june arabic president post independence syria began career working independence unity ottoman_empire arab territories consequently imprisoned tortured activism established government official disillusioned founded republican immediately sentenced death french took control syria afterward based cairo served chief ambassador syrian palestinian congress particularly strong ties saudi_arabia connections help finance french authorities pardoned returned syria gradually principal leader elected president syria oversaw country independence years later reelected toppled military coup subsequently went exile egypt returning syria participate presidential election won conservative presiding increasingly leftist dominated government officially adopted amid cold war request aid united_states denied drew closer eastern entered syria defense arrangement egypt saudi_arabia confront influence baghdad pact pact countries attempted failed sought stem leftist tide syria avail political authority military increasingly bypassed jurisdiction separately coordinating egyptian president months unity talks merged syria egypt form stepped serve president gratitude awarded honorary title arab citizen grew union believing reduced syria police state subordinate egypt supported syria plans finish presidential term afterward left syria following coup died heart attack lebanon weeks syria defeat day war buried damascus july personal life family family merchants wealthy trading moved damascus baghdad 18th century family established district damascus family wealth invested buying large tracts land farms surrounding damascus family notable status owed wealth aristocratic religious lineage traditional spheres activity commerce ottoman civil service grandfather involved finance great uncle president great uncle member city father wealth rested highly fertile lands owned later bequeathed siblings older brother elected president agriculture married year old daughter nationalist met jail children oldest born died childhood education born damascus received elementary education jesuit school city studied preparatory high school jewish quarter damascus obtained moved istanbul studied political science public administration graduated returned damascus receiving diploma started working ottoman civil service early influences initially brought pro ottoman environment owing family connections istanbul restrictions era started felt ottoman_empire discontent empire elite following parliamentary elections called provinces liberal arab intellectuals like secured seats deputies members legislature representing damascus liberal current established figures political established including arab brotherhood greatly influenced arab youths ottoman strongly supported cup failed cup accused arab provinces supporting initiated policy local officials substituted turkish ones soon parliament dissolved liberal arab politicians forced following elections early nationalist activities early involvement arab nationalist movement came arab congress shortly starting career ottoman civil service damascus received invitation attend conference paris conference strongly condemned ottoman authorities arab forbidden attending congress succeeded nationalist feelings arab provinces confrontation ottoman authorities came february visit governor syria time offices damascus worked visit refused follow normal protocol bending kissing right hand promptly thrown prison prison days later family connections lost job civil service growing hardships country early years world war pushed join secret society facilitated childhood friend founder underground organization established paris arab nationalists aim gaining independence unity arab territories ottoman_empire society established main branch damascus successful attracting syrian elite ranks trying garner support planned uprising ottomans sent son damascus lobby syrian behalf member met secretly members society including house ottoman authorities learned meeting ordered arrest brothers accusing treason charged leadership task escape succeeded retaliation ottoman authorities placed arrest subjected torture humiliation refused confess captors failed operation released month later tremendous pressure experience took toll young release retired country house stopped contacts members opposition late approached hope help secure escape route ailing father arrested ottomans like despite refusal help ottoman authorities tracked contact arrested men subjected torture reveal names colleagues attempt prevent surrendering names tried commit suicide cutting life saved minute fellow member practicing doctor spent months jail released bail relative served deputy january experience jail story attempted suicide turned nationalist hero syria kingdom syria october arab army leadership british general entered damascus end october rest ottoman syria fell charge liberated territory appointed prime minister friend personal adviser age appointed assistant governor damascus generation unimpressed leadership skills drawn republican view governance furthermore suspicious brother ties british april founded loose coalition independence party party pan arab secular anti british outlook attracted youth activists elite classes known members included ostensibly working government devoted efforts nationalist activities outside government auspices addition member palestinian led damascus branch meeting sent united_states gauge national sentiment greater syria rejected notion american military presence syria telling crane reduction sovereignty non instead suggesting help build state live peace land french forces started landing syrian coast enforce agreement france divide arab territories ottoman_empire march granted france mandate syria lebanon response declared king syria march refused accept mandate french marched