society culture han dynasty han dynasty period ancient china divided eastern han periods capital cities located respectively founded emperor han briefly interrupted regime throne child han emperor han dynasty age great economic technological cultural social progress china society governed emperor shared power official bureaucracy semi feudal nobility laws customs literature education largely guided philosophy ethical system influence previous dynasty seen members scholarly gentry class hold public office required receive based education new synthetic ideology created scholar bce united canon allegedly edited bce cycles yang chinese elements social status nobles officials farmers considered station registered merchant wealthy successful businessmen acquired huge fortunes allowed rival social prestige powerful nobles highest officials slaves social order represented tiny portion overall population attached estates wealthy landowners medical physicians state employed religious decent living people social classes believed deities spirits demons han organized small groups chiefly concerned achieving means mid 2nd century formed large religious societies challenged imperial authority viewed 6th century bce holy prophet typical han era chinese household contained nuclear family average members unlike later multiple generations extended family members commonly lived household families father supreme head house arranged marriages norm new wife expected join clan husband having sons daughters considered extremely important sake carrying ancestor worship girls women expected custom tradition behave male relatives mothers given status sons women engaged outside home given protection law empress superior status male relatives consort clan mother emperor empress authority decisions choose successor appointed death social class royal family nobles apex han society emperor member family descendant founder emperor bce subjects allowed address instead indirect references steps throne superior government minister noble entered palace official permission punishment execution central government ministers charge sentences court cases emperor ability commandant decision sole ability draft new laws repeal old ones emperor pardon grant general emperor majority consensus ministers court conferences approval needed state policy decision rejected majority opinion emperor powerful relative empress widow previous emperor usually natural mother emperor grandmother emperor grand empress alive reign enjoyed superior position empress emperors sought approval empress decisions emperor child acted merely empress dominated court politics right issue emperor died designated heir sole right appoint new emperor empress empress imperial wife emperor empress position court secure removed emperor empress enjoy submission subordinates advocated elevation sons empress early western han imperial relatives military officers served emperor kings ruled large semi autonomous non related kings died imperial outlawed family members kings emperor brothers paternal cousins brother sons emperor sons excluding heir apparent kings emperor sisters daughters central government eventually stripped away political power kings appointed administrative kings right collect portion taxes territory personal income enjoyed social status ranked emperor king son designated heir apparent sons brothers given rank ruled small portion taxes went private purse kings enjoyed privileges imperial court times aggressive check power starting emperor reign thousands noble families including royal houses han period forcibly moved vicinity capital half western han imposed powerful wealthy officials individuals owned property worth million cash position regent officially known general chief created emperor reign bce appointed officials form regency central government child emperor bce sat throne relatives law emperor empress family men means depended emperor favor advance position court maintained palace gain similar level power came middle class links trade handful examples rose power official bureaucracy strong suppress palace masters writing emperor bce relinquished authority allowed vital policy decisions respected officials expelled office emperor bce took throne palace obtain comparable authority led sided emperor coup overthrow clan empress officials complained like awarded emperor year given legal authority pass adopted sons emperor relinquished great deal authority slaughtered besieged stormed palaces gentry scholars officials served government privileged position han society tier nobles high officials arrested crimes permission granted emperor officials arrested imprisoned like court gain approval emperor officials exempt execution given chance commit suicide alternative senior posts excluding grand tutor post irregularly occupied individual titles functions changed western eastern han annual salaries remained dan grain largely payments coin cash luxury items like silk ministers headed major government bureau earned year lowest paid government employees equivalent annually thought wealthy officials tempted bribes beginning dynasty having total assessed wealth thousand coins holding office reduced thousand coins bce emperor reign onwards policy longer enforced starting western han system recommendation local officials submitted proposals capital subordinates worthy candidates holding office created patron client relationship superiors successful nominees higher office enhanced prestige consort clan empress