condensed matter physics condensed matter physics branch physics deals physical properties condensed phases matter condensed matter seek understand behavior phases physical laws particular include laws quantum mechanics statistical mechanics familiar condensed phases exotic condensed phases include phase exhibited certain materials low temperature phases spins atomic found cold atomic systems study condensed matter physics involves measuring material properties experimental techniques theoretical physics develop mathematical models help understanding physical behavior diversity systems phenomena available study makes condensed matter physics active field contemporary physics american identify condensed matter largest division field overlaps chemistry materials science relates closely atomic physics theoretical condensed matter physics shares important concepts techniques theoretical particle nuclear physics variety topics physics etc treated distinct areas 1940s grouped solid state physics 1960s study physical properties added list forming basis new related specialty condensed matter physics according physicist term coined changed group cambridge solid state theory theory condensed matter felt exclude interests study nuclear matter anderson helped condensed matter present europe years prominently form journal published english french german titled physics condensed matter launched funding environment cold war politics 1960s 1970s factors lead prefer condensed matter physics emphasized scientific problems encountered working complex matter solid state physics associated industrial applications metals conduct research program condensed matter physics references condensed state traced earlier sources example introduction book theory proposed theory accordingly developed extension theory solid bodies matter fact correct unify title condensed bodies history classical physics studies condensed states matter english chemist decades nineteenth century observed chemical elements known time metallic properties high electrical thermal indicated atomic theory claimed inner structure claimed elements believed gases nitrogen hydrogen right conditions behave metals assistant lab successfully went known elements exception nitrogen hydrogen oxygen shortly irish chemist studied phase transition liquid gas coined term critical point describe condition gas liquid indistinguishable phases dutch physicist der supplied theoretical framework allowed prediction critical behavior based measurements higher temperatures successfully able hydrogen newly discovered respectively proposed theoretical model classical electron moving metallic solid model described properties metals terms gas free microscopic model explain observations law despite success free electron model notable problem unable correctly explain electronic contribution specific heat magnetic properties metals temperature dependence low temperatures years working discovered mercury observed electrical mercury temperatures certain value phenomenon completely surprised best theoretical time remained unexplained decades said contemporary theories far reaching ignorance quantum mechanics composite systems far able compose theory vague ideas advent quantum mechanics classical model augmented realized free metal obey statistics idea developed theory shortly incorporated statistics free electron model better able explain heat capacity years later quantum mechanics describe motion quantum electron periodic mathematics crystal structures developed classify crystals symmetry group tables crystal structures basis series international tables published band structure calculations predict properties new materials developed based revolution electronics working discovered development voltage transverse electric current conductor magnetic field perpendicular current phenomenon arising nature charge carriers conductor came known hall effect properly explained time electron discovered years later advent quantum mechanics developed theory laid foundation theoretical explanation quantum hall effect discovered half century later property matter known china modern studies started development nineteenth century included classification materials based response studied dependence temperature discovered point phase transition materials introduced concept magnetic domains explain main properties attempt microscopic description model described magnetic materials consisting periodic spins collectively acquired model solved exactly spontaneous occur dimension possible higher dimensional research spin waves led development new magnetic materials applications magnetic storage devices modern body physics model spin models illustrated successful application quantum mechanics condensed matter problems 1930s problems notably description effect world war ideas quantum field theory applied condensed matter problems included recognition collective modes important notion russian physicist idea liquid theory low energy properties interacting systems given terms known developed mean field theory continuous phase transitions described ordered phases spontaneous breakdown symmetry theory introduced notion order distinguish ordered phases eventually developed called theory based discovery small attraction opposite spin rise bound state called cooper pair study phase transition critical behavior known critical phenomena major field interest 1960s developed ideas critical scaling ideas unified group context quantum field theory quantum hall effect discovered observed hall fundamental constant formula figure effect observed independent parameters system size theorist proposed theory explaining precision integral plateau implied hall characterized terms called number shortly observed quantum hall effect rational multiple constant realized consequence interaction hall states formulated solution known study properties hall effect remains active field research discovered high temperature material temperatures high realized high temperature examples strongly materials electron electron interactions play important role satisfactory theoretical description high temperature known field strongly materials continues active research topic researchers discovered spontaneous electric fields creating films gases recently expanded form research area groups released suggest properties accordance earlier theoretical predictions established strongly electron material existence surface state material lead strong electronic theoretical theoretical condensed matter physics involves use theoretical models understand properties states matter include models study