apollo program apollo program known united_states human program carried nasa accomplished landing humans moon conceived administration man spacecraft follow man americans space apollo later dedicated president national goal landing man moon returning safely earth end 1960s proposed address congress kennedy goal accomplished apollo mission landed july walked lunar surface remained lunar orbit landed safely earth july subsequent apollo missions landed moon december men walked moon apollo ran manned flight achieved goal manned lunar landing despite major setback apollo cabin fire killed entire crew test landing sufficient flight hardware remained follow landings plan extended lunar geological exploration budget cuts forced cancellation remaining missions achieved successful landings landing prevented oxygen tank explosion transit moon damaged propulsion life support crew returned earth safely lunar module functions saturn family rockets launch vehicles consisted space station supported manned missions apollo test project joint earth orbit mission soviet_union apollo set major human stands sending manned missions low earth orbit manned spacecraft orbit body final apollo mission marked sixth moon landing ninth manned mission low earth orbit program returned pounds lunar rocks soil earth greatly contributing understanding moon composition geological history program laid foundation nasa current human capability funded construction johnson space center kennedy space center apollo spurred advances areas technology incidental manned including telecommunications computers background apollo program conceived administration early follow mercury capsule support astronaut limited earth mission apollo carry possible missions included crews space station flights eventual manned lunar landings program named greek god light music sun nasa manager later said naming spacecraft like baby chose home evening early felt apollo riding sun appropriate grand scale proposed program spacecraft feasibility studies july nasa deputy administrator announced apollo program industry representatives series conferences preliminary specifications laid spacecraft mission module cabin separate command module entry cabin propulsion equipment module august feasibility study competition announced october study contracts awarded general_electric nasa performed house spacecraft design studies led serve gauge judge monitor industry designs political pressure builds november elected president campaign promised american superiority soviet_union fields space exploration missile defense election kennedy speaking missile gap senators felt formed soviets president military power kennedy technology symbol national prestige period despite kennedy rhetoric immediately come decision status apollo program president knew little technical details space program massive financial commitment required manned moon landing kennedy newly appointed nasa administrator requested percent budget increase agency kennedy supported acceleration nasa large program deferred decision broader issue april soviet person fly space reinforcing american fears left technological competition soviet_union meeting day flight pledged support crash program aimed ensuring america catch kennedy response news refusing commitment america response soviets april kennedy sent memo vice president asking johnson look status america space program programs offer nasa opportunity catch johnson responded approximately week later concluding making maximum effort achieving results necessary country reach position leadership memo concluded manned moon landing far future likely united_states achieve days manned freedom kennedy proposed manned moon landing needs time longer time great new american enterprise time nation clearly leading role space achievement ways hold key future earth believe nation commit achieving goal decade landing man moon returning safely earth single space project period impressive mankind important long range exploration space difficult expensive accomplish text nasa expansion time kennedy proposal american flown space month earlier nasa sent astronaut orbit nasa employees doubted kennedy ambitious goal met kennedy came close agreeing joint mission eliminate effort clear goal manned landing replacing goals space stations flights nasa hit ground running decided feasibility study designs martin proceed command service module design mission module determined useful extra room deemed unnecessary design specification competition spacecraft bids october november announced won contract bid rated good martin chose preference north american longer association landing men moon end required sudden burst technological creativity largest commitment resources billion nation peacetime peak apollo program employed people required support industrial firms universities july nasa established alabama designed heavy lift class saturn launch vehicles required apollo manned spacecraft center clear managing apollo program exceed capabilities directing nation manned space program nasa given authority grow organization new nasa center site chosen houston texas land donated administrator announced conversion september clear nasa soon practice controlling missions launch facilities florida new included september time earth moved organization rented space houston construction facility way kennedy visited rice challenge famous speech moon choose goal ask climb highest