sanskrit collection texts contain central philosophical concepts shared buddhism considered contain concerning nature ultimate reality describing character path human salvation commonly referred variously interpreted mean chapters parts object highest purpose concepts self central ideas know thematic focus foundation hindu philosophical thought diverse traditions corpus widely known central ideas spiritual core known dozen oldest important referred principal main found concluding centuries generation passed early likelihood pre buddhist 6th century bce period remainder canon composed centuries 1st millennium bce 15th century canon continued composed early modern modern era dealing subjects unconnected known collectively provide foundation later schools influential schools translation early 19th century started attract attention western audience deeply impressed called production highest human wisdom 19th century noted influence western philosophy etymology sanskrit term foot sitting translates sitting foot feet referring student sitting near teacher receiving knowledge adds according native authorities means setting rest ignorance revealing knowledge supreme spirit explains commentary word means knowledge self knowledge dictionary meanings include doctrine secret doctrine word appears verses fourth verse 13th volume chapter translate word verses secret doctrine translates mystic meaning translates hidden connections development authorship authorship uncertain unknown states early literature india anonymous know names authors philosophical theories early attributed famous women participate dialogues credited early exceptions anonymous tradition literature example includes closing credits sage considered author scholars believe early expanded time differences manuscripts discovered different parts differences non sanskrit version texts survived differences text terms meter style grammar structure texts exist believed work authors chronology scholars uncertain exact centuries composed chronology early difficult resolve states philosopher opinions rest evidence analysis style texts driven assumptions likely evolution ideas philosophy influenced indian says spite claims reality dating documents early attempts precision closer centuries stable house cards scholars sought similarities buddhist literature establish chronology gives following chronology early called earliest edited texts sources older texts pre buddhist placed 7th 6th centuries bce century early prose come probably pre buddhist assigned 6th 5th centuries bce oldest verse followed probably composed probably centuries bce late prose older beginning common era places early bce range current opinion pre buddhist overlap earliest buddhist literature later numbering called minor dated late 1st millennium bce mid 2nd millennium flood dates probably bce period scholars date seven likely complete centuries 1st millennium bce half likely composed 15th century geography general area composition early northern india region bounded west upper valley east lower region north foothills south mountain range confidence early product geographical center ancient comprising regions areas immediately south west region covers modern eastern northern significant attempts recently identify exact locations individual results tentative identifies center activity area king features prominently probably composed western eastern location indian possibly western region country compared new recorded belong entirely different region probably southern india considerably relatively recent fourth chapter location named modern mentioned classification canon major minor known contains list canonical including earliest ones date early centuries 1st millennium bce latest mid 2nd millennium period islamic invasions political instability scholars include earliest major composed 1st bce remainder called minor likely composed centuries 1st millennium bce mid 2nd millennium divided associated goddess monastic life god god general referred categorized present ideas particular god goddess specific hindu tradition combination traditions sought link texts asserting texts example assert hindu gods aspect manifestation concept ultimate reality creation universe grouped periods early periods oldest date early mid 1st millennium bce remnant date roughly 4th 1st centuries bce roughly contemporary earliest portions sanskrit alleged influence composed 5th century bce easily way alleged centuries followed scholars date earlier known authors like mentioned texts women wife feature occasionally principal associated schools said existed remain new little relation corpus cited commented great philosopher language differs classic subtle result difficult modern reader added list fixed list newer ones anthology continued discovered composed example previously unknown discovered newly found manuscripts named attributed prose period text incomplete inconsistent likely poorly maintained corrupted long enjoyed revered position hindu traditions authors numerous texts tried benefit reputation naming texts new number hundreds cover diverse range topics physiology theories composed centuries 1st millennium bce early modern era dozen minor dated century new texts title originated half 2nd millennium texts deal themes found main example discuss differences principal major form called extant lists authentic vary reflecting sect yield evidence location tradition correct interpretation content texts weaken identity texts enjoy status authority new scripture accepted association associated primary versions modern era ancient embedded texts detached layers text compiled separate texts gathered lists associated lists exist lists inconsistent india terms included newer assigned ancient south india collected list based published telugu language common 19th century list north india list common list groups recorded shown table important highlighted philosophy age characterized deemed including grounding classical schools contrast non foundation school contain ideas states dominated indian philosophy religion life appearance respected considered revealed present spiritual ideas inspiring knowledge knowledge ultimate presentation philosophy strictly personal effort reach truth states knowledge means freedom philosophy pursuit wisdom way life include sections philosophical theories foundation indian traditions example includes earliest known declaration non violence ethical discussion ethical premises self restraint charity non compassion found oldest later similarly doctrine presented oldest development thought hymns emphasize rituals serve manual rituals spirit inherently opposed ritual older launch attacks increasing intensity ritual self called domestic animal gods parodies acts sacrifice comparing procession dogs chanting let eat let drink asserts external rituals offered morning evening replaced inner ritual rituals knowledge pursuit declares man called