succession clan amassed large clients chances promotion political survival empress clan short lived aside patron client relationships use family connections secure office writes access public office promotion social mobility open larger segment populace eastern han eastern han government officials biographies book later han sons officials fifth came prominent provincial families ancestors served officials years post occupied member yang clan central government officials began careers subordinate officers level rare cases involving military merit rebellions late eastern han subordinate officers county level advanced level central government secured office means official expected competent formal education aspiring fill public office addition private established bce accommodated pupils 2nd century student body reached thirty thousand students appointed emperor government posts according examination grades despite decline social mobility prominent clans local far integrated nationwide upper class social structure period expanding classification belonged upper class emerging gentry class fully consolidated eastern han consisted unemployed scholars teachers students government officials men geographically separated local activities started view participants wider national affairs politics scholarship recognized shared values emphasizing study classics holding public office emperors forced abandon schemes officials families royal tombs settlement bce bce respectively unlike days emperor historian asserts point officials scholars influence local national level politics forcibly relocate solidarity interference court politics coup regent widespread student protest broke students took streets names opposed emperor initiated wide scale associates provinces holding office branded partisans suicide regent confrontation shortly emperor placed throne banned hundreds holding office selling offices highest repulsed viewed corrupted government considered moral scholarly life superior holding office rejected nominations serve court repealed garner gentry support created large independent portion gentry simply return life maintained contacts gentry china actively engaged protest movement acknowledging gentry class able recruit chancellor established rank system distinguished gentry figure county assign local gentlemen rank government use evaluate nominees office farmers landowners scholars needed additional funds education political office found farming decent profession humble looked fellow wealthy nobles officials merchants land merely acted living city relied poor tenant farmers paid rent form roughly percent produce exchange land tools draft animals small house wage laborers slaves employed estates wealthy numerous tenants western han small independent owner represented majority farming peasants economic struggle remain independent times war natural disaster crisis drove debt slavery dramatically increased number tenants late eastern han social status poor independent owner tenants wage laborers wealthy landowners wealthy landowners employed tenants wage laborers landowners managed small medium sized estates acted managers sons fields daughters clothes engaged produce silk home sale market western han farming peasants formed majority government perform labor military duties labor service males aged drafted month year work construction projects perform duties counties military obligation males aged train year branches military infantry cavalry navy reached age liable perform year active service troops sent guard hostile act guards capital city significant changes system eastern han tax paid peasants wanted avoid month labor obligation hired labor popular construction projects military service obligation avoided peasant paid tax eastern han military largely volunteer force merchants able join army han socio economic status farmers merchants able obtain valuable income knives swords able eat food fit nobles officials enjoyed legal status superior merchants unlike merchants allowed law wear fancy ride horseback ride carriages laws barred officials painter worked turned offers nominated public office contrast appointed merchant official suffer office avoided nominations claiming merchants despite legal privileges merchants work considered han scholars secondary importance farmers largely scholars officials survive farmer product taxes paid grain government relied grain fund military campaigns stored surplus grain widespread famine times poor harvest despite prominence given farmers scholars accept performed vital economic role view rejected small minority advocated society soldiers farmers certain wanted live self sufficient villages commercial interests privately employed work government government workshops employed laborers state owned slaves perform tasks master paid significant income work producing luxury items bronze mirrors merchants exception scholarly gentry class engage trade scholars government officials viewed merchant class sympathetic plight farming peasants lost land court stipulated farming peasants reduced selling street registered merchants heavily state registered merchants majority small urban pay commercial taxes addition poll tax registered merchants forced law wear white colored clothes indication low status singled conscription armed forces forced lands deep south malaria known prevalent contrast merchants richer trade network towns cities ability avoid registering merchants starting emperor reign registered merchants banned wearing