mountain years ago fly atlantic choose moon choose moon decade things easy hard goal serve organize measure best energies skills challenge willing accept unwilling postpone intend win text completed september renamed congress honor soon death clear apollo launch facilities florida newest launch complexes built saturn rockets northernmost end bigger facility needed rocket required manned lunar mission land acquisition started july immediately north design development construction center conducted member original rocket engineering team named director construction began november kennedy death president johnson issued executive order november honor kennedy included million cubic foot million cubic meter vertical space vehicle launch vehicle spacecraft assembled mobile platform moved launch pads pads planned designated completed october included operations building apollo spacecraft initially received prior launch vehicles apollo spacecraft tested vacuum chambers capable atmospheric pressure altitudes feet nearly vacuum organization administrator realized order apollo costs control develop greater project management skills organization recruited high management job accepted condition nasa reorganization necessary effectively administer apollo worked later deputy administrator july announced appointment deputy associate administrator manned space flight replace retirement effective september reorganization directors von effectively reported based industry experience air_force missile projects realized skilled managers found high ranking officers united_states_air_force got permission recruit general gained reputation effective management program program controller phillips superior officer agreed loan phillips nasa staff officers condition phillips director agreed phillips managed apollo january achieved manned landing july returned air_force duty choosing mission mode kennedy defined goal apollo mission planners faced challenge designing spacecraft meet risk human life cost demands technology astronaut skill possible mission modes considered spacecraft launched unit travel directly moon land return leaving landing stage moon design required development extremely powerful nova launch vehicle earth orbit rendezvous multiple rocket launches plans carry parts spacecraft propulsion units injection assembled single spacecraft earth orbit rendezvous single saturn launch spacecraft composed mother ship remain orbit moon smaller stage carry surface return dock mother ship discarded landing small spacecraft moon returning smaller lunar orbit total mass launched earth rendezvous spacecraft launched succession automated vehicle carrying return earth land moon followed time later manned vehicle transferred automated vehicle manned vehicle early direct ascent generally mission mode favor nasa engineers feared rendezvous let docking attempted earth orbit extremely difficult lunar orbit including emphasized important weight reductions offered approach campaigned recognition viable practical option bypassing nasa hierarchy sent series reports issue associate administrator acknowledging spoke somewhat voice wilderness pleaded discounted studies question establishment hoc committee headed special technical assistant july recommend launch vehicle apollo program represented turning point nasa mission mode decision committee recognized chosen mode important launch vehicle choice recommended favor hybrid mode consideration work played important role approach late early members began come support including newly hired deputy director champion engineers marshall space flight center lose decision took longer convinced merits conversion announced briefing june nasa reached internal agreement far smooth sailing kennedy science advisor expressed opposition manned kennedy president took office opposed decision land men moon hired left nasa chair space vehicle panel ostensibly monitor actually second guess nasa decisions saturn launch vehicle forcing defend delaying formal announcement press july forcing decision tentative kept pressure making disagreement public day september visit president good press presentation jumped defended kennedy ended stating matter subject final review held firm issued request proposal candidate contractors finally relented unwilling settle dispute kennedy office president involvement october cuban missile crisis fear kennedy support nasa announced selection contractor november space historian concludes nasa adoption held minority opinion united_states reached moon certainly accomplished end 1960s president kennedy target date method advantage allowing spacecraft event failure command ship documents prove theory discussed method chosen study concluded finally dropped single reasonable failure identified prohibit use ironically failure happened oxygen tank explosion left electrical power lunar module provided propulsion electrical power life support crew home safely spacecraft preliminary apollo design employed cone shaped command module supported service providing propulsion electrical power sized appropriately space station lunar landing missions kennedy moon landing goal official detailed design began crew spend entire direct ascent mission lift lunar surface return trip soft landed larger landing propulsion module final choice lunar orbit rendezvous changed role ferry transport crew new spacecraft later shortened men lunar surface return command module conical