battle battle english civil war fought september royalist army personal command king charles force led earl essex following year royalist successes took oxford reading conflict bristol left effective army field charles laid siege forced muster force essex beat charles forces long march essex surprised forced away gloucester beginning retreat london charles rallied forces pursued essex overtaking army forcing march past royalist force continue retreat essex reacted making surprise attack royalist lines dawn capturing pieces high ground leaving charles foot series royalist attacks led large number casualties slow retreat essex force driven central hill encircled essex succeeded rallying infantry pushed forward counter attack slowing counter attack face royalist cavalry forced essex send reinforcements marching attacked forced retreat left hole line dividing army wings hoped pass splitting allowing charles troops defeat enemy line moved forward press attack forced halt night falling battle ended exhausted armies morning low ammunition forced allow essex pass continue retreat london reasons royalist defeat include shortage ammunition relative lack soldiers tactics essex compensated lamented cavalry tactical firepower cavalry driving mass infantry formations numbers casualties relatively small historians studied battle consider crucial english civil war marking high point royalist advance leading signing brought scottish war parliament led eventual victory cause background failure forces gain conclusive victory battle royalist armies advanced london capturing oxford reading conflict november faced earl essex battle green charles advisers retreat oxford reading charles armies failed attempts relieve town stalemate occurred essex army directly engage oxford disease ranks charles prevented advancing exhaustion supplies ammunition failed expedition reading despite setback war turning increasingly favour early months saw crushing defeat battle left parliament effective army west england lack allowed prince storm bristol western army oxford army result forces depleted appeared losing essex army significant left field suffered reduced morale defeats inflicted parliament royalist forces war bristol despite royalist forces significantly depleted battle bristol suffering men dead having exhausted supplies armies forced considering capture bristol considered high water mark royalist cause english civil war city captured immediate dispute occurred govern led charles travelling august personal command royalist forces arriving called council war discuss primary questions hand armies united march design design western army strong refused advance east presence forces cornwall army commanders felt tried push forces mutiny simply desert unrest quickly resolved western army remain independent fighting force remain cornwall remaining accordingly western army commanded lord remained region capturing victory august prince left infantry approximately cavalry garrison bristol marching personally taking command greater issues oxford army design royalist campaign strategy advance capture gloucester allow royalist forces south wales reinforce charles army allow assault london faction argued london captured army gloucester serve distraction main goal campaign august clear strategy abandoned instead alternate means capturing city considered early stages war loyalty combatants sides particularly professional soldiers flexible gloucester led non partisan mercenary took job refused significant royalist command time felt strong far silent party royalist city governor reporting gloucester soldiers stated resist royalist advance given council war decided march gloucester capture force capture having governor city served bishops wars contacted asked surrender gloucester sovereign message rebuffed messenger reported met second time secret asked tell willing surrender town king result august charles oxford army marched gloucester gloucester charles main force began marching august reached village day later cavalry screen advanced taken village charles accompany force instead rode met reinforcements oxford august morning august royalist army marched gloucester besieged city approximately infantry cavalry force assembled charles sent group escorted forward approximately point read king demands meeting local council garrison officers including king announcement officers submitted pardon officers prohibit army causing damage city leave small garrison city force inhabitants responsible despite earlier claims surrender short time later refusal offer drawn unanimously signed officers reasons failure surrender city despite royalist contacts unknown point charles called council war discuss situation resolved crucial gloucester taken left hands act break lines communication advance east london addition charles personal reputation travelling far taking gloucester impact respect prestige accorded sensitive based reconnaissance charles officers confident garrison food ammunition long argued city taken days parliament lacking effective army relieve city essex forces attack city attack exhausted according royalist intelligence far weaker oxford army allowing charles destroy parliament remaining significant force direct command earl forth laid siege city suggested direct assault proposal adopted fears high casualties august royalist trenches dug artillery