chain chain sold electric chain type battery sold second half 19th century medical applications chief market numerous practitioners taking advantage popularity relatively new treatment electrification known unique selling point construction numerous linked cells rendering flexible variant intended worn wrapped body long periods known chain electric belt attracted great deal medical community use names known physicians advertising permission nature business selling promoting practices unpopular medical community despite chain widely reported useful source electricity medical scientific purposes vocal critics construction electrically machine worked like pile constructed completely differently copper consisting weak acid salt solution cell consisted wooden winding copper wires like screw thread locate wires precisely position enabled copper wires placed close coming electrical contact wires interfere operation copper wires inserted ends copper end wires attached formed hooks eyes cells arrangement depicted figure provided electrical connections mechanical cell connected copper winding connected winding cells connected end end compact assembly manner links chain voltage delivered assembly controlled number links incorporated high current available single cell increase current size cells increased shock delivered chains described strong chain links sharp links prior use chain soaked absorbed wooden wood chosen type absorbed chain continue produce voltage dried chain typically chain charged slowly drawing bowl shown figure special link included chain incorporated circuit purpose rapidly connect circuit normally steady current battery turned rapidly varying current usual practice use medical electrical batteries feed output induction order increase voltage applied patient action patent mention induction battery produce large merely adding links chain effect interrupted current produces stronger sensation electric shock patient steady current novel feature operated action spring kept motion movements patient need external input time typically hand physician existence electro mechanical automatic later versions chain driven rate adjusted rate shock patient controlled fitted chain shown figure wound turning handle left end variant chain appeared wooden instead hollow tube tube formed cell wound copper wire version rings copper plates tube copper wire kept apart thread commonly battery manufacturers time high price unlike today compared cell place produces twice voltage importantly cell output voltage replaced plain water marketed type chain designed worn wrapped limb treated claimed operate body sweat acting need charge external source produced smaller pocket version chain fewer links cell version physicist inventor originally concerned electric telegraph published details chain august german winter year came britain demonstrate machine notable physicians visited london edinburgh trip gives residence patent prior arrived britain vienna british sources time describe vienna medical opinion positive reaction early gave known london physician interest sample machine experiment bird impressed later gave representative letter introduction physicians edinburgh bird thought battery useful source portable electricity treating patients forms homes contemporary equipment portable case friction machines required skilled operators going october bird felt tested device sufficiently glowing article early stage signs wrote favourable report felt need level criticism london agent promoting device universal complaint company advertisements bird opponent practitioners particular quick medically electrical treatment felt reason professional acceptance work held market sector claims aimed bird specifically exclude responsibility claims april situation extracts provided bird permission order bolster company medically largely advertising claims bird threatened legal injunction refused tried imply bird publicity letter writing campaign advertisements led exchange letters bird plain recommended chain convenient source electricity support claimed powers especially supposed produce instant results typical course time months criticised chains sold delivering current medical use pointed proposed procedure wrapping device affected limb useless path skin cell prevent useful voltage developed suggests patent contact body generates electricity effective resulted journal removing advertisements pages quickly followed growing pressure pretty ended professional medical support device time despite start medical profession chain continued described scientific medical journals books useful tool late 1850s 1860s mentioned proceedings bird height dispute company found able battery ingenious useful source electricity banned medical press advertising claims use notable names investigated possible use tooth extraction found benefit device frequently adding pain found subject discussion medical press involved legal proceedings time company victim product poor quality cause court case prompted examine chain ending long period paper ignoring worthless instrument result positive review chain function reviewer particularly praised competition decline patented chain battery soon followed chain battery belt electric belt electric belts enormously popular far europe led company headquarters moved cincinnati 1880s calling london prestige european connection early models soaked use england later models worked purely action body sweat introduced device sold essentially cure necessary generate electricity feel matter slightly know working electric belts human anatomy limbs abdomen chest neck worn time model designed attach male special sac claimed cure promoted theory loss male later life consequence early life limited supply provided run time wasted device meant address competition intense lucrative market claimed benefits extravagant competitors actually new_york based crystal horn owen founded father famous owen originally new_york based expanded country business fraud europe competitors popular belt attempted unsuccessfully sue paper accused oregon based company founded selling belts making large profits inflation adjusted net belts months end 1920s electric belt popularity severely declined public appetite electric scientific market long moved better electrical generation technology chain batteries popular culture chain especially form worn body familiar late 19th early 20th century needed explained audience instance references novel madame character wearing number chains described
Pulvermacher's chain