crew cabin designed carry launch lunar orbit earth ocean landing component apollo spacecraft survive major configuration changes program evolved early apollo study designs exterior covered heat shield reaction control system engines control attitude steer atmospheric entry path carried slow descent module feet tall feet diameter weighed approximately pounds cylindrical supported command module service propulsion engine fuel cell power generation system liquid hydrogen liquid oxygen high gain band antenna long distance communications lunar flights extended lunar missions scientific instrument package carried discarded entry module feet long feet diameter initial lunar flight version weighed approximately pounds fully fueled later version designed carry lunar orbit scientific instrument package weighed pounds won contract build second stage saturn launch vehicle nasa design started early selection lunar orbit rendezvous service propulsion engine sized lift moon twice thrust required flight provision docking program definition study concluded initial design continued block early testing actual lunar spacecraft incorporate docking equipment advantage lessons learned block development lunar module designed descend lunar orbit land moon orbit rendezvous designed fly earth atmosphere return earth fuselage designed totally aerodynamic considerations extremely lightweight construction consisted separate descent ascent stages engine descent stage contained storage descent surface stay surface exploration equipment ascent stage contained crew cabin ascent reaction control system initial model weighed approximately pounds allowed surface stays hours weighed pounds allowed surface stays days contract design construction awarded project overseen launch vehicles apollo program began team rocket engineers started work plans large launch vehicles saturn series larger nova series midst plans transferred army nasa director initial direct ascent plan send man directly lunar surface large descent rocket stage require nova class lunar capability pounds june decision use lunar orbit rendezvous enabled saturn replace nova proceeded develop saturn rocket family apollo little apollo like mercury require launch escape system les case launch failure relatively small rocket required qualification flight testing system size bigger little joe required little built august qualification test flight les test flights white sands missile range january saturn apollo like mercury launch vehicle space missions nasa spacecraft launch vehicle combination series numbers saturn saturn saturn compare mercury designate plan missions numbering changed time manned flights began saturn heavy lift launch vehicle initially planned launch partially equipped low earth orbit tests stage burned liquid oxygen engines produce pounds force thrust second stage liquid hydrogen fueled engines pounds force thrust planned stage engines flew saturn test flights launched live stages carrying dummy upper stages filled water flight live launched followed launches designated orbit supported apollo program carrying satellites verified safety environment measuring frequency severity impacts september nasa planned launch manned flights saturn late concurrent pound capacity severely limited systems included decision october use saturn manned earth flights saturn saturn upgraded version stage increased thrust pounds force engine second stage replaced powered single engine burning liquid hydrogen fuel produce pounds force thrust version stage saturn saturn send pounds low earth orbit sufficient partially fueled saturn launch vehicles flights designated series number indicating indicating second member saturn rocket family saturn saturn launch vehicles flights designated series number indicating indicating stage saturn designed send fully fueled moon feet diameter stood feet tall pound lunar capability grew pounds later advanced lunar landings stage burned rated thrust pounds force upgraded pounds force second stages burned liquid hydrogen stage modified version thrust increased pounds force capability restart engine injection reaching parking orbit nasa director apollo program original mercury seven medically grounded september heart responsible making apollo crew assignments thirty assigned fly missions apollo program left earth orbit flew moon december december twice half walked surface returned moon landing trained killed ground test preparation apollo mission apollo chosen veterans plus later astronaut groups missions commanded mercury veterans crews development flights earth orbit development flights landings included veterans nasa scientist astronaut fly space landed moon mission apollo participated lunar geology training apollo landing crews nasa awarded highest honor given distinguished service ability courage personal contribution representing substantial progress nasa mission medals awarded posthumously white crews missions onward crew flew earth test mission awarded lesser discipline problems flight director orders flight nasa administrator october decided award time posthumously lunar mission profile nominal planned lunar landing mission proceeded follows profile variations apollo placed second moon subsequent missions deliberately crashed moon instead sent solar orbit active seismic experiment induce vibrations moon lunar missions apollo apollo free return trajectory keeping flight path lunar orbit allow return earth