prepared despite attempts disrupt work musket fire work way hope delay long relief army arrive end ordered raids cover darkness second command leading raid artillery trenches revenge attacked east city driven cannon fire august saw raids time day cost men supply depot losses despite assaults disrupt royalist preparations evening able start bombarding town august suffering stocks gunpowder remained unable breach walls essex meantime preparing army thanks disease numbered infantry cavalry force strong defeat demanded extra soldiers london responded enlisting london trained bands provided additional men taking account additional problems eventual force foot soldiers cavalry mustered army began marching arriving august force formally mustered august reinforced lord grey september marched gloucester september heavy rain falling army reached town camped immediately outside presence forced abandon siege given army wet exhausted state seek battle pursuit charles cautious failure directly assault town putting higher priority losses victory cost claims number dead wounded men ranged people inside city killed essex force hand relatively good shape issue lack supplies stayed essex unable reinforcements outside aid london elements army demand home remaining significant force find pinned charles secure bases oxford bristol able surrender royalist armies ran rampant britain essex choice try return london travelling reach gloucester initially expose charles cavalry open ground alternative march southeast cross going returning reading fortifications allowing safe retreat london disadvantage time cross relatively open land essex position second option essex initially took north battle circumstances evade essex able cross west bank secure bridges prevent crossing confronting army cavalry advanced screen main force royalist interference september rest soldiers quickly following left wrong charles discover essex retreat hours gap armies widened finally began march september cavalry streaming ahead try disrupt retreat september force caught outside essex lost advantage intelligence reports convinced charles heading oxford given campaign fact charles barely miles away reports induced meant contemporary source stated marching barely miles day allowing quickly catch suitably discovery error essex increased pace retreat pursuing closely sides heading roughly parallel routes route took increasing distance travel miles travel charles reacted cavalry flying column disrupt harass parliamentary retreat encountering essex forces battle lacking troops engage directly instead attacked section army causing chaos delaying essex march charles forces close gap effect actions forces force delay retreat essex spent september looking wounded soldiers finally managed begin moving confronted delayed marched relatively open chalk downs hardships meant arrived essex armies settling night outside town exhausted immediately fight landscape landscape area significant factor tactics sides resulting battle land open country crescent shaped known sat royalist forces essex army lay open fields battlefield river river attempted cross foot essex obvious route advance push past royalist forces secure bridge return london unfortunately open area approaching bridge killing ground soldiers entirely open forced march abreast prevent essex effectively deploying royalist attack leave forces subject artillery fire essex managed cross bridge river featured metres ground slow soldiers leave open attack necessitating abandonment artillery major humiliation seventeenth century army alternative bridge based retreat bypass completely marching involve moving open fields essex soldiers attacks royalist cavalry described greatly cavalry confronting directly involve moving ground described containing dense banked ditches flanking fields lining sunken lanes allow troops concealed fashion deployment difficult numerous lanes restrict movement heat battle order battle definitive orders battle official contemporary evidence thin possible information later official reports contemporary accounts allow reconstruction likely disposition force led charles personally commanding right wing prince left sir centre artillery support consisted cannons total heavy medium light initial royalist estimates force men modern estimates infantry cavalry essex led commanding entire force separately right wing left wing commanded artillery support provided heavy cannons light cannons heavy artillery left gloucester help defend city estimates total number men vary noting losses gloucester estimates essex force totalled men cavalry infantry battle essex attacks battle began september essex army dawn initial reports stated gone regiment regiment putting question battle unto consultation army advanced courageous spirits divided bodies foot lined flanked bodies horse reserve army preceded cavalry quickly cleared royalist allowed essex advance wash common patch open ground forces march took approximately hour heavy clay soil soaked previous night rain open space hill objective march allowed welcome chance established cavalry guard size unknown large attack horse head waited close firing leading charge advance cavalry drive swords cavalry unable gains having engaged small royalist horse unwilling press attack larger body point parliamentary right flank begun assaulting main parliamentary objective