ecology ecology greek house environment study scientific analysis study interactions organisms environment field includes biology geography earth science ecology includes study interactions organisms organisms components environment topics interest include diversity distribution number population particular organisms cooperation competition organisms ecosystems ecosystems composed interacting parts including organisms communities non living components environment ecosystem processes primary production nutrient cycling niche construction activities regulate energy matter environment processes sustained organisms specific life history traits variety organisms called biodiversity biodiversity refers varieties species genes ecosystems certain ecosystem services ecology synonymous environment natural history environmental science closely related evolutionary biology important focus improve understanding biodiversity affects ecological function seek explain life processes interactions adaptations movement materials energy living communities development ecosystems abundance distribution organisms biodiversity context environment ecology human science practical applications ecology conservation biology wetland management natural resource management agriculture forestry fisheries city planning urban ecology community health economics basic applied science human social interaction human ecology example approach treats ecology environment treated separate humans organisms including humans resources compose ecosystems turn maintain feedback mechanisms moderate processes acting living non living components planet ecosystems sustain life supporting functions produce natural capital like production food fuel fiber medicine regulation climate global cycles water soil formation erosion control flood protection natural features scientific historical economic value word ecology coined german scientist ecological thought derivative established currents philosophy particularly ethics politics ancient greek philosophers aristotle laid foundations ecology studies natural history modern ecology rigorous science late 19th century evolutionary concepts relating adaptation natural selection modern ecological theory levels scope scale organization scope ecology contains wide array interacting levels organization spanning micro level cells scale phenomena ecosystems example contain resources interacting life forms individual organisms aggregate populations aggregate distinct ecological communities ecosystems dynamic follow linear path changing rapidly slowly thousands years ecological processes bring certain stages forest ecosystem area vary greatly tiny vast single tree little consequence classification forest ecosystem critically relevant organisms living generations population exist lifespan single leaf turn support diverse communities nature connections ecological communities explained knowing details species isolation pattern revealed predicted ecosystem studied integrated ecological principles exhibit collective properties sum components explain properties birth rates population equal sum individual designated time frame ecology scale ecological dynamics operate like closed system migrating single tree time remain open regard broader scale influences atmosphere climate classify ecosystems analyzing data collected finer scale units vegetation associations climate soil types integrate information identify patterns uniform organization processes operate local regional landscape chronological scales structure study ecology framework biological world organized hierarchy ranging scale genes cells tissues organs organisms species populations communities ecosystems level framework forms exhibits non linear behaviors means effect cause small changes critical number nitrogen lead changes system properties biodiversity biodiversity biological diversity describes diversity life genes ecosystems spans level biological organization term interpretations ways index measure characterize represent complex organization biodiversity includes species diversity ecosystem diversity genetic diversity scientists interested way diversity affects complex ecological processes operating respective levels biodiversity plays important role ecosystem services definition maintain improve human quality life preventing species way preserve biodiversity goal rests techniques preserve genetic diversity habitat ability species migrate conservation priorities management techniques require different approaches considerations address ecological scope biodiversity natural capital supports populations critical maintaining ecosystem services species migration fish runs insect control implicated mechanism service losses experienced understanding biodiversity practical applications species ecosystem level conservation planners management recommendations consulting firms governments industry habitat habitat species describes environment species known occur type community formed result specifically habitats defined regions environmental space composed multiple dimensions representing environmental variable component characteristic environment related directly forage quality indirectly elevation use location animal example habitat aquatic terrestrial environment categorized alpine ecosystem habitat shifts provide important evidence competition nature population changes relative habitats individuals species occupy example population species tropical flattened body relative main populations live open population lives isolated rock hides flattened body offers selective advantage habitat shifts occur developmental life history amphibians insects transition aquatic terrestrial habitats habitat applies community environment applies species environment additionally species ecosystem engineers altering environment localized region instance manage water levels building dams improves habitat landscape niche definitions niche date conceptual advances introducing widely adopted definition set conditions species able persist maintain stable population sizes ecological niche central concept ecology organisms sub divided fundamental realized niche fundamental niche set environmental conditions species able persist realized niche set environmental plus ecological conditions species niche defined technically dimensions defined environmental size function