damascus minister defense time led small force met french battle july battle ended decisive victory french day french forces occupied damascus deported europe french mandate syria lebanon officially declared leader syrian independence movement syrian palestinian congress french started rule sentencing nationalist leaders including death august managed flee hours warrant arrest issued damascus fled car british mandated palestine soon cairo egypt spent bulk time traveling arab world europe serving virtual ambassador syrian palestinian congress chief link arab nationalist activists europe arab world europe particularly frequented berlin worked prominent arab nationalist intellectual anti french sentiment leading french mandatory authorities label dangerous syrian developed close ties ruled having overrun prior relationship stemming family commercial links friendship syrian adviser dispatched rule strongly impressed relatively quick conquest saw strong potential ally british french middle_east solidified position syrian palestinian congress acquisition funding odds congress chief financing great syrian revolt summer tensions chiefs led french authorities culminated spread syria months lobbied jerusalem set financial support network rebellion secured funds arms diverted military aid jerusalem based committee revolt initial momentum began opposition leaders inside outside syria increased significantly accused rivals cairo money raised paying rebels prevent rebel raids family extensive tensions like syrian nationalist leaders like particularly sharp accusing touch realities revolt accusing treason attempting stop insurrection role national late headed syrian palestinian congress headed separate rival committee called congress executive committee based cairo allowed return syria general amnesty joined opposition movement syria tolerated french opposed moderate leaders determined remain major political player joining group sought steer determined nationalist course worked expand support base relying relationships residents damascus traditionally nationalist neighborhoods city merchant emerging industrialist classes worked draw support staunch pan beginning managed opt members financing land development company aimed prevent land sales organizations palestine assigning leaders director boards companies affiliated general strike underway country demand french role syria appointed vice president internal affairs treaty negotiation committee led talks french paris march new treaty established end month french fall spearheaded efforts unify nationalists ranks syria convincing leader join highest governing body enlisting support prominent pan like strengthened position particularly regards chief nationalist rival march world war french control syria called immediate syrian independence amid period food shortages high unemployment widespread nationalist rioting country troops country defeated allied forces july left syria campaign returned france officially recognized syria independence september french troops withdrawn national elections postponed french mandatory authorities presidential term election prior national elections french mandatory syria french authorities attempted negotiate head issue treaty guaranteed independent syria alignment close military cooperation france return french help securing election presidency refused believing syrian people view negotiations negatively confident win elections regardless french support win vote syria president august syrian independence president continued press syrian independence france bid garner american british support government declared war axis powers syria allies growing unrest response french mandatory rule led military assaults damascus syrian cities french troops scheduled land syria aid authorities request intervention british troops invaded syria entering damascus june french military campaign came immediate halt consequence viewed french military action syria potential catalyst unrest middle_east british american lines communication region french troops began partial withdrawal country instructed envoy head syrian mission united_nations bring issue syria independence president tell french land syria heads proceeded petition force france withdrawal syria backed syria request informed british troops control syria requesting cooperation enforcing evening country complied expressed gratitude british government summit france russia china france agreed withdraw syria lebanon return british promises withdraw military levant region angered syria left conference requested summit winston_churchill rebuffed transfer administrative powers syrian government began august day announced establishment position commander chief asked form cabinet established august french finished withdrawal syria april declared syria independence day april post independence politics following syria independence dissolved replaced leadership supported older politicians like increasingly challenged emerging leaders antagonistic relations kings iraq jordan respectively increased seeking unite syria iraq jordan rule iraq jordan join republican syria leadership instead found support influential force major city economic hub syria particularly death based ally early largest party parliament amendment constitution enable seek election met strong disapproval rival syrian parties opposition politicians campaign presidential election commenced allies won seats parliamentary election post independence syria opposition won seats political party won number allies defected president retired politics frustration handling syrian internal affairs tasked form new cabinet october included pro western politicians despite heavy presence pro american figures cabinet initially warm ties relations countries began amid nascent cold war view interests