called plant science plant biology science plant life branch biology botanist plant scientist scientist field term comes ancient greek word meaning pasture grass fodder turn derived feed traditionally included study fungi algae respectively study groups organisms remaining sphere interest international botanical congress study approximately species living organisms species plants flowering plants originated efforts early humans identify later edible medicinal poisonous plants making oldest branches science medieval gardens attached monasteries contained plants medical importance botanical gardens attached universities founded onwards earliest botanical garden gardens facilitated academic study plants efforts catalogue describe collections beginnings plant taxonomy led system remains use day 19th 20th centuries new techniques developed study plants including methods optical live cell imaging electron analysis number plant chemistry structure function proteins decades 20th century exploited techniques molecular genetic analysis including dna sequences classify plants accurately modern broad subject areas science technology research topics include study plant structure growth reproduction primary chemical products development diseases evolutionary relationships plant taxonomy dominant themes 21st century plant science molecular mechanisms control gene expression plant cells tissues botanical research diverse applications providing staple foods materials timber oil rubber drugs modern agriculture forestry plant propagation breeding genetic modification synthesis chemicals raw materials construction energy production environmental management maintenance biodiversity history early originated study use plants medicinal properties records period date early botanical knowledge far years ago early knowledge plants discovered ancient sites human occupation tennessee land today early recorded history includes ancient writings plant classifications examples early botanical works found ancient texts india dating archaic writings works china unified modern traces roots specifically student aristotle invented described principles widely regarded scientific community father major works plants causes plants constitute important contributions botanical science middle ages seventeen centuries later work early impact volume encyclopedia medicine written middle century greek physician widely read years important contributions medieval muslim world include book plants classification soils early 13th century wrote systematic scientific manner century botanical gardens founded number italian universities botanical garden usually considered original location gardens continued practical value earlier gardens associated monasteries plants cultivated medical use supported growth academic subject lectures given plants grown gardens medical uses demonstrated botanical gardens came later northern europe england period remained firmly subordinate medicine german physician german fathers theologian physician called broke away tradition copying earlier works original observations created system plant classification authored important lasting importance naturalist published covering medicinal uses plants naturalist considered father natural history included study plants early microscope discovered cells term coined short time later living plant tissue early modern 18th century systems plant identification developed comparable keys unidentified plants placed taxonomic groups family genus species making series choices pairs characters choice sequence characters artificial keys designed purely identification keys closely related natural order taxa keys 18th century new plants study arriving europe increasing numbers newly discovered countries european colonies worldwide published classification plant species remains reference point modern botanical nomenclature established naming scheme represented genus second identified species genus purposes identification classified plants groups according number male sexual organs 24th group included plants concealed reproductive parts algae fungi increasing knowledge plant anatomy morphology life cycles led natural plants artificial sexual system indicated proposed alternative natural systems classification grouped plants wider range shared characters widely followed system reflected ideas progression morphological complexity later classification influential mid-19th century influenced approach darwin publication concept common descent required modifications system reflect evolutionary relationships distinct mere morphological similarity greatly stimulated appearance modern textbook der published english principles scientific early plant founded cell theory grasp significance cell nucleus described formulated laws enabled calculation rates molecular biological systems modern building gene theory originated august proved inheritance takes place cells pass inherited characters work plant anatomy major foundation modern books anatomy seed plants key plant structural biology texts half century discipline plant ecology pioneered late 19th century produced hypothesis plants form communities mentor successor system describing plant life forms use today concept composition plant communities temperate forest changes process ecological succession developed credited idea climax vegetation complex vegetation environment support introduced concept ecosystems biology building extensive earlier work produced accounts centres origin evolutionary history economic plants particularly mid-1960s advances understanding physics plant processes transport water plant tissues temperature dependence rates water leaf surface molecular water carbon dioxide developments coupled new methods measuring size rate enabled precise description rates gas exchange plants atmosphere innovations statistical analysis facilitated rational experimental design data analysis botanical research discovery identification plant enabled regulation plant growth externally applied chemicals pioneered techniques plant tissue culture controlled plant synthetic acid commercial synthetic 20th century developments plant driven modern techniques organic chemical analysis rise related molecular scale biological approaches molecular biology relationship plant aspects physiology morphology behaviour plants subjected detailed experimental analysis concept originally stated plant cells grown ultimately enabled use genetic engineering knock gene genes responsible specific trait add genes report gene interest expressed technologies enable use plants plant cell cultures grown practical application genetically modified crops designed traits improved yield modern morphology recognizes major morphological categories root stem leaf furthermore emphasizes structural dynamics modern aims reflect discover phylogenetic relationships plants largely ignores morphological characters relying dna sequences data molecular analysis dna sequences families flowering plants enabled publish phylogeny flowering plants answering questions relationships families species theoretical possibility practical method identification plant species commercial varieties dna subject active current research scope importance study plants vital animal life earth generating large proportion oxygen food provide humans organisms chemical energy need exist plants algae major groups organisms carry process uses energy sunlight convert water carbon dioxide source chemical energy organic molecules structural components cells product plants release oxygen atmosphere gas required nearly living things carry cellular addition influential global carbon water cycles plant roots soils preventing soil erosion plants crucial future human society provide food oxygen medicine products people creating preserving soil historically living things classified animals plants covered study organisms considered animals examine internal functions processes plant cells tissues plants plant populations plant communities levels botanist concerned classification taxonomy phylogeny evolution structure anatomy morphology function physiology plant life definition plant includes land plants include seed plants including flowering plants free including descended ancestor obtained energy sunlight life cycles alternating phases sexual phase known developing embryo tissues life seed plants parent groups organisms previously studied include bacteria studied fungi including forming fungi non algae attention given groups fungi including usually covered introductory courses study ancient plants fossil record provide information evolutionary history plants oxygen releasing organisms earth thought given rise ancestor plants entering relationship early ultimately plant cells new plants relatives accelerated rise atmospheric oxygen started changing ancient oxygen free reducing atmosphere free oxygen abundant billion years important botanical questions 21st century role plants primary producers global cycling life basic ingredients energy carbon oxygen nitrogen water ways plant help address global environmental issues resource management conservation human food security invasive organisms carbon climate change human nutrition virtually staple foods come directly primary production plants indirectly animals eat plants organisms base food chains use energy sun nutrients soil atmosphere converting form animals level modern forms major staple foods rice wheat grasses cotton grown outcome prehistoric selection thousands years wild ancestral plants desirable characteristics study plants produce food increase yields example plant breeding making work important mankind ability feed world provide food security future generations study considerable problem agriculture biology control plant agriculture natural ecosystems study relationships plants people applied investigation historical plant people relationships referred earliest plant people relationships arose indigenous people canada identifying edible plants plants relationship indigenous people plants recorded plant plant study chemical processes plants processes primary like cycle acid specialized materials like build bodies secondary products like compounds plants groups collectively known algae unique known thought descended formed relationships ancient plant ancestors contain blue green pigment plant green specific cousin light blue violet orange red parts spectrum reflecting green light characteristic colour organisms energy red blue light absorb energy rich carbon compounds carbon dioxide water process generates molecular oxygen product light energy captured initially form later gradient molecules temporarily store transport energy energy light independent reactions cycle produce molecules carbon sugar product raw material organic molecules biological origin synthesized converted stored characteristic energy store land plants algae purpose family converted common table sugar export rest plant unlike animals lack plants relatives delegated roles including things providing material build cell membranes making found plant cuticle protects land plants drying plants number unique like molecules land plant cell wall constructed land plants strengthen secondary cell walls vessels collapsing plant water water stress cell types like fibers provide structural support plant major constituent wood resistant found outer cell walls spores land plants responsible survival early land plant spores seed plants fossil record widely regarded marker start land plant evolution period concentration carbon dioxide atmosphere today lower plants emerged land periods like like independently evolved pathways like acid carbon avoid losses resulting common carbon strategies unique land plants medicine materials branch plant primarily concerned chemical substances produced plants secondary compounds essential oil lemon oil useful medicine medicinal recreational drugs active ingredient come directly plants simple derivatives botanical natural products example pain killer acid originally isolated bark willow trees wide range like heroin obtained chemical modification obtained poppy popular come plants coffee tea chocolate tobacco alcoholic come rich plant products beer rice sake wine native americans plants ways treating illness disease thousands years knowledge native americans plants recorded turn companies way drug discovery plants useful coloured responsible red colour red wine yellow blue produce lincoln green source blue traditionally artist rose sugar cotton types rope wood particle boards paper vegetable wax natural rubber examples commercially important materials plant tissues secondary products pure form carbon wood long history metal fuel filter material artist material ingredients gunpowder world abundant organic converted energy materials chemical products include paste gun cotton plants highly sugar oil content sources important alternatives fossil ward bugs like bug properties later found molecules plant ecology plant ecology science functional relationships plants habitats environments complete life cycles plant study composition local regional biodiversity genetic diversity fitness adaptation plants environment competitive interactions species rely data indigenous people gathered information relay great deal information land thousands years ago changed time goals plant ecology understand causes distribution patterns productivity environmental impact evolution responses environmental change plants depend certain soil climatic factors environment modify factors example change environment increase runoff interception stabilize mineral soils develop organic content affect local temperature plants compete organisms ecosystem resources interact neighbours variety spatial scales groups populations communities collectively constitute vegetation regions characteristic vegetation types dominant plants similar factors climate geography like tropical eat plants plants defend species parasitic organisms form mutually beneficial relationships plants example mycorrhizal fungi provide plants nutrients exchange food ants recruited plants provide protection honey bees bats animals flowers humans animals act dispersal spread spores seeds plants climate environmental change plant responses climate environmental changes inform understanding changes affect ecosystem function productivity example plant useful temperature historical biological impact climate change global warming analysis fossil deposits sediments thousands millions years ago allows reconstruction past climates estimates atmospheric concentrations obtained leaf shapes sizes ancient land plants expose plants higher levels radiation resulting lower growth rates information studies community ecology plant taxonomy essential understanding vegetation change habitat destruction species extinction inheritance plants follows fundamental principles organisms discovered genetic laws inheritance studying inherited traits shape learned studying plants far reaching benefits outside similarly jumping genes discovered studying distinctive genetic differences plants organisms species boundaries plants weaker animals cross species hybrids possible familiar example sterile hybrid cultivated varieties wheat result multiple specific crosses wild species hybrids flowers self mechanisms operate stigma fails reach stigma fails produce male methods plants promote land plants male female produced separate individuals species said referring plant referring unlike higher animals rare reproduction occur plants different mechanisms formation stem potato example particularly arctic alpine habitats opportunities flowers animals rare develop instead flowers replacing sexual reproduction reproduction giving rise populations genetically identical parent types occur plants happen seed producing seed contains embryo genetically identical parent sexually organisms paired doubling number occur errors occur early development produce partly organism normal processes cellular produce cell types formation plant result event different species plants reproduce normally unable cross breed successfully parent population numbers plants isolated parent species live geographical area sufficiently successful form new species sterile plant reproduce seed forming populations identical individuals wheat fertile bread wheat fertile commercial banana example sterile hybrid common produces viable seeds seed inheritance like plants non inherited male parent female parent flowering plants molecular considerable new knowledge plant function comes studies molecular model plants species family hereditary information contained genes species million base pairs dna forming smallest flowering plants plant relatively small rice important model species understanding cellular molecular biology grasses generally model plants studying molecular biology plant cells organisms small known completely small stature short generation times corn study mechanisms loading sugar plants single green contains green related land plants making useful study red study basic functions moss commonly study plant cell biology soil attach plant cells inducing horizontal gene transfer causing infection called crown disease natural introducing gene responsible nitrogen root plant species today genetic modification main techniques introduction plants creation genetically modified crops study changes gene function explained changes underlying dna sequence cause organism genes behave express differently example change marking genes dna determines expressed gene expression controlled proteins attach regions dna prevent region dna code expressed marks added removed dna programmed stages development plant responsible example differences normal leaves despite fact underlying genetic code changes temporary remain successive cell divisions remainder cell life changes shown reset cells changes biology serve regulate process cellular stem cells cell lines embryo turn fully differentiated cells single egg cell gives rise different plant cell types including vessel elements tubes guard cells etc continues divide process results activation genes unlike animals plant cells particularly differentiate remaining ability rise new individual plant exceptions include highly cells dead maturity tubes lack plants use mechanisms animals alternative hypothesis plants set gene expression patterns information environment surrounding cells determine developmental fate plants number structural genetic similarities commonly incorrectly known blue green algae thought derived ancient relationship ancestral cell resident algae group placed divisions closely related plants differences features cell wall composition structure nutrient reserves division sister green division considered contain ancestor true plants class land plant sub kingdom form group clade land plants lack tissues include plants true reproduced spores free living evolved period late early representatives survived present day end period groups including independently evolved spores distinct sizes larger smaller reduced developed retained spore producing organs condition known seeds consist surrounded layers young develops seed splits release earliest known seed plants date latest stage following evolution seed habit seed plants giving rise number extinct groups including seed modern produce naked seeds fully enclosed modern representatives include conifers produce seeds enclosed structure ongoing research molecular living plants appears sister clade plant physiology plant physiology encompasses internal chemical physical activities plants associated life chemicals obtained air soil water form basis plant energy sunlight captured released cellular basis life including green plants algae gather energy directly sunlight including animals fungi completely parasitic plants non bacteria organic molecules produced use construction cells tissues carbon compounds breaking simpler structures release energy contain essentially opposite molecules moved plants transport processes operate variety spatial scales transport molecules water occurs cell membranes minerals water transported roots parts plant stream active transport mass flow different ways transport occur examples elements plants need transport nitrogen potassium calcium plants elements extracted soil roots transported plant elements required plant nutrition come chemical breakdown soil minerals produced transported leaves parts plant plant transported variety processes plant plants passive respond external signals light touch injury moving growing away appropriate evidence touch sensitivity collapse insect traps venus hypothesis plant growth development coordinated plant plant growth emerged late 19th century darwin experimented movements plant shoots roots light gravity concluded hardly tip acts like brain lower animals directing movements time role greek grow control plant growth outlined dutch scientist went known acid promotes cell growth isolated plants years later compound responses shoots roots light gravity finding plant maintained culture containing followed observation induced form roots shoots controlling concentration growth key steps development plant genetic modification class plant named control cell division natural discovered corn derivative produced roots transported shoots promotes cell division development acid involved promotion breaking seeds regulation plant height controlling stem control flowering acid occurs land plants cell division promotes seed maturation promotes closure named originally thought control produced higher plant tissues known fruit synthetic growth rapidly produce industrial scale promote cotton crops class isolated oil wound responses plants expression genes required acquired resistance response attack addition primary energy source plants light functions signalling device providing information plant sunlight plant receives day result changes process known plant sensitive light plant anatomy morphology plant anatomy study structure plant cells tissues plant morphology study external form plants dna stored characteristic features plant cells distinguish animals fungi include primary cell wall composed larger animal cells presence unique functions contain storage products uniquely cells green order divide construction template building cell plate late cell division bodies plants including seed plants generally aerial subterranean shoots consist stems bearing green leaves reproductive structures underground roots bear root hairs tips generally lack non plants produce ground penetrating roots plant generation able contribute energy needs root system shoot system usually root system depends shoot system food usually shoot system depends water minerals root system cells system capable creating cells producing shoots roots examples shoots grow roots roots spread close surface produce shoots ultimately new plants event systems lost fact possible grow entire plant single leaf case single cell mass cells grow new plant plants tissues transport resources shoots roots roots adapted store food sugar stems mainly provide support leaves reproductive structures store water plants food potato reproduce plants process leaves gather sunlight carry large flat flexible green leaves called foliage leaves conifers seed producing plants open seeds seed producing plants produce flowers enclosed seeds woody plants oaks undergo secondary growth phase resulting additional types tissues wood secondary bark secondary woody plants plants reproduce sexually means reference major morphological categories root stem leaf useful mind categories linked intermediate forms categories results furthermore structures seen processes process combinations systematic systematic systematic biology concerned range diversity organisms relationships particularly determined evolutionary history involves related biological classification scientific taxonomy biological classification method group organisms categories genera species biological classification form scientific taxonomy modern taxonomy rooted work grouped species according shared physical characteristics revised align better principle common descent grouping organisms ancestry superficial characteristics scientists agree classify organisms molecular uses dna sequences data driven recent revisions evolutionary lines likely continue dominant classification system called taxonomy includes ranks nomenclature nomenclature botanical organisms codified international code nomenclature algae fungi plants administered belongs broken species separately classified order kingdom division class order family genus genera species scientific plant represents genus species genus resulting single world wide organism example tiger lily genus specific epithet combination species writing scientific organism proper letter genus specific epithet additionally entire term available evolutionary relationships group organisms called phylogeny phylogenetic studies attempt discover basic approach use similarities based shared inheritance determine relationships example species trees bushes prominent leaves obviously resemble typical spines produced highly specialised pad like structures suggesting genera related judging relationships based shared characters requires care plants resemble evolution characters arisen independently rounded bodies adapted water conservation similar characters structure flowers clear groups closely related method takes systematic approach characters distinguishing carry information shared evolutionary history evolved separately different groups left ancestors derived characters passed innovations shared ancestor derived characters spine producing provide evidence descent common ancestor results analyses expressed tree like showing pattern evolutionary branching descent 1990s onwards predominant approach constructing living plants molecular uses molecular characters particularly dna sequences morphological characters like presence absence spines difference genetic code decide evolutionary relationships instead indirectly characters gives rise describes having direct access genetic basis evolution simple example prior use genetic evidence fungi thought plants closely related plants animals genetic evidence suggests true evolutionary relationship organisms shown fungi closely related animals plants published phylogeny flowering plants based analysis dna sequences families flowering plants result work questions families represent earliest branches answered investigating plant species related allows better understand process evolution plants despite study model plants increasing use dna evidence ongoing work discussion best classify plants taxa technological developments computers electron greatly increased level detail studied speed data analysed
Botany