silk clothes riding horseback holding public office stark contrast merchants bce states wore fine rode carriages pulled fat horses wealth allowed associate government officials laws relaxed time emperor renewed state persecution merchants bce illegal registered merchants purchase land violated law land slaves confiscated state effectiveness law questionable contemporary han writers mention merchants owning huge tracts land merchant owned property worth thousand gold equivalent million cash coins considered great merchant fortune times larger average income middle class landowner annual cash coin income collected taxes thousand households merchant families fortunes worth million cash equivalent wealth acquired highest officials government merchants engaged multitude private trades industries single merchant combined trades greater profits animal breeding farming manufacturing trade money lending profitable sold han salt iron wealthy salt iron distributor properties worth million cash early western han period powerful merchants muster workforce thousand peasants work salt mines marshes salt sites operated iron curb influence wealthy emperor industries bce time drafted merchants technical know bce head government eastern han period central government abolished state salt iron state halted employment merchants government salt iron agencies bce ban merchants entering bureaucracy employ merchants low level officials salary rank profitable industry wine liquor state briefly bce relinquished production private merchants alcohol taxes official started brewery business help pay father costly funeral act heavily criticized fellow considered occupation scholar mining lucrative industry guests known guests lived property host exchange services existed period originally belonged social groups seeking shelter authorities hosts wealthy nobles officials wealthy typical relationship host provided lodging food clothing carriage transport return occasional non routine work services advisory role post bodyguard physical labor house dangerous missions committing fighting riding battle defend host work spies scholarly host treated luxury gifts wanted wealth status received sword decorated jade given items like shoes decorated shared status gifts provided highly skilled work greater services skilled given lesser gifts seated honorable positions meeting host regardless status allowed come host residence pleased unlike slave property master permanently attached estate official government policy deal broke laws arrested master broke law detained alongside formed large portion fighting forces amassed future emperor civil war failing regime military role pronounced late 2nd century political turmoil eventually split empire competing states hosts began treat personal troops freedoms mobility independence earlier enjoyed individual earlier joined host personal decision late 2nd century lives entire families heavily controlled host slaves slaves comprised roughly population proportion far contemporary world relied labor large slave population slaves classified categories privately owned owned state privately owned slaves peasants fell debt sold slavery government slaves bestowed nobles high officials rewards services state owned slaves prisoners war slaves slaves tributary gifts given court foreign states families criminals committed treason state private slaves donated authorities exempt labor obligations confiscated state master broken law western eastern han arrested criminals reign criminals slaves state owned slaves work palaces offices workshops stables state owned agricultural fields privately owned slaves employed domestic services farming vast majority non independent farmers working wealthy landowners hired laborers slaves peasants paid rent tenants economically feasible maintain tenants instead slaves slave masters pay annual poll tax coins slave owned rate merchants pay poll tax government slaves assigned work government industries iron salt lasted emperor reign beginning eastern han privately owned slaves usually assigned kitchen duty fulfilled roles armed mounted escorts dancers singers musicians children government private slaves born slaves government slaves granted freedom emperor deemed elderly emperor committed act worthy exceptional case slave bce government private slaves buy freedom master masters chose free slaves slaves subject obey masters law murder slave kings stripped kingdoms found murdered slaves forced sons commit suicide murdering slave repealed death penalty slave killed slaves social status slaves wealthy families lived better allowed wear luxurious clothes consume quality food wine slaves high officials feared respected slaves regent bce came armed marketplace fought forced imperial secretary apologize slaves right way street provided services officials sought promotion influence addition officials teachers merchants farmers pig seen profession merely utilized poor scholar pay formal education example chancellor han lack military background title pig emperor reign physicians practiced medicine studied medical classics decent income able gain education officials physician nominated office gentlemen palace practiced arts chinese employed government conduct religious sacrifices rare occasions bce marry socially acceptable gentry scholars engage arts chinese career lower status earned modest income humble included like merchants practiced banned holding public office butcher occupation case butcher official emperor reign empress brother