number values environmental values assume organism positive fitness patterns range explained predicted knowledge species traits niche requirements species functional traits uniquely adapted ecological niche trait property characteristic organism influence survival genes play important role development environmental expression traits resident species evolve traits fitted selection pressures local environment tends afford competitive advantage similarly adapted species having overlapping geographic range competitive exclusion principle states species indefinitely living limiting resource compete similarly adapted species overlap geographically closer inspection reveals subtle ecological differences habitat requirements models studies suggest disturbances stabilize evolution shared niche occupancy similar species inhabiting species rich communities habitat plus niche called defined range environmental biological affecting entire species niche construction organisms subject environmental pressures modify habitats regulatory feedback organisms environment affect conditions local beaver pond global scales time death decaying logs skeleton deposits marine organisms process concept ecosystem engineering related niche construction relates physical modifications habitat considers evolutionary implications physical changes environment feedback causes process natural selection ecosystem engineers defined organisms directly indirectly availability resources species causing physical state changes materials modify maintain create habitats ecosystem engineering concept stimulated new appreciation influence organisms ecosystem evolutionary process term niche construction reference appreciated feedback mechanisms natural selection forces niche example natural selection ecosystem engineering occurs nests social insects including ants bees structure nest maintains defends physiology entire colony example maintain constant internal temperature design air conditioning chimneys structure nests subject forces natural selection nest survive successive generations inherit genetic material legacy niche constructed time larger units organization regions earth ecosystems mainly according structure composition vegetation different methods define continental boundaries dominated different functional types communities limited distribution climate precipitation weather environmental include tropical temperate mixed forest temperate deciduous forest hot desert polar desert researchers recently categorized human oceanic human body habitat landscape discovered largely advances molecular revealed hidden diversity planet oceanic plays significant role ecological planet oceans largest scale ecological organization total sum ecosystems planet ecological relationships regulate energy nutrients climate way scale example dynamic history atmosphere composition affected gases coming levels fluctuating time relation ecology evolution plants animals ecological theory explain self regulatory phenomena scale example hypothesis example applied ecological theory hypothesis states feedback loop generated living organisms maintains core temperature earth atmospheric conditions narrow self regulating range tolerance individual ecology understanding traits individual organisms helps explain patterns processes levels organization including populations communities ecosystems areas ecology evolution focus traits life history theory theory ecology examples traits include features organisms life cycle age maturity life span costs reproduction traits related structure spines dorsal spines behaviors courtship displays pair bonding traits include properties result interactions surrounding environment growth rate resource rate winter deciduous drought deciduous trees shrubs set characteristics relate body size temperature theory ecology provides set relationships organism body size temperature processes general smaller warmer organisms higher rates results variety predictions individual growth rates reproduction population growth rates population size resource rates traits organisms subject change development evolution reason individuals form shared focus ecology evolutionary ecology population ecology population ecology studies dynamics populations populations interact wider environment population consists individuals species live interact migrate niche habitat primary law population ecology growth model states population grow decline long environment experienced individuals population remains constant simplified population models usually start death birth immigration emigration example introductory population model describes closed population island immigration emigration place evaluated reference hypothesis states random processes create observed data island models rate population change described formula total number individuals population capita rates birth death respectively capita rate population change modelling techniques population principle growth later transformed model known equation formula number individuals measured density maximum capita rate change carrying capacity population formula states rate change population size equal growth limited carrying capacity population ecology builds introductory models understand demographic processes real study populations commonly types data include life history analysed mathematical techniques matrix information managing wildlife stocks setting harvest cases basic models insufficient adopt different kinds statistical methods information criterion use models complex competing simultaneously confronted data migration concept defined population populations extinct locally ecology statistical approach conservation research models landscape patches varying levels quality linked migratory organisms animal migration set apart kinds movement involves seasonal departure return individuals habitat migration population level phenomenon migration routes followed plants occupied northern post glacial environments plant use records accumulate wetlands reconstruct timing plant migration dispersal relative historic contemporary climates migration routes involved expansion range plant populations expanded area larger taxonomy movement foraging territorial behaviour ranging dispersal usually distinguished migration involves way permanent movement individuals birth population population