september march american physicist won nobel prize physics discovery effect demonstrated particle nature electromagnetic radiation sensational discovery time wave nature light demonstrated idea light wave particle properties easily accepted known leadership served chancellor awarded allowed students study abroad chose cambridge_university england studied scattering absorption gamma rays research lines led discovery effect rays investigate concluding result alignment electron spins studied cosmic rays discovering principally positively charged particles world war key figure manhattan_project developed nuclear weapons reports important launching project head responsibility producing nuclear convert finding ways separate design atomic bomb oversaw creation chicago nuclear went critical december responsible design operation tennessee began produced war chancellor tenure university formally undergraduate divisions named female professor enrolled record number students wartime veterans returned united_states early life born september ohio son catherine née named academic family dean later arthur attended arthur eldest brother attended earned phd physics princeton_university president mit second brother wilson likewise attended earned phd economics princeton president washington later brothers members initially interested astronomy took photograph described experiment examination motion water circular tube demonstrated rotation earth year graduated bachelor science degree entered princeton received master arts degree studied phd physics supervision writing intensity ray reflection distribution earned phd wilson group brothers earn princeton later trio simultaneously head american colleges sister mary married missionary principal june married classmate fellow graduate sons spent year physics instructor years research engineer pittsburgh worked development lamp world war developed aircraft instrumentation awarded allowed students study abroad chose cambridge_university england working son studied scattering absorption gamma rays observed scattered rays easily absorbed original source greatly impressed scientists especially ultimately named second son time baptist church science quarrel said religion god men children physics professor effect returning united_states appointed professor physics head found ray scattered free longer accordance relation energy incoming rays surplus energy having transferred discovery known effect scattering demonstrated particle concept electromagnetic radiation published paper explained ray shift particle like momentum invoked nobel prize winning explanation photo electric effect elements light containing specific energy depending frequency light paper derived mathematical relationship shift scattering angle rays assuming scattered ray interacted electron paper concludes reporting experiments verified derived relation formula formula initial formula scattering formula constant formula electron rest mass formula speed light formula scattering angle quantity known electron equal shift lies zero twice electron found rays experienced shift despite scattered large angles cases failed electron magnitude shift related electron entire upwards times smaller presented results meeting later recalled initiated contested scientific controversy known wave nature light demonstrated idea dual nature easily accepted particularly telling crystal explained reference wave nature earned nobel prize physics developed method observing instant individual scattered ray germany independently developed similar method rays moved university_of_chicago professor physics position occupy years demonstrated scattering rays sixteen elements periodic table hydrogen result predicted harvard_university spearheaded effort prove interpretation effect wrong carried series experiments instead found evidence correct conceded case investigated effect rays salt rays investigate concluding result alignment electron spins consultant general_electric returned england visiting professor oxford_university general_electric asked report activities research laboratory intrigued possibilities research lamps report prompted research program america developed book rays published showed materials ray patterns revised book help produce rays theory experiment work remained standard reference decades cosmic rays early 1930s interested cosmic rays time existence known origin nature remained speculative presence detected spherical bomb containing compressed air gas measuring electrical trips europe india mexico peru australia gave opportunity measure cosmic rays different altitudes latitudes groups observations globe found cosmic rays cent intense poles equator attributed effect cosmic rays principally charged particles suggested latitude effect earth magnetic field manhattan_project april head wartime created special committee headed report program report submitted prospects developing weapons nuclear propulsion ships nuclear weapons recently discovered october wrote report atomic bomb report worked calculations critical mass estimating kilograms tonnes long tons short tons discussed prospects spoke produced nuclear produced separated report submitted november stated bomb feasible conservative destructive power british colleagues final draft november report mention discussing latest research convinced bomb feasible december placed charge project hoped achieve controlled chain reaction january bomb january tackle problem different research groups working nuclear design columbia_university princeton_university concentrated chicago objectives produce convert find ways separate design build atomic bomb june assumed control nuclear weapons program manhattan_project month gave responsibility bomb design fell decide different types designs scientists devised pursued successful built labor disputes delayed construction new home red gate woods decided build chicago nuclear stands field direction went critical december arranged undertake ore build semi works tennessee major crisis program occurred july group confirmed created contained high levels spontaneous ruled use gun type nuclear weapon met challenge designing building type nuclear weapon site september watch brought online batch fed november shipments began february war remain prominent scientific adviser administrator served lawrence recommended military use atomic bomb japan awarded medal merit services manhattan_project return war ended resigned chair professor physics university_of_chicago returned inaugurated university ninth chancellor time chancellor university formally undergraduate divisions named female professor enrolled record numbers students wartime veterans returned united_states reputation connections national scientific circles allowed recruit nationally renowned scientific researchers university despite accomplishments criticized subsequently historians moving slowly racial integration making major institution higher learning open doors african americans retired chancellor remained faculty distinguished service professor natural philosophy retirement time faculty retirement wrote personal account role manhattan_project published philosophy handful scientists philosophers propose stage model free include championed idea human freedom based quantum invented notion microscopic quantum events bring chance world somewhat bizarre mechanism imagined sticks dynamite attached anticipating cat published reacting criticisms ideas chance direct cause people actions clarified stage nature idea article range random possible events adds determining factor act choice set known physical conditions adequate specify precisely forthcoming event conditions known define instead range possible events particular event occur exercises freedom act choice adding factor supplied physical conditions determining occur known person outside act working physical law inner knowledge fact intends tells actor free death legacy died berkeley california cerebral march survived wife sons buried ohio received awards lifetime including nobel prize physics gold medal commemorated ways crater moon named brother physics research building named honor invented gentle elongated version speed bump called holly roads campus remembered achievements chicago honor listed star nasa named honor effect central gamma ray detection instruments aboard observatory
Arthur Compton