history history traces history effort understand history life earth studying fossil record left living organisms concerned understanding living organisms past considered field biology historical development closely tied geology effort understand history earth ancient times wrote fossils marine organisms indicating land water middle ages fossils discussed persian naturalist known europe book healing proposed theory albert elaborate 14th century chinese naturalist propose theory climate change based evidence bamboo early modern europe systematic study fossils emerged integral changes natural philosophy occurred age reason nature fossils relationship life past better understood 17th 18th centuries end 18th century work ended long running debate reality extinction led emergence association comparative anatomy scientific discipline expanding knowledge fossil record played increasing role development geology particularly word invented editor french scientific journal refer study ancient living organisms fossils half 19th century saw geological activity increasingly organized growth societies museums increasing number professional fossil specialists contributed rapid increase knowledge history life earth progress definition time scale largely based fossil evidence knowledge life history continued improve increasingly obvious kind successive order development life encourage early evolutionary theories species published focus shifted understanding evolutionary paths including human evolution evolutionary theory half 19th century saw tremendous expansion activity especially north_america trend continued 20th century additional regions earth opened systematic fossil collection demonstrated series important discoveries china near end 20th century transitional fossils discovered considered abundant evidence classes related form transitional fossils decades 20th century saw renewed interest mass role evolution life earth renewed interest explosion saw development body plans animal discovery fossils developments extended knowledge history life far prior 17th century early 6th century greek philosopher recognized fossil shells remains argue time dry land sea unpublished concluded fossil sea shells remains cases fossils complete remains species closely resembled living species easy classify persian naturalist known europe proposed explanation fossils caused book healing modified idea aristotle explained terms modified theory elaborated albert 14th century accepted form 16th century chinese song dynasty marine fossils found existence geological processes shifting time observation preserved found underground region province argued theory gradual climate change dry climate zone support habitat growth result new emphasis observing classifying nature 16th century natural philosophers europe began establish extensive collections fossil objects collections plant animal specimens stored specially built help organize published work fossils contained detailed descriptions cabinet collection collection belonged member extensive network drew works informal correspondence networks natural philosophers collectors increasingly important course 16th century direct scientific societies begin form 17th century cabinet collections correspondence networks played important role development natural philosophy 16th century europeans recognize fossils remains living organisms etymology word fossil comes latin things having dug indicates term applied wide variety stone stone like objects regard organic origin 16th century writers interested classifying objects physical mystical properties determining objects origins addition natural philosophy period encouraged alternative explanations origin fossils schools philosophy provided support idea objects grow earth resemble living things philosophy maintained living non living objects cause resemble school maintained seeds living organisms enter ground generate objects resembling organisms 17th century age reason fundamental changes natural philosophy reflected analysis fossils attributed giant bones extinct races giant humans year published illustrated collection observations microscope observations entitled wood bodies included comparison ordinary wood concluded wood ordinary wood soaked water particles suggested kinds fossil sea shells formed ordinary shells similar process argued prevalent view objects stones form extraordinary virtue earth believed fossils provided evidence history life earth writing finding medals monuments famous persons towns admitted persons things times certainly allowed equal validity evidence vegetables animals true universal characters rational men prepared accept possibility fossils represented species extinct possibly past geological nicholas wrote paper shark head compared teeth shark common fossil objects known tongue stones concluded fossils shark teeth took interest question fossils address objections organic origin began studying rock strata result work published forerunner solid naturally enclosed solid book drew clear distinction objects rock crystals formed rocks fossil shells shark teeth formed outside rocks realized certain kinds rock formed successive deposition horizontal layers sediment fossils remains living organisms buried sediment like 17th century natural philosophers believed earth thousand years old resorted biblical flood possible explanation fossils marine organisms far sea despite considerable influence forerunner continued question organic origin fossils particularly concerned objects fossil claimed organic origin resemble known living species raised possibility extinction found difficult accept philosophical theological reasons ray wrote welsh naturalist complaining views follows train consequences shock scripture history world overthrow opinion received good reason philosophers creation species lost new ones produced 18th century work nature referred fossils particular discovery fossils tropical species elephants northern europe evidence theory earth started warmer currently gradually cooling presented paper living fossil elephants comparing skeletal remains indian