philosophy science philosophy science branch philosophy concerned foundations methods implications science central questions study concern science reliability scientific theories ultimate purpose science discipline overlaps example explores relationship science truth consensus philosophers central problems concerned philosophy science including science reveal truth things scientific reasoning justified addition general questions science philosophers science consider problems apply particular sciences biology physics philosophers science use contemporary results science reach conclusions philosophy philosophical thought pertaining science dates time aristotle philosophy science emerged distinct discipline middle 20th century wake logical movement aimed criteria ensuring philosophical statements assessing landmark book structure scientific revolutions formative challenging view scientific progress steady cumulative acquisition knowledge based fixed method systematic experimentation instead arguing progress relative set questions concepts practices define scientific discipline particular historical period subsequently approach science theory makes sense observations coherent prominent seek ground science assumptions nature vocal minority philosophers particular argue thing scientific method approaches science allowed including explicitly supernatural ones approach thinking science involves studying knowledge created perspective approach represented scholars like finally tradition continental philosophy approaches science perspective rigorous analysis human experience particular sciences range questions nature time raised general implications economics public policy central theme scientific discipline reduced terms chemistry reduced physics reduced individual psychology general questions philosophy science arise greater particular sciences instance question validity scientific reasoning seen different guise foundations statistics question counts science excluded arises life death matter philosophy medicine additionally biology psychology social sciences explore scientific studies human nature achieve inevitably shaped values social relations introduction defining science distinguishing science non science referred problem example considered science called creation science hypothesis called central question philosophy science unified account problem won acceptance philosophers regard problem argued use potter stewart standard know recognizing early attempts logical grounded science observation non science non meaningless argued central property science genuinely scientific claim capable proven false principle area study speculation science attempt claim legitimacy able achieve referred fringe science science physicist coined term cargo cult science cases researchers believe science activities outward appearance actually lack kind utter honesty allows results evaluated scientific explanation closely related question counts good scientific explanation addition providing predictions future events society takes scientific theories provide explanations events occur regularly occurred philosophers investigated criteria scientific theory said successfully explained phenomenon means scientific theory explanatory power early influential theory scientific explanation model says successful scientific explanation occurrence phenomena question scientific law view subjected substantial criticism resulting widely acknowledged theory especially challenging characterize meant explanation thing explained law matter chance perfectly predicted known developed model good scientific explanation relevant outcome explained argued key good explanation disparate phenomena providing mechanism science taken granted clear validity general statement number specific instances truth theory series successful tests example chicken observes morning farmer comes gives food hundreds days row chicken use reasoning farmer bring food morning morning farmer comes kills chicken scientific reasoning chicken reasoning approach acknowledge induction achieve certainty observing instances general statement general statement probable chicken right conclude likely farmer come food morning certain remain difficult questions precise probability given evidence putting general statement way particular difficulties declare beliefs scientific theories personal correct reasoning merely evidence change beliefs time argue scientists reasoning reasoning best explanation account science specific instances explanations observed discussed previous section clear meant best explanation razor choosing simplest available explanation plays important role versions approach return example chicken simpler suppose farmer cares continue taking care indefinitely farmer slaughter philosophers tried principle precise terms theoretical measures measures simplicity brought forward potential candidates generally accepted thing theory independent measure simplicity words appear different measures simplicity theories task choosing measures simplicity appears bit problematic job choosing theories observation theory making observations scientists look study images electronic screens record meter readings generally basic level agree shows degrees scientists different ideas theories developed explain basic observations disagree observing example general theory observers likely interpreted image left different objects space light theory tell actually objects center different images object sides alternatively scientists suspect wrong object actually observed operating theory observations separated theoretical interpretation said theory laden observation involves perception observation actively engaged distinguishing phenomenon observed surrounding sensory data observations affected underlying understanding way world functions understanding influence perceived noticed deemed worthy consideration sense