electronic properties model band structure density functional theory theoretical models developed study physics phase transitions theory critical use mathematical techniques quantum field theory group modern theoretical studies involve use numerical electronic structure mathematical tools understand phenomena high temperature phases gauge emergence theoretical understanding condensed matter physics closely related notion emergence complex assemblies particles behave ways dramatically different individual constituents example range phenomena related high temperature understood microscopic physics individual known similarly models condensed matter systems studied collective behave like describing phenomenon properties occur interface materials example interface non magnetic joined create electronic theory metallic state historically important building block studying properties theoretical description metals given model explained electrical thermal properties describing metal ideal gas newly discovered able derive law results close agreement experiments classical model improved incorporated statistics able explain behavior specific heat metals law structure studied observed ray pattern crystals concluded crystals structure periodic swiss physicist provided wave function solution equation periodic potential called wave calculating electronic properties metals solving body hard techniques necessary obtain meaningful predictions thomas theory developed 1920s estimate system energy electronic density treating local electron density later 1930s developed called improvement thomas model method accounted exchange statistics single particle electron general difficult solve equation free electron gas case solved exactly finally proposed density functional theory gave realistic descriptions bulk surface properties metals density functional theory widely 1970s band structure calculations variety symmetry breaking certain states matter exhibit symmetry breaking relevant laws physics possess symmetry broken common example break continuous symmetry examples include break symmetry exotic states ground state breaks phase symmetry quantum field theory states system broken continuous symmetry exist low energy called example correspond versions vibrations phase transition phase transition refers change phase system brought change external temperature classical phase transition occurs finite temperature order system destroyed example ice water ordered crystal structure destroyed quantum phase transitions temperature set absolute zero non thermal control pressure magnetic field causes phase transitions order destroyed quantum fluctuations originating uncertainty principle different quantum phases system refer distinct ground states understanding behavior quantum phase transition important difficult tasks explaining properties rare earth magnetic high temperature substances classes phase order transitions continuous transitions continuous transitions phases involved exist transition temperature called critical point near critical point systems undergoes displays critical behavior properties length specific heat critical phenomena poses challenges normal laws longer valid region novel ideas methods invented find new laws describe system simplest theory describe continuous phase transitions theory works called mean field roughly explain continuous phase transition type long range microscopic interactions types systems involves short range interactions near critical point better theory needed near critical point fluctuations happen broad range size scales feature system scale group techniques average shortest fluctuations stages retaining effects stage changes physical system viewed different size scales investigated systematically techniques powerful computer simulation contribute greatly explanation critical phenomena associated continuous phase transition experimental experimental condensed matter physics involves use experimental try discover new properties materials experimental include effects electric magnetic fields measurement response functions transport properties commonly experimental techniques include rays infrared light scattering study thermal response specific heat measurement transport thermal heat scattering condensed matter experiments involve scattering experimental probe ray optical etc constituents material choice scattering probe depends observation energy scale interest visible light energy scale scattering probe measure variations material properties constant index rays energies order able probe atomic length scales measure variations electron charge density probe atomic length scales study scattering electron spins spin charge scattering measurements electron beams scattering similarly indirect measurement local electron density laser excellent tool studying microscopic properties medium example study forbidden transitions media optical external magnetic fields experimental condensed matter physics external magnetic fields act control state phase transitions properties material systems nuclear magnetic resonance technique external magnetic fields find resonance modes individual giving information atomic molecular bond structure neighborhood experiments magnetic fields strengths higher magnetic fields improve quality measurement data quantum experimental technique high magnetic fields study material properties geometry surface high magnetic fields useful testing theoretical predictions effect image magnetic half quantum hall effect cold atomic gases cold trapping optical experimental tool commonly condensed matter atomic molecular optical physics technique involves optical create interference pattern acts placed low temperatures cold optical quantum act systems model behavior complicated systems frustrated particular engineer dimensional model pre specified parameters study phase transitions spin liquid ordering gas cooled temperature realize novel state matter originally predicted large number occupy single quantum state applications research condensed matter physics given rise device applications development laser technology phenomena studied context come condensed matter physics techniques scanning control processes scale given rise study quantum information represented quantum bits quickly useful completed problem solved quantum realized junction spin orientation magnetic materials non quantum hall states promising approaches proposed condensed matter physics solve problem condensed matter physics important applications example experimental technique magnetic resonance imaging widely medical diagnosis
Condensed matter physics