terminology migrating individuals classed leave region immigrants enter region sites classed sources site generic term refers places sample populations ponds defined sampling areas forest source patches productive sites generate seasonal supply juveniles migrate patch locations sink patches sites receive migrants population site disappear rescued adjacent source patch environmental conditions favourable models examine patch dynamics time answer potential questions spatial demographic ecology ecology dynamic process extinction colonization small patches lower quality maintained rescued seasonal influx new immigrants dynamic structure year year patches dry years sources conditions favourable use mixture computer models field studies explain structure community ecology community ecology study interactions collections species inhabit geographic area community study patterns processes interacting species research community ecology measure species diversity relation soil fertility include analysis predator prey dynamics competition similar plant species interactions crabs ecosystem ecology ecosystems habitats form integrated responsive system having physical biological complexes ecosystem ecology science determining materials carbon different pools tree soil organic material ecosystem attempt determine underlying causes research ecosystem ecology measure primary production wetland relation consumption rates requires understanding community connections plants primary producers fungi bacteria underlying concept ecosystem traced published work man nature ecosystem organisms linked physical biological components environment adapted ecosystems complex systems interaction life processes form self organizing patterns different scales time space ecosystems broadly categorized terrestrial freshwater atmospheric marine differences stem nature unique physical environments shapes biodiversity recent addition ecosystem ecology affected primarily result human activity food food web ecological network plants capture solar energy use simple plants grow accumulate nutrients eaten grazing energy transferred chain organisms consumption simplified linear feeding pathways basal species consumer called food chain larger pattern food chains ecological community creates complex food web food type concept map device illustrate study pathways energy material flows food limited relative real world complete measurements generally restricted specific habitat cave pond principles food web studies larger systems feeding relations require extensive investigations gut contents organisms difficult stable trace flow nutrient energy food web despite limitations food remain valuable tool understanding community ecosystems food exhibit principles ecological emergence nature relationships species weak feeding links specialized fewer stronger feeding links primary predators theoretical studies identify non random patterns strong weak explain ecological communities remain stable time food composed members community linked strong interactions weak interactions occur increases food web stability step step lines relations drawn web life illustrated levels level greek meaning food feeding group organisms acquiring considerable majority energy adjacent level nearer source links food primarily connect feeding relations species biodiversity ecosystems organized vertical dimension represents feeding relations removed base food chain predators horizontal dimension represents abundance level relative abundance species respective level naturally sort pyramid numbers species broadly categorized primary producers consumers organisms produce food production greater organisms feed energy exceeds production sub divided different functional groups including primary consumers strict secondary consumers predators feed exclusively consumers predators feed mix predators fit functional category eat plant animal tissues suggested greater functional influence predators compared relatively inefficient grazing levels complex systems view ecosystems level contains unrelated species grouped share common ecological functions giving view system notion levels provides insight energy flow control food troubled prevalence real ecosystems led notion species clearly aggregate levels fiction nonetheless recent studies shown real levels exist level food better characterized web species species species connected large number species food web species lower levels pyramid relative importance role connections species holds means maintains organization structure entire communities loss species results range dramatic effects dynamics food web connections cause extinction species sea commonly cited example species limit density sea feed sea removed system beds disappear dramatic effect community structure hunting sea example thought led indirectly extinction sea cow species concept extensively conservation tool criticized poorly defined operational stance difficult determine species hold role ecosystem furthermore food web theory suggests species common unclear generally species model applied ecological complexity complexity understood large effort needed piece numerous interacting parts exceeding memory capacity human mind global patterns biological diversity complex stems ecological processes operate influence patterns different scales grade transitional areas spanning landscapes complexity stems levels biological organization energy matter integrated larger units smaller parts level parts higher small scale patterns necessarily explain large scale phenomena captured expression coined aristotle sum greater parts complexity ecology distinct types spatial temporal structural process geometric principles identified self organizing phenomena operate different environmental scales influence ranging molecular require different explanations level ecological complexity relates dynamic ecosystems transition multiple shifting steady states directed random fluctuations history long term ecological studies provide important track records better understand complexity ecosystems longer temporal broader spatial scales studies managed longest experiment existence initiated example study operation remains critical theoretical foundation contemporary ecological studies addresses biological organization life self layers systems function according non properties means