region developed close relations head contributing factor congress rejection arms request late rejected construction syria connect saudi_arabia lebanon feared construction pipeline threaten british owned upset syrian public believed view project new form indirect foreign economic control according support israel particularly adamant opposition source tension second presidential term election constitution amended allow president seek term ran year term won slim majority april arab israeli war opposed proposed partition separate jewish arab states arguing plan palestine jewish state violated rights palestinian arab majority proposal passed vote syria war preparations soon afterward including founding proposed creation volunteer force attract fighters arab world place arab regular armies establishment sponsored following partition vote syrian commander played leading roles revolt palestine appointed commander believe armies syria arab world ready successfully confront jewish forces war drew near early petitioned head enter arab armies palestine instead offered provide local palestinian arab fighters arms funding continued effort rallying arab governments dispatch armies establishment israel announced ordered enter palestine immediately consisted soldiers repelled offensive days war gaining control small area syrian border result army poor showing pressed defense minister resign post replaced chief staff period war following war accused military incompetence officers turn accused conflict syrian public spare blame army poor performance causing popularity built nationalist reputation syrian press sharply critical prime minister urging leave positions resigned august replaced mass demonstrations took place syria condemning president recognizing israel attacked damascus offices officials frustrated attempting stop demonstrations egypt jordan lebanon signed armistice agreements israel february april syria refused send delegation attend truce negotiations rhodes march coup état march launched coup état troops entered damascus raided home disarmed guard confronted night clothes army officer arrested allowed change clothes taken authorities city prison prime minister arrested coup backed allegedly planned country recognize government followed france kingdoms iraq jordan exile egypt result pressure egyptian governments spare life ally agreed release prison mid april officially resigning president exiled alexandria egypt egypt respected guest honor king july revolution free officers gained power despite positive relationship ousted king developed close friendship founder egypt leader presidential term elections returned syria following president presidency entered candidacy august presidential elections age required secure thirds majority member order win defeated main opponent votes cast invalid round prompted second round voting won presidency votes votes blank invalid bid presidency supported governments egypt saudi_arabia allied opposition baghdad pact prime minister resigned post september following party withdrawal cabinet result attempted nominate prime minister opposition afterward asked form cabinet refused citing influence government real power president egypt recommended refused instead opting independent agreed subsequently presided national unity government adoption leadership syria increasingly moved despite conservative views held september opted official request arms united_states eventually rebuffed despite support secretary state starting began look eastern economic military assistance tenure administration syria relations countries yugoslavia india egypt soviet_union ussr eastern pursuit policy partially support afforded leftist movements syria egyptian governments viewed strong opponents baghdad pact highly influential leftist factions initiated egyptian syrian agreement defense arrangement serve baghdad pact march agreement stipulated country assist case attack establishment numerous committees coordinate joint military activities creation joint military command headed egyptian officer agreement concluded october increasingly concerned growing leftist trend country called national unity government include parties political spectrum february despite opposition managed national entailed foreign policy opposition adoption amid cold war nonetheless advice resigned post june result pressure communists leading protests decision lift ban wheat sales western_europe faced options prime minister moved strengthen ties egypt including pledge start unity talks appointed ministerial positions economy foreign affairs following invasion suez_canal british french israeli forces october severed ties britain sent hundreds army recruits aid egyptian defense emergency visit moscow request soviet backing premier telling forces want destroy egypt response public pressure late december prime minister cabinet removing fellow conservatives strengthening leftist influence government confronting leftist influence july relations ally saudi_arabia governments iraq jordan rivals syria warmed considerably leftist current syria viewed growing ties region conservative distress series public criticisms king array syrian political figures including syrian assets saudi_arabia withdrew ambassador syria protest response crisis countries alarmed ordered publicly distance government anti views press publicly apologize addition personally issued government order shut communist newspaper august established long term agreement ussr long term soviet loan fund development works syria soviet purchase large portion syrian agricultural textile fears syria approaching communist takeover prompted attempted cia sponsored coup replace government president coup plot head syrian intelligence august syria consequently expelled military damascus denied coup plot responded syrian ambassador