history artificial intelligence history artificial intelligence began antiquity myths stories rumors artificial beings endowed intelligence consciousness master writes began ancient wish forge gods seeds modern planted classical philosophers attempted describe process human thinking mechanical manipulation symbols work culminated invention digital computer 1940s machine based abstract essence mathematical reasoning device ideas inspired handful scientists begin seriously discussing possibility building electronic brain test proposed british mathematician paper intelligence opens words propose consider question machines think term artificial intelligence created conference held pioneered newly created artificial intelligence field started lab created summer programming language important artificial intelligence research response criticism ongoing pressure congress british governments stopped funding research artificial intelligence seven years later visionary initiative inspired governments industry provide dollars late 80s investors disillusioned withdrew funding writes artificial intelligence form idea western intellectual history dream urgent need realized expressed humanity myths legends stories speculation myth fiction speculation mechanical men artificial beings appear greek myths golden robots middle ages rumors secret mystical means placing mind matter ibn 19th century ideas artificial men thinking machines developed fiction speculation darwin machines continued important element science fiction present realistic built civilization including hero alexandria oldest known sacred statues ancient egypt greece faithful believed figures real minds capable wisdom emotion wrote discovering true nature gods man able reproduce formal reasoning artificial intelligence based assumption process human thought study mechanical formal reasoning long history chinese indian greek philosophers developed structured methods formal millennium bce ideas developed centuries philosophers aristotle gave formal analysis elements model formal reasoning muslim mathematician developed gave european philosophers william philosopher developed logical machines devoted production knowledge logical means described machines mechanical entities combine basic truths simple logical operations produced machine mechanical meanings ways produce possible knowledge work great influence redeveloped ideas 17th century explored possibility rational thought systematic geometry famously wrote reason envisioned universal language reasoning reduce calculation need philosophers hand friend witness liked let philosophers begun articulate physical symbol system hypothesis guiding faith research 20th century study mathematical logic provided essential breakthrough artificial intelligence plausible foundations set works laws thought building system russell presented formal treatment foundations mathematics masterpiece inspired russell success challenged 1920s answer fundamental question mathematical reasoning question answered proof machine church answer surprising ways proved fact limits mathematical logic accomplish second important work suggested limits form mathematical reasoning thesis implied mechanical device symbols simple imitate process mathematical key insight machine simple theoretical construct captured essence abstract symbol manipulation invention inspire handful scientists begin discussing possibility thinking machines computer science calculating machines built antiquity improved history including philosopher early 19th century designed computer built speculated machine compose elaborate scientific pieces music degree complexity extent credited programmer set notes wrote completely detail method calculating numbers engine modern computers massive code breaking machines second world war machines based theoretical foundation laid developed birth artificial intelligence 1940s 50s handful scientists variety fields mathematics psychology engineering economics political science began discuss possibility creating artificial brain field artificial intelligence research founded academic discipline early networks earliest research thinking machines inspired confluence ideas prevalent late early 50s recent research shown brain electrical network fired described control stability electrical networks information theory described digital signals signals theory showed form described digitally close relationship ideas suggested possible construct electronic brain examples work vein includes robots turtles machines use computers digital electronics symbolic reasoning controlled entirely analog analyzed networks artificial showed perform simple logical functions describe later researchers network students inspired young year old graduate student built net machine important leaders years test published landmark paper speculated possibility creating machines think noted thinking difficult define devised famous test machine carry conversation indistinguishable conversation human reasonable machine thinking simplified version problem allowed argue convincingly thinking machine plausible paper answered common objections proposition proposal philosophy artificial intelligence game mark machine wrote program wrote chess program developed middle 50s early 60s eventually achieved sufficient skill challenge respectable amateur game continue measure progress history symbolic reasoning access digital computers possible middle fifties scientists recognized machine manipulate numbers manipulate symbols manipulation symbols essence human thought new approach creating thinking machines future nobel created logic theorist help program eventually prove russell find new elegant simon said solved mind body problem explaining system composed matter properties mind early statement philosophical position later strong machines contain minds human bodies conference birth conference organized senior scientists proposal conference included assertion aspect learning feature intelligence precisely described machine simulate