battle lee greek fought alliance led course days second persian invasion greece took place simultaneously naval battle august september narrow coastal pass hot gates persian invasion delayed response defeat persian invasion greece ended victory battle marathon amassed huge army navy set conquer greece general proposed allied greeks block advance persian army pass simultaneously block persian navy greek force approximately men marched north block pass middle persian army alleged ancient sources numbered million today considered smaller figures given scholars ranging arrived pass late august early september vastly outnumbered greeks held seven days including battle rear guard annihilated history famous stands days battle small force led blocked road massive persian army pass second day local resident named betrayed greeks revealing small path led greek lines aware force dismissed bulk greek army remained guard retreat killed greek navy command politician received news defeat greek strategy required held given losses decided withdraw overran captured evacuated athens greek fleet seeking decisive victory persian attacked defeated invaders battle late fearful trapped europe withdrew army asia losing starvation disease leaving attempt complete conquest greece following year saw greek army decisively defeat battle ending persian invasion ancient modern writers example power patriotic army defending native soil performance defenders example advantages training equipment good use terrain force symbol courage overwhelming odds background greek city states athens encouraged unsuccessful revolt relatively young prone revolts subject peoples spent considerable time revolts rule revolt threatened integrity empire vowed punish involved especially sure rebellion saw opportunity expand empire world preliminary expedition secure land approaches greece conquered forced client kingdom persia sent greek city states asking gift earth water token submission having demonstration power previous year majority greek cities duly obliged athens ambassadors trial executed throwing pit simply thrown meant effectively war persia amphibious task force attacked receiving submission task force moved besieged destroyed finally moved attack athens landing bay marathon met heavily outnumbered army ensuing won remarkable victory resulted withdrawal persian army asia began raising huge new army meant completely greece egyptian subjects revolted indefinitely greek expedition died whilst preparing march egypt throne persia passed son crushed egyptian revolt quickly restarted preparations invasion greece scale invasion required long term planning conscription decided allow army cross europe canal dug rounding persian fleet destroyed feats exceptional ambition contemporary state early preparations complete army mustered marched europe crossing bridges preparing war decision taken guidance politician build massive fleet essential greeks fight manpower fight land sea require alliance states sent ambassadors greece asking earth water making deliberate omission athens support began leading states congress city states met late autumn confederate alliance formed power send envoys asking assistance dispatch troops member states defensive points joint consultation remarkable greek world especially city states attendance technically war congress met spring delegation suggested greeks muster narrow borders block advance force dispatched believed persian army pass warned alexander bypassed army overwhelming greeks retreated shortly received news crossed second strategy suggested greeks route southern greece require army travel narrow pass easily blocked greek despite overwhelming numbers furthermore prevent bypassing sea allied navies block straits dual strategy adopted congress cities fall plans defend come whilst women children athens evacuated city prelude persian army slow progress news imminent persian approach eventually reached greece august thanks greek spy time year facto military leaders alliance celebrating festival military activity forbidden law arrived late battle marathon requirement time olympic games olympic truce army march war occasion decided urgency sufficiently great justify advance expedition block pass kings took men royal bodyguard expedition try gather greek soldiers way possible await arrival main army legend told consulted earlier year said following prophecy men streets broad honor festival glorious town shall sacked children exchange country loss king descendant great tells line prophecy convinced going certain death forces adequate victory selected living sons force reinforced route contingents cities numbered time arrived pass chose camp defend middle gate pass built defensive wall time news reached nearby city mountain track pass stationed heights prevent manoeuvre finally mid august persian army sighted approaching persian army arrival greeks held council war suggested withdrawal blocking passage states located nearby advised defending sending help panic agreed defend according soldiers complained arrows impossible sun replied won nice shall shade fight reports similar comment attributes persian sent negotiate greeks offered freedom title friends persian people settled land better possessed terms refused ambassador carried written message asking hand arms famous response come persian embassy returning handed battle inevitable delayed days waiting greeks disperse sending troops attack opposing forces persian army number troops mustered second invasion greece subject endless dispute numbers given ancient sources large claimed total million military personnel accompanied equivalent number support personnel poet near contemporary talks million gave total number army assembled modern scholars tend reject figures given ancient sources unrealistic result modern scholarly estimates generally range estimates usually come studying logistical capabilities era respective base operations overall manpower constraints affecting real numbers clear anxious ensure successful expedition overwhelming numerical superiority land sea number persian troops present uncertain number total invasion force instance unclear persian army marched far left garrisons greek army according greek army included following forces notes number suggests total agrees figure passage quoting inscription saying passage summarized table battle reports public showing dead capacity served difference figures squared proof present battle present battle reason doubt served traditional role armed individual alternatively missing troops correspond number confusing issue ambiguity include point says received appointment announced thousand men follow campaign says thousand impossible point account