march august american physicist awarded nobel prize physics detection experiment scientist history associated discovery elementary particle subsequent thorough investigation fundamental properties graduate joined manhattan_project working group group leader participated number nuclear tests culminating director test series pacific early 1950s working developed equipment procedures detected supposedly june dedicated major career study properties interactions work influence study researchers come included detection created atmosphere cosmic rays detection emitted inaugurated field astronomy early life born new_jersey children parents jewish town russia met new_york_city later married older sister doctor older brothers david william lawyers said early education strongly influenced siblings great nephew founder religious movement family moved new_york father ran general store spent childhood looking said early childhood memories center typical american country store life small american town including independence day july celebrations marked fireworks patriotic music played pavilion sang chorus time considered possibility singing career instructed vocal coach provided lessons free family money family later moved north bergen new_jersey residing kennedy boulevard 57th street north bergen high school attended new_jersey graduated early age exhibited interest science liked creating building things later recalled interest science remember occurred moment religious school looking window twilight hand simulate noticed peculiar light phenomenon began fascination light ironically excelled literary history courses received average low marks science math freshman year high school improved areas junior senior years encouragement teacher gave key school laboratory cultivated love science senior year response question seniors asked wanted quote responded physicist accepted chose instead attend new_jersey earned degree mechanical engineering master science degree mathematical physics writing thesis critical review optical theory married august children robert entered earned doctor philosophy studied cosmic rays wrote thesis supervision nuclear liquid drop model nucleus publication thesis delayed end world war appeared recruited work manhattan_project remain years joined theoretical division important aspect critical mass calculations june group leader heading dragon tail experiment dragon machine attain critical state short bursts time research tool power source participated number nuclear tests writing reports results included operation crossroads bikini operation sandstone director series nuclear tests pacific saw american tests boosted weapons important step weapons studied effects nuclear authored paper stem formation important aspect air blast wave spite role nuclear tests concerned dangers radioactive pollution atmospheric nuclear tests advocate underground nuclear testing wake crisis participated project evolved jason delegate peace conference geneva discovery inner workings stars particle proposed theoretically december explain energy escaped beta decay decayed electron law conservation energy violated renamed italian little neutral proposed theory beta decay explained emitted nucleus created decay electron accounted missing energy theory described particle little mass electric charge difficult observe directly paper calculated easily pass earth concluded practically possible way observing conclusion greenhouse test series received permission head division leave residence study fundamental physics colleague decided detect want detect free later explained everybody said couldn according theory corresponding reverse reaction combines create soon annihilated electron produce gamma rays captured release gamma ray produce distinctive signature detected realised adding salt liquid enhance capture reaction resulting burst gamma rays source proposed atomic bomb permission obtained laboratory director work began digging shaft experiment convinced use nuclear instead bomb intense source advantage allowing multiple experiments carried long period time attempts large nuclear site known experiment included litres imp gal gal fluid tubes effort frustrated background noise cosmic rays encouragement tried time newer larger savannah river site emitted high cm2 sec convenient shielded location metres metres underground june able send telegram announcing found informed proven wrong said shouldn believe read papers dedicated major career study properties interactions work influence study future researchers come left teach ending collaboration basis work detecting head physics department case led group detect created atmosphere cosmic rays voice singer childhood time performing duties research supervisor chairman physics department sang direction performances took research team left new dean physical sciences extended research interests graduate students development medical radiation measuring total radiation delivered human body radiation therapy prepared possibility measuring distant events explosion explosions rare thought lucky lifetime able catch streaming specially designed wait explode signs large calling early warning systems emitted detected michigan collaboration ton located salt near cleveland normally recorded background events day registered events seconds discovery regarded field astronomy honored nobel prize physics work detecting unfortunately died nobel prize awarded posthumously received awards including robert memorial prize award prize franklin medal elected member foreign member remained dean physical sciences professor emeritus continued teaching remained faculty death death died long illness california august survived wife children papers named honor publications detection free predecessor agency predecessor agency august carter wagner free absorption cross section expected cross section measurements fragment electron spectrum predecessor agency predecessor agency june experiments predecessor agency september roberts blood learned status aims ocean predecessor agency july matters selected works world scientific isbn
Frederick Reines