participants included create important programs decades research conference simon debuted logic theorist mccarthy persuaded attendees accept artificial intelligence field conference moment gained mission success major players widely considered birth golden years years conference era discovery new ground programs developed time people simply astonishing computers solving word problems proving geometry learning speak english time believed intelligent behavior machines possible researchers expressed intense optimism private print predicting fully intelligent machine built years government agencies like poured money new field work successful programs new directions late 50s 1960s influential reasoning search early programs basic achieve goal like winning game proving proceeded step step making searching maze reached dead end called reasoning search principal difficulty problems number possible paths maze simply astronomical situation known explosion researchers reduce search space rules thumb eliminate paths unlikely lead solution simon tried capture general version program called general problem searching programs able accomplish impressive tasks like solving problems geometry geometry saint written student programs searched goals plan actions like strips system developed stanford control behavior robot natural language important goal research allow computers communicate natural languages like english early success program student solve high school word problems net represents concepts house door relations concepts links program use net written successful controversial version conceptual theory carry conversations realistic users occasionally thinking communicating human program fact idea talking simply gave response repeated said response grammar rules micro worlds late 60s proposed research focus artificially simple situations known micro worlds pointed successful sciences like physics basic principles best understood simplified models like planes perfectly rigid bodies research focused blocks world consists colored blocks shapes sizes flat surface led innovative work machine vision led team invented propagation especially time built robot arm stack blocks bringing blocks world life achievement micro world program communicate ordinary english sentences plan operations execute optimism generation researchers predictions work years digital computer world chess champion years digital computer discover prove important new mathematical machines capable years work man generation problem creating artificial intelligence substantially solved years machine general intelligence average human money june mit received million grant newly created later known money fund project mac founded mccarthy years earlier continued provide million dollars year 70s similar grants simon program founded important laboratory established institutions continue main centers research funding years money strings attached director believed organization fund people projects allowed researchers pursue directions interest created atmosphere mit gave birth culture hands approach winter 70s subject critiques financial setbacks researchers failed appreciate difficulty problems faced tremendous optimism raised expectations high promised results failed funding disappeared time field nets shut completely years devastating criticism despite difficulties public perception late 70s new ideas explored logic programming reasoning areas problems early capabilities programs limited impressive handle trivial versions problems supposed solve programs sense toys researchers begun run fundamental limits overcome 1970s limits conquered later decades field day limited computer power memory processing speed accomplish truly useful example successful work natural language demonstrated vocabulary words fit memory argued computers millions times weak exhibit intelligence suggested analogy artificial intelligence requires computer power way aircraft require horsepower certain threshold impossible power increases eventually easy regard computer vision estimated simply matching edge motion detection capabilities human real time require general purpose computer capable operations second practical computer vision applications require comparison fastest million million capable typical computer time achieved explosion building showed problems probably solved time size finding optimal solutions problems requires amounts computer time problems trivial certainly meant toy solutions probably scale useful systems knowledge reasoning important artificial intelligence applications like vision natural language require simply enormous amounts information world program needs idea looking talking requires program know things world child researchers soon discovered truly vast information build database large knew program learn information proving solving geometry problems comparatively easy computers supposedly simple task like recognizing face crossing room extremely difficult helps explain research vision little progress middle 1970s frame qualification problems researchers like logic discovered represent ordinary involved planning default reasoning making changes structure logic developed new like non try solve problems end funding agencies funded research british government frustrated lack progress eventually cut funding research pattern began early report appeared criticizing machine translation efforts spending million dollars ended support report state research england criticized utter failure achieve objectives led research country report specifically mentioned explosion problem reason deeply disappointed researchers working program canceled annual grant million dollars funding projects hard find blamed crisis unrealistic predictions colleagues researchers caught web increasing issue passage increasing pressure fund mission oriented direct research basic research funding creative exploration gone 60s come instead money directed specific projects clear objectives autonomous tanks battle management systems critiques campus