agrees probably read gives number declined estimate residing direct path persian advance gave fighting men according men added given force modern historians usually consider reliable add obtain men standard number approach combinations plausible furthermore numbers changed later battle army retreated approximately men remained possibly stationed pass casualties sustained previous days strategic tactical considerations strategic point view defending greeks making best possible use forces long prevent persian advance greece need seek decisive battle remain defensive defending passages greeks inferior numbers factor conversely problem supplying large army meant remain place long retreat advance advancing required pass forced pass suited greek style warfare able block narrow pass ease risk cavalry pass difficult assault lightly armed persian infantry major weak point greeks mountain track led highland parallel allow position probably unsuitable cavalry path easily traversed persian infantry mountain warfare aware path local people positioned detachment troops order block route topography battlefield time pass consisted track shore narrow pass time southern track stood cliffs overlooked pass north path series gates center gate short wall erected previous century aid defense invasions hot gates comes hot springs located terrain battlefield forces accustomed coming mountainous country prepared real nature country invaded pure area caused torrential months year combined intense summer season heat cracks ground vegetation scarce consists low shrubs type pass covered thick brush plants reaching feet high dangerous cliff ocean steep impassable hills men chose perfect position battle persian invaders today pass near sea kilometres inland old track appears foot hills plain flanked modern road recent core samples indicate pass metres wide waters came gates little visitors realize battle took place road monument pass natural defensive position modern armies forces world war defense nazi invasion metres original battlefield maps region image battlefield east battle day fifth day persian arrival day battle finally resolved attack greeks ordered thousand fire barrage arrows ineffective fired yards away according modern day scholars greeks bronze shields helmets missiles sent force thousand defenders prisoner bring soon launched frontal assault waves men greek position greeks fought wall pass enabled use soldiers possible details tactics says men stood shoulder shoulder greeks superior great size shields probably describes standard greek men formed wall overlapping shields layered spear points protruding sides shields highly effective long spanned width pass weaker shields shorter spears swords prevented effectively engaging greek says units city kept units rotated battle prevent fatigue implies greeks men necessary block pass greeks killed said stood times seat watching battle according wave cut killed return according king having taken measure enemy threw best troops second assault day elite corps men fared better failing greeks apparently tactic retreat turning killing enemy troops ran second day second day sent infantry attack pass enemies disabled wounds longer resist success second day stopped assault withdrew camp totally late day persian king received named informed mountain path offered guide persian army motivated desire reward act received lasting stigma coming mean nightmare greek language traitor greek culture reports sent commander evening men command greeks path men day possible given overall command enhanced force including left according force mission path led east persian camp ridge cliffs flanked pass branched path leading town day day guarding path aware persian column oak leaves says jumped greatly amazed amazed hastily forces feared informed retreated nearby hill stand assuming come attack wishing delayed merely shot volley arrows bypassing continue main greek force learning runner held path called council war dawn according persian called birth warned greeks greeks argued withdrawal resolved stay pass greek contingents chose withdraw orders ordered leave admits doubt actually happened contingent led general refused leave committed fight present probably accompanied actions subject discussion commonly stated laws retreating actually failure retreat gave rise notion retreated possible recalling words committed sacrifice life order save prophecy specific poor reason commit men fight death likely theory chose form rearguard greek contingents away troops retreated open ground pass allowed persian cavalry run greeks remained pass encircled eventually killed covering retreat continuing block pass save men able fight subject discussion suggests brought battle hostages ensure good behavior long ago pointed hostages send away rest greeks likelihood loyalists unlike majority fellow citizens objected persian domination probably came free stayed end return conquered resolved submit faced destruction city took explain fact remained remainder successfully evacuated arrived volunteered remain simple act self sacrifice amazing contingent represented single city muster particularly trait occasions later history force commit fight death dawn allow sufficient time descend mountain began advance persian force thousand men consisting light infantry cavalry charged greek formation greeks time forth wall meet wider pass attempt slaughter fought spears spear shattered switched short swords struggle states brothers fell died assault shot persian sides fought body greeks taking possession approached greeks withdrew took stand hill wall moved away companions hands advanced translation slain surrender accepted king later prisoners branded royal mark remaining defenders says defended swords resisting hands teeth tearing wall ordered hill surrounded arrows greek dead archaeologist found large numbers persian bronze changing identification hill greeks died smaller nearer wall pass opened persian army according cost fatalities greek rearguard annihilated probable loss men including killed days battle says point greeks died assuming guarding track killed battle implies greek soldier present estimates number probably high aftermath body recovered rage ordered head cut body observes uncommon habit treating warriors great honour example captured suggestion known rage legend water obey departure greeks collected dead buried hill persian invasion repulsed stone lion erected commemorate years battle bones returned buried honors funeral games held year memory opened persian army continuation blockade greek fleet irrelevant simultaneous naval tactical stalemate greek navy able retreat good order helped ferry remaining citizens island following persian army