argued observation theory laden purpose science science aim determine ultimate truth questions science answer scientific claim science aims truth ought regard scientific theories true approximately true likely true conversely scientific anti argue science aim succeed truth especially truth like argue scientific theories evaluated useful view theories true point purpose science predictions enable effective technology point success recent scientific theories evidence truth near truth current theories point false theories history science morals success false modeling assumptions widely termed criticisms evidence scientific realism attempt explain success scientific theories reference truth claim scientific theories aim accurate objects argue success primarily judged criterion values science values intersect science different ways values mainly guide scientific research scientific enterprise embedded particular culture values individual practitioners values emerge science product process distributed cultures society unclear counts science process confirming theories works purpose science considerable scope values social influences shape science values play role ranging determining research gets funded influencing theories achieve scientific consensus example 19th century cultural values held scientists race shaped research evolution values concerning social class influenced debates considered scientific time feminist philosophers science science explore social values affect science history pre modern origins philosophy science trace aristotle distinguished forms approximate exact reasoning set scheme analyzed reasoning analogy eleventh century arab known latin conducted research way controlled experimental testing applied geometry especially investigations images resulting reflection light english heavily influenced recognized father modern scientific method view mathematics essential correct understanding natural philosophy considered years ahead time modern direct relation roger lived years earlier seminal figure philosophy science time scientific revolution work reference aristotle bacon outlined new system logic improve old philosophical process bacon method relied experimental histories eliminate alternative theories established new framework grounding scientific knowledge treatise discourse method advocating central role reason opposed sensory experience contrast 2nd edition argued place experimental philosophy philosophy phenomena rendered general induction passage influenced later generation inclined readers ban natural philosophy particular later 18th century famously articulate skepticism ability science determine gave definitive problem induction 19th century writings considered important formation current scientific method anticipating later accounts scientific explanation logical popular turn 20th century logical defined field decades logical accepts statements meaningful rejects interpretations set theories knowledge combines ground philosophy basis consistent examples sciences seeking overhaul philosophy convert new scientific philosophy berlin circle logical late 1920s interpreting early philosophy language logical identified principle criterion sought reduction mathematics logic embraced russell logical mind knows actual potential sensory experience content sciences physics psychology scientific meaningful meaningless worthy review philosophers newly tasked organize knowledge develop new knowledge logical commonly portrayed taking extreme position scientific language refer seemingly core notions mechanism principles talk allowed direct observations viewed abstract worst emotional theoretical laws reduced laws theoretical terms garner meaning terms correspondence rules mathematics physics reduce symbolic logic rational reconstruction convert ordinary language standardized united logical scientific theory stated method logical operation verify truth late 1930s logical fled germany austria britain america replaced sought replace simply confirmation world war close logical logical led largely america covering law model scientific explanation way identifying logical form explanations reference suspect notion logical movement major philosophy dominated philosophy including philosophy science influencing sciences 1960s movement failed resolve central problems doctrines increasingly assaulted brought establishment philosophy science distinct philosophy playing key role landmark book structure scientific revolutions reaction logical argued process observation evaluation takes place meant consistent portrait world consistent observations point view encompasses set questions practices define scientific discipline characterized normal science process observation puzzle solving takes place revolutionary science occurs shift denied possible hypothesis tested influence theory observations grounded argued possible evaluate competing independently consistent construct paint usable likeness world common ground pit theory theory distinct questions aims interpretations provides standard judged clear way measure scientific progress choice sustained rational processes ultimately determined choice involves setting portraits world deciding likeness promising acceptance rejection social process logical process position according shift occurs significant number arise old new makes sense choice new based observations observations background old current approaches assumptions seek articulate assumptions science based form typically implicit philosophy working scientists following basic assumptions needed justify scientific method objective reality shared rational observers objective reality governed natural laws laws discovered means systematic observation experimentation proponents argue assumptions reasonable necessary practicing science instance argues science physical world orderly likewise biologist cites nature laws assumption