april october american nuclear physicist administrator manhattan_project came tennessee remained death use term bargain describe nuclear energy graduate university_of_chicago awarded doctorate mathematical joined september following year task design nuclear convert replaced director research director laboratory direction worked program pioneered innovative designs including water boiling water dominant types commercial nuclear power plants designs appointed president administration later served kennedy administration leaving named director washington following year founded director early years chicago born april chicago illinois son russian jewish met board boat carrying united_states older sister born november later professor attended chicago entered university_of_chicago received degree physics master science physics following year received university_of_chicago mathematical writing thesis mathematical foundations theory supervision later lamented restricting thesis linear systems overlooked interesting systems received nobel prize chemistry studying chicago hired family student university_of_chicago tutor mathematics married june sons taught courses applied received fellowship study columbia_university took cole came chicago work manhattan_project radiation biologist recruited work university_of_chicago september needed work capture calculations early concentrated manhattan_project teams working university_of_chicago brought scientists including columbia princeton_university protégé led included group task design production nuclear convert time existed paper gone critical july chose conservative design water cooling choice water controversial time water known absorb reducing efficiency confident group calculations correct water work technical difficulties involved liquid metal delay project took manhattan_project gave responsibility detailed design construction friction company team major differences design included increasing number process tubes circular array square array cutting power turned design decision additional tubes came poisoning problem extra tubes allowed greater fuel load overcome poisoning run low power burned allow reach power delayed operation year came online turned attention theoretical designs discovery spontaneous bred contamination led propose switching breeding challenge met developing type nuclear weapon design intrigued possibility away having solution heavy water attempted find way competing designs proposed water ultimately common design possibilities discussed colleagues chicago later wrote early days explored sorts power comparing advantages type number possibilities enormous possibilities component fuel material water heavy water gas liquid metal water heavy water calculated counted combinations fuel identify thousand distinct beginning nuclear power choose possibilities pursue ignore ultimate success water wrote superior characteristics water decision power prototype mark submarine thermal version water established possibilities expensive pursue remained interested possibilities according nuclear pioneer supported wide universe designs work accepted position director research tennessee staff took arrive head took responsibility laboratory operations manhattan_project start feeling managerial role new environment left end summer returned princeton_university administration passed university_of_chicago december influential general chaired recommended work concentrated successor near chicago competition staff resources newly established near new_york morale low found job director research laboratory renamed january people turned job acting director nelson asked director research march subsequently appointed director sat row division information meetings ask penetrating question scientific talk young scientists giving presentation experience frightening exciting asked found time attend meeting replied jokingly didn days development project biggest program budget project military goal produce nuclear powered aircraft bomber overcome range limitations jet fueled aircraft time project little chance success overlooked provided employment allowed stay development business successfully built operated prototype aircraft power plant creating world salt fueled cooled called set record high temperature operation radiation hazard posed people ground event crash new developments missile technology aerial longer range jet bombers president kennedy canceled program june converted mock real called poor man pile experiments led design water boiling water dominant types commercial nuclear power plants attracted simplicity self controlling features nuclear fluid proposed support nuclear aircraft project late 1940s asked engineers design liquid instead solid fuel experiment dubbed required pot pipe pump went operation party brought appropriate spirits piles critical chicago celebrate wine piles critical tennessee celebrate operated days closed despite leaks valuable information gained operation proved simple safe control time online senators visited hosted salt shifted focus civilian version proof away military idea nuclear powered aircraft set record continuous operation use fuel standard naturally occurring known chemist proposed mainly engineer chemical solution melted containing carrier salt composed depleted prevent excessive capture production afforded opportunity change chemistry salt operating remove products add new fuel change fuel called online processing biological environmental studies tenure director grew times size largest division division charged understanding radiation living things try find ways help survive radiation damage bone 1960s pursued new missions nuclear energy recruited mission started big ecology project united_states research applied leadership nuclear textbook following year elected president began service president kennedy starting patent usually filed numerous patents light water technology provided primary nuclear main types serve naval propulsion commercial nuclear power appointed vice president paper term bargain describe nuclear energy nuclear people bargain society hand offer nuclear source energy short range use ordinary offer energy cheaper energy fossil fuel source energy properly handled fossil fuel carbon nitrogen reason nuclear systems heat traces price demand society magical source longevity social institutions fired nixon administration years laboratory director continued advocate increased nuclear safety salt instead administration chosen director division appointed develop firing effectively halted development virtually unknown nuclear laboratories specialists brief revival research carter administration interests culminating conceptual design characteristics salt considered reference design commercial salt washington named director washington following year founded director institute focused evaluating alternatives meeting future energy requirements center study diverse issues related carbon dioxide global warming worked retiring distinguished fellow published landmark article science focused interface science policy matters especially governmental policy decisions issues arise course interaction science technology society effects technology attempts deal social problems procedures science hang answers questions asked science answered science propose term trans scientific questions speaking questions fact stated language science science science far public policy involves trans scientific scientific issues role scientist contributing policy different role issues answered science retirement remained active retirement named chairman arranged installation japanese bell called strengthening systems defend nuclear weapons wife margaret died later married stock broker died son david died died home october survived son richard sister legacy named awards outstanding young american year award peace award award books reflections big science cambridge second nuclear era new start nuclear power editor new_york isbn continuing nuclear dialogue selected essays selected introductory comments isbn edited new_york isbn stability edited washington isbn nuclear reactions science isbn nuclear era life times technological new_york isbn autobiography covering period early 1940s early 1990s
Alvin M. Weinberg