similarity plants animals carbon dioxide includes water minute amounts nutrients analysed chemical detail plant ash powerful influence plant growth plant sexuality establish plant sexuality experiment declared letter colleague dated titled plants develop seeds female style prepared male sexual organs plant learned plant sexuality reproductive mechanisms algae starting demonstrated process sexual reproduction plants generations initiated new field comparative morphology largely combined work established generations occurs plant kingdom time later german academic natural historian extended work noting function attracting role wind insects produced deliberate hybrids observed microscopic structure grains transfer matter inducing formation embryo years understanding flowers describing role guides floral mechanisms prevalence cross male female parts usually flower nineteenth century foundations modern mid-19th century scientific communication changed time ideas largely exchanged reading works authoritative individuals dominated field wealthy influential gentlemen scientists research reported publication papers research schools promoted questioning conventional wisdom process started late 18th century specialist journals began appear greatly stimulated appearance modern textbook der published english principles scientific organic chemistry revealed structure plant constituents great era plant classification passed work description continued succeeded managing botanical project involved authors contained known day species families doubled number recognized plant families work completed son years plant geography ecology opening 19th century marked increase interest connection climate plant distribution examined connection seed dispersal distribution nature plant associations impact geological history noticed similarities cape australia explored ideas centre diversity centre origin german published massive highly influential volume work travels noted similarities australia india explored deeply influence plant distribution temperature soil factors especially soil water light work continued pushed boundaries studies work antarctica india middle_east special attention august die vegetation der examined relation climate america geographic studies pioneered plant geography termed ecology emerged late 19th century environmental influences plants received greater recognition early work area danish professor book ecology plants generally taken mark beginning modern ecology including new ideas plant communities adaptations environmental influences followed grand synthesis published english plant geography basis translated oxford press anatomy 19th century german scientists led way theory structure life cycle plants following improvements microscope end 18th century published published der describes techniques separating cells middle identified tissues described observed cells interpreted tree rings found composed pairs cells single cell hole studies consolidated described secondary tissues including action summarized work anatomy leading die work later eclipsed comparative anatomy overview knowledge root stem completed studies begun origins flower continue present day water relations water nutrient transport plant remained explored transport theory water roots concepts pull root pressure german dominance field physiology publication definitive textbook plant physiology work period advances early exploration effect gravity growth englishman discovery naming cell nucleus discovered demonstration cellular composition organisms cell possessing characteristics life attributed combined efforts botanist zoologist early 19th century shown plants wholly cellular cell having wall shown continuity cell walls clear cell formed derived substance nucleus observed longitudinal splitting dividing nucleus concluded daughter nucleus received half mother nucleus early 20th century found number given species constant genetic continuity confirmed finding reproductive cells embryo reducing division known field opened able outline theory gene structure function form function received similar attention association noted early date observation cellular structure organisms process cell division continuity genetic material analysis structure cell wall known cell theory firmly established later basis gene theory extended initiated laws plant published experiments based cultivated heralded opening plant basis gene theory explored role better understood populations unit change biology developmental morphology evolution 1860s believed species remained unchanged time biological form result independent act creation absolutely distinct hard reality geological formations strange fossils needed scientific explanation origin species replaced assumption theory descent modification phylogeny new principle natural classifications classifications reflecting similarities evolutionary relationships established similar pattern organization plants expressed generations extensive structures german intellect interests influence extended die der provided theory plant morphology coined word morphology included concept modification evolution linking comparative morphology phylogeny botanical basis work challenged doubt prompted discussion research origin function floral parts theory probably stimulated opposing views german applied experimental method principles growth form later extended carbon start 19th century idea plants tissues atmospheric gases emerged energy component capture storage sun energy carbon bonds process life depends mayer details years named chemistry gradually determined finally resolved early 20th century mechanism remained mystery mid-19th century noted formed green cells presence light confirmed starting point organic compounds plants connection pigment production finally tracing precise formation begin nitrogen significant discoveries relating nitrogen including nitrogen atmospheric nitrogen soil wait advances chemistry late 19th century followed early 20th century protein acid synthesis role plant knowledge possible outline global nitrogen cycle twentieth century 20th century science grew solid foundations laid breadth vision detailed experimental observations 19th century vastly increased research force rapidly extending botanical knowledge levels plant organization molecules global plant ecology awareness unity biological structure function cellular levels organisation botanical advance closely associated advances physics chemistry greatest advances 20th century mainly relating penetration molecular organization level plant communities mid century consolidate work ecology population experiments labelled plant pathways open line research leading gene technology practical level research funding available agriculture industry molecules separated thin layer 1920s 1930s notably began tracing central pathways life 1930s 1950s determined located source cellular chemical energy constituent reactions progressively revealed dna extracted time revelations discovery plant growth substances notably effects control plant processes especially flowering relative lengths day night following establishment laws gene theory confirmed work august identified hereditary material observing number cells anticipated work follow details complex process hereditary material occurs cells 1920s 1930s population combined theory evolution produce modern synthesis mid-1960s molecular basis reproduction firmly established new discipline molecular biology genetic engineering genes host cell began 1970s invention dna techniques commercial applications applied agricultural crops followed 1990s potential identify organisms molecular estimate times past critical evolutionary changes occurred use molecular computers electron evolution increased experimental precision combined vastly improved scientific instrumentation opening exciting new fields alexander demonstrated possible mechanism synthesis organic matter molecules 1960s determined earth earliest life forms treated plants known dated billion years mid century transmission scanning electron presented level resolution structure matter taking anatomy new world new revised phylogenetic classification systems plant kingdom produced notable august massive volume die adolf published period taxonomy based gross morphology supplemented characters revealed morphology anatomy introduction computers facilitated rapid analysis large data sets numerical taxonomy called emphasis truly natural spawned disciplines phylogenetic grand taxonomic synthesis american superseded published phylogeny flowering plants based analysis dna sequences techniques new molecular resolving questions concerning earliest evolutionary branches flowering plants exact relationship fungi plants time uncertain lines evidence pointed fungi different plants animals bacteria closely related animals plants molecular analysis revealed evolutionary divergence fungi organisms billion years ago sufficient reason erect unique kingdom separate plants ecology publication theory continental drift gave additional impetus comparative physiology study ecology 1930s contributed important ideas plant community succession community change energy flows ecology matured independent discipline formulated concepts ecosystem ecology relationships groups organisms especially material energy relationships key factors field building extensive earlier work produced accounts geography centres origin evolutionary history economic plants century reviewing sweep botanical history evident power scientific method basic questions concerning structure function plants principle resolved distinction pure applied blurred historically accumulated botanical wisdom levels plant organisation needed especially molecular global levels improve human planet earth urgent unanswered botanical questions relate role plants primary producers global cycling life basic ingredients energy carbon hydrogen oxygen nitrogen ways plant help address global environmental issues resource management conservation human food security invasive organisms carbon climate change
History of botany