long long mole family species typically long mature characterized black brown yellow long outer fourth toe hind limbs analysis fossil records suggest descended common ancestor gained access western loss mid continental distribution long primarily pacific_northwest range lives variety habitats including temperate coniferous forests zones plains red fir forests plains alpine meadows rocky shores mountain lakes lives slow moving streams ponds lakes aquatic breeding phase long cold winter months surviving energy reserves stored skin tail subspecies different genetic ecological histories expressed range color skin patterns long classified species concern iucn forms land development threaten negatively affect habitat taxonomy member known mole originated approximately million years ago late cretaceous sister taxon members includes capable internal sister species distributed eastern north_america species level phylogeny tentative need testing description body long black dorsal stripe tan yellow olive green stripe broken series spots sides body fine white pale blue belly dark brown color white root present developed species tiger eggs species look similar related northwestern tiger like amphibians eggs long surrounded gelatinous capsule capsule transparent making embryo visible development unlike eggs visible signs green algae makes egg green color egg long embryo darker compared tiger embryo light brown grey cream colored eggs greater diameter wide outer layer prior hatching egg newborn larvae thin skin sticking sides supporting head eventually fall external gills grow larger lost larvae distinguished sharply pointed gills larvae mature limbs visible gills skin black brown yellow skin color changes larvae develop pigment cells migrate concentrate different regions body pigment cells called derived crest types pigment include yellow black larvae mature concentrate body provide darker background yellow arrange spine limbs rest body reflective sides underneath larvae develop limb fully long limbs rear limbs head longer wide long outer fourth toe hind limb mature larvae adults distinguishes species origin specific epithet greek long toe adult skin dark brown dark grey black background yellow green dull red stripe dots spots sides underneath limbs head body white pinkish brown larger white smaller yellow adults typically long habitat distribution long versatile species living variety habitats ranging temperate coniferous forests plains red fir forest plains alpine meadows rocky shores mountain lakes adults located forested hiding coarse woody debris rocks small spring breeding season adults found debris shoreline rivers streams lakes ponds waters frequented species widely distributed north_america second tiger range runs sea level meters spanning wide variety zones range includes isolated endemic populations california distribution northeastern running continuously pacific_coast alaska populations valleys pacific_coast range extends eastern foothills rocky_mountains montana alberta ecology life cycle eggs like amphibians life long begins egg northern extent range eggs laid masses grass sticks rocks substrate calm pond number eggs single mass ranges size possibly eggs cluster females invest significant resources egg production accounting body mass pre breeding season maximum eggs found single female large number considering egg approximately millimeters diameter egg mass held gelatinous outer layer protecting outer capsule individual eggs eggs laid singly especially warmer climates south canada border egg contribute yearly supply biological material supports chemistry nutrient dynamics shallow water aquatic ecosystems adjacent forest ecosystems eggs provide habitat water known larvae larvae hatch egg weeks born feeding small invertebrates field vision food items include small aquatic crustaceans aquatic develop naturally feed larger prey increase chances survival individuals grow bigger heads feed brood mates juveniles larvae grow mature season period lasts months pacific_coast absorb gills terrestrial juveniles forest reported early july sea level october november january higher elevations larvae develop grow extra season lakes higher elevations larvae reach sizes millimeters snout vent length lower elevations develop faster reach millimeters adults adults long unnoticed live subterranean lifestyle digging migrating feeding invertebrates forest soils decaying logs small rock adult diet consists insects worms beetles small fish preyed snakes small mammals birds fish adult live years largest individuals weighing approximately grams snout vent lengths reaching total lengths reaching behaviour seasonal life history long varies greatly elevation climate seasonal dates migration breeding ponds bouts sustained rainfall ice snow melt sufficient seasonal ponds eggs spawned low elevations early mid february southern oregon early january july northwestern washington january march southeastern washington mid april early alberta timing breeding highly variable notable mention egg masses early stages development found july british_columbia provincial border outside alberta adults migrate return breeding ponds males arriving earlier staying longer females individuals seen migrating snow banks warm spring days gender differences sexual species apparent breeding season mature males display enlarged vent area breeding time breeding depends elevation latitude habitat generally lower elevation breed fall winter early spring higher elevation breed spring early summer higher climates especially enter ponds lakes ice floating adults aggregate large numbers individuals rocks logs immediate edge breeding sites breed days suitable breeding sites include small fish free ponds marshes shallow lakes water wetlands like evolved characteristic courtship dance bodies release chin prior assuming mating position position male deposits stalk tipped sperm walks female forward males mate deposit course hour period courtship dance long similar species similar long head males directly approach females grab females try rapidly swim away males female shake behavior called males species breeding shake male grabs limbs uses hind limbs courtship dance chin pressing female head female struggles later subdued males increase tempo motions female nostrils sides vent female male moves forward tail positioned head raised waving tip female accepts males courtship male directs snout vent region forward pelvic female follows male stops deposits female forward male raise tail receive sperm courtship dance rarely accomplished attempt females deposit eggs days mating energy storage defense mechanisms lowland areas adult remain active winter long excluding cold spells cold winter months northern parts range long frost line coarse substrate clusters individuals survives protein energy reserves stored skin tail proteins serve secondary function mixture skin defense threatened