ethics ethics refers ethical theory ascribed german philosopher theory developed result enlightenment based view good thing good action good maxim principle duty moral law central construction moral law acts people regardless interests desires formulated ways principle requires action possible apply people contradiction occurring humanity end requires humans treated merely means end ends autonomy concludes rational agents bound moral law concept requires people act principles actions establish law hypothetical kingdom distinguished perfect imperfect duties perfect duty duty lie holds true imperfect duty duty charity flexible applied particular time place american philosopher cited political philosopher modern debate influence natural law influences development ethics philosophers argued parents teacher influenced ethics influenced ethics include philosopher political philosopher german philosopher criticised providing specific detail moral theory affect decision making denying human nature german philosopher argued ethics attempt describe people behave criticised argued acting duty diminish moral motivations friendship defended theory arguing duty diminish motivations catholic_church criticised ethics contradictory regards christian ethics compatible virtue ethics claim humans dignity respect autonomous agents means medical professionals happy treatments performed patients treated merely useful society approach sexual ethics emerged view humans merely means end leading regard sexual activity condemn certain specific sexual practices feminist philosophers ethics condemn practices prostitution pornography treat women ends believed animals possess duties indirect duties develop immoral cruelty example lying application ethics perfect duty tell truth lie lying bring better consequences telling truth outline work develops ethical theory clearly defined morals critique practical reason morals enlightenment tradition based ethical theory belief reason determine people ought act attempt specific action instructed reason determine behave good duty combined works constructed basis ethical law concept duty began ethical theory arguing virtue good good virtue status virtue achieve immoral ends virtue loyalty good loyal evil person example good unique good maintains moral value fails achieve moral intentions regarded good single moral principle freely chooses use virtues moral ends good broader conception acts duty acts duty distinguishable order moral law special case good visible adverse conditions argues acts performed regard duty moral worth acts performed merely accordance duty worthless deserve approval encouragement special esteem given acts performed duty conception duty people perform duties duty people prompts act comes agent desire moral law agent performs action duty rational incentives matter opposing wished conception morality externally imposed duties present ethics autonomy rational agents freely recognise claims reason makes perfect imperfect duties applying duties arise failure result contradiction conception contradiction classified perfect duties imperfect perfect duty holds true perfect duty tell truth lie imperfect duty allows flexibility imperfect duty obliged completely times choose times places believed perfect duties important imperfect duties conflict duties arises perfect duty followed primary ethics derived distinction hypothetical hypothetical obey want satisfy desires doctor hypothetical obliged obey want regardless desires duty lie regardless circumstances interest morally binding based reason contingent facts agent unlike hypothetical group society owe duties opt opt rational agents owe duty virtue rational agents rational moral principles apply rational agents times act according maxim time universal law acts according rule maxim act willing maxim allows action universal law acts fail test produce contradiction conception contradiction contradiction conception happens maxim sense maxim necessarily destroy soon universal law example maxim break promises trust promises idea promise meaningless maxim self contradictory promises cease meaningful maxim moral impossible conceive world maxim maxim immoral creates contradiction mean logical contradiction maxim leads state affairs rational desire example driver argues maxim charity produces contradiction world gives charity undesirable person acts maxim believed morality objective law reason objective physical laws physical actions fall gravity example objective rational laws rational actions believed perfectly rational perfectly moral perfectly rational finds necessary necessary humans perfectly rational partly act instinct believed humans conform objective rational laws called obligation argued objective law reason existing externally rational physical laws exist prior physical beings rational laws morality exist prior rational beings according rational morality universal change depending humanity end second treat humanity end act way treat humanity person person time end simply means argued rational beings treated merely means ends treated ends requiring reasoned motives equally respected derives claim reason morality demands respect reason motive beings including people rational consent merely means end treated end justified arguing moral obligation rational necessity morally right rational agents end merely means morally treated mean treat human means end treat end formula autonomy expresses idea agent obliged follow rational outside influence believed moral law motivated desire fulfill interest deny leading argue moral law arise rational principle requires people recognize right act means moral laws required person required kingdom ends rational regard giving laws member sovereign kingdom ends rendered possible freedom requires actions considered maxim provide law hypothetical kingdom ends accordingly people