higher order patterns functional system ecosystem predicted understood simple parts new properties emerge components interact basic nature components changed ecological studies necessarily opposed scientific meanings uses identify ecology complexity ecosystems practical description patterns terms identified understood relations reference system leads hierarchy relations larger systems understood reference smaller parts scientific differs appropriated term example identified trend increased exterior thickness shells different species reason thickness increase understood reference principles natural selection predation need reference understand properties exterior shells relation evolution ecology evolution considered sister disciplines life sciences natural selection life history development adaptation populations inheritance examples concepts thread equally ecological evolutionary theory morphological genetic traits example mapped evolutionary trees study historical development species relation functions roles different ecological circumstances framework tools overlap organize classify investigate life common systematic system taxonomy disciplines appear title journal trends ecology evolution sharp boundary separating ecology evolution differ areas applied focus disciplines discover explain unique properties processes operating different spatial temporal scales organization boundary ecology evolution clear study factors influence evolutionary processes evolution rapid occurring ecological short generation ecology organisms exhibit plants express complex behaviour including memory communication ecology study organism behaviour environment ecological evolutionary implications study movement behaviour animals include investigations sperm plants mobile swimming female egg cultivation fungi mating dance social gatherings adaptation central concept ecology recorded traits inherited way eye hair colour evolve means natural selection traits functional utilities increases reproductive fitness predator prey interactions introductory concept food web studies ecology prey species exhibit different kinds adaptations predators avoid flee defend prey species faced multiple predators differ degree danger posed adapted environment face predatory threats organisms balance energy budgets invest different aspects life history growth feeding mating modifying habitat ecology generally based principles conservation efficiency example threat sensitive predator avoidance hypothesis prey assess degree threat posed different predators match behaviour according current levels risk optimal flight initiation distance occurs expected fitness depends prey initial fitness benefits fleeing energetic escape costs expected fitness loss predation risk elaborate sexual displays encountered ecology animals birds paradise example sing display elaborate ornaments courtship displays serve dual purpose signalling healthy adapted individuals desirable genes displays driven sexual selection advertisement quality traits ecology ecology theory observations evolutionary ecology primarily science order understand effect animal interaction habitat systems systems restrict behavior ecological evolutionary framework recently scientists paid sufficient attention fundamental fact traits evolved particular natural settings consideration selection pressure ecology contribute intellectual study study involving interactions organism environment ecology closely related field based view organism environment bound specification selection social ecology social ecological notable social insects social spiders human society naked mole rats evolved social include beneficial nest mates evolve group selection selection explains genetic relationships behaviour leading death rewarded survival genetic copies distributed surviving relatives social insects including ants bees famously studied type relationship male clones share genetic male colony contrast group find examples non genetic relatives explain selection acting group groups members express groups predominantly members beat groups predominantly selfish members ecological interactions classified broadly host associate relationship host entity called associate relationships species mutually beneficial called examples include fungus growing ants employing agricultural bacteria living insects organisms wasp complex fungi algae algae physical connection host associate relationship called approximately plants example relationship mycorrhizal fungi living roots forming exchange network mineral nutrients indirect occur organisms live apart example trees living regions planet supply oxygen atmosphere species living distant polar regions planet relationship called receive benefits clean air cost harm trees supplying oxygen associate benefits host suffers relationship called parasites impose cost host damage reproductive organs denying services beneficial partner net effect host fitness necessarily negative difficult forecast evolution driven competition species members species banner grasses competing growth space red queen hypothesis example parasites track locally common genetic defense systems host drives evolution sexual reproduction genetic constituency populations responding antagonistic pressure amalgamation biology geography comparative study geographic distribution organisms corresponding evolution traits space time established ecology share disciplinary roots example theory island published mathematician considered ecological theory long history natural sciences concerning spatial distribution plants animals ecology evolution provide explanatory context studies patterns result ecological processes influence range migration dispersal historical processes split populations species different areas processes result natural splitting species explains modern distribution earth splitting species called sub discipline practical applications field concerning ecological systems processes example range distribution biodiversity invasive species responding climate change concern active area research context global warming theory population ecology concept selection theory models ecology explain life history evolution premise selection model natural selection pressures change according population density example island density individuals low initial increase population size limited