african elephants fossils animal later utilizing comparative anatomy established time indian african elephants different species differed extinct concluded extinct species differed indian african elephants powerful demonstration power comparative anatomy presented second paper large fossil skeleton named identified giant comparing skull living species tree ground breaking work comparative anatomy led widespread acceptance extinction led advocate geological theory explain succession organisms revealed fossil record pointed species elephants currently living tropics fossils evidence cooling earth pioneering application surveyor mining engineer extensive use fossils help rock strata different locations created geological map england late early 19th century established principle succession idea strata rock contain particular types fossils succeed predictable way widely separated formations time instructor paris school engineering similar methods influential study geology region paris early mid-19th century age reptiles identified fossil found giant marine later named identified drawing fossil found bavaria flying named speculated based strata fossils found large reptiles lived prior calling age mammals speculation supported series finds great_britain course decades professional fossil collector age collected fossils number marine reptiles marine strata included skeleton recognized collected skeletons found discoveries described scientifically observed objects known stones found abdominal region skeletons noted stones broken open contained fish bones scales bones small led suggest named better understand ancient food chains found described lower jaw deposits determined bone belonged land dwelling called year realized large teeth found cretaceous rocks belonged giant land dwelling called teeth resembled led publish influential paper entitled age reptiles summarized evidence having extended time earth large reptiles divided era based rock strata different types reptiles appeared intervals anticipated modern periods cretaceous find partial skeleton armored english create new order reptiles called evidence giant reptiles lived earth past caused great excitement scientific circles segments general public describe jaw small primitive found strata discovery known discussed thought later realized primitive small size primitive nature believe overall pattern age reptiles largest conspicuous animals reptiles mammals origin word son botanist published introduction longer work history fossil plants concluded history plants roughly divided parts period characterized second period characterized appearance conifers period brought emergence fourth development flowering plants transitions periods marked sharp fossil record gradual changes periods work foundation reinforced theory life earth long complex history different groups plants animals appearances successive order supported idea earth climate changed time concluded plant fossils showed climate tropical increasing attention paid fossil plants decades 19th century trigger significant change terminology study past life editor influential french scientific journal student named coined term refer work reconstruct extinct animals fossil bones began looking term refer study fossil animal plant remains trying unsuccessful alternatives hit term study organisms quickly popular fossil record landmark paper living fossil elephants referred single destroyed life replaced current forms result studies extinct mammals realized animals lived time led write terms multiple geological wiped series successive scientific consensus formed ideas result dinosaur marine discoveries britain great_britain natural theology influential early 19th century group included insisted explicitly linking recent biblical flood religious britain absent partly response saw practitioners flood geology advocated geological theory influential work principles geology amassed evidence field research work geological features explained slow action present day forces earthquakes erosion past catastrophic events claimed apparent evidence catastrophic changes fossil record appearance directional succession history life caused record instance argued absence birds mammals earliest fossil strata merely fossil record fact marine organisms easily pointed evidence mammals necessarily preceded reptiles fact certain pleistocene strata showed mixture extinct surviving species said showed extinction occurred result catastrophic events successful convincing idea geological features earth largely action forces observed present day acting extended period time successful gaining support view fossil record believed support theory directional succession species fossil record fossils arguments theory species early 19th century fossil finds emerging evidence life changed time fueled speculation topic decades fossil evidence popular science book natural history creation advocated evolutionary origin life earth like theory maintained life progressed simple complex early evolutionary ideas widely discussed scientific circles accepted scientific mainstream critics ideas fossil evidence arguments paper coined term dinosaur pointed sophisticated complex modern reptiles claimed contradicted theories similar argument pointing fossil fish found old red sandstone formation fully complex later fish primitive forms alleged early evolutionary theories failed accepted mainstream science debates help way acceptance darwin theory evolution natural selection years later geological time scale history life continued course disputes advances described new geological increasingly progress depended opinions experts specialized knowledge particular types fossils fossil fossil plants played role controversy resolution early 1840s time scale developed formally divided column major eras based sharp breaks fossil record identified periods era periods era definition geological time scale today remained relative time scale method assigning periods absolute dates understood age reptiles preceding current age mammals time life restricted sea time prior invertebrates largest complex forms