case engine failed lunar orbit landing site lighting conditions later missions dictated lunar plane change required course change maneuver soon eliminated free return option starting descent orbit performed engine instead engine order allow greater fuel reserve landing actually time apollo apollo mission aborted landing apollo later missions ascent stages deliberately crashed moon known locations active seismic experiment exceptions apollo burned earth atmosphere apollo loss attitude control prevented making targeted impact development history flight tests block launched flights saturn launched february reached altitude nautical miles nautical miles atlantic_ocean second august reached nautical miles altitude recovered nautical miles pacific_ocean flights engine command module heat shield saturn test launched pad went orbit support design upper stage restart capability needed saturn carried instead apollo spacecraft liquid hydrogen fuel behavior engineers measured temperature pressure sensors camera flight occurred july delayed problems getting apollo spacecraft ready flight preparation manned flight manned block missions planned block crew positions titled senior pilot pilot assume navigation duties pilot function systems engineer wear modified version test flight crew fly block dual mission known spacecraft launched separate saturn crew positions titled commander begin wearing new apollo designed accommodate lunar activity traditional helmet replaced clear type greater visibility lunar surface suit include water cooled grounded mercury astronaut director apollo programs selected apollo crew january command pilot white senior pilot rookie pilot shoulder twice aboard training aircraft undergo surgery january replaced nasa announced final crew selection march backup crew consisting veterans rookie mercury veteran rookie announced september prime crew december mission canceled accomplished day flight devoted space experiments contribute new engineering knowledge spacecraft saturn allocated dual mission redesignated planned august scott promoted prime crew reassigned apollo backup crew program delays spacecraft missions delivered long lists equipment problems corrected flight delays caused launch slip eliminated hopes manned mission ready launch soon november concurrently mission eventually planned flight date pushed february prime contractor apollo saturn second stage delays stage pushed saturn flight late november initial assembly use dummy place stage problems north american severe late cause manned space flight administrator appoint program director head tiger team investigate north american problems identify phillips documented findings december letter president strongly letter gave presentation results deputy administrator encountering problems eliminating hopes ready manned flight long manned flights disaster strikes white decided flight apollo focus manned flight trained conducted tests spacecraft north american altitude chamber kennedy space center test planned january simulate launch countdown spacecraft transferring pad supplied internal power successful followed rigorous countdown simulation test closer february launch spacecraft launch vehicle fueled test began morning january immediately plagued problems crew noticed strange odor delayed sealing hatch communications problems frustrated forced hold simulated countdown hold electrical fire began cabin spread quickly high pressure oxygen atmosphere pressure rose high fire cabin inner wall burst allowing fire pad area frustrating attempts rescue crew hatch opened nasa immediately convened accident review board overseen houses congress determination responsibility accident complex review board concluded deficiencies existed design quality control insistence nasa administrator north american removed program manager reassigned manager replacing remedy causes fire changes spacecraft operational procedures important use nitrogen oxygen mixture instead pure oxygen launch removal cabin space suit materials design called replacement block plug type hatch cover quick release outward opening door nasa discontinued manned block program block spacecraft saturn flights crew members exclusively wear modified fire resistant space suits designated titles regardless present flight tests april published official apollo mission numbering scheme numbers flights manned sequence start apollo cover flights retiring apollo designation honor crew wishes september approved sequence mission types successfully accomplished order achieve manned lunar landing step successfully accomplished ones performed unknown tries mission necessary letters instead numbers missions saturn saturn manned earth orbit saturn manned flight replaced single saturn launch higher earth orbit flight lunar mission testing lunar orbit landing dress rehearsal manned landing list types covered follow lunar exploration include lunar landings lunar survey missions extended stay lunar landings delay caused fire enabled nasa catch man rating flight saturn carrying november capability heat shield survive trans lunar demonstrated engine ram atmosphere higher usual earth speed followed april carried ballast intent mission achieve trans lunar injection followed closely simulated direct return engine achieve high speed saturn experienced problem caused non steady engine damaged fuel lines second stages engines shut prematurely remaining engines able compensate damage