competition leaving abundance available resources rapid population growth early phases population growth experience density independent forces natural selection called selection population crowded approaches island carrying capacity forcing individuals compete heavily fewer available resources crowded conditions population experiences density dependent forces natural selection called selection selection model variable rate natural increase population size second variable carrying capacity population different species evolve different life history strategies spanning selective forces selected species high birth rates low levels parental investment high rates mortality individuals reach maturity evolution high rates selected species kinds insects invasive species exhibit selected characteristics contrast selected species low rates high levels parental investment young low rates mortality individuals mature humans elephants examples species exhibiting characteristics including longevity efficiency conversion resources fewer offspring molecular ecology important relationship ecology genetic inheritance modern techniques molecular analysis molecular ecological research feasible development rapid accessible genetic technologies chain reaction rise molecular technologies influx research questions new ecological field resulted publication molecular ecology molecular ecology uses techniques study genes evolutionary ecological context played leading role area science publication book natural history evolution newer technologies opened wave genetic analysis organisms difficult study ecological evolutionary standpoint bacteria fungi molecular ecology new research investigating ecological questions considered molecular investigations revealed previously obscured details tiny nature improved resolution questions ecology example molecular ecology revealed sexual behaviour multiple male partners tree previously thought socially context marriage ecology evolution resulted new sub discipline called human ecology ecology biological science human science human ecology investigation ecology species human ecology defined ecological standpoint study man ecological dominant plant animal communities systems ecological standpoint simply animal affecting affected physical environment human different animal life general interacting physical modified environments distinctive creative way truly human ecology likely address term formally introduced disciplines interested human relations natural systems centuries prior especially late 19th century ecological human beings facing technological transformation brought unique set circumstances generated need new science called coupled human natural systems builds moves field human ecology ecosystems tie human societies critical encompassing life supporting functions sustain recognition functions traditional economic methods value ecosystems surge interest social natural capital provides means value stock use information materials stemming ecosystem goods services ecosystems produce regulate maintain supply services critical necessity beneficial human health economies provide information reference function living library giving opportunities science development children engaged complexity natural world ecosystems relate importantly human ecology ultimate base foundation global economics capacity exchange ultimately stems ecosystems earth restoration management ecology employed science restoration repairing disturbed sites human intervention natural resource management environmental impact assessments predicted 21st century era restoration ecology ecological science industrial investment restoring ecosystems processes abandoned sites disturbance natural resource managers forestry example employ develop adapt implement ecosystem based methods planning operation restoration phases land use ecological science methods sustainable harvesting disease fire outbreak management fisheries stock management integrating land use protected areas communities conservation complex political landscapes relation environment environment ecosystems includes physical parameters attributes contains resources organisms time life cycle like ecology term environment different conceptual meanings overlaps concept nature environment includes physical world social world human relations built world human creation physical environment external level biological organization investigation including factors temperature radiation light chemistry climate geology environment includes genes cells organisms members species species share habitat distinction external internal environments life environment units facts reality cause effect environment life laws example apply ecology means physical state understanding principles complete accounting energy material flow traced ecosystem way environmental ecological relations studied reference isolated material parts effective environmental components understood reference causes link integrated system called known approach ecology approach examines parts organism environment dynamic change ecological environmental factor concurrently affect dynamic state entire ecosystem disturbance ecosystems regularly confronted natural environmental variations disturbances time geographic space disturbance process removes community fire flood drought predation disturbances occur vastly different ranges terms distances time periods cause product natural fluctuations death rates species ecological community disturbances create places renewal new directions emerge natural experimentation opportunity ecological cornerstone theory ecosystem management biodiversity ecosystems acting kind insurance early atmosphere earth formed approximately billion years ago cooled crust oceans formed atmosphere transformed dominated hydrogen composed billion years activity life transformed atmosphere mixture carbon dioxide nitrogen water gases changed way light sun hit earth surface greenhouse effects trapped heat sources free energy mixture reducing set stage primitive ecosystems evolve turn atmosphere evolved history earth atmosphere cycles dynamic ecosystems history characterized periods significant transformation followed millions years stability evolution earliest organisms likely started process converting atmospheric hydrogen reduced hydrogen concentrations increased atmospheric