long wave tail white substance likely poisonous color skin serve warning predators taste bad skin colors patterns diverse ranging dark black reddish brown background spotted pale reddish brown pale green bright yellow stripe adult drop tail away tail bit acts called regeneration tail example developmental physiology amphibians great interest medical profession conservation status long classified concern iucn forms land development negatively affect habitat new perspectives priorities conservation biology conservation priorities focus population level diversity declining rates times species extinction population level diversity provides ecosystem services role play soil ecosystems including nutrient cycling supports wetland forested ecosystems life history features amphibians cited reason amphibians good environmental health coal like amphibians long aquatic terrestrial life transition skin serve different ecological functions water land loss species equivalent loss ecological species second notion amphibians long susceptible absorption naturally absorb water oxygen skin validity special sensitivity environmental called question problem complex amphibians equally susceptible environmental damage diverse array life histories species long populations threatened introduced species radiation forestry roads land developments altered environments amphibians migrate increased mortality places installed road tunnel allow safe passage sustain migration ecology species distribution long overlaps extensively forestry industry dominant resource supporting economy british_columbia western united_states long alter migration behaviour affected negatively forestry practices offering sizable management smaller wetlands breed populations near alberta lost clearing draining wetlands agriculture trout introduced sport fisheries lakes destroying long populations introduced prey eggs larvae long increased exposure radiation factor implicated global decline amphibians long susceptible threat increases reduces survival growth rates subspecies particular concern afforded subspecies lives narrow range habitat california prior receiving remaining populations threatened development subspecies unique having unique irregular skin patterns unique moisture tolerance endemic geographically isolated rest species range subspecies include evolutionary origins ancestral origins species stem eastern north_america species highest following interpretation origins western north_america based descriptive account fossils long closest living sister species native northeastern north_america isolated southeast mid continental cretaceous species overlapping ranges western north_america long closest living sister species native northeastern north_america suggested loss western interior opening access route common ancestor situated regions western north_america species contend dynamic spatial ecology responding changes altitude mountains grew climate changed example pacific northwest cooler paving way temperate forest replace warmer tropical forest cretaceous scenario splitting western temperate species eastern counterparts involves rocky mountain late created climatic barrier removing moisture westerly air stream dried area southern alberta gulf_of_mexico ancestors contemporary likely able disperse migrate habitats rocky_mountains surrounding areas forests established western north_america mid attained contemporary range early temperate forest valleys environments time periods provided ecological features supporting contemporary habitats cascade range rose mid created rain shadow effect causing altered ranges temperate ecosystems higher elevations rise causing major feature western north_america divided species including coastal inland subspecies subspecies long subspecies geographic location patterns dorsal stripe gives account skin patterns morphology based analysis introduced new subspecies ranges subspecies illustrated field guides physical appearance summary distinguishing skin patterns morphological features subspecies include orange dorsal color tail breaking patches black body tiny dots head absent anterior eyes sides whitish number grooves equals yellow tan dorsal stripe black body continuous spots body ending narrowed spot patterns distributed head white sides underside remaining separate small number teeth greater yellow tan dorsal stripe continuous spots body ending widened spot patterns distributed head white sides underside remaining separate small number teeth number grooves equals wax yellow tan dorsal stripe forming irregular shaped body ending dots dorsal color head number teeth equals number grooves equals dull tan dorsal stripe continuous grayish body pattern ending stripe color absent head snout white sides coming form larger number teeth forming distinguished transverse arc number grooves equals mitochondrial dna analysis identifies somewhat different ranges subspecies genetic analysis example identifies additional pattern deep divergence eastern range spatial distribution populations species links historically mountain temperate valley systems western north_america breeding fidelity long migratory reduce rates dispersal regions mountain basins aspect behavior gene flow increases degree rates genetic genetic regions higher long measured groups natural breaks range dispersal migration occur ecosystems grade drier low lands prairie climates frozen terrain high elevation extremes meters genetic evidence central subspecies suggests extend north british_columbia restricted blue central northeastern sections oregon populations restricted areas idaho east low dry lands madras basin west coastal western subspecies lineage extends north northeastern california valley coastal mountain ranges including continuing north british_columbia alaska long closely related coastal western subspecies conclusion explanation nearest populations separated approximately sacramento san river delta california isolated endemic populations listed endangered subspecies based molecular clock subspecies separated remainder distribution molecular clock estimating million years separation eastern subspecies range distributed interior mountains western extent range low land areas central interior plateau washington british_columbia eastern extent range pushing rocky mountain valleys lowland foothills montana alberta traditional southern subspecies register mitochondrial genetic identity subspecies identified forming south central oregon thompson russell found evolutionary lineage originates restricted area idaho arrival approximately years ago pleistocene glaciers opened migratory path linking southern populations northern areas currently overlap migrated north canada valley noted geographic area morphological subspecies run parallel ranges thompson russell suggest contact zone different subspecies lineage geographically isolated restricted central
Long-toed salamander