mediterranean campaign mediterranean campaign series major naval operations surrounding french expeditionary force sent egypt french revolutionary wars sought capture egypt stage effort threaten force great_britain peace departing toulon troops hundreds ships fleet sailed mediterranean_sea followed small british squadron rear admiral sir later reinforced ships line pursuit hampered lack scouting frigates reliable information target island malta government theoretically granted owner control forces landed island rapidly overwhelmed defenders securing port city continuing egypt nelson learned french capture island french target egypt sailed alexandria passed french night june discovering arrived egypt unable find nelson turned mediterranean eventually reaching sicily july nelson returning westwards reached alexandria stormed city capturing coast marching army inland fleet entrusted vice admiral anchored line battle august nelson returned egyptian coast reports gathered revealed french invasion arrived late afternoon british fleet accurate charts bay nelson ordered immediate attack french van unprepared ships unable manoeuvre british split divisions sailed french line capturing ships vanguard engaging gun flagship orient centre orient caught fire exploded killing crew ending main combat sporadic fighting continued days french ships captured destroyed fled battle french ships line frigates eliminated trapping egypt changing balance power mediterranean french_navy mediterranean defeated nations encouraged join second coalition war france portugal russian_empire ottoman_empire subsequently deployed forces mediterranean russians turks participated blockade egypt operations adriatic_sea portuguese joined siege malta conducted nelson naples nelson wounded battle involved politics encouraged king ferdinand war france resulting loss mainland kingdom vice admiral commanded mediterranean fleet deployed forces rapidly captured island turned important naval base background plan beginning war coalition come end french control low countries confirmed treaty major european powers time allied remained hostile determined end french revolutionary wars eliminating britain series invasions british isles planned year old general defeated austrians italy previous year assigned lead army england assembled english channel firmly controlled royal_navy french invasion supplies particularly viable landing craft totally inadequate purpose early spring left command returned paris reporting continued british naval supremacy northern european waters invasion impossible near future operations north impossible directed attention southwards toulon principal french mediterranean french army fleet begun assembling secret location speculated french commentators aimed wide variety places including britain sicily malta expedition intended target actually egypt formed important link chain communications britain economically vital colony british india considered capture egypt important step massive economic benefits britain gained trade india bringing britain terms august wrote time far away feel order truly destroy england egypt possession egypt grant french control red_sea forcing severe delays dispatches sent britain india trade worth million equivalent british economy addition successful invasion egypt followed direct attack british territory india possibly conjunction unopposed start following treaty spain formed alliance france declared war britain royal_navy withdrawn mediterranean bases early mediterranean_fleet based portugal remaining continental ally permanent british fleet mediterranean uprising imminent ireland firmly believed royal_navy unable intervene plans discover passage egypt seemingly unopposed gave orders fleet thirteen ships line led gun orient vice admiral numerous smaller warships including entire captured previous year prepare sea fleet accompanied transport ships carry men detailed invasion departed paris arriving toulon days later oversee final preparations reviewed assembled army gave speech announcing expedition bound unspecified foreign land speech met enthusiastic response soldiers revised version subsequently appeared widely distributed france poster despite french departure delayed strong prevented fleet sailing days conditions finally lifting permitted warships transports french fleet sail following day response britain unaware french preparations toulon mediterranean coast despite sustained efforts british agents france destination french fleet unknown egypt seriously considered british government secretary state war henry suggested urged foreign secretary lord think map hand calculation distances letters reached london describing extensive preparations right french italian mediterranean coastlines distances base toulon prevented sustained observation french movements urgent orders sent lord admiralty vice admiral commander squadron investigate command rear admiral sir nelson returned fleet days earlier lord order following recovery britain loss arm battle santa july preparing expedition toulon nelson mind rear admiral departed flagship hms vanguard able place nelson command mission writing arrival admiral nelson given new life presence mediterranean essential preference nelson senior sir sir provoked storm protest eventually culminated challenging duel subsequently ordered return britain nelson collected ships line hms alexander hms captains alexander ball sir frigates hms captains thomas sloop hms captain gibraltar passed mediterranean despite leaving cover darkness nelson departure observed spanish forces fort cape fired shot striking alexander inflicting damage captured crew nelson learned departure imminent destination unknown squadron reached near toulon struck strong winds snapped vanguard brought wreckage deck killing men vanguard left struggling heavy seas blown nautical miles southwards night severe damage vanguard wrecked coast following day nelson ordered captain ball managed attach flagship abandon ball refused order british ships line rode storm alexander able tow vanguard repairs gale forced squadron frigates separate larger ships divided frigates observed vanguard state height storm frigates sails ridden storm captain turning spanish coast storm encountered captain sent augment nelson force days later hope squadron encountered captured merchant ships sailed rendezvous