washington recalling ambassador syria leftist influence syria grew immediate wake crisis august high ranking officer lebanon appointed army chief staff mid level officers replaced communist officers flew egypt amid apparent plans resign presidency favor soviet leaning returned syria august tensions rising rumors swept region backed turkish joint iraqi invasion syria prevent potential communist takeover earlier success repairing ties syria saudi_arabia proved particularly useful period immediately lent support viewed significant leftist movement president appeal endorse doctrine policy aimed containing communist arab nationalist influence middle_east accepted invitation damascus august publicly stating saudi_arabia support syria aggression iraqi prime minister proclaimed support syria visited august spite support attack iraqi monarchy privately criticized syria leadership increasing dependence nonetheless allies genuinely feared syria satellite soviets decided september meeting government removed month turkish troops border syria october launched radio campaign denouncing countries dispatched egyptian troops symbolic force port northern syria arab strength turkey acclaim syrian pan arab public leaders jordan iraq promptly intention interfere syria internal affairs apparently bypassed ally coordinating deployment officers instead related fact complained consulted egyptian admission political according contemporary historian substantial influence syrian politics checking power political factions opponents officer corps source concern kept men posts partially pressure solidified ties appointing prominent arab socialist leader speaker parliament founder pan party foreign affairs minister unity egypt amid generated egypt military intervention unity discussions commenced syria egypt end october egyptian speaker parliament visited syrian parliament damascus gesture solidarity visit end syrian parliament voting unanimously enter union egypt delay syrian delegation headed cairo persuade accept unity syria expressed reservations unity delegates damascus wary syrian military interference country political affairs stark difference countries economies political systems syrian political military leadership continued press sincere commitment arab nationalism realization unification egypt prevent impending strife country increasing communist influence december party composed proposal federal unity egypt prompting communist rivals propose total union communists eager merge egypt sought appear syrian public group dedicated unity privately believing reject offer time according historian communists ended unprepared events spearheaded public driven talk promises union january communist chief staff led officers delegation press unity cairo consulting instead egyptian ambassador met notified angered military telling amounted coup egypt assert influence unity talks sent foreign minister cairo january join discussions hesitant syrian proposal discouraged members inner circle increasingly concerned communists power syria testified leadership autonomy pressured arab nationalist members delegation including alluded impending communist takeover appealed abandon syria ultimately agreed union insisted formed strictly terms party system merged economy syria adoption egyptian social institutions effect blown union syria political leaders particularly communists conservatives viewed terms nonetheless accepted response mounting popular pressure left cairo mid february conclude agreement february established resigned presidency president new union honor gesture longtime struggle arab nationalist cause accorded title arab citizen announcement met widespread celebration arab world prominently syria arrived damascus visit february went directly home according met sea humanity gathered astonishing speed residents left homes meet leaders house decided leave official open automobile took hours reach destination normally taken minutes growing crowds surrounding car caused nearly faint following union establishment retired politics later life criticized policies syria particular condemned institution land distribution industrial july stating harm economy severely personally son law property seized government socialist measures resentment union spectrum syria political class social elite officer corps rise key groups authority hands domination vastly larger egypt political social economic levels groups governance syria syrian public grew wary virtual police state set country coup officers undertaken syria september effectively breaking lent support coup officers october televised speech condemning expressing disappointment saying unity mean annexation presidential system mean separation ruler ruled accused egyptian authorities establishing system rule dependent spies responsible division republic told syrian people controlled destiny saying ranks titles come people immortal concluded speech self criticism stating able serve struggle ordinary citizen able serve president officers pleased statements discussed serve term president finish term began cut year short result establishment proposal manifest largely relatively old age time march coalition officers consisting independent arab nationalists government president prime minister left syria shortly moved lebanon death heart attack shortly day war june feeling pain chest taken hospital june died june according syrian historian died learning defeat syrian arab armies dominated government refused allow body buried damascus relented diplomatic pressure saudi_arabia honorary funeral organized state held july day funeral called sons homeland sacrificed struggled advancement liberation unity arab nation proclaimed founding father historians syrian population generally consider renowned syrian leaders twentieth century according
Shukri al-Quwatli