regent came family runners worked government considered status later government officials ranks han court upheld socio economic ranking system nobles based ranks system installed statesman bce state males age excluding slaves promoted rank level promoted rank granted honorable place seating arrangements hamlet given greater portion hunted game table punished severely certain crimes exempt labor service obligations state system favored elderly longer lifespan meant opportunities promoted addition increase salary table right newly promoted men granted wine meat celebratory banquet 19th 20th ranks ranks 20th rank allowed promotions rank decided emperor occur special occasions installation new emperor inauguration new reign title wedding new empress selection royal heir apparent central government sold ranks collect revenues state official bce wrote presented substantial agricultural grain government promoted rank urban rural life han empire divided large administrative units kingdoms counties counties districts contained average hamlet contained families usually enclosed wall gates center social life hamlet religious altar built honor local deity festivities staged district county official religious altar official reach government extended district level county appointed officials included chief police maintained law order district tax collector government able control local society hamlet level ranks government funded flood control projects involving building new canals aiding speed transport allowing undeveloped areas conscription labor projects allowed building new dependent government authority central government declined late eastern han period living forced flee lands work tenants large estates wealthy landowners people older rely central government projects existence sought support powerful local families western han capital divided walled residential affairs ward overseen low ranking official influential families usually maintained social order historians unsure government controlled existed claims markets possible seven actually parts main markets east market story government office flag drum placed roof market chief deputy headquartered buildings known involvement marketplace eastern han capital market chief office employed thirty sub officers ventured marketplace daily maintain law order collected taxes commercial goods assigned standard prices specific basis monthly reviews authorized contracts merchants customers clients merchants engaging marketplace violations crimes committed adolescent street gangs wore clothes distinguishing gang maintenance law order outside market areas conducted han officials argued increasing salaries assumed encourage reject bribes criminals cities attract audiences rich poor trained animals performing tricks animal fights tigers horse racing puppet shows musical performances dancing feats wealthy families afford house piece bells drums instruments gambling board games provided entertainment marriage gender nuclear family chinese relations han influenced involved immediate nuclear family extended family members chinese family father sons consider mother clan instead considered outside relatives han dynasty law code inherited dynasty bce law family sons pay extra taxes repealed period average han family household typically immediate family members unlike large extended families household later common han send adult married sons away portion family fortune visit occasionally dynasty son moved away lived separately living parents considered criminal larger families appeared married brothers chose live families household generations living roof incredibly rare contrast dynasty having generations roof commonplace clan lineage chinese clan lineage involved men shared common ancestor divided behavior regulated according dictated relative closer intimate different brother brother sons brother father brothers father brother sons paternal grandfather brothers sons paternal great grandfather brothers sons great expected entire year death relative expected months relative second died ritual mourning expected relatives fourth son years father death year mother carrying line meant continuation ancestor worship important son adopted family considered share surname ancestral sacrifices considered void majority clan lineage groups influential local society prominent groups enjoy great deal hoc influence especially member served government official wealthy scholars officials shared group poor clan members expected defend fellow members point murder government authorities constantly struggled suppress powerful groups local lineage groups formed backbone rebel forces popular uprising early 1st century central government authority broke late eastern han developed areas country remained relatively stable entrenched groups heavily developed areas groups effectively broken state peasants willing turn rebel movements protection survival marriage divorce romantic love discouraged marriages arranged agreements bonds formed clans property chief concern necessarily individuals father input sons daughters marry carried weight mother grandfather father decision couple married new wife visit family temple husband clan properly descendants death retained surname vast majority people han practiced wealthy officials nobles afford support addition legal wife ideal ages marriage thirty man woman common male marry age sixteen female age fourteen encourage families marry daughters law introduced bce increased poll tax rate unmarried women