philosophers strong objections claims researchers earliest argued showed formal system computer program truth certain statements human ridiculed broken promises 60s assumptions arguing human reasoning actually involved little symbol processing great deal embodied unconscious know argument presented attempted program said understand symbols uses quality called symbols meaning machine argued machine described thinking critiques taken seriously researchers far point problems like knowledge immediate unclear difference know actual computer program said ignored taught mit given cold shoulder later said researchers seen having lunch author felt colleagues treatment outspoken critic positions deliberately plain theirs way treat human began ethical doubts wrote doctor disturbed saw program tool feud began situation helped credit contribution program published human reason argued artificial intelligence potential human life dark age form network introduced like researchers optimistic power predicting eventually able learn decisions translate languages active research program carried 60s came sudden halt publication book suggested severe limitations predictions exaggerated effect book devastating virtually research years eventually new generation researchers revive field vital useful artificial intelligence live died boating accident shortly book published logic symbolic reasoning logic introduced research early proposal discovered simple method implement computers resolution unification straightforward like attempted mccarthy students late 60s especially programs required astronomical numbers steps prove simple approach logic developed 1970s soon led collaboration french researchers created successful logic programming language uses logic horn clauses closely related rules production rules permit rules continue influential providing foundation expert systems continuing work lead unified theories critics logical approach noted human beings rarely logic solved problems experiments like provided proof mccarthy responded people irrelevant argued needed machines solve problems machines think people frames scripts critics mccarthy approach colleagues country mit trying solve problems like story understanding object recognition required machine think like person order use ordinary concepts like chair restaurant assumptions people normally unfortunately concepts like hard represent logic observed precise language describe essentially concepts doesn precise described anti logic approaches opposed neat mccarthy simon seminal paper noted fellow researchers kind tool framework captures common sense assumptions example use concept bird facts immediately come mind assume flies eats worms know facts true facts logical structured sets assumptions context think called structures frames version frames called scripts successfully answer questions short stories english years later object oriented programming adopt essential idea inheritance research frames boom 1980s form program called expert systems adopted corporations world knowledge focus mainstream research years japanese government aggressively funded fifth generation computer project encouraging event early 1980s revival work achieved success rise expert systems expert system program answers questions problems specific domain knowledge logical rules derived knowledge experts earliest examples developed students begun identified compounds readings developed diagnosed infectious blood diseases demonstrated feasibility approach expert systems restricted small domain specific knowledge avoiding knowledge problem simple design relatively easy programs built modified place programs proved useful able achieve point expert system called completed enormous success saving company million dollars annually corporations world began develop deploy expert systems spending billion dollars house departments industry grew support including hardware companies like software companies knowledge revolution power expert systems came expert knowledge contained new direction research gaining ground 70s researchers beginning suspect reluctantly violated scientific canon intelligence based ability use large amounts diverse knowledge different ways writes great lesson 1970s intelligent behavior depended dealing knowledge detailed knowledge domain given task lay knowledge based systems knowledge engineering major focus research 1980s 1980s saw birth attempt attack knowledge problem directly creating massive database contain mundane facts average person knows started led project argued way machines know meaning human concepts teach concept time hand project expected completed decades chess playing programs deep thought defeated chess masters developed deep thought development paved way deep blue money returns fifth generation project japanese set aside million fifth generation computer project objectives write programs build machines carry conversations translate languages interpret pictures reason like human beings chose primary computer language project countries responded new programs began million project consortium american companies formed fund large scale projects information technology responded founding strategic computing initiative investment revival physicist able prove form network called net learn process information completely new way time popularized new method training networks called discovered years earlier discoveries revived field largely abandoned new field unified inspired appearance volume collection papers edited psychologist networks commercially successful 1990s began engines driving programs like optical character recognition speech recognition bust second winter business community fascination rose fell 80s classic pattern economic bubble collapse perception government agencies investors field continued advances despite criticism researchers related field argued entirely new approach artificial intelligence winter term winter coined researchers survived funding cuts concerned enthusiasm expert systems control disappointment certainly