april november italian experimental physicist major contributions particle physics study cosmic rays graduate interested cosmic rays study invented improved electronic coincidence circuit travelled conduct experiments showed cosmic ray intensity west significantly larger east forced october italian racial laws moved denmark worked britain worked finally united_states worked university_of_chicago later stayed united_states american citizen world war worked radar played pivotal role manhattan_project heading group carried experiments war recruited mit continued pre war research cosmic rays 1960s pioneered ray astronomy space physics instrumentation explorer detected initiated rocket experiments discovered extra solar source rays italy born jewish family venice italy eldest sons father electrical engineer participated electrification venice home age fourteen attended venice beginning university studies began advanced work received physics thesis advisor known uncle physicist florence began career assistant founded located hill overlooking city arrived florence appointed fascist government italy brought institute group brilliant included moved rome graduate student awarded doctoral degree search pioneering research turned attention cosmic rays discovered manned balloon flights read paper described discovery charged cosmic ray particles penetrated centimetres gold astonishing penetrating charged particles known time radioactive decay penetrate millimetre gold words came like flash light revealing existence world mysteries begun explore soon overwhelming ambition participate exploration coincidence circuit awarded nobel prize physics coincidence method discoveries implementation method involved visual photographed weeks reading paper invented improved electronic coincidence circuit use vacuum tubes coincidence circuit major advantages offers precise temporal resolution detect number pulse sources features possible identify interesting events produce rare events stand presence high rates unrelated background individual circuit provided basis electronic instrumentation nuclear particle physics implemented electronic circuit fundamental element digital logic modern electronics time improved tubular version original counter invented developed student tubes tubes possible investigations help construction tubes aid practical coincidence circuit confirmed extended results invited visit berlin summer financial support arranged collaborated investigations cosmic ray penetration studied mathematical description charged particles earth magnetic field basis studies realised intensity cosmic rays coming eastward directions different westward ones berlin submitted paper suggesting observations east west effect confirm cosmic rays charged particles determine sign charge rome conference fall mario organized rome international conference nuclear physics sponsored invited introductory talk cosmic rays audience won nobel prize physics respectively 1920s famous oil drop experiment extensive measurements mysterious radiation discovered coined cosmic rays proposed created fusion hydrogen space pleased presentation evidence observed cosmic rays energetic charged particles later wrote clearly resented having beloved theory torn pieces mere youth moment refused recognise existence retrospect admit presentation famous effect positive reaction told later talk motivated begin research cosmic rays curve immediately rome conference carried experiments led significant advance understanding cosmic rays involved triple aligned separated blocks lead second placed triangular configuration traversed single particle travelling straight line results configuration demonstrated existence cosmic ray particles capable penetrating metre lead second configuration enclosed lead box results showed cosmic rays interact lead produce multiple secondary particles extension second experiment measured rate triple function lead plot rate thickness came known curve showed rapid rise lead layer increased followed slow decline experiments showed ground level cosmic rays consist components soft component capable prolific generation multiple particle events hard component capable traversing great lead time physical nature mystery fit growing body knowledge nuclear particle physics late arranged work university_of_cambridge met berlin aid new technique electronic coincidence helped develop counter controlled cloud chamber confirmed discovery positive produced association negative ones pair production positive negative observed events clearly related showers soft component won competition academic position italian university appointed professor experimental physics soon arrived rector asked oversee design construction new task diverted attention research teaching complied willingly institute opened east west effect spite distraction able complete experiment east west effect begun leaving effect prominent near equator organised expedition italian colony red_sea latitude set cosmic ray consisted separated coincidence axis maximum sensitivity pointed direction soon apparent cosmic ray intensity west significantly larger east meant larger influx positive primary particles negative ones time result surprising investigators held notion negative left received news observations similar east west effect published student reported observations mexico_city latitude carried experimental exploitation important idea disappointed published results immediately returning later patented vertical determination device use cosmic ray discovered phenomenon principal theme postwar cosmic ray research extensive cosmic ray air showers discovery occurred tests determine rate accidental assure single particle trigger spread horizontal plane configuration frequency greater calculated basis individual rates resolving time coincidence circuit concluded recording equipment struck extensive showers particles cause placed large distances acquainted daughter professor physiology grandfather renowned physician known italian writers april married set household avoided politics associates active opponents fascist state example member communist party completing degree later joined resistance milan assassinated soldiers german puppet state similarly received phd spent war years alternating cosmic ray research active participation italian resistance movements venice associations jewish italy grew influence nazi germany eventually result anti jewish laws resulting manifesto race dismissed words eventually september learned longer citizen country italy activity teacher scientist come end exile setback began important phase career summarised period memoir decay experimental particle physics age innocence presented october left copenhagen danish physicist invited study couple intention returning italy facilitated search secure position conference attended leading hoped find job soon received invitation come developing major center cosmic ray research pleasant months denmark arrived manchester manchester stay manchester brief productive time clear understanding soft component available published description production electron pairs energetic production energetic manchester collaborated experiment demonstrated theory second process fully