ages thirty people han practiced strict form marry person surname partners traced common ancestor excluded royal family married distant relatives political reasons officials married families officials equal status married royal daughters marry kings emperor custom seven conditions man divorce wife parents law unable continue family line adultery mixing clan blood family jealousy disease unable continue family line getting brothers law sisters law theft husband allowed divorce wife completed years mourning deceased parents living relatives father family return husband family originally poor rich marriage women able initiate divorce husband family poverty laws abusive especially divorce meant wife took away wealth husband family nonetheless common social groups inheritance types inheritance han included common inheritance property deceased social groups slaves participated inheritance titles people ranks nobility royalty enjoy form officials bequeathed equal share property sons excluded daughters married families carry family daughters receive portion family property form marriage equal brother share wealth second type inheritance involved practice official title inherited son true emperor king ranks limit power kings imperial bce stated kings divide territories kingdoms chosen successor heir apparent kings brothers establishing new effectively reducing size kingdom generation status position women wrote lessons women like opposite forces yang men great virtues strength woman great virtues respect compliance life han woman bend father husband adult son recorded rule han women written engaged heated arguments husbands beating jealousy punish husband wrote essays letters husbands serving government officials husbands turned wives advice political affairs court father died eldest son theoretically senior member family hinted works han literature obey mother force offense common customs gender especially pronounced imperial family empress able orders male relatives father publicly certain traditionally reserved women labor duties women expected rear children clothes family perform domestic duties cooking farming considered men work women fields alongside husbands brothers women formed communal spinning weaving groups pool resources pay candles lamp oil heat night winter successful textile business employ hundreds women singing dancing entertain wealthy patrons common open women husband died widow sole supporter children living weaving silk making straw sell market women turned humble profession income fortunate women renowned medical physicians provided services families high officials nobility wealthy women engaged luxury trade frequently sold princess aided husband business decisions female merchants dressed silk clothes female nobles attire considered immoral compared ideal woman education literature philosophy competing historian bce wrote tradition inherited han previous dynasty taught imposing severe man laws short kindness produce ordered society given human nature immoral checked label created han scholars describe socio political philosophy formulated largely bce bce bce philosophy stressed government rely strict system rewards maintain law order early western han officials influenced apparent han work utilizing concept argued laws administrative systems set place government functioned smoothly intervention behalf ruler unnecessary school thought known yellow emperor gained acceptance court patronage bce followers believed ordered civilization mythical view contradicted later scholars views mythological responsible bringing man state anarchy works presented bce introduced new systematic ideas message thought scholars began express greater emphasis ethical ideas espoused philosophical works bce ideology known emperor found reforms court rituals useful long status emperor reign gained exclusive patronage court paramount core ethics selected virtues relationships ritual amalgamation ideas theological system involving earlier theories yang phases natural cycles governed heaven earth man pioneered official bce authenticity authorship spring autumn annals comes question hints parts rewritten time bce original memorials sent throne discussing version preserved 1st century book han model incorporated justified imperial government natural order universe appealed emperor bce abolished non academic chairs dealing classics classic poetry classic changes classic rites classic history spring autumn annals expanding position bce human nature good wrote people needed external education awakened develop morality produce morally sound officials emperor sponsored education established bce despite mainstream acceptance rest han end dynasty philosophers defended ideas state laws policies reflect compromise reached han varying regional traditions schools assigned certain texts caused debate old texts traditions represented works transmitted book burning bce newly discovered texts alleged excavated walls home displayed archaic written characters authentic versions initially rejected old texts found acceptance courts bce rejected accepted rejected time following rulers philosophical synthesis contrast certainty innate goodness contemporary writer bce synthesized opposing perspectives bce chapter protecting book argue human nature originally good evil transformed eastern han period scholars struggled understand regime failed despite great sponsorship reform transition western han eastern han skepticism represented bce argued human nature good escape negative