scientist assume proceeding geology view scientific laws enables scientists past words natural laws assumed order study past contrast view science rests assumptions asserts statements justified coherent system individual statements coherent systems justified prediction transit venus justified coherent broader beliefs mechanics earlier observations explained observation act relies pre existing understanding systematic set beliefs observation transit venus requires huge range auxiliary beliefs describe mechanics mount understanding mechanics prediction fails transit observed likely occasion adjustment system change auxiliary assumption rejection theoretical system fact according thesis impossible test theory isolation add auxiliary order predictions example test newton solar system needs information masses positions sun planets famously failure predict orbit 19th century led rejection newton law rejection hypothesis solar system comprises seven planets investigations followed led discovery eighth planet neptune test fails wrong problem missing planet badly test equipment space consequence thesis theory compatible observation addition sufficient number suitable hoc accepted thesis leading reject instead favored survival view scientific theories preferred goes austrian philosopher science paul argued description scientific method possibly broad encompass approaches methods scientists claimed useful exception free rules governing progress science objected scientific method grounds method scientific progress claimed principle progress goes felt science started movement time increasingly rigid increasingly ideology despite successes science started attain oppressive features argued possible come way distinguish science religion magic mythology saw exclusive dominance science means directing society authoritarian earned title worst enemy science detractors scientific knowledge according science inherently communal activity community fundamental difference science disciplines way communities function especially post modernist argued insufficient difference social practices science disciplines maintain distinction social factors play important direct role scientific method serve differentiate science disciplines account science socially constructed necessarily imply radical notion reality social construct maintain scientific reality social construct physical objects imported situation convenient definition terms experience simply comparable gods homer lay physicist believe physical objects homer gods consider scientific error believe point physical objects gods differ degree kind sorts entities enter cultural public backlash scientists views particularly 1990s came known science wars major development recent decades study formation structure evolution scientific communities including concepts methods rational choice social choice game theory economics applied understanding efficiency scientific communities production knowledge field come known science technology studies approach philosophy science study scientific communities actually operate continental philosophy philosophers continental philosophical tradition traditionally categorized philosophers science science anticipated themes tradition example advanced thesis morals motive search truth sciences kind ideal general science continental philosophy viewed world historical perspective philosophers supported view friedrich philosophers wrote works world historical approach science generation approaches involve historical turn science priority lived experience kind life world progress based anti historical approach tradition emphasis traced late works nature course notes largest effect continental tradition respect science critique theoretical attitude general course includes scientific attitude reason continental tradition remained skeptical importance science human life philosophical inquiry nonetheless number important works especially precursor important development analysis historical scientific thought study power corruption science madness post authors contributing continental philosophy science second half 20th century include truth justification unity nature und der und topics analysis activity breaking observation theory simpler concepts order understand refer philosophical positions related approach type belief fields study ultimately scientific explanation historical event explained psychological terms turn described terms human physiology turn described terms chemistry physics distinguishes legitimate calls denies real leaps quickly sweeping social broad issue affecting neutrality science concerns areas science chooses explore world man studied science science truth democracy argues scientific studies attempt segment population intelligent successful emotionally backward compared political feedback effect groups access science studies undermine broad consensus required good science excluding certain people proving end philosophy particular sciences thing philosophy free science science philosophical baggage taken board examination addition addressing general questions science induction philosophers science occupied investigating problems particular sciences examine implications particular sciences broader philosophical questions late 20th early 21st century seen rise number practitioners philosophy particular science philosophy statistics problem induction discussed seen form debates foundations statistics standard approach statistical hypothesis testing avoids claims evidence supports hypothesis makes probable instead typical test yields value probability evidence assumption hypothesis tested true value low hypothesis rejected way analogous contrast seeks assign related topics philosophy statistics include probability interpretations difference philosophy mathematics philosophy mathematics concerned philosophical foundations implications mathematics central