stage engine severe preventing trans lunar injection mission controllers able use engine essentially repeat flight profile based good performance identification satisfactory apollo problems nasa declared saturn ready fly men test apollo test flight earth orbit launched pad january apollo engines successfully test fired restarted despite computer programming error cut short descent stage firing ascent engine fired mode known fire hole test lit simultaneously descent stage wanted second test decided flight manned manned development missions launched october mission day earth flight tested systems apollo planned mission december scott launched saturn instead saturn summer clear ready time waste saturn simple earth mission manager suggested bold step sending apollo orbit moon instead mission mission march eliminating mission program track soviet_union sent animals moon september aboard believed soon repeat feat human decision announced publicly successful completion veterans rookie captured world attention making lunar hours television pictures lunar surface christmas eve returning safely earth following march flight rendezvous docking successfully demonstrated earth orbit tested lunar suit portable life support system outside mission successfully carried veterans took feet lunar surface mission achieved july veteran crew consisting armstrong performed landing utc july spent total hours minutes surface spent hours minutes outside spacecraft walking surface taking photographs collecting material samples deploying automated scientific instruments continuously sending black white television earth returned safely july small step man giant leap mankind production lunar landings november veteran rookie precision landing apollo walking distance surveyor lunar probe landed april veteran carried lunar surface color television camera damaged accidentally pointed sun totaling hours minutes walked surveyor photographed removed parts returned earth success landings allowed remaining missions single veteran commander apollo launched april headed formation days liquid oxygen tank exploded service module forcing crew use life boat return earth nasa review board convened determine cause turned combination damage tank factory making tank component according updated design specifications apollo grounded remainder oxygen tank redesigned extra added contracted batch saturn lunar landing missions apollo nasa publicized preliminary list planned landing sites plans increase mass missions capacity saturn final missions combine types list allowing operate package lunar sensors cameras companions surface allowing stay moon days missions carry lunar vehicle increasing exploration area allowing televised revised extended missions allow greater flexibility visibility driving mission time landing decided use existing saturn launch laboratory pre built ground replacing original plan construct orbit saturn launches eliminated apollo nasa yearly budget began shrink light successful landing nasa funds available development upcoming decision cancel missions unused saturn museum exhibits john kennedy space center florida alabama assembly facility new_orleans louisiana houston texas forced mission planners original planned landing sites order achieve effective geological sample data collection remaining missions apollo planned series missions subsequent missions left changed missions mission reassigned apollo commanded february mercury veteran time mission successful mitchell spent hours minutes surface completed totalling hours minutes record longest lunar crew time august conclusion apollo mission president richard_nixon proposed remaining lunar landing missions apollo deputy director opposed persuaded nixon remaining missions extended missions apollo launched july scott landed july near spent days hours surface hours collected kilograms lunar material apollo landed april crew commanded young duke spent days surface total hours apollo apollo program landing region december commanded nasa scientist astronaut originally scheduled apollo lunar geological community lobbied inclusion final lunar landing stayed surface days spent hours total mission summary source apollo numbers statistical reference samples returned apollo program returned pounds lunar rocks soil houston today samples stored built rocks collected moon extremely old compared rocks found earth measured dating techniques range age billion years samples derived lunar maria billion years samples derived highlands crust represent samples early period development solar system largely absent earth important rock found dubbed genesis rock retrieved apollo mission rock composed exclusively calcium rich mineral believed representative highland crust component called discovered apollo known terrestrial counterpart samples outer portion moon completely lunar ocean rocks evidence impact process effects samples appear pitted impact seen earth rocks thick atmosphere signs subjected high pressure shock waves generated impact events returned samples impact melt materials melted near impact crater samples returned moon highly result subjected multiple impact events analysis composition lunar samples supports giant impact hypothesis moon created impact large astronomical body earth costs president kennedy chartered moon landing program preliminary cost estimate billion generated proved extremely unrealistic guess possibly determined precisely judgment