situations learning valuable schools thought man control ultimate fate decided heaven new discussions bce argued han court sponsored education government corrupt undermined ordained belief education went hand hand political success argued human life coherent dictated heaven synthesis broken planes biological mental physical moral elements interacted produce different results random fate eastern han incorporated ideas explain society salvaged argued accumulated mankind time direct engagement body approach individual personal virtue meantime long term solution approach public private education order secure position teacher capital government official student choose paths educated prestigious path enrollment students age eighteen selected minister ceremonies recommended local authorities students choose school sponsored local government professional teacher opened private school small town village gather following thousand students students expected pay tuition teacher enjoyed significant salary standing local community usually paramount sought disputes size greatly expanded eastern han private schools grew importance imperial government lost authority academy persecution old text tradition drove pursue old text studies private institutions records grand historian bce existed chronicles events spring autumn annals chronicle found covering events dynasty bce classic history canon recorded deeds past rulers political events mythological instead historical work considered china laid chinese historiography creating universal history china divided work thirty chapters basic annals chronological tables grid format year year accounts bce start regency general subjects economy calendar histories hereditary houses states biographies individuals arranged roughly chronological order autobiography chapter court allowed utilize eighty sources addition memorials stone inscriptions sources enhanced enormous scope work mentions roughly thousand people traveled extensively interview witnesses recent accounts unlike western tradition established bce associate professor asserts work intended representing aspect universe earth man model form way raised relief map tomb bce represented empire hardy explains unique work han scholars believed secrets existed spring autumn annals deemed incorporating essential moral historical principles world operated future events hardy thesis explanation inconsistencies ideological approach organization literary characteristics criticized express doubt hardy view intended work planned model reality loosely connected collection narratives retains original ideological sources standard history book han compiled son daughter unlike private independent work history text commissioned sponsored han court emperor let use imperial archives set significant precedent rest historian virtually unable criticize ruling patron book han covered history china left work emperor reign middle eastern han included events late eastern han history work focused exclusively eastern han period book later han compiled biographies ready guide oldest known chinese dictionary compiled 3rd century bce han written han dynasty include regional speech bce explaining characters analyzing compound characters chinese dialect vocabulary work modern chinese term dialect derived title book divided written characters original characters derived listing characters variant forms arranged section according written convenient systematic approach arranging characters standard chinese follow guides subjects written han fan written emperor reign agricultural techniques processes survived han eastern han monthly instructions classes people written mathematical included book numbers classic chapters mathematical art works astronomy 2nd century bce silk texts spiritual constitution universe published aside biographies found popular write stylistic essays commission private biographies gentlemen privately published biographies focused locality known figures held national prominence poetry known chinese new literary genre poet official bce wrote largest influential son heaven hunt written debate form incorporated literary elements found songs anthology poems attributed bce 3rd century bce flying heavenly prominent writer western han praised work later criticized example genre shortcomings eastern han wrote comparing capital cities concluded better subtle praise current emperor virtue surpassed rulers western han court inventor wrote capital cities inspired penned returning fields fused ideals laid later nature poetry wrote represent earliest poems chinese literature government produced folk songs lyrical form verse standard poetry poems focused largely issues morality scholars found acceptable line dynasty traditions poets period usually attended social events compose poems given topic company laws customs han dynasty written law matured archaic form based largely natural law social customs rational corpus influenced politics based positive law han dynasty law code established chancellor bce largely extension existing dynasty law code evidence includes archaeological finds era han era chapters law code consisted statutes dealt chapters dealt court procedure survives small fragments allegedly massive written work written code articles written words outlined articles death penalty contained offenses pieces case law county magistrate administrator official court judges county respectively jurisdictions overlapped administrator interfered county court cases necessary generally