point miles near barcelona hope ordered cruise june encountered brig captain scout fleet sent approaching rendezvous knowing damaged suffered vanguard aware french left toulon hope took decision search french frigates hope ships failed find british french fleets frigates returned nelson command battle malta departing toulon fleet passed coast genoa additional transport ships collected sailing south fleet reached collected fleet transports convoy remained sight eastern coastline crossing following coastline anticipation combining fleets transports sailing june message reached reporting presence nelson squadron french general sent french squadron investigate time nelson sailed harbour abandoning wait force arrived gave orders fleet turn southeast passing sicily island june report captured british merchant brig warned nelson short distance force powerful royal_navy fleet concerned transports gave urgent orders french fleet steer malta arriving june shortly uniting ships convoy missed rendezvous continued malta report nelson activity submitted june inaccurate repairs vanguard took days squadron sailing toulon arriving harbour nelson learned departure french fleet captured merchant ship reinforcements knowledge french direction begin pursuit june brig arrived toulon reported british fleet days away consisting ships line fourth rate sent captain hms acting urgent orders london send fleet mediterranean opted split forces risk taking ships mediterranean leaving spanish considered best officer fleet nelson held high opinion immediately sailed squadron scheduled rendezvous point june squadron briefly intercepted spanish merchant convoy capturing ships admiral called pursuit ensure arrived agreed time june fleets combined nelson commanding gun ships line gun ship brig noticeable absence frigates vital scouting operations campaign nature encounter hope hardy reported nelson frigates cruising independently admiral responded thought hope known better nelson search delayed june calm unaware french intentions nelson initially sailed coast june sending information hardy unable discover french destination fleet nelson continued south days later admiral spoke ship passed inaccurate information french seen anchored syracuse june nelson anchored naples sent ashore appeal british ambassador sir information assistance scouting french prime minister sir passed reports french sailing egypt hamilton report nelson possibly suspicious hamilton relay information fleet passed probably sailing direction malta despite private animosity france government refused openly join british war denied nelson use frigates quietly agree resupply nelson fleet rough direction established believing ultimate french destination sicily nelson sailed pursuit light winds hampered advances pass june received report ambassador french malta june near hardy stopped ship reported seeing french fleet sailing southwards away malta left june information wrong important respect preparations begun june french actually departed june nelson fleet nautical miles miles away nelson decided french target egypt constantinople called senior captains ball board vanguard conference officers determined egypt likely option best location mediterranean threaten india consequently nelson turned southeast alexandria exercising men gunnery daily ensure ready battle planned plan force encounter french clear dividing squadrons fleet strike french points squadrons ships engage french fleet directly separate attack transports sinking capturing possible nelson deliberately forged close links captains regular aboard flagship ensure ease communication build confidence later said time happiness command malta nelson gathering fleet searching french secured stage plan invasion egypt arriving malta june demanded island ruler grand master knights allow fleet enter harbour purchase provisions refused insisting ships time enter port responded opening fire harbour defences june landed soldiers seven sites malta general coming fire native soldiers mustered invasion continued western island hours general entered defenders withdrew fortress troops refused continue fight support government negotiations followed knights agreed abandon malta condition financial compensation amounting million exchange gained entire archipelago including fortresses military stores cannon small army entire property roman_catholic_church malta position severely weakened large number order refused arms french revolution significantly reduced knights income ability resistance seriously compromised lack resources june finally announced troops destination expedition june sailed alexandria initially steering east crete left men maintain malta base control ensure news impending attack egypt spread ahead fleet ordered merchant ships sighted convoy passage seized detained force reached alexandria june british gained firm intelligence french intentions frigate captain encountered captured french frigate sensible returning toulon malta cargo treasure wounded soldiers including general prisoners destination french fleet discovered joined shortly sailed pursuit hoping encounter nelson arrivals alexandria nelson passage sicily alexandria uneventful journey taking days lack frigates nelson unable scout flanks advance result spoke merchant ships useful information french fleet lack frigates decisive effect june british fleet sighted sails southeast captain requested permission investigate strangers nelson refused ordered fleet continue current heading believing french days ahead wishing reach alexandria rapidly possible british frigates available approach investigate distant squadron discovered scouts main french fleet short distance away french frigate sighted british fleet reported presence adjusted convoy direction slightly northerly trajectory result nelson fleet passed north french east malta night heavy mist nelson close signal guns heard aboard orient observe french ships british fleet continued ahead dawn broke following day diversion northeast taken convoy sight british fleet continued southeast june arrived alexandria ahead nelson fleet discovered french fleet harbour main fleet arrived attempts contact british consul failed dismissed british government shortly left city result official diplomatic channels closed nelson message warning french approach carried ottoman governor hardy replied seen