follow fears founded late 80s early 90s suffered series financial setbacks indication change weather sudden collapse market specialized hardware computers apple steadily gaining speed power powerful expensive machines longer good reason buy entire industry worth half billion dollars demolished overnight eventually earliest successful expert systems proved expensive maintain difficult update learn mistakes given unusual fell prey problems qualification problem identified years earlier expert systems proved useful special contexts late 80s strategic computing initiative cut funding deeply brutally new leadership decided wave directed funds projects likely produce immediate results impressive list goals penned japan met like carry casual conversation met projects expectations run higher actually possible importance having body embodied reason late 80s researchers advocated completely new approach artificial intelligence based believed real intelligence machine needs body needs perceive survive deal world argued skills essential higher level skills like reasoning abstract reasoning actually interesting important human skill advocated building intelligence approach revived ideas control theory unpopular precursor come mit late 70s successful background theoretical lead group studying vision rejected symbolic approaches mccarthy logic frames arguing needed understand physical machinery vision symbolic processing took place work cut short paper elephants don play chess researcher took direct aim physical symbol system hypothesis arguing symbols necessary world best model exactly date detail known trick sense appropriately 80s 90s scientists rejected symbol processing model mind argued body essential reasoning theory called embodied mind thesis present field half century old finally achieved oldest goals began successfully technology industry somewhat scenes success increasing computer power achieved focusing specific isolated problems pursuing highest standards scientific reputation business world inside field little agreement reasons failure fulfill dream human level intelligence captured imagination world 1960s factors helped fragment competing focused particular problems approaches new names disguised pedigree artificial intelligence cautious successful moore law computer chess playing system beat reigning world chess champion super computer specialized version framework produced capable processing twice moves second match lost reportedly moves second event broadcast live internet received million hits stanford robot won driving miles desert trail years later team won navigating miles urban environment traffic hazards traffic laws february jeopardy exhibition match question answering system watson defeated greatest jeopardy champions significant margin successes revolutionary new tedious application engineering skill tremendous power computers today fact computer million times faster mark taught play chess dramatic increase measured moore law speed memory capacity computers doubles years fundamental problem raw computer power slowly overcome intelligent agents new called intelligent agents widely accepted 90s earlier researchers proposed divide conquer approaches intelligent agent reach modern form brought concepts decision theory economics study economist definition rational agent married computer science definition object module intelligent agent complete intelligent agent system environment takes actions maximize chances success definition simple programs solve specific problems intelligent agents human beings organizations human beings firms intelligent agent defines research study intelligent agents earlier definitions goes studying human intelligence studies kinds intelligence gave researchers license study isolated problems find solutions useful provided common language describe problems share solutions fields concepts abstract agents like economics control theory hoped complete agent architecture like day allow researchers build versatile intelligent systems interacting intelligent agents victory researchers began develop use sophisticated mathematical tools past widespread realization problems needed solve worked researchers fields like mathematics economics operations research shared mathematical language allowed higher level collaboration established successful fields achievement results rigorous scientific discipline describe revolution victory highly influential book brought probability decision theory new tools use networks hidden models information theory modeling classical precise mathematical descriptions developed intelligence like networks evolutionary scenes originally developed researchers began appear parts larger systems solved lot difficult problems solutions proved useful technology industry data mining industrial logistics speech recognition banking software medical diagnosis google search engine field receives little credit successes greatest innovations reduced status item tool chest computer science explains lot cutting edge filtered general applications called useful common labeled anymore researchers 1990s deliberately called work names knowledge based systems systems intelligence considered field fundamentally different new names help funding commercial world failed promises winter continue research new_york_times reported computer scientists software engineers avoided term artificial intelligence fear viewed wild eyed imagined year machine exist intelligence matched exceeded capability human beings character created based belief shared leading researchers machine exist year asks question didn believes answer central problems like reasoning neglected researchers pursued things like commercial applications nets genetic hand blames qualification problem issue computer power moore law machines human level intelligence appear argues net research ignores essential properties human preferring simple models successful solving simple problems explanations corresponding research program underway
History of artificial intelligence