evolutionary biology similarity species protects case prey species class adaptation similarity appearance behaviour sound scent occur areas models occurs group organisms evolve share perceived characteristics group models evolution driven selective action signal receiver birds example use sight identify insects whilst avoiding models model usually species cases example end butterfly resemble head predator strike butterfly likely direction movement signal receiver typically organism common predator species interaction cases mimic harmful receiver increase reduce effect fitness model depending situation model hard identify example resemble specific organism eyes camouflage attributed particular model related camouflage species resembles surroundings difficult detect particular mimic takes properties specific object organism indifferent area overlap camouflage example animals flower resemble twigs bark leaves flowers difficulty avoided choosing different term broad sense encompass forms avoiding detection camouflage hiding visual animal coloration obvious humans senses smell hearing involved type signal employed involve morphology behaviour properties case signal functions receiver preventing correctly identifying mimic evolutionary terms phenomenon form evolution usually involving evolutionary arms confused evolution occurs species come resemble adapting similar lifestyles different models different life cycle stages different individuals imitating different models models mimic frequency dependent selection favors models models tend relatively closely related organisms vastly different species known known insects animal known plants fungi research carried area etymology use word dates derives greek term turn verbal imitate originally describe people classification types described overview follows highlighting similarities differences forms classification based function respect mimic avoiding harm cases belong class aggressive mutually exclusive describes species relationship model mimic describes function mimic obtaining food defensive defensive protective takes place organisms able avoid harmful encounters enemies treating cases discussed organisms protected warning coloration harmless mimic poses harmful harmful species mutually advertise harmful deadly mimic resembles harmful lesson teaching model fourth case resemble crops important reasons case humans agent selection mimic shares signals similar model attribute makes predators words mimic sheep wolf clothing named english naturalist work butterflies amazon described naturalist river pioneering field study likely found example predators low proportion model phenomenon called negative frequency dependent selection applies forms maintained harm caused predator eating model benefit eating mimic nature learning weighted favor predator bad experience model tends avoid looks like long time sample soon initial experience false negative abundant models probability young predator having experience mimic increases systems likely stable model mimic occur model abundant mimic case described order consul imitate butterflies produce click calls mimic tiger genus mimic octopus able intentionally alter body shape coloration resemble dangerous sea snakes amazon rare species lives atlantic forest brazil argentina similar red crest black barred underside larger reduces attacks animals scientists falsely believed close cousin species visual similarity species live habitat eat similar food named german naturalist describes situation species similar warning signals share genuine anti predation attributes explain harmful need mimic forward explanation phenomenon common predator species individuals species likely survive type unique respects firstly mimic model benefit interaction classified respect signal receiver system despite species identity avoids potentially harmful encounters usually clear distinction mimic model blurred species scarce abundant rare species said mimic present similar numbers realistic speak mimic distinct mimic model species warning signals tend converge species exist harmless highly grades smoothly convergence monarch butterfly member complex butterfly sharing coloration patterns display behavior subspecies somewhat different coloration closely matching local species example florida pairing queen butterfly mexico resembles soldier butterfly involved different pairs example long believed mimicking monarch actually species genus species strong birds species catching butterflies wing find hard catch conspicuous blue coloration shared species pursuit orange complex butterfly species includes seven species genera form ring eastern united_states unrelated species converge similar color patterns range overlaps describes unusual cases deadly prey mimic dangerous species proposed possible answer theoretical difficulties predator species faces potentially dangerous animals coral snake predator increased risk death learned behaviour theory developed german biologist chapter plants animals named german points forward similar hypothesis years earlier scenario little difficult understand types usually harmful species model predator dies learn recognize warning signal bright colors certain pattern words advantage organism likely kill predator succeeds poisoning animal better avoid attacks altogether species harmful deadly predator learn recognize particular warning colors avoid animals deadly species profit mimicking dangerous organism reduces number attacks exception ignoring chance animals learning watching die discussion learning possibility having learn harmful place