french fleet enforce ottoman_empire neutrality british french entering harbour landing coast dismissive british warnings impossible french come country business war baldwin entries sign french morning june nelson decided turn northeast pass central mediterranean following northerly course voyage invasion egypt fleet delayed transport ships passed island crete june reached alexandria following morning driven fresh winds action send small brig harbour collect french consul relayed news nelson stay port refusal allow french land seriously concerned nelson return men transports gave orders landing ahead immediately soldiers landed region appearance sail east mistaken scout british fleet caused panic reportedly fortune fortune thou abandon days newcomer eventually revealed french frigate justice sent malta invasion continued unopposed evening landing completed boats wrecked surf estimated men drowned july led men victory brief battle alexandria secured city placed general command rear admiral charge harbour finding entrances anchorage shallow accommodate main body french fleet ordered sail squadron wider miles northeast alexandria instructed considered anchorage unsafe sail leaving small light force anchor comfortably alexandria held conference officers decide response nelson discover bay rear admiral franklin argued fleet sailing meet british overruled ordering ships remain anchored line battle receive british attack july frigates arrived alexandria observed french flying french colours confuse observers shore sign hall turned westwards search admiral learned british frigates seen egyptian coast decided retreat vessels danger imminent attack british force failed precautions attack nelson returns nelson having sailed northeast day french ships arrived alexandria reached july turned westward wind sailing sicily ships briefly scattered storm july following day july british fleet reached cape july nelson force anchored syracuse fresh provisions supplied emma wife ambassador naples frustrated nelson wrote letter wife moment regret frigates having left attributed ignorance movements enemy reports subsequently reached british fleet syracuse french seen adriatic leaving egypt syria likely destinations sailing july nelson turned ships east sailing sending july news ottoman governor reported french seen sailing southwards crete start month presented french merchant ship anchored harbour definite sighting french british fleet turned southwards alexandria battle august nelson fleet reached egyptian coast ships detached scouts investigate alexandria harbour transport fleet observed harbour french battle fleet despite initial disappointment nelson ordered ships search coastline reported french anchored line battle believed line protected north west result british forced attack rear centre fleet consequently placed strongest ships points planning stall british fleet van prevailing northeasterly wind counterattack confident british fleet nightfall approaching attack day believed nelson anchor bay attack morning giving time prepare leaving open option simply sailing away night following orders avoid direct confrontation british fleet nelson attack despite hopes nelson determined press home attack ordered ships advance fit springs anchor cables allow easily direct cramped shallow coastal waters accurate chart bay nelson forced cautious advance ordered captain advanced establish depth bay british ships hms rounded northern leading french ships opened fire approached french line captain noticed error distribution forces place lead ship close northern french admiral left gap widened order french fleet anchor bow meant drifted significantly sailing directly gap engaged second ship french line passed gap attacked followed hms hms opened fierce fire french ships unprepared port sides nelson followed vanguard bringing ships action starboard french van catching french ships rapidly battered ships despite determined defence french van destroyed hms majestic attacked french centre outnumbered faced orient gun franklin british ships suffered massive damage bringing rear british line passed close northern grounded suffering severe damage hull despite efforts drag ship darkness fallen hour french van defeated british hands badly damaged continue fighting british suffered damage vanguard badly hit south majestic forced cut anchor cables pull away respective opponents majestic captain killed suffered severe head wound destruction orient shortly trailing alexander joined attacked french centre causing severe damage franklin killing admiral quarterdeck cannon shot fire broke orient stern blaze spread defeated efforts flames spread rapidly racing masts decks entire flagship wreck vast magazines detonated tearing ship apart burning wreckage neighbouring vessels minutes shot fired nearest ships battled fires ones shock ship hostilities franklin admiral heavily outnumbered flagship forced surrender french ship engaged fought majestic mortally wounded captain succeeded dragging ship temporary safety rear division rear admiral august firing began ships scratch british squadron formed damaged ships conducted successful fighting withdrawal mouth bay able escape open water forced abandon battered grounded retaining ships line frigates escaped british ships received surrender grounded shortly explosion orient forced captain frigate vessel august sent complete destruction french fleet surrendered set fire crew destroyed subsequent operations exception annihilated ships line captured destroyed frigates french casualties totalled possibly compared british losses killed wounded nelson ships seriously damaged urgent repairs required ships captured prizes begin long voyage britain weeks nelson remained repairs writing despatches assessing strategic situation egypt ship detached squadron sent august fleet reports battle august stormed captured august finally caught fleet followed august detached august despatches admiralty august nelson sent seven ships prizes mouth bay command convoy sailed gibraltar august following day nelson burnt followed august fit continued service august nelson separated remaining ships leading vessels northwards naples leaving blockade squadron alexandria frigates captain time nelson departed alexandria set dispatches french hands discovered western coast crete august french ship line separating squadron