nearby round hill official account suggests charged fiercely beat hill royalist accounts hand argue hill actually completely official account fails mention casualties attackers defenders happened royalist guns allegedly deployed hill sides arguments ring conviction essex partisans genuine belief assaulted captured defended position facts suggest royalist version closer truth words king generals caught regardless happened capture round hill gave essex advantage allowing position fire royalist advance royalist counter attack result quick advance charles found army chaos force organised flanking royalist council war discuss events accounts suggest meeting fall round hill described gross absurd error decided try contain essex leaving regiments horse led remainder cavalry essex position left flank meantime commanded support attack royalist force drawing regiments infantry ready second case enemy horse advance advance criticised royalist sources instead small engagement parliamentary resistance forced commit forces eventually turning series small engagements scale battle reinforcements gradually drawn terrain limited advantage forces numbers attacks brigade allowing hook essex left flank stop advance capture pieces artillery came cost took heavy casualties failed completely break essex infantry infantry instead retreated allowing parliamentary cavalry advance stopped essex beaten attack centre went poorly pushing regiments foot forward force suffered similarly high casualties attempt round hill attack stalled cavalry called force forward despite heavy losses avenue advance narrow lane lined succeeded allowing round hill forcing infantry far attack eventually lost momentum round hill taken unable advance right flank attempted parliamentary flank substantial brigade foot included small cavalry support initial attack repulsed thanks artillery opening fire subsequent head attack forced force centre send regiments assist fight turning bloody melee force eventually forced retire failing ground crisis stalemate heavy fighting succeeded pushing essex forces briefly given ground retreated battle main force infantry remained strong attempt proceed essex infantry light artillery forward cavalry weak defend advance large firepower instead ordered regiments foot commanded halt essex records report charged enemies horse foot succeeded forcing essex slowly fight took hours response essex called send reinforcements obliged ordering regiment infantry remove line march replace essex exhausted soldiers soon arrived charged bodies cavalry regiment infantry forced regiment retreat fleeing according force left man high horse pursue failed press attack difficulty cavalry field essex briefly retook ground loss infantry regiment opened gap line able drive gap break essex army wings able recognizing possibility began royalist force regiments cavalry regiment infantry command occupy essex regiments push gap line saw opening ordered regiments close gap succeeded gap wings essex force cover royalist battery heavy guns drawn high ground began firing unable necessity position left enduring close range fire men brains flew faces resisting attacks royalist cavalry infantry led notes records casualties hit head survivor boasted artillery harm shot broke evidently heat battle royalist artillery firing high despite royalist artillery fire taken toll trained band regiments forced retreat pursued close quarters musket fire allowed militia substantial losses militia attacked regiments foot cavalry despite surrounding dragging away cannon unable break point armies began draw apart sporadic fighting continued night fell midnight forces completely army councils met essex plan force way past feasible ground taken fully expected battle continue hand plagued poor morale heavy losses lack supplies having barrels gunpowder argued battle continue voted morning essex allowed bypass royalist force issue continue retreat london aftermath force free charles army retreated quickly possible eventually reading london essex received hero welcome hand forced spend day recovering casualties finding thousand injured soldiers sent oxford finished recovering dead wounded men left infantry cavalry guns defend rear marched oxford having buried dead senior officers casualties eventually came approximately losses loss multitude factors day gives credit greater ability essex conserve force campaign numerical disadvantage notes royalist reliance cavalry essex lamented cavalry tactical firepower cavalry driving mass infantry formations infantry essex force retaining high level described relatively day ammunition gunpowder important endemic deciding factor success failure charles campaign attention historians normally larger battles historians studied period consider defining moment english civil war high point royalist advance bright period essex writes militarily politically parliament position beginning october far stronger late july capture bristol high tide king charles war best chance ending conflict terms noted failed prove best chance destroy principle field army opponents hopes crushing victory bring war party lay ruins high feelings led signing bringing powerful scottish army assault thanks failure win decisive victory english welsh scottish irish subjects king charles kingdoms henceforth play bloody price steadily widening deepening war
First Battle of Newbury