genetic programming wary certain signals case organisms benefit programming potentially evolve fact shown species innate recognition certain warnings hand predators avoid snakes red yellow rings colors pattern red yellow stripes width rings tolerated models red yellow rings feared birds flying away giving alarm calls cases provides alternative explanation review subject harmless milk snake subspecies moderately toxic false coral snakes genus deadly coral snakes genus red background color black white yellow rings system milk snakes deadly coral snakes false coral snakes model suggested system instance similar colour patterns having evolved independently similar habitats refers cases mimic resembles model lives nest colony models social insects ants bees describes come share characteristics plant artificial selection named russian botanist selection occur manually killing separating seeds crop process known manually machine presents illustration anti intentional selection man cases artificial selection direction desired selective breeding case presents opposite characteristics want select look increasingly like cultivated plant option case species grass found rice fields plant looks similar rice seeds mixed rice difficult separate similar problem agriculture resistance farmers wish select increasingly similar resistance crop inevitable effect eventually case wheat called crops secondary crops classified defensive protected species bears strong similarity share properties model protection model case people harmed presence key differences model signal receiver enemies predator eat protected species crop human relationship crop benefits dispersed protected people despite eaten fact crop protection relevant humans secondly eaten simply destroyed motivation killing effect crop yields finally type occur ecosystems humans protective egg unlike previously mentioned forms involves species potential host prey drives away parasite predator mimicking reverse host parasite aggressive coined phrase rare systems named american form protective occurs genus leaves plant contain deter animals butterfly larvae evolved break allowing genus created selection pressure host plants evolved mimic mature eggs near point hatching butterflies tend avoid laying eggs near existing ones helps avoid competition lay vacant leaves provide offspring greater chance survival larvae meaning leaves older eggs hatch eat new arrivals plants evolved egg grazing enemies addition eggs attracting predators ants acts defense plant protective species named form model belongs species mimic single species occurs spectrum population examples include monarch queen subfamily feed species varying species store host plant maintained adult form levels vary depending diet stage individuals toxic organisms mimic dangerous individuals likeness perfected case sexually species sex threat mimic protected sex evidence possibility provided behavior monkey regularly ate male genus promptly stopped female aggressive aggressive describes predators parasites share characteristics harmless species allowing avoid detection prey host mimic resemble prey host organism neutral beneficial signal receiver class model affected negatively positively parasites treated form predator host parasite treated aggressive mimic particular significance prey case spiders aggressive common prey approaching predators case golden spins conspicuous golden colored web lit areas experiments bees able associate danger yellow pigment present occurs lit areas web harder colors learned avoided bees able effectively associate yellow danger yellow color bearing flowers avoiding yellow worthwhile form based color pattern species silver employ prominent patterns middle reflect light mimic pattern seen flowers known guides spiders change web day day explained bee ability remember web patterns bees able associate certain pattern spatial location meaning spider spin new pattern regularly suffer diminishing prey capture case males lured sexually receptive female model situation species beginning 1960s investigation female genus revealed light signals females genus use mating signal research showed male different genera attracted subsequently captured eaten female signals based received male female having repertoire signals matching delay duration female corresponding species evolved non mating signals modified predation inland australia capable attracting male tribe imitating species specific reply sexually receptive female example acoustic aggressive similar case predator remarkably versatile experiments able attract males species including continents mating signals species specific plants able increase rate capture necessary condition predator significant advantage simply identified resemble species little relevance prey case situation species cleaner fish mimic example model greatly presence mimic cleaner fish allies species allow eat parasites dead skin allow cleaner venture inside body hunt parasites species cleaner cleaner model species sabre toothed resides coral reefs indian recognized fishes let clean species lives indian_ocean looks like terms size coloration cleaner dance having prey letting guard bites tearing piece fin fleeing fish fashion soon learn distinguish mimic model similarity close cautious model affected victims ability foe evolved close similarity right regional level interesting example involve zone tailed hawk resembles turkey vulture flies suddenly breaking formation prey hawk presence evident significance affecting negatively positively parasites parasites aggressive situation somewhat different