confirmed experiment introduced technique anti coincidence feature instruments detecting analyzing energetic particles time cloud chamber observations clarified nature hard component anderson student discovered cosmic ray particles mass intermediate electron anderson called subsequently known shortened copenhagen conference suggested observed variations cosmic ray intensity atmospheric temperature indication unstable held intense discussions subject result left manchester determined confirm decay measure lifetime chicago war europe advised leave britain consequently wrote invited attend summer chicago hinted job available june sailed new_york greeted wife left italy racial laws brief reunion offered ride chicago accepted arrived university_of_chicago mid june decay immediately session instability reached consensus definitive observations needed began plan experiment intensity hard component increases altitude density air decreases suggested investigations carried colorado worked early 1930s access research site metres elevation provided highest paved road north_america urged begin series experiments summer snow blocked road help enlisted friends student assembled equipment loaded dilapidated bus borrowed department time known main process lose energy energy loss described formula proportional mass unit area layer material traversed process intensity hard component passing layer solid material decrease equivalent layer air collaborators found decrease significantly larger atmosphere corresponding layer solid carbon distance traversed air larger carbon interpreted result evidence decay taking account effect time estimated mean life rest roughly summer returned performed experiments near elevation metres use anti coincidence techniques apparatus possible measure mean free path decay groups different average momentum results published confirmed particle momentum mean free path decay expected basis theory presented improved estimate lifetime rest results previous year definitively unstable experimental confirmation time moving predicted theory chicago position research associate permanent unable secure better consequently began job search gave coincidentally death created vacancy physics department suggested invited fill position appointed associate professor fall returning chicago colorado left met american graduate student wrote article published reviews known cosmic ray researchers bible summer denver boulder accompanied mount evans refined knowledge momentum lifetime decay carried experiments showed terms processes documented bible particles soft component produced hard component interpreted evidence primary evident later soft excess arises decay neutral expedition colorado decided question decay answered satisfied precision lifetime determined existing estimates depended mass accurately known perform direct measurement designed apparatus measure time interval arrival stopped electron decayed assist obtained help graduate student heart experiment electronic circuit produced pulse height accurately proportional time interval recorded trace time contributions electronic techniques experimental physics lead brass number plotted time decay curves form ordinary radioactive substances gave mean lifetime later refined war discovered italian colleagues performed experiments similar measured lifetime consistent result looking called age innocence wrote possible results bearing fundamental problems elementary particle physics achieved experiments simplicity costing thousand dollars requiring help graduate students completion work turned attention war effort cambridge massachusetts consultant radar development invented range tracking circuit patented war early july invited join manhattan_project month reported duty weeks later year old daughter florence joined new_mexico laboratory director asked form group develop instruments needed create atomic bomb soon realized existed group similar mission headed swiss physicist decided merge efforts single group assisted approximately young researchers including electronic wizard later earned phd brought stanford_university expert particle fast chamber bomb development called large radiation response proportional energy released follows rapid changes radiation intensity earliest research radiation measured terms existing chambers slow respond changes address problem carried careful analysis result individual charged particles create chamber realised high mobility free removed means produced single particles brief found gas high electron mobility low electron attachment basis investigations allen invented fast chamber patented war crucial factor success manhattan_project widely postwar research particle physics experiments april manhattan project experienced crisis group discovered work gun type weapon like thin man response completely reorganised laboratory focus development type weapon enlisted implement method test weapon designs arrive produced accurately symmetrical spherical tests measured changes absorption gamma rays metal sphere underwent compression gamma rays emitted short lived positioned center sphere term experiment compression progressed rapid increase absorption detected decrease gamma ray intensity recorded outside assembly experiments revealed way successful understand problematic jets plagued early designs test methods necessary experiments played primary role design explosive lenses history project wrote important single experiment affecting final bomb design trinity july type device detonated trinity site near new_mexico code device design similar fat man weapon dropped nagasaki days later preparation trinity designed instrumentation record gamma radiation chain reaction duration expected approximately observations time scale state art designed built large cylindrical chamber speed response adequate separated narrow gap record signal installed fast provided prototype underground bunker feet photographed bring signal devised transmission line inner conductor smaller went chamber configuration enhanced signal reaching need confirm surprising behaviour consulted harvard professor days test went newly developed film dry able initial growth rate nuclear activity crucial information future weapons development attempts measure rate trinity fully successful mit success manhattan_project mit moved new era big science funded government mit expansion nuclear physics spearheaded went late war recruited mit professors left cambridge february new headed delegated create cosmic ray research group mit help recruited young scientists phd candidates came work mature typical graduate students years wartime research experience consequently paid similar researcher funded enabled support families graduate studies new phase activities fundamental change approach words new position activity different past years working help students build instruments place measurements analyze results responsibility entire group work work group task identify promising research programs reach help help needed planning instrumentation evaluation experimental results individual initiative researchers elementary particles discovery search new elementary particles popular research topic operating fast chambers cloud chamber