questions numbers mathematical entities exist independently human mind nature mathematical asking true fundamentally different asking ball red invented discovered related question learning mathematics requires experience reason mean prove mathematical know mathematical proof correct philosophers mathematics aim clarify relationships mathematics logic human capabilities material universe philosophy physics philosophy physics study fundamental philosophical questions underlying modern physics study matter energy interact main questions concern nature space time included predictions interpretation quantum mechanics foundations statistical mechanics nature physical laws questions studied example space time philosophy chemistry philosophy chemistry philosophical study content science chemistry explored philosophers philosopher chemist teams includes research general philosophy science issues applied chemistry example chemical phenomena explained quantum mechanics possible reduce chemistry physics example discussed philosophy theories confirmed context confirming reaction mechanisms determining reaction mechanisms difficult observed directly use number indirect measures evidence rule certain mechanisms unsure remaining mechanism correct possible mechanisms tested thought philosophers sought clarify meaning chemical concepts refer specific physical entities chemical bonds philosophy biology philosophy biology deals ethical issues biological sciences philosophers science philosophers generally long interested biology aristotle philosophy biology emerged independent field philosophy 1960s 1970s philosophers science began pay increasing attention developments biology rise modern synthesis 1930s 1940s discovery structure acid dna recent advances genetic engineering key ideas reduction life processes reactions incorporation psychology broader addressed research current philosophy biology includes investigation foundations evolutionary theory role persistent host consequence evolution genetic content order seen result competent editors contrast narratives error events dominated philosophy medicine medical ethics philosophy medicine branch philosophy includes medicine medicine evidence based medicine evidence based practice attracted attention notably roles controls related areas investigation specific interest philosophy medicine include conception disease effects growing interest medicine particularly idea philosophers medicine interested medical knowledge generated nature phenomena interest purpose medical research establish relationships causes disease causes people better philosophy psychology philosophy psychology refers issues theoretical foundations modern psychology issues concerns psychological investigation example best method studying psychology focus response behavior external focus mental perception thought processes important question internal experiences measured self reports feelings beliefs reliable cases apparent incentive subjects intentionally answers self deception selective memory affect responses case accurate self reports responses compared individuals individuals respond answer scale experiencing different things issues philosophy psychology philosophical questions nature mind brain commonly thought science philosophy mind example humans rational creatures sense free relate experience making choices philosophy psychology closely monitors contemporary work conducted evolutionary psychology artificial intelligence questioning explain psychology philosophy psychology relatively young field psychology discipline late 1800s particular recently field works philosophy mind contrast established discipline psychology field study concerned questions nature mind qualities experience particular issues like debate related field philosophy language philosophy economics philosophy economics branch philosophy studies philosophical issues relating economics defined branch economics studies foundations morality categorized central topics concerns definition scope economics methods studied methods rise level reliability associated special sciences example possible research economics way value free establishing facts independent views researcher second topic meaning implications example buying lottery tickets increasing income time buying insurance decreasing income rational topic evaluation economic policies outcomes criteria determine given public policy beneficial society philosophy social science philosophy social science study logic method social sciences political science philosophers social science concerned differences similarities social natural sciences relationships social phenomena possible existence social laws significance structure agency french philosopher established perspective course series texts published volumes course dealt chiefly physical sciences existence mathematics astronomy physics chemistry biology emphasised inevitable coming social science physical sciences necessarily arrive humanity adequately channel efforts challenging complex queen science human society offers evolutionary system proposing society undergoes phases quest truth according general law stages theological positive established initial philosophical foundations formal social research typically cited fathers contemporary social science psychology approach historically favoured espoused believe social progress science technology perspective associated view methods natural sciences applied areas investigation philosophical social scientific social scientists historians orthodox long lost popular support today practitioners social physical sciences instead account effect observer bias structural limitations facilitated general weakening accounts science philosophers new philosophical movements critical realism philosopher pure instrumental meaning scientific thinking akin ideology
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