august sailing encountered british fourth rate larger french ship soon overtook british vessel heated exchange followed french efforts board driven heavy casualties captain thompson stage successfully opponent gradually heavier weight inflicted severe damage british ship half hours thompson forced surrender french captain authorised widespread looting personal effects british crew forced conduct repairs ships act established conventions naval warfare prize towed repairs battered vessels briefly encountering escaped westwards chase captivity continued refuse allow british officers medical attention return stolen property eventually returned britain thompson heavily praised defence ship heavy odds commended success assisted incorrect account battle published french newspapers alexandria french naval presence mediterranean reduced scattered vessels allies second coalition able exert dominance region alexandria squadron captain hood successfully prevented communications france french army egypt august days nelson sailed north intercepted gun dispatch vessel alexandria harbour forced captain surrender flag struck captain dispatches sea action witnessed sailors aboard men water successfully messages bravery diving rapidly moving ship unknown waters men granted annual equivalent days capture captain sent boat sheltered anchorage men boarded captured armed typical gun vessels fired british advance battle september dispatch vessel reached egyptian coast gun cutter carrying general men malta managed cut vessel alexandria harbour drive ashore near town cutter swiftly broke surf men aboard managed scramble ashore british ships lay shore unable intervene partisans discovered survivors dragging survivors inland french cavalry rescue survivors rescued lieutenant swam shore barrel attached rope despite coming fire french beach able save men attack october small british squadron alexandria briefly reinforced portuguese squadron ships line gun captain portuguese sailed malta days october squadron joined turkish russian frigates small turkish arranged hood visit rhodes week subsequently bombard french lake october results day turkish crews replaced british sailors complaint french unfair weapons attack achieved shells subsequently proved taken captured following battle august found substance burned water days bombardment abandoned activity took place egyptian coast remainder year turkish russian vessels eventually withdrawn december lion detached join blockade malta main mediterranean fleets ottoman_empire russian_empire deployed treaty france awarded fortresses greek coasts early october following declaration war france ottomans large turkish army advanced balkans rapidly forced fortresses surrender time islands attacked joint russian turkish expeditionary force included russian ships line numerous smaller russian vessels approximately turkish ships board turkish soldiers rapidly invaded seized islands capturing french prisoners october large fortified island held defenders forced main town town besieged operations slow blockade loosely enforced allowing successfully breakout reach end year little changed french garrison remaining besieged malta naples westwards newly captured french island malta blockade returning convoy bay reached malta september encountered squadron portuguese ships line british ship lion command initially sending alexandria anchored malta awaiting favourable winds delegation native citizens brought board ship september announced people infuriated french roman_catholic_church malta risen french garrison forcing fortress attempted negotiate surrender island rebuffed unable delay passage gibraltar longer gave muskets promised send assistance soon able october french besieged healthy troops arrival ship line tell frigates bolster defences day french retreated nelson ships alexander squadron naples blockade port command captain refused deploy forces malta technically territory squadron joined days portuguese ships nelson lord nelson vanguard october days later nelson authorised ball negotiate surrender nearby island french abandoned island fortifications british captured cannon required sacks grain distributed populace french garrison trapped actions took place malta year sides settling long siege captains enforced blockade malta alexandria september october nelson anchored enjoying king ferdinand queen arriving september vanguard greeted small vessels organised royal family led barge carrying sir william weeks nelson taken court honoured guest subsequently accused naval responsibilities time mutual attraction developed romantic affair began politics successfully combining queen encourage ferdinand war france ferdinand ordered army general drive french rome resulting campaign disaster french forced ferdinand court flee sicily french established naples replace monarchy spain nelson engaged central eastern mediterranean main mediterranean_fleet ensured unable intervene joined reinforcement ships sir admiral ordered ships establish southern spanish ports especially main spanish fleet lay anchor regular correspondence passed admiral spanish commander spanish fleet major deployments year single convoy ship line frigates merchant vessels sailed april minor warships fought small engagements spanish mediterranean coast significant spanish deployment remainder year frigate squadron based intercepted british ship line lion ensuing action july spanish ships formed line meet attack captain ship damaged frigate fell leading frigates leading ships returned long range exchange gunfire defeated captured destroyed determined restore british mediterranean ensure fleet needed base protected deep water harbour assaulted land best island harbour port large modern dockyard included wharf extensive purpose built naval hospital facilities british manufacture constructed periods occupation british forces detached ships line frigates smaller vessels transports island commodore carrying small army colonel expeditionary force arrived november troops landed creek spanish attack driven days army continued inland detachment colonel seizing main army received surrender town town including overlooked island principal protected anchorage november spanish squadron frigates attempted disrupt operations swift counterattack ships drove november town control island ceded british forces
Mediterranean campaign of 1798