agreed arrested criminal judge level court case resolved central government final authority appeal emperor dealt cases political rebels regards kings high officials commandant emperor supreme judge previous codes han law distinguished considered killings killing killing mistake killing accident father undisputed head family allowed kill members punishment tried physical assault murder respectively murders given sentence relation considered sentencing example father given severe sentence murdering son son murdered father women certain rights han law law husbands physically abuse wives rape cases commonly filed court punished han law women level charges men court commonly accepted han women capable telling truth court criminals beaten gain confessions han scholars argued torture best means gaining confession court conferences called session decide strokes given size stick cause permanent injury imprisonment form punishment han common death penalty periods forced hard labor exile monetary fines existed early han borrowed previous practice included face cutting nose feet bce abolished favor lengthy reforms implemented year emperor bce reign decreased strokes prisoner receive starting bce aged seventy older exempt reforms aged seventy older harsh interrogation methods cases false accusation murder modern scholars know surviving cases han law dealt commerce domestic affairs spheres trade outside family largely governed age old social customs ways family relations conducted han stipulated ancient canon especially book rites accepted mainstream guide ethics custom terms private commercial contracts usually entailed information goods transferred paid names buyer seller date transfer signatures witnesses arts crafts artists classified laborers manufactured decorated objects philosopher argued urban society exploited contributions food producing farmers able bodied men cities wasted time listed pursuits crafting miniature plaster statues dogs horses human figures singers actors children toys eastern han scholar officials began engaging crafts originally reserved mechanical engineering emperor commissioned official paint portraits produce generations prominent yang clan officials military officers recorded instance china scholar official commissioned write paint portraits conjunction instead relying skilled painting han luxury items furnished homes wealthy merchants officials nobles royalty goods highly decorated skilled include red black shapes sizes bronze items raised relief decorated mirrors oil lamps shape human figures designs ornaments jewelry jade amber gold silver domestic decoration han artwork served important function han artists decorated wall bricks lining underground tombs deceased mural paintings carved purpose artwork aid deceased traveling journey artistic designs tile brick common human sculptures found han tombs placed perform functions deceased dancing playing music entertainment serving food common type found han tombs female entertainer sporting long flowing silk dancing human figures male female found naked clearly distinguished missing arms wooden cloth arms attached holes shoulders miniature clothes materials silk western han grave goods usually pieces art tomb alive eastern han new stylistic goods artwork found tombs usually exclusively burial produced previous use deceased alive include miniature towers usually urban residential towers provide historians clues lost wooden architecture addition towers miniature models water wells shops farm fields pottery pigs dogs sheep chickens ducks items placed tombs commonly considered taboo bring objects specified burial living quarters imperial palace brought living quarters properly announced ceremonies known artifacts objects dead brilliant artifacts according princeton_university licensed architect museum curator clothing cuisine common agricultural food staples han wheat rice beans people han consumed job tears green bottle bamboo shoot roots lotus plants fruits han ate included chestnut pear peach including red han chinese ate chickens ducks cows sheep pigs dogs type game animals hunted han included rabbit deer turtle dove owl chinese bamboo common cranes fish turtles taken streams lakes beer drink low alcohol content stronger commonly consumed alongside meat virtually consumed alongside grains rice wine regularly consumed 2nd century bce tomb contained decayed remnants actual food rice wheat varieties grave inventory recipes included vegetable meat cooked combinations beef rice dog meat deer fish bamboo shoot mentioned recipes include sugar honey sauce salt recipes han usually called meat stuffed like modern counterparts han era chinese eating drinking wealthy people han cups golden handles silver poor common item clothing rich afford silk clothes silk clothes found han tombs include robes double layered robes single layered robes single layered skirts shoes wealthy wore fox wild duck leather silk lining modest means wear wool skins large bamboo found han tombs contained clothes luxury items patterned fabric common silk rich colors designs han tools clothes religion ancestor worship deities families han china ritual sacrifices usually involving animals deities spirits ancestors deceased ancestors thought require food drink living family members routinely offer food wine ancestors family shrine temple wealthy families afford bury dead large tombs placed food items entrances complexes han era chinese believed person souls spirit soul believed travel paradise body soul remained