promised benefits scared unto performing sacrifices pious works asserts encourage follow makes difference man current life life like blind men leading blind mark vain knowledge ignorant like children futile useless practice states performance sacrifices described lead end knowledge prepare man meditation let man laid fires self complete perfect opposition ritual explicit oldest occasions extend task making ritual giving philosophical meaning example interprets practice horse sacrifice states earth acquired sacrificing horse goes spiritual autonomy achieved universe conceived image horse similar fashion gods supreme immortal god synonymous self declared human living creature reality sat second self realization develops means liberation freedom life life according texts grouped categories group includes middle late composed rational arguments experience philosophical premises second group includes middle later authors professed theories based personal experiences philosophy practice adds entirely absent development thought theories contrasted buddhism inquiry assumed soul buddhism assumed soul states concepts paramount importance ultimate reality individual self soul material efficient formal final cause exists infinite eternal truth bliss change cause changes infinite source fabric core destiny existence manifested infinite universe grown states creative principle lies realized world word means inner self soul immortal spirit individual living beings including animals trees central idea know thematic focus texts state core person body mind ego soul self spiritual essence creatures real essential eternal deepest level existence predominantly discussed topic express distinct somewhat themes state universal principle consciousness bliss identical state identical ancient debate dual non dual theories bce synthesized unified somewhat conflicting theories stating different respects particularly state ignorance deepest level state self realization identical non different idea forth greatest contributions thought world illusion different types non dual presented according non dual inclusive ground universe changing universe form maya translated illusion describe universe human experience eternal principles consciousness temporary changing material world nature refer knowledge true knowledge knowledge maya true knowledge lack awareness lack true knowledge explains term maya translated illusion concern normal illusion illusion mean world real simply human imagination maya means world world experiences misleading far true nature concerned according universe illusion instead constantly people things think know basically limits knowledge perceived changing reality exists hidden true reality maya illusion important idea texts assert human pursuit self knowledge maya individual schools form main sources schools wide variety philosophical teachings contained interpretations grounded schools seek answer questions relation relation world schools named relation according difference according similar identical according individual souls matter eternal mutually separate entities schools include philosopher provided commentaries literally means non system thought deals non dual nature considered influential sub school school hindu philosophy person basic principles philosophy commentary conflicting statements ideas developed king states main work infused philosophical terminology buddhism uses buddhist arguments king suggests clear differences writings ideas odds hand suggests views straightforward developments ideas derive discussions philosophy referred early explain key difference buddhism stating asserts soul self exists buddhism asserts soul self contain sentences great establish identity truth consciousness thou art wide variety philosophical positions commentators usually followed seeing dominant force school founded regarded best exposition like claims states grounded school founded refuted works synthetic philosophy systems claims sub school states grounded similarities thought scholars recognised parallels philosophy including ideas sources knowledge concept justice path salvation cave psychology divisions reason spirit appetite bears resemblance indian philosophy based common features scholars notably argued ancient greek philosophy influenced borrowed core concepts mechanisms transmission knowledge including traveling far india indian philosophers visiting athens meeting encountering ideas exile syracuse persia scholars believe systems developed independently note historical evidence philosophers schools meeting point significant differences stage development orientation goals philosophical systems writes rooted life primary aim develop ideal state contrast focus individual self soul self knowledge means individual freedom liberation life life translations translated languages including persian italian french latin german english dutch polish japanese spanish russian emperor reign saw translations persian great grandson produced collection called translated sanskrit persian french received manuscript translated persian version french latin publishing latin translation volumes hat french translation published latin version initial introduction thought western scholars according persian took great liberties translating text times changed meaning sanskrit english translation english translation aware catalog lists german translation appeared english version appeared editions systematic english treatment include major translations principal books reception west german philosopher read latin translation praised main work found philosophy accord taught individual manifestation basis reality fundamentally real underlying unity know copy commented life death german philosopher praised mystical spiritual aspects philosophers associated german dissatisfied christianity propagated churches fascinated united_states group known influenced german americans satisfied traditional christian mythology embraced interpretation celebration romantic exotic mystical aspect result influence writers gained renown western countries great english language poets 20th century inspired reading based final portion famous poem waste land verses great quantum physicist said apparent doctrine mystical experience union god regularly leads view strong stand west translating form peaks consciousness taken times different observers dispatched kind explanation states represents hindu approximately represents christian message summarized words kingdom god review states texts emphasize experienced defined view soul self similar states found dialogues insisted soul excluded proximity space succession time cause effect opposition subject object review lack systematic philosophy central theme follows called philosophical system true sense word truth frequently tending direction key note old know deeper meaning know means know true self ego find know highest eternal self second world
Upanishads