converting hydrogen water compounds example early forms increased levels atmospheric transition oxygen dominant atmosphere great begin approximately billion years ago processes started billion years prior radiation heat temperature light biology life operates certain range temperatures heat form energy temperature heat affects growth rates activity behaviour primary production temperature largely dependent solar radiation longitudinal spatial variation temperature greatly affects climates consequently distribution biodiversity levels primary production different ecosystems planet heat temperature relate importantly activity example body temperature largely regulated dependent temperature external environment contrast regulate internal body temperature energy relationship light primary production ecological energy budgets sunlight primary input energy planet ecosystems light composed electromagnetic energy different energy sun generates heat provides light measured active energy chemical reactions life acts catalyst genetic plants algae bacteria absorb light energy organisms capable energy responsible primary production light energy stored potential energy form bonds physical environments water carbon dioxide oxygen approximately times slower water air soils flooded quickly lose oxygen environment concentration eventually completely bacteria thrive roots water influences intensity composition light reflects water surface submerged particles aquatic plants exhibit wide variety morphological adaptations allow survive compete environments example roots stems contain large air spaces regulate efficient transportation gases example salt water plants additional specialized adaptations development special organs salt internal salt concentrations live oceanic environments soil aquatic environments use carbon dioxide organic compounds use oxygen soil drier activity soil chemistry water reduces reduction water carbon dioxide example reduced bacteria physiology fish specially adapted compensate environmental salt levels gills form salt salt water fresh water gravity shape energy land significantly affected forces large scale distribution forces earth uneven influences shape movement plates influencing processes erosion forces govern properties ecological earth scale forces provide directional cues plant fungal growth orientation cues animal influence size animals ecological traits allocation trees growth subject mechanical failure forces influence position structure branches leaves systems animals adapted overcome pressure forces change according features organisms height size shape behaviour diving running flying habitat occupied water hot cold pressure climatic pressure places constraints organisms especially fly high altitudes dive deep ocean depths constraints influence vertical limits ecosystems organisms sensitive adapted atmospheric water pressure differences example oxygen levels decrease decreasing pressure limiting factor life higher altitudes water transportation plants important process affected pressure water pressure depths oceans requires organisms adapt conditions example diving animals seals specially adapted deal changes sound water pressure differences differences species provide example adaptation deep sea pressure specialized protein adaptations wind turbulent forces air water affect environment ecosystem distribution form dynamics scale ecosystems affected circulation patterns global trade winds wind power turbulent forces creates influence heat nutrient profiles ecosystems example wind running surface lake creates mixing water column influencing environmental profile create layered zones affecting fish algae parts aquatic ecosystem structured wind speed influence rates energy budgets plants animals wind speed temperature moisture content vary winds travel different land features elevations example come contact coastal interior mountains western north_america produce rain shadow mountain air expands moisture winds increase elevation called lift cause precipitation environmental process produces spatial divisions biodiversity species adapted conditions range restricted coastal mountain valleys unable migrate ecosystems western north_america sister segregated interior mountain systems fire plants convert carbon dioxide oxygen atmosphere approximately million years ago end period brought concentration atmospheric oxygen allowed occur fire releases converts fuel ash tar fire significant ecological raises issues pertaining control suppression issue fire relation ecology plants recognized long time brought attention issue forest fires relation ecology forest fire suppression management 1960s native north americans influence fire regimes controlling spread near homes lighting fires stimulate production foods materials fire creates ecosystem age canopy structure altered soil nutrient supply cleared canopy structure opens new ecological establishment ecosystems adapted natural fire cycles plants example equipped variety adaptations deal forest fires species seeds lived fire exposed certain compounds smoke environmentally triggered seeds called fire plays major role persistence ecosystems soils soil living layer mineral organic dirt covers surface planet chief organizing centre ecosystem functions critical importance agricultural science ecology dead organic matter example leaves forest floor results soils containing minerals nutrients feed plant production planet soil ecosystems called large earth biodiversity levels invertebrates feed larger leaves example create smaller bits smaller organisms feeding chain collectively organisms regulate soil formation tree roots fungi bacteria worms ants beetles spiders mammals birds reptiles amphibians familiar creatures work create web life soil ecosystems soils form composite matter physiology community organisms feed migrate soils physically displace materials ecological process called soils growth production soil influenced feed dynamics ecosystem single axis biological systems soils studies soils places origin time period events evolution trees colonization land period played significant role early development ecological soils climate study measure nutrient budgets understand materials regulated flow recycled environment research led understanding global feedback ecosystems physical parameters planet including minerals