showed bursts recorded primarily produced relatively low energy cosmic rays nuclear interactions typically involve heavily nuclear fragments basis effect demonstrated behaviour interactions similar penetrating showers group focused use cloud chambers study properties interactions aid multi plate cloud chamber lead plates alternated aluminium ones gregory showed source electromagnetic component cosmic ray interactions predominantly energetic result confirmed suggestion neutral produced interactions charged ones component arises rapid decay study new elementary particles bridge operated large rectangular multi plate cloud chamber investigation provided basis phd thesis supervised year authors student showed derive information particle energies measurements multiple scattering added way use cloud chambers measure properties elementary particles early bridge published results comprehensive cloud chamber study elementary particles known visitor obtained accurate value mass student conference zoo elementary particles reported masses decay schemes nomenclature reliability identification deal situation organized international cosmic ray conference according conference placed importance category famous conferences congress shelter island conference asked summary new information presented conference propose nomenclature new particles conference response assignment circulated suggestion particles mass smaller designated small greek letters larger mass designated capital greek letters talk july reported conference results compiled aid consistent scheme commonly highlight declaration closing talk future use particle operation declaration reflected consensus participants result group began wind cloud chamber experiments bridge reported unusual event stopping singly charged particle decayed energies totaled rest energy signature year group led detected awarded nobel prize physics extensive air showers time conference turned attention implications cosmic ray phenomena particularly extensive air showers recognition events exist extensively studied williams time extremely fast response newly developed offered new way study structure air showers enlisted student completed phd visitor solid material unavailable decided use dissolved efficient liquid aid deployed roof building winter found shower particles arrived meters disk travels nearly speed light direction shower axis result showed determine arrival times shower spread large area estimate number particles striking capabilities combine fast timing method determining shower arrival directions density sampling method determining size location axes experiment progress group began major experiment measure primary energies arrival directions extensive air showers participating effort came mit earning phd support professor director group deployed liquid area square metre wooded grounds observatory station signals brought cables displayed recorded shortly experiment began record shower data lightning ignited liquid local quickly extinguished resulting fire spread nearby trees soaked rain water trees played essential role suppressing atmospheric convection observations harvard mit carried tense negotiations elaborate system fire protection installed experiment allowed resume eliminate threat fire clark created factory plastic thickness centimetres diameter approximately metre switch plastic late spring experiment ran continuously findings reported nature physical review important results summarized precise measurement density shower particles function distance shower center measurement energy spectrum primary particles responsible showers electron volts electron volts proof particles arrive practically equal numbers directions observation particle energy close electron volts experiment came end group realized observations near equator southern hemisphere needed extend conclusion air shower arrival directions nearly consequently clark collaboration ran smaller experiment india latitude confirmed absence later suggestion equipment moved meters plateau clark found showed structure air showers maximum development different sea level experiment maximum energy particle recorded experiment electron volts close energies charged particles confined disc typical magnetic fields array large dimensions needed detect showers energies agreed responsibility building array came mit completed phd soon joined recruited group large tract open land available near boston array constructed semi desert property known ranch miles west new_mexico altitude metres deployed plastic similar counter incorporated viewed initially area array compared returned milan spread area results experiment showed cosmic ray intensity decreases smoothly energy electron volts range arrive particular significance detection single particle energy electron volts larger maximum contained disc magnetic fields particles energies originate halo galaxy existence consistent limit october soviet_union launched artificial earth satellite event created wave near surprised american public response government increased funding created nasa renamed june days legislation creating nasa introduced chairman met heads agencies create new advisory body provide advice expansion space research sure funding fundamental science properly emphasized board convened meeting june members engaged space research formed included biologist agreed investigations space desirable consequently decided turn group efforts study designed tested probe based classical cup enhance instrument response positively charged suppress response produced sunlight deployed cup key innovation voltage applied converted signal alternating current proportional contribution intense lobbying nasa deputy director space flight programs secured flight opportunity explorer home grown satellite goal hit moon launch march satellite went highly elongated orbit earth distance moon short goal hours data recorded mit probe battery power ran group found transition distinct regions earth near earth fairly strong organised magnetic fields indication earth spacecraft entered region magnetic fields weaker irregular substantial observed coming general direction sun occasions rest flight disappeared reappeared indicated spacecraft flying close boundary regions boundary moving irregularly eventually boundary known bridge mit space group included wife cups collected data solar system near earth imp space wind voyager voyager astronomy consultant initiated rocket experiments discovered extra solar source rays mit retirement retired mit taught retirement wrote number autobiography moments life scientist published died cardiac arrest home cambridge november survived wife daughters florence son frank cremated ashes graveyard church florence hill honors awards awards wolf prize physics role development ray astronomy national medal science prize award discoveries concerning nature origins cosmic gold medal italian physical society doctors universities durham chicago legacy ray timing explorer nasa satellite ray observatory launched division endowed chair named honor mit currently held books high energy particles new_york cosmic rays new_york introduction new_york moments cambridge isbn reading high energy cosmic rays sci
Bruno Rossi