administrator change estimate billion giving vice president johnson kennedy speech annual space budget billion described cost cents person week somewhat pay cigarettes year moon program soon raise cents week man woman child united_states estimate shocked time including president ultimately proved reasonably accurate january nasa prepared estimate run cost apollo program total came billion follows apollo spacecraft million saturn launch vehicles million launch vehicles million saturn launch vehicles million launch vehicle engine development million mission support million tracking data acquisition million ground facilities million operation installations million final cost apollo reported congress billion took majority nasa budget developed example accounted percent nasa total billion budget single saturn launch cost million compared fiscal year budget million nasa held project costs presented estimate apollo program costs dollars roughly billion included research development costs saturn rockets plus program support management costs construction expenses facilities upgrading costs flight operations based report budgetary analysis nasa september estimated cost apollo billion billion dollars looking manned lunar landings nasa investigated post lunar applications apollo hardware proposed flights earth orbit space house small laboratory workshop continue use ferry station study followed design larger workshop built orbit upper stage grew workshop supplemented apollo mount attached ascent stage lunar module rack ambitious plan called spacecraft venus fly mission workshop plans drawing board constructed complete ground space launched lower stages equipped apollo mount crew departed station february station entered atmosphere apollo hardware joint nation space flight paving way future cooperation nations space shuttle international space station programs recent observations september google announced awarded robotic lunar landing mission close images artificial objects surface probe observed evidence halo surrounding apollo blast crater lunar surface nasa robotic kilometers moon began remnants apollo program left lunar surface photographed site manned apollo flights landed flags left moon apollo missions found standing exception left apollo mission blown mission lift lunar surface return mission lunar orbit degree flags retain original colors remains unknown november editorial new_york_times opined terribly photographs apollo landing sites detail walking footsteps like astronaut clearly visible photos apollo site caused sense simple apollo missions reminder risk felt eagle landed possibility unable lift stranded moon photograph like close able come looking directly human past apollo lunar module sits parked landed years ago years ago time merely imaginary legacy science engineering apollo program called greatest technological achievement human history apollo stimulated areas technology leading products flight computer design lunar missile systems driving force early research integrated circuits apollo percent production crucial difference requirements apollo missile programs apollo greater need reliability navy air_force work reliability problems deploying missiles political financial cost failure apollo mission high cultural impact crew sent live televised pictures earth moon earth read creation story book genesis christmas eve estimated quarter population world saw live delayed christmas eve transmission ninth orbit moon estimated fifth population world watched live transmission apollo apollo program affected environmental activism 1970s photos taken famous taken apollo blue marble image released surge symbol environmental movement depiction earth vulnerability isolation amid vast space according economist apollo succeeded president kennedy goal taking soviet_union space race beat singular significant achievement showcased superiority free market system represented publication noted irony order achieve goal program required organization tremendous public resources vast centralized government bureaucracy despite evidence contrary deny moon landings took place landing hoax claims helped propel conspiracy theories quasi political narrative broadcast data restoration project 40th anniversary nasa spearheaded effort digitally restore existing mission live televised year search missing tapes original video nasa concluded data tapes likely accidentally erased wish don think nasa organization wrong think slipped cracks happy moon landing data recorded special camera recorded format incompatible broadcast resulted lunar footage converted live television broadcast stored magnetic tapes following years magnetic tape shortage prompted nasa remove massive numbers magnetic tapes recorded newer satellite data led team designed built lunar television camera worked try locate missing tapes don believe tapes exist today hard thing accept overwhelming evidence led believe don exist anymore accept reality budget surviving original lunar broadcast data compiled assigned restoration video processed remove random noise camera shake destroying historical legitimacy images tapes australia archive recordings restored video remaining black white contains conservative digital enhancements include sound quality improvements depictions film documentaries numerous documentary films cover apollo program space race including apollo program certain missions apollo apollo earth moon dish
Apollo program