earth proper resting place long measures taken prevent wandering body soul allegedly utilize items placed tomb deceased domestic clothes food money form clay believed souls temporarily reunited ceremony called return han beliefs uniform empire changed time different burial customs views names spirit soul body soul substituted demon spirit demons thought partial deceased lacked essential vital energy caused living ill demon considered neutral ghost spirits usually associated spirits certain places earl yellow river proper sacrifices spirits believed bring good fortune ritual sacrifices neglected spirit inflict bad fortune individuals local communities texts left tombs illustrate living took sympathetic view dead spirits generally feared dangers living western han letters informing underground written inform ruler underground deceased wants needs clothing vessels tomb texts appeared 1st century acted dead bring danger living western han eastern han tombs contained land contracts stated deceased owned land buried emperor fulfilled role highest priest land offer ritual sacrifices heaven supreme deities spirits mountains rivers court sacrifices main deities emperor added bce powers emperor bce cancelled state worship powers favor ceremonies dedicated heaven supreme god kings dynasty bce traced legitimacy underlying reasons shift state policy emperor desire gain heaven direct favor blessed male heir court exclusive worship heaven continued rest han yang phases han chinese believed realms heaven earth mankind linked subject natural cycles man understand cycles understand hidden secrets realms cycle yang corresponded yielding hard shade sunlight feminine masculine moon sun respectively thought govern realms changing seasons phases important cycle elements wood fire earth metal water succeeded rotation corresponded certain traits realms example phases corresponded sets like organs liver heart lungs tastes sour bitter sweet things like feelings musical notes colors planets time periods accepted dynasty defeated rivals battle legitimacy rule land time commonly believed heaven given greater prominence state worship designated individual hereditary house right rule concept known retired professor university_of_cambridge writes consistent gradually higher level emphasis given cosmic elements phases linked future destiny dynasty protection stressed ruler behaved adhere proper conduct created disruption natural cycles governing realms resulted natural earthquakes floods idea fully accepted court later emperors implemented reforms legal system granted restore nature balance beginning han dynasty family associated dynasty water phase previous dynasty bce accompany installment new calendar han court aligned earth phase legitimately element shortly downfall new eastern han court retrospective argument han element fire buddhism thought eclipsed explaining 2nd century bce sage philosopher replaced ancestor teachings written 1st century chiefly concerned obtaining writes han era organized small groups people believed individual obtained breathing exercises sexual techniques medical practices followed 4th century bce centuries han era chinese believed queen mother west ruled mountainous realm immortal semi human creatures possessed man utilize life mountain west mount east mythological location han era chinese believed achieve stated organized small groups largely wider believed attempt fly lands invincible pure men criticism groups best known source century describe beliefs major transformation beliefs occurred 2nd century large religious societies formed viewed deity prophet usher salvation followers mentioning buddhism china occurred regards half brother emperor allegedly paid homage point chinese heavily associated buddhism emperor known buddhist temple constructed china allegedly built honor foreign monks indian popular myth asserted monks translate chapters chinese known work translated chinese 2nd century monk came translated buddhist works chinese works han era chinese associated exercises foreign monk era india traveled stayed translated introduced china concepts pure land buddhism teachings religious societies rebel movements religious society initiated raised studied beliefs moved province claimed revelation appointed representative movement spread rapidly particularly sons instead money followers asked contribute rice religious society banned worship gods accepted offerings meat initiated members group called title associated village elders took drink told rules religious society rewarded good health illness seen result violating religious rules committing personal sins required confession charged overseeing recovery believed chanting parts bring illnesses second successor initiated rebellion allowed retain complete control modern southern decades modelled charity houses han postal stations establishments offered grain meat followers surrendered chancellor wary influence people granted sons widespread occurred leaders claiming destined bring era peace like society valleys believed illness sign wrongdoing necessitated confession church leaders faith yellow typically utilized holy water sickness cure sick sins deemed great year year new cycle supreme leader chose month year time rebel leaked han court forced initiate rebellion prematurely yellow able muster hundreds thousands troops combined force imperial troops independent generals end year leadership including killed scattered groups remained amalgamated forces
Society and culture of the Han dynasty