proceeded burn sack cities submitted marched evacuated city athens greeks prepared defend single road led building wall effective strategy required greek navy stage simultaneous blockade barring passage persian navy troops landed directly instead mere blockade persuaded greeks seek decisive victory persian fleet persian navy greek fleet able destroy persian fleet essentially ended threat fearing greeks attack bridges trap army europe retreated army asia nearly died starvation disease return left force complete conquest following year pressure eventually agreed try force battle marched retreated lure greeks open terrain sides eventually met near city battle greek army won decisive victory destroying persian army ending invasion greece near simultaneous naval destroyed remaining persian fleet reducing threat invasions arguably famous battle european ancient history repeatedly referenced ancient recent contemporary culture western culture greeks lauded performance battle context persian invasion undoubtedly defeat greeks clear greek strategy hold intended presumably desire surrender greek position despite massively outnumbered nearly position held little longer retreat lack food water despite heavy losses forcing pass strategically persian victory successful retreat bulk greek troops sense victory battle showed free men willing victory invaders defeat turned men command boosted morale greek soldiers second persian invasion stated victory victor damaged battle defeated party suggestion effect persian forces idea ignores fact aftermath conquer majority greece fact fighting greece year later alternatively argument advanced stand successful delaying action gave greek navy time prepare compared probable time month time bought furthermore idea fact greek navy fighting losses process suggests gap caused systematically reducing greek opposition result delaying action insignificant compared far labeling victory modern academic persian wars tend emphasise success formidable greek position subsequent conquest majority greece instance states successful land sea great invasion began brilliant success reason describes greek defeat disastrous fame principally derived effect outcome war inspirational example set famous heroism doomed rearguard despite facing certain death remained pass events source praise sources sister victories sun seen dare compare combined glory glorious defeat men second reason example set free men fighting country freedom immediately contemporary greeks saw critical moral culture lesson universal terms small free people willingly huge numbers imperial subjects advanced specifically western idea soldiers decide fight contrasted eastern notion monarchy freedom proving stronger idea courageous fighting greeks later victories attested free men slaves seen sweeping plenty counter examples true commentators illustrate point militarily battle actually decisive context persian invasion significance basis days fighting performance defenders example advantages training equipment good use terrain force legacy monuments monuments battlefield known usually attributed engraved commemorative stone placed burial mound hill died original stone survived engraved new stone text stranger tell lie words alternative ancient reading laws orders words words orders personal refer official binding phrases ancient greek term refer formal speech form ancient greek poetry commonly english given table example style verse allows varying interpretations meaning poem points usual english translations far interpretation possible indicate romantic tendencies known ancient greece sent killed exception exploits left bring news deeds greek appealed passing reader called stranger sympathy dead took convention usual asking reader personal journey break news expeditionary force wiped stranger asked stress died fulfilling orders line title short story stranger german nobel prize variant inscribed expressed importance ideal western civilization follows obedience highest form obedience constant compulsory law persuaded voluntary yielded obedience issued command leads armies heaven faithful true deeds alliance armies essentially deeds faith source substance known deed called set forth word group words far know simple man concerning practice final testimony leaders great practical nation greek monument additionally modern monument site called monument honor king features bronze statue sign statue reads simply come answer demand greeks weapons depicts battle scenes marble statues left right monument represent respectively river mount famous landmarks monument second monument officially unveiled greek government dedicated fought monument marble features bronze statue depicting god ancient accorded particular religious statue sign reads memory seven plate statue explains symbolism male figure anonymous sacrifice country chest struggle gallantry strength bravery courage open wing victory glory soul spirit freedom broken wing voluntary sacrifice death naked body important god ancient god creation beauty life monument placed associated legends colorful account battle provided history incidents conversations away main historical events accounts obviously form integral legend battle demonstrate speech wit good effect instance recounts women departure wife asked return replied marry good man good children reported arriving sent mounted scout greeks allowed come camp observe depart scout reported size greek force long hair found reports seeking counsel exiled king told preparing battle custom hair risk lives called men greece warned great king intended dispute pass emphasized tried warn earlier campaign king refused believe added managed subdue nation world venture lift hand defense describes reception persian embassy ambassador told offer greece joined answered knowledge noble things life refrain possessions die greece better sole ruler people race ambassador asked surrender arms gave famous answer pronounced greek pronunciation come bravery helped maintain morale writes soldier informed persian arrows numerous block sun better shall fight battle shade battle curious greeks trying presumably men interrogated presence answer men participating olympic games asked prize winner answer olive hearing persian general said good heavens kind men pitted contend honor translation gods men brought fight men fight gold glory popular culture battle remained icon western civilization fought battle revisited countless literature song films television programs video games battle discussed books articles theory practice warfare movies based events close time battle prior battle remembered ethnic distinction belonged battle culture inspiration object phenomenon known
Battle of Thermopylae