obligation act principles community rational agents accept laws community individual accept govern member community treating member merely means end ideal actions people events nature ensure actions good intentions result harm required act legislators ideal kingdom influences ethics suggested strong influences ethics lutheran sect parents emphasised honesty moral living belief concerned feeling believed required concerned morality good second political philosopher work influenced view fundamental worth human beings cites contemporary ethical debates influential development ethics favoured meant viewed morality form knowledge based human desire natural law belief moral law determined nature belief humans intuitive awareness objective moral truths according influential biographer suggested values parents held hard work honesty independence set example influenced suggests influenced teacher influenced work introduced work english physicist significance ethics influenced ethics german philosopher proposed theory discourse ethics claims descendant ethics proposes action based communication involved interests intentions discussed understood rejecting form manipulation believes agreement parties crucial moral decision reached like ethics discourse ethics ethical theory truth attributed ethical rule ethical actions determined proposes ethical actions similar way ethics argues ethical theory improvement ethics rejects framework ethics distinguished phenomena world experienced humans spiritual world inaccessible humans necessary explain autonomy human agent human bound phenomenal world actions free world morality arises discourse necessary needs freedom social contract theory political philosopher developed work theory justice influenced ethics argued society fair achieve proposed hypothetical moment prior existence society society ordered original position place veil ignorance knows position society preventing people biased interests ensuring fair result theory justice rests belief individuals free equal moral regarded human beings possessing degree saw constituents morality equal justice dismissed arguing structure ethics described goals french linked ethics works ethics compared argued maxim pursuit sexual pleasure enjoyment morally acceptable criteria proposed presented human freedom critical moral law argued human freedom fully realised maxim philosopher studied oxford_university contemporary supports approach issues social justice argues successful account social justice rely assumption notes philosophers previously charged humans autonomous beings social context life goals maintains ethics read prefers conception reason practical available humans principles attached human reason tool decisions means thing able principles adopt adopted adopts certain principle reasons adopt use reason reason people reject principles universally adopted way reached adopting view human autonomy model require adopt principles merely prohibits adopting model ethics begins develop theory justice argues rejection certain principles deception provides starting point basic justice argues human beings abstract principles equality liberty principles excessively demanding actions institutions rely non principles injury paper philosopher challenges ethics modern ethical theories arguing actions duty lack certain moral value gives example smith visits friend hospital duty friendship argues visit morally lacking motivated wrong thing attempted defend ethics point presenting number reasons find acting duty argues problems arise people duty acting duty wrong immoral consequences occur people duty bound duty need seen cold duty character improve personal relationships baron argues duty secondary motive motive sets conditions prompts specific actions argues seen way duty reveals natural act motives feelings essential friendship baron governed duty mean duty primary motivation act considerations duty action guiding responsible moral agent interest moral questions questions character guide moral agents act duty critics ethics german philosopher presented main criticisms ethics argued ethics provides specific information people moral law solely principle non contradiction argued ethics lack content constitute supreme principle morality illustrate point followers presented number cases formula universal law provides meaningful answer gives obviously wrong answer example trusted man money argue formula universal law determine social system property morally good thing answer contradictions example helping poor helped poor poor left help impossible making immoral according model second criticism ethics forces humans internal conflict reason desire unnatural humans suppress desire subordinate reason means addressing tension self interest morality ethics humans reason moral german philosopher criticised belief ethics concern ought insisting scope ethics attempt explain interpret actually happens presented version ought perfect world argued ethics instead practical arrive conclusions work real world capable presented solution world problems drew parallel aesthetics arguing cases rules important discipline believed virtue taught person cast proper place morality guiding people behaviour presenting universal laws philosopher friedrich criticised contemporary moral systems special focus christian ethics argued modern ethical systems share problematic characteristics claim nature humanity accepted system force second system benefits interests certain people primary objection claims humanity objected ethical theories claims main targets christianity claims feature prominently criticism rejected fundamental components ethics particularly argument morality god shown reason cast suspicion use moral foundation morality arguing force ethics attempted undermine key concepts moral psychology pure reason like developed concept autonomy rejected