outlined previously predators feature draws prey parasites mimic host natural prey eaten host genus matures digestive system eggs passing bird taken terrestrial eggs develop intermediate host find suitable bird mature host birds eat strategy reach host brightly colored fashion sac eye coming resemble irresistible meal way bridge gap hosts allowing complete life cycle changes colour abdomen workers canopy appear like fruits changes behaviour rear held raised presumably increases chances eaten birds birds collected ants fed brood helping spread unusual case larvae beetles genus form group produce sex host bee species male bee arrives attempts mate mass larvae climb abdomen transfer female bee bee nest bee larvae host parasite species system parasite host canonical example brood form mother offspring raised organism cutting biological mother parental investment process ability lay eggs mimic host eggs key adaptation adaptation different hosts inherited female line called cases brood female lays nest illustrated duck represent case example chemical parasitic butterfly species releasing chemicals fool worker ants believe larvae larvae enable larvae brought directly nest parasitic included resemble hosts closely expected chance areas like europe parasite host common requiring parasite coloration host constitute aggressive reproductive reproductive occurs actions directly aid mimic reproduction common plants flowers provide reward offer forms reproductive component involving seeds brood involve aggressive flowers named form female flowers mimic male flowers species cheating reward reproductive readily apparent members species exhibit degree sexual common species like form reproductive floral model belongs different species mimic refers providing similar sensory signals model flower lure like provided resembles flowers monarch butterflies similar cases seen species family species example beetle usually colored flowers known aid species normally bees occurs flower female certain insect species inducing males try flower like aggressive described previously outcome form called described phenomenon common mimic females order generally bees account depending morphology flower sac called attached head abdomen male transferred stigma flower male tries resulting visual obvious sign deception humans visual aspect minor non existent senses touch important inter sexual inter sexual occurs individuals sex species mimic members opposite sex example male forms marine alpha males largest guard females beta males mimic females manage enter females detected alpha males allowing mate gamma males smallest males mimic juveniles allows mate females alpha males detecting similarly common males mimic yellow throat coloration mating rejection behavior sex sneak guarded females males look behave like females strategy effective males orange ineffective blue males chase away female spotted pseudo look like males occurs single species form organism body resembles example tails snakes resemble heads behavior moving backwards threatened presenting predator tail improving chances escape fatal harm species fishes near tails mildly alarmed swim slowly backwards presenting tail head insects tail patterns degrees promote attacks rear head species owl bear false eyes head misleading predators reacting subject aggressive writers use term mimic species example species males mimic females vice versa instance sexual evolutionary game theory examples found species birds fishes elaborate strategies lines known known paper rock different examples species species insects toxic fed certain plants contain chemicals particular classes fed plants lack chemicals instance species subfamily feed species family render poisonous predators insects frequently coloured patterned feeding plants harmless bird sampled toxic specimen unlikely eat harmless specimens coloration regarded toxic members species seen species anterior abdominal segments alarmed head segments body leaving apparently threatening large eyes visible body insects tails ends wings patterns markings wings combine create false head predators birds jumping spiders spectacular examples occur butterflies flower commonly upside shift rear wings repeatedly causing antenna like movements tails wings studies rear wing damage support hypothesis strategy effective attacks insect head forms fit easily classification given previously floral induced fungus unusual case fungal plant leaves causing effect mimicking flowers naked eye leaves look like flowers attract insects like bees signal case unusual fungus benefits deception leaves act harmed process similar host parasite host receive signal little common plant benefit action required produce evolution widely accepted positive adaptation novelist argued natural selection stabilize mimic form necessary create widely accepted model explain evolution butterflies step hypothesis step involves genes regulate complex cluster linked genes cause large changes morphology second step consists selections genes smaller effects creating increasingly close resemblance model supported evidence suggests single point cause large effects numerous produce smaller effects regulatory elements collaborate form development butterfly color patterns model supported population controlled gene imperfect natural selection drives far predators example predators avoid mimic resembles coral snake mimic sufficiently protected evolution alternative explanation organisms coral reef fish benthic marine invertebrates come resemble children camouflage creative education minnesota usa great_britain isbn
Mimicry