soil water atmospheric gases major elements hydrogen carbon nitrogen oxygen form constitution biological feed earth processes smallest scale biology combined effect ecological processes ultimately regulate cycles earth understanding relations cycles elements ecological pathways significant bearing understanding global ecology global carbon budgets gives example biodiversity estimated earth oceans hold carbon vegetation soil hold fossil fuel emissions carbon year major global carbon budgets earth history regulated large extent ecology land example early mid volcanic stored wetlands gases increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations levels high thirty million years ago significant restructuring global carbon cycle grasses evolved new mechanism expanded ranges new evolved response drop atmospheric concentrations relative abundance distribution biodiversity dynamics organisms environment ecosystems cause effect relation climate change human driven modifications planet ecosystems disturbance biodiversity loss agriculture contributes rising atmospheric greenhouse gas levels transformation global carbon cycle century projected raise temperatures lead extreme fluctuations weather alter species increase extinction rates effect global warming registered melting glaciers melting mountain ice caps rising sea levels consequently species changing continental areas migration patterns breeding grounds tracking prevailing shifts climate large sections melting create new mosaic flooded areas having increased rates soil activity raises emissions concern increases atmospheric context global carbon cycle greenhouse gas times effective absorbing long wave radiation year time scale relationship global warming soils wetlands producing significant climate globally altered cycles history early beginnings ecology complex origin large nature ancient greek philosophers aristotle record observations natural history viewed life terms species static things varieties seen type contrasts modern understanding ecological theory varieties viewed real phenomena interest having role origins adaptations means natural selection early ecology balance regulation nature traced died described earliest accounts observation natural noted open mouths safe access giving nutrition oral aristotle early influence philosophical development ecology student extensive observations plant animal physiology behaviour giving early modern concept ecological niche ecological concepts food chains population regulation productivity developed published works botanist early pioneer ecological thinking recognize ecological species replaced altered form environmental forming rise elevation drew inspiration developed form terrestrial physics fashion brought scientific measurement natural history alluded concepts foundation modern ecological law species area relationships natural historians laid foundations modern ecological sciences term ecology german recent origin coined german biologist book der zoologist artist writer later life professor comparative anatomy opinions differ founder modern ecological theory mark definition beginning warming writing plants introduction study plant communities principles economy nature matured early 18th century founded early branch ecology called economy nature works influenced adopted phrase economy nature frame balance nature hypothesis admired darwin work defined ecology reference economy nature led question ecology economy nature synonymous aristotle darwin natural world predominantly considered static prior origin species little appreciation understanding dynamic relations organisms adaptations environment exception publication natural history considered earliest texts ecology mainly noted treatise evolution founders soil ecology note ecological experiment evolutionary theory changed way researchers approached ecological sciences modern ecology young science attracted substantial scientific attention end 19th century time evolutionary studies gaining scientific interest notable scientist introduced term eventually home economics early early 20th century ecology transitioned descriptive form natural history form scientific natural history published american ecology book presenting idea plant communities publication launched debate ecological lasted 1970s concept proposed ecosystems progress regular determined stages development analogous developmental stages organism challenged stated ecological communities develop unique association individual organisms shift placed focus life histories individual organisms relates development community associations theory application form term coined jan south african general historical figure inspired concept time pioneered concept food chains classical book animal ecology defined ecological relations concepts food chains food cycles food size described numerical relations different functional groups relative abundance food cycle replaced food web subsequent ecological text brought theoretical concepts applying principles ecology wrote landmark paper dynamics ecology published posthumously initially rejected theoretical emphasis dynamics foundation work follow energy material flow ecosystems advanced mathematical theory predictions tests ecology 1950s inspired school theoretical mathematical ecology developed contributions nations including russia founding concept 1920s japan concepts harmony nature habitat segregation 1950s scientific recognition contributions ecology non english speaking cultures hampered language translation barriers ecology popular scientific interest 1970s environmental movement strong historical scientific ties ecology environmental management protection historical emphasis poetic writings advocating protection wild places notable history conservation biology seen far removed urban centres claimed concentration pollution environmental degradation located notes mainstream pioneering women early 1900s fought urban health ecology called brought changes environmental legislation women popularized environmental movements 1950s marine biologist book silent spring helped environmental movement public toxic ddt environment ecological science link release environmental human ecosystem health worked bridge understanding degradation planet ecosystems environmental politics law restoration natural resources management
Ecology