plant defense plant defense host plant resistance describes range adaptations evolved plants improve survival reproduction reducing impact plants sense touched use strategies defend damage caused plants produce secondary known influence behavior growth survival chemical defenses act reduce plant defensive strategies plants include escaping avoiding time place example growing location plants easily found accessed changing seasonal growth patterns approach eating non essential parts ability plant recover damage caused plants encourage presence natural enemies turn protect plant type defense present plant induced produced reaction damage stress caused historically insects significant evolution land plants closely associated evolution insects plant defenses directed insects defenses evolved aimed birds mammals study plant defenses important evolutionary view point direct impact defenses agriculture including human livestock food sources beneficial biological control agents biological pest control programs search plants medical importance evolution defensive traits earliest land plants evolved aquatic plants million years ago period plants adapted terrestrial environment removing fact essential animal cells important action caused block transport animal cells plant cardiