civil war civil war portuguese civil major civil conflict beginning continuing war began immediately independent portugal november prior conflict war independence taken place following civil war essentially power struggle liberation movements time war served cold war large scale direct indirect international involvement opposing powers soviet_union cuba south_africa united_states major feature conflict different roots social fabric mutually incompatible despite shared aim ending colonial rule socialist purpose international support posed anti communist respectively movement having fought alongside war independence conflict played role civil war additionally association militant groups fought independence province year war divided roughly periods major fighting broken fragile periods peace time finally achieved victory people died million internally displaced war devastated infrastructure severely damaged nation public administration economic enterprises religious institutions notable combination violent internal dynamics massive foreign intervention war cold war struggle soviet_union united_states respective allies provided significant military assistance parties conflict conflict second war neighbouring war independence outline main combatants rebel movements roots anti colonial movements 1950s primarily urban based movement surrounding area largely composed people contrast major anti colonial movements based groups largely consisted people mainly composed people central highlands formation 1950s main social base people cities anti colonial struggle supported african countries soviet_union conflict cuba strongest ally sending significant contingents combat support personnel support countries romania maintained civil war formed parallel initially devoted defending interests people supporting restoration historical rapidly developed nationalist movement supported struggle portugal government early 1960s supported founded mid-1960s china switched support new movement shown little real activity united_states refused support movement war portugal nato ally receive aid conflict later civil wars main social basis central constituted country population organization roots numerous peoples eastern founded prominent leader anti colonial war received support subsequent conflict united_states decided support considerably augmented aid civil war period main ally roots conflict like african countries constituted nation colonial intervention case colonial power portugal present active territory way centuries ethnic divisions original population territory dispersed groups absorbed pushed southwards groups exist massive influx people came north east influx began continued inside territory 20th century established number major political units important empire centre located northwest today stretched northwards west present south west contemporary southernmost historical importance kingdoms south empire area additionally south east present day occupied portion today north eastern south territory north present day lay kingdom minor realms central highlands political units reflection ethnic slowly developed populations instrumental consolidating emergence new distinct social identities portuguese end 15th century portuguese settlers contact empire maintaining continuous presence territory enjoying considerable cultural religious influence portugal established settlement fort called saint paul coast south empire area inhabited people fort established coast south region inhabited ancestors people portuguese settlement efforts launched purpose territorial conquest true gradually came occupy farm broad area initial case lower main function trade overwhelmingly slave trade slaves bought african sold brazil caribbean addition developed commerce ivory wax honey bought goods peoples eastern nonetheless portuguese presence coast remained limited colonial period degree real colonial settlement minor exceptions portuguese interfere means commercial social political dynamics native peoples real territory purposes exist 19th century portuguese began program advancing continental interior intention territorial occupation establishing facto allowed establish commercial networks settlements context moved south coast founded course expansion entered conflict african political units territorial occupation central concern portugal decades 19th century european powers scramble africa especially following berlin conference number military expeditions organized obtaining territory roughly corresponded present day late territory effectively occupied military campaigns continue limits territory finally fixed primary resistance early 1940s reasonable talk defined territorial entity point onwards build independence rising tensions based neighbouring countries began guerrilla campaign portuguese rule fronts portuguese colonial war included war independence lasted portuguese regime overthrow leftist military coup lisbon timeline independence known roughly ethnic portuguese fled territory weeks deadline portugal left newly independent country population mainly composed peoples portuguese lived accounted majority skilled workers public administration agriculture industry fled country national economy began sink depression south african government initially involved effort counter chinese presence feared conflict local theatre cold war south african prime minister authorized began effort protect engineers constructing dam soldiers took dam paid south_africa felt risk armoured task force secure operation savannah escalated formal government place clear lines authority south came commit thousands soldiers intervention ultimately clashed cuban forces assisting 1970s independence revolution lisbon end war independence parties conflict signed january july violently forced voluntarily withdrew stronghold south august control provincial capitals including south_africa intervened october sending troops southern order support bid install government drive power deployed armored cars infantry battalions support weeks south african forces captured provincial capitals including response south african intervention cuba sent soldiers large scale military intervention nicknamed support cuba initially provided military advisers prior south african intervention cuban intervention proved decisive south african advance likewise routed battle forced retreat defeat allowed consolidate power capital leader declared independence november declared independence based declared based armed backed french government declared independence paris forged alliance november proclaiming coalition government based presidents prime ministers early november south african government warned soon end operations despite failure coalition capture secure international recognition government desperate avoid withdrawal south_africa asked general arrange meeting prime minister south_africa ally october night november day formal declaration independence secretly flew meet reversal policy agreed troops november promised withdraw meeting december soviets aware south african activity southern flew cuban soldiers week independence cuban officers led mission provided bulk troop force soviet officers joined november soviet leadership forbade intervening civil war focusing mission containing south_africa foreign forces exception cuba withdrew elements portuguese military withdrew south african military withdrew february cuba troop force increased december february sweden provided humanitarian assistance mid-1970s regularly raised issue political discussions movements president united_states approved covert aid operation feature july despite strong opposition officials cia ford told director establish operation providing initial million granted additional million july million august days program approval assistant secretary state told secretary state believed maintaining secrecy impossible davis correctly predicted soviet_union respond increasing involvement conflict leading violence negative publicity united_states ford approved program davis resigned cia station chief echoed davis criticism saying success required expansion program size exceeded hidden public eye davis deputy ambassador opposed direct involvement presented options policy believed ford administration use diplomacy campaign foreign aid communist refuse sides fighting increase support warned supporting sit president democratic senator iowa discovered operation fact finding mission africa reporter new_york_times revealed public december clark proposed amendment barring aid private groups engaged military paramilitary operations senate passed bill voting december house_of_representatives passed bill voting january ford signed bill law february clark amendment law director refused aid ceased according foreign affairs analyst israel stepped arms supplier south_africa clark amendment took effect israel south_africa established longstanding military alliance israel provided weapons training conducting joint military exercises government vetoed entry united_nations june forbade launching attacks territory december rule member united_nations cuba vietnam vietnam war tempered foreign involvement civil war soviet_union united_states wanted drawn internal conflict highly importance terms winning cold war cbs spread message broadcasts try play small preventing mistake time engaged heated debate extent soviet_union support continued offensive february foreign minister premier led faction favoring support greater emphasis preserving west head soviet_union won faction soviet alliance continued publicly reaffirmed policy non alignment 15th anniversary revolt government cuban troops control southern cities roads south faced repeated attacks expressed willingness formation unity socialist government insisted cuban withdrawal real enemy cuban told reporters warning taken country sooner later suffer vietnam cuban troops flame throwers planes destroy villages mile wide area border women children passed area troops shot males years age older prevent joining killed cattle feed government troops number civilians fled homes going south east lived refugee camps invasions members invaded eastern march wanted overthrow government suffering support try stop invasion failed capture economic took army defeated difficulty continued advance april appealed chairman assistance days later french government responded plea troops force worked conjunction egyptian pilots flying french fighter aircraft beat counter invasion force pushed numerous refugees april accused cuban soviet governments war support government support came response continued support carter administration cuban involvement responded offering million worth non military aid american war prompted shift foreign policy greater engagement france largest supplier arms intervention signed border agreement july cia station chief resigned invasion explaining april washington_post article leaving cia warned secretary state continued american support anti government rebels provoke war said covert soviet involvement came response involvement invaded capturing days carter administration accepted cuba insistence non involvement stand government accused time appealed foreign assistance government worked french belgian beat invasion military cooperation france united_states vietnam war took seven day battle european citizens belgium europeans instance killed european civilians hidden room retreated return army forcibly evicted civilians border wanting prevent chance invasion ordered troops shoot sight negotiations governments led peace accord end support respective countries temporarily cut support forbade activity interior minister successfully war independence major challenge power late gave task dissent shut expanding influence control nation newspapers state run television visited soviet_union october returned began taking steps threat saw followers called meeting formally designated party abolished official branch established commission officially created examine report target ordered commission issue report findings march chief staff political ally began planning coup état represented 25th soviet february obtained support coup soviet_union planned arrest arrived meeting commission released report changed location meeting shortly scheduled start throwing plans disarray attended meeting faced commission commission released report accusing fought denouncing soviet_union hours debate party voted dismiss positions armored cars broke prison killing prison warden freeing supporters including arrested days brigade took control radio station announced coup calling brigade asked citizens support coup demonstrating presidential palace captured generals loyal moved base operations palace fear uprising cuban troops retook palace request marched radio station hour fighting succeeded proceeded barracks 8th brigade recaptured cuban force captured palace radio station kidnapped seven leaders government military shooting killing government arrested tens thousands suspected november tried secret courts overseen defense minister found guilty including immortal monster head 8th brigade political shot buried secret graves followers alleged followers estimated killed cuban troops aftermath period lasted years estimates claiming high dead coup attempt lasting effect foreign relations opposed foreign policy non alignment evolutionary socialism favoring stronger relations soviet_union wanted grant military bases cuban soldiers actively helped coup believed soviet_union supported minister sent additional thousand troops prevent ranks met august display solidarity contrast distrust soviet leadership increased relations ussr worsened december held party congress changed party coup took toll membership reached members party congress number decreased rise dos soviets trying increase influence began sending plane speech february party congress planes pamphlets denouncing sent ran summer requested propaganda department despite best efforts soviet propaganda machine persistent lobbying soviet stood ground refusing grant permanent military bases soviets desperately wanted allies like defense minister general secretary soviet leadership policies personalities picture soviet_union promoted prime minister leadership moved swiftly crush adversary met december committee concluded meeting firing prime minister secretary director director commander resigned second deputy prime minister member later month committee abolished positions prime minister deputy prime minister paving way dos increased ethnic composition political bureau replaced old guard new blood july issued decree requiring citizens serve military years reaching age gave report claiming million property damage south african attacks asking compensation august rebel group attacked cuban base near august president died cancer moscow september declared days mourning government held funeral palace people september foreign dignitaries including president attended unanimously voted favor dos president sworn september dos leadership troops crossed border time october going day governments signed non aggression pact 1980s 1980s fighting spread outward southeastern fighting taken place 1970s increased activity south african government responded sending troops intervening war prompting soviet_union deliver massive amounts military aid ussr gave billion aid newly elected united_states president ronald_reagan assistant secretary state african affairs developed policy tying independence cuban withdrawal peace south african military attacked insurgents accused south african government wounding killing civilians days later attacked time threatened respond militarily launched scale invasion june destroying operational command headquarters june prime minister described shock attack government arrested planning set explosives june plot orchestrated south african government days later convened behest ambassador condemned south_africa incursions president sided government recorded instances claim south african forces violated territorial sovereignty january june cuba increased troop force south african forces tried capture capital province operation december order enhance combat capacity romania sent flight instructors aviation personnel contributed establishment june american conservative activists held symbolic meeting anti communist headquarters primarily funded founder organized anti communist activists participants included leader rebel leader lieutenant colonel south african security forces leader american conservative policy advocate reagan administration unwilling publicly support meeting privately expressed approval governments israel south_africa supported idea respective countries deemed hosting conference participants released stating free peoples fighting national independence human rights assembled declare solidarity freedom movements world state commitment cooperate liberate nations soviet united_states house_of_representatives voted repeal clark amendment july government began attacking later month railway military operation named taking september government tried unsuccessfully supply depot attack failed different interpretations attack emerged claimed portuguese speaking soviet officers led troops government said relied south african defeat attack south african government admitted fighting area said troops fought war began assume central role cold war soviet_union cuba nations enhancing support government american conservatives beginning elevate support developed close relations influential american conservatives saw key ally effort oppose soviet backed non democratic governments world conflict quickly escalated washington moscow seeing critical strategic conflict cold war soviet_union gave additional billion aid government cuba sent additional troops strong force protect oil platforms called presence protected cuban troops target interview magazine january washington forged close relationships influential conservatives including foreign policy analyst key advocate president americans tax reform economic advisor played critical roles escalated covert aid visited headquarters provide rebel leader military political guidance war government enhanced support war quickly escalated terms intensity conflict perception key conflict overall cold war addition escalating military support reagan administration conservative allies worked expand recognition key ally important cold war struggle january reagan invited meet white house following meeting reagan spoke winning victory world white house january months later reagan announced delivery surface air missiles million aid received government representative vice president august sixth party congress proposal withdrawal foreign troops cuban withdrawal september forces attacked province february alleged civilians later month february south african government agreed terms principle march proposed truce railway march saying trains pass long international inspection group monitored trains prevent use counter activity government respond april sent cuba southern increasing number cuban troops american governments began negotiating june new york south african forces attacked base province january march second largest battle history africa largest sub africa world war importance came size wealth location south african defense forces maintained city new artillery pieces sides claimed victory ensuing manoeuvre claimed increased cost south_africa continuing fight placed cuba aggressive combat position war arguing preparing leave opponents defensive according political economical technical cost south_africa maintaining presence proved conversely south believe indicated resolve preparing nuclear test ultimately forced settlement cuban troops alleged nerve gas troops civil war belgian criminal studied alleged evidence including samples war gas identification kits found battle claimed doubt anymore nerve gases troops cuban government joined negotiations january parties held round negotiations march south african government joined negotiations parties met june august new_york geneva parties agreed august representatives governments cuba south_africa signed granting independence ending direct involvement foreign troops civil war new_york_city december passed resolution later day creating force troops began arriving january civil war began diplomatic component addition military key allies visited sought persuade come united_states spring help conservatives making case continued aid president invited african leaders dos palace june negotiations dos met time agreed declaration june paving way future peace agreement president said days declaration agreed leave exile claim government disputed agreed interpretation negotiations saying agreed temporarily leave country august dos complained south african governments continued fund warning activity endangered fragile day announced longer citing insistence leave country government responded statement moving troops control occupied broke dos government blaming resumption armed conflict 1990s political changes abroad military victories home allowed government transition nominally communist state nominally democratic declaration independence internationally recognized april eliminated threat south_africa withdrew abolished party system june rejected congress december formally changing party passed law coinciding withdrawal cuban troops defining democratic state based rule law multi party system observers met changes skepticism american journalist wrote new ideology replaced line security selling expertise weaponry profitable business wealth oil diamonds like big swollen overhead allies switching sides lured hard currency reportedly seen threats leadership questioning strategic course killed purge family denied involvement killing blamed black stone kelly government troops wounded battles january february restrict mobility went washington december met president fourth trips united_states paid black stone kelly lobbying firm based washington million lobby federal government aid portray favorably western media acquire support politicians washington highly successful senators senior member firm worked representative florida free eagle conservative caucus repeal clark amendment amendment repeal government gave million year total million sizable aid went personal expenses black filed foreign lobbying records showing expenses visits december visit spent park hotel tips spent october week long visit washington manhattan spent hotel bills park rides washington manhattan partner firm charged consulting additional expenses bought worth survival kits questioned interview human rights abuses black said war trying manage war enemy couple hours away given time run territory according new_hampshire town meeting rules president dos met lisbon portugal signed major peace agreements portuguese government laid transition multi party democracy supervision mission presidential election held year agreement attempted active fighters integrate remaining government troops rebels strong consist national army troops navy air force largely complied accord leaving government held round presidential election september officially received vote won candidate received vote election law dictated second round voting contenders opposition parties election observers said election free fair official observer wrote little supervision voters clandestine polling stations sent vice president negotiate terms second round election process broke october government troops attacked civilians guns received police days earlier conducted house house raids rapid intervention police killing hundreds supporters government took civilians trucks cemetery shot buried mass graves attacked convoy november pulling car shooting faces thousand voters nationwide days known halloween massacre said election free fair refused participate second round proceeded resume armed struggle series stunning victories regained control provincial capitals held moved south african governments stopped aiding supplies continued come tried control january head warned hindered halted production end support january began day battle war cities hundreds thousands fled killed gained control march government engaged ethnic lesser extent multiple cities notably january bloody friday massacre government representatives met days later negotiations failed restore peace sanctioned resolution september prohibiting sale weapons fuel shift foreign policy emerged president bill_clinton issued executive order september labeling continuing threat foreign policy objectives august gained control government military successes forced sue peace november government taken control country called situation deepest crisis creation estimate people killed eighteen months following election nearly half number casualties previous sixteen years war sides conflict continued commit widespread systematic violations laws war particular guilty besieged cities resulting large death toll civilians government forces air power fashion resulting high civilian deaths protocol reaffirmed protocol unwilling personally sign accord secretary general represent place minister signed protocol october agreeing integrate sides signed protocol november agreement government cease fire members including join national police members including join rapid reaction police force generals officers foreign mercenaries return home countries parties stop acquiring foreign arms agreement gave politicians homes headquarters government agreed appoint members head mines commerce health tourism addition seven deputy ministers ambassadors deputy governors municipal administrators deputy administrators administrators government release prisoners amnesty involved civil war president south african president met november boost support symbolically protocol said willing meet asked come south_africa come agreement created joint commission consisting officials government governments portugal united_states russia observing oversee implementation violations protocol provisions discussed reviewed commission protocol provisions integrating military coalition government similar granted independence portugal environmental problems mutual distrust loose international oversight foreign arms maintaining balance power led collapse protocol arms monitoring january president clinton sent envoy support protocol impress importance government need outside assistance united_nations agreed send force february met south african president shortly june offered position vice president dos vice president chosen told felt ready serve capacity aid nation accept proposal august operations analysis expanded effort halt weapons shipments violation protocol limited success government bought ukraine government bought attack aircraft czechoslovakia ammunition uniforms ammunition weapons ukraine monitoring significantly dropped events occupied government attention purchased fox missiles north korean government extended mandate february march dos formally agreed form coalition government government deported west african august grounds dangerous minorities responsible rising crime rate government bought military equipment india attack helicopters december helicopters slovakia march international community helped install government unity national reconciliation april allow regional government residence cities voted august impose sanctions resolution prohibiting leaders traveling abroad closing abroad making controlled areas fly zone expanded sanctions resolution june requiring government certification purchase diamonds freezing bank accounts war government joined coalition overthrow government support government fell early october invaded civil war helped rebels overthrow government government allowed use cities order sanctions spent billion maintaining force military attacked forces december day fourth congress told delegates day believed war way ultimately achieve peace rejected protocol asked leave february withdrew personnel late commanders dissatisfied leadership formed militant group thousands deserted military launched massive offensive september site headquarters year passed resolution october instructing united_nations secretary general update situation months offered amnesty november december chief staff general said destroyed militant wing captured tons military equipment following dissolution coalition government retreated historical base prepared battle order government forced civilians countryside areas subject influence relocate major cities strategy successful adverse humanitarian consequences diamond trade ability diamonds sell abroad provided funding war continue movement support western world local populace away state owned diamond mining monopoly signed contract allowing handle diamond exports according report worked government supply military equipment brother allegedly flew south_africa directing weapons originating eastern_europe return gave diamonds worth million sent diamonds buying office antwerp belgium openly acknowledges spending million legal illegal diamonds united_nations estimates billion dollars diamond trade estimates sum billion diamond sales despite international sanctions executive outcomes private military company played major role turning tide defense expert calling best million dollars government spent allegedly hired protect operations executive outcomes trained troops combat pilots camps territory north proper separated strip territory long portuguese constitution designated overseas provinces course administrative reforms 1930s 1950s divided districts districts liberation formed broader war independence portugal contrary organization later split smaller factions later broke away movements remained prominent size tactics members cut ears government officials supporters similar 1990s despite relatively small size foreign powers nationalist movements territory vast reserves petroleum principal export war independence division versus peoples masked inter ethnic conflict native tribes division emerged early 1970s predecessor controlled territory independence war excluding controlled openly backed independence despite mutual support adversary south_africa pro western tilt support came year left china saw west soviet_union sino soviet split south_africa presented allies 1990s rebels kidnapped foreign oil workers turn finance attacks national government stopped buses forcing workers setting fire buses march april large scale battle took place police mortar rounds accidentally hit nearby compound government fearing loss prime source revenue began negotiate representatives patronage failed anger negotiations ended february kidnapped timber company employees killing releasing receiving ransom kidnapped people april portuguese released ransom kidnapped oil engineering employees portuguese march released government complicated situation promising rebel leadership million hostages president showed army arrested army later forcibly freed hostages july end year government arrested leadership rebel organizations 2000s illicit arms trading characterized later years tried gain upper hand buying arms eastern_europe russia israel continued role arms dealer united_states september russian freighter delivered tons ukrainian ammunition division government help shipping agent london ship captain declared cargo fragile minimize inspection day began attacking winning victories battles september government gained control military bases diamond mines hurting ability pay troops agreed trade oil slovakia return arms buying attack aircraft april spanish government islands prevented ukrainian freighter delivering tons military equipment february captain ship reported cargo falsely claiming ship carried automobile parts government admitted purchased arms russian state owned arms company acknowledged captain violated spanish law cargo common practice arms smuggling carried attacks civilians strength attacked killing people kidnapping children adults attacked followed attack city kilometres east days later advanced staying military retook town looted local businesses taking food alcoholic singing streets villagers kilometres provincial capital injury according aid official military prohibited media coverage incident details attack unknown spokesman portugal said attacked demonstrate government military need cut deal days later released children catholic mission city kilometres kidnapped national organization said abduction violated policy treatment civilians letter bishops asked catholic_church act government negotiations attacks took toll economy end international diamond mining company suspended operations ostensibly grounds negotiations national government reached unknown affiliation fired rockets planes june near near days later plane boeing approached shot missile aircraft damaging engine critically man crew landed successfully plane altitude metres likely prevented identifying target citizens food weeks temporarily suspended flights flights began days later shot plane flying attack targeting workers suspended food aid flights country claim responsibility attack spokesman said planes carried weapons soldiers food making acceptable targets government said international community needed pressure returning negotiating table despite humanitarian crisis guaranteed planes safety relied international aid food feed population fly aid rest ambushed trucks situation airport strip slowed aid deliveries overall chaos reduced available oil point import jet fuel government troops captured destroyed base province base october government sold fighter jets government violation government troops killed february vice president took died diabetes days later march secretary general leader death government came crossroads proceed initially indicating counter continue government announced halt military operations march military commanders met agreed cease fire spokesman portugal said portugal wing impression general general agreed captured week earlier heard death military commanders signed memorandum understanding protocol april observing passed resolution april extending monitoring mechanism sanctions months resolutions passed august respectively suspended travel ban officials days finally ban resolution october extended additional months resolution ended december new leadership declared rebel group political party officially armed forces august month replaced larger non military political presence aftermath civil war spawned disastrous humanitarian crisis internally displacing million people total population united_nations estimated lacked access basic medical care lacked access water children die age overall national life years age exodus rural areas country today urban population represents slightly half population according latest census cases people went cities outside traditional area ethnic group important communities degree return slow pace younger people reluctant rural life knew rural areas problem years control government controlled population fled neighbouring countries went remote mountainous areas humanitarian efforts government spent million settling internally displaced persons april gave million continue settling process estimated fighting displaced people january february comprised victims surroundings frequently predominantly fell victim weapons militant forces laid approximately million began destroyed july seven foreign workers employed operations expected finish child soldiers human rights watch estimates government employed child soldiers respectively forcibly impressed war additionally human rights analysts found girls married girls ordered forage food provide troops girls denied food bring satisfy commander victories commanders rewarded women sexually abused government agencies identified child soldiers army relocated november government continued employ soldiers popular culture film red dawn cuban officers takes joint cuban soviet invasion united_states said fought conflicts el_salvador nicaragua wrote produced film brother robert film plays soviet agent sent assassinate african revolutionary fictional country modeled south african government financed film group chaired efforts undermine international sympathy working hollywood convicted fraud offenses committed concurrent career war provides comedic background story south african comedy gods crazy cuban soldier repeatedly try prisoner ultimately terms film hero produced directed depicts life average aftermath civil war film follows lives individuals war veteran crippled returns young boy searching soldier father teacher boy begins love affair hero won world dramatic cinema jury grand prize joint portuguese french production hero filmed entirely character film played discusses occasions service intervention civil war film revealed white orphan ran away south_africa infamous battalion saw combat featured video game player character assists battle forces metal gear solid phantom pain partly set border region civil war
Angolan Civil War