idea autonomy requires respect autonomy naturalist reading moral psychology stands contrary conception reason desire model reason fundamentally different motive desire capacity stand situation independent decision self social structure different drives motivations intellect decision drives actually alternative drive taking dominance direct contrast view intellect opposed instinct instead instinct self capable standing making decision decision self makes simply determined strongest drive commentators argued practical philosophy requires existence self capable standing sense individual create values key idea philosophy able conceive unified agent agent influenced drives regard conception autonomy philosopher criticised realising moral laws justified moral based principles greatest good greatest number ought sought mill argued ethics explain certain actions wrong appealing basis morality mill believed principle utility stronger intuitive grounding reliance reason better explain certain actions right wrong virtue ethics virtue ethics form ethical theory character agent specific acts proponents criticised approach ethics criticised modern ethical theories including ethics obsession law obligation arguing theories rely universal moral law rigid suggested moral law implies moral irrelevant modern secular society work virtue arguing trivial immoral pass test promises entire life challenges humanity ends arguing provided reason treat means maxim let treated means seemingly immoral argues persons character persons morality foot identified select group philosophers responsible neglect virtue philosophy catholic_church catholic_church criticised ethics apparent contradiction arguing humans legislators morality claim morality universally existing prior experience dependent humans existed theory inconsistent according human highest authority subject roman catholic priest criticised modern desire ethics autonomous free authorities church development partially attributed saw potentially threatening legitimacy maintained link gospel moral law shortcomings human reason leave place moral authority church regarded christian ethics closer virtue ethics aristotle ethics presented virtue ethics freedom excellence regards freedom acting accordance nature develop virtues initially requires following rules intention agent develop regard acting morally joy contrast freedom indifference attributes view freedom set nature free actions determined emotions development progress agent virtue merely forming habit closer view ethics conception autonomy requires agent merely guided emotions set contrast conception christian ethics applications medical ethics believed shared ability humans reason basis morality ability reason makes humans morally significant believed humans right common dignity respect argues according ethics medical professional happy practices patient example researcher wished perform tests patients knowledge happy researchers argues requirement autonomy mean patient able fully informed decision treatment making immoral perform tests patients medical research motivated respect patient informed facts likely dissuade patient argued autonomy requires patients merely benefit society treated rational people goals notes account autonomy requires respect choices arrived choices arrived non rational means argues difference purely rational agent choose patient actually chooses difference result non rational physician ought lie patient suggests form information prompt non rational response acceptable work ethics treat pregnancy abortion argues abortion defended according ethics proposed woman treated autonomous person control body suggested believes free choice women paramount ethics requiring abortion mother decision noted ethics discussion abortion decided autonomous person argues potential rational participation generally rational species relevant distinction humans objects animals believes humans rational age babies mental disability agents morally treat ends equivalent rational adult mother seeking abortion sexual ethics viewed humans subject desires self preservation species preservation preservation enjoyment argued humans duty avoid harm including suicide sexual degradation led regard sexual intercourse reduces humans object pleasure admitted sex marriage regarded merely animal union believed worse suicide reducing person status animal argued rape punished requires expulsion society feminist philosopher argued contemporary practices deemed immoral standards women sexual harassment prostitution pornography argues women meet standard human autonomy commercial sex criticised turning parties objects means end mutual consent problematic people choose noted liberal believe depending factors consent women participation pornography prostitution animal ethics viewed basis moral patient moral consideration believed animals moral rights animals according rational behave believe duties animals believe cruel wrong behaviour influence attitudes human beings accustomed animals likely humans acceptable rejects assessment moral worth animals main points rejects claim animals self conscious challenges claim animals moral worth moral judgement argues moral worth determined ability moral judgement regard humans incapable moral thought equally moral consideration finally argues assertion animals exist merely means ends fact animals life badly suggests like humans ends lying believed provides maxim ought lie circumstances trying bring good consequences lying murderer prevent finding intended victim argued fully know consequences action result unexpectedly harmful ought act avoid known wrong lying avoid potential wrong harmful consequences acted according duty driver argues problem choose differently maxim lie save innocent life new maxim treat murderer means end duty avoid required tell truth murderer example
Kantian ethics