animal life expansion geology rapid progress geology 1830s 1840s aided growing international network fossil specialists work organized reviewed increasing number geological societies paid professionals working universities museums government geological surveys relatively high level public support earth sciences cultural impact proven economic value helping exploit mineral resources coal important factor development late 18th early 19th centuries museums large natural history collections museums received specimens collectors world served centers study comparative anatomy morphology disciplines played key roles development technically sophisticated form natural history important examples paris center developments natural history decades 19th century founded act based extensive royal collection plus private collections confiscated french revolution expanded material seized french military conquests napoleonic wars paris museum professional base professional rival english spent time studying owen leading british working museum late 19th century evolution publication watershed event life sciences especially fossils played role development darwin theory particular impressed fossils collected south_america voyage giant giant time thought giant related species living continent modern times scientific debate started immediately publication origin led effort look transitional fossils evidence evolution fossil record areas early success attracted considerable public attention transition reptiles birds evolution modern single horse specimen animal teeth feathers mix features discovered limestone quarry bavaria described found late 1870s display museum berlin primitive toothed birds found kansas marsh discovered fossils primitive horses helped trace evolution horse small larger single modern horses genus extensive use horse bird fossils advocacy evolution acceptance evolution occurred rapidly scientific circles acceptance darwin proposed mechanism natural selection driving force universal particular preferred alternatives neo inheritance characteristics acquired life innate drive change particular direction explain perceived linear trends evolution great interest human evolution fossils discovered time clear represented different species modern humans created sensation discovery fossil evidence species clearly intermediate humans developments north_america major development second half 19th century rapid expansion north_america described skeleton north american dinosaur described good remains massive westward expansion railroads military bases settlements kansas parts following american_civil_war fueled expansion fossil collection result increased understanding natural history north_america including discovery covered kansas rest parts cretaceous discovery important fossils primitive birds horses discovery number new dinosaur genera including activity fierce personal professional rivalry men known bone wars overview developments 20th century developments geology 20th century developments geology big effect development dating allowed absolute dates assigned second theory plate helped sense geographical distribution ancient life geographical expansion 20th century exploration intensified ceased largely european north american activity years discovery total dinosaur genera described years number increased increase examination new rock particularly previously little explored areas south_america africa near end 20th century opening china systematic exploration fossils yielded wealth material origin birds mammals study fauna fossil site china 1990s provided important clues origin mass 20th century saw major renewal interest mass extinction events effect course history life particularly true forward hypothesis claiming impact event caused cretaceous extinction event killed non living things early 1980s published papers statistical analysis fossil record marine invertebrates revealed pattern possibly repeated mass significant implications evolutionary history life evolutionary paths theory 20th century new fossil finds continued contribute understanding paths taken evolution examples include major taxonomic transitions finds greenland starting 1930s major finds 1980s fossils illustrating evolution fish fossils china 1990s shed light dinosaur bird relationship events attracted considerable attention included discovery series fossils pakistan shed light whale evolution famously series finds 20th century africa starting child helped course human evolution increasingly end 20th century results molecular biology brought reveal detailed phylogenetic trees results contributed development evolutionary theory published tempo mode evolution analysis fossil record consistent branching non directional patterns predicted advocates evolution driven natural selection genetic drift linear trends predicted earlier advocates neo integrated modern evolutionary synthesis fossil evidence advocate theory punctuated maintains evolution characterized long periods relative shorter periods relatively rapid change explosion area seen lot activity 1980s 1990s study explosion animals distinctive body plans appear known fossil site found important site china found new analysis 1980s sparked renewed interest burst activity including discovery important new fossil site greenland publication popular controversial book wonderful life pre fossils prior widely accepted fossil evidence life period wrote origin species acknowledged lack fossil evidence life prior relatively complex animals potential argument theory evolution expressed hope fossils found future 1860s claims discovery pre fossils later shown organic origin late 19th century discover fossil evidence pre life time organic origin fossils disputed start change 1950s discovery bacteria built publication series papers soviet scientist announcing discovery microscopic fossil spores pre sediments key breakthrough come fossils soft bodied animals discovered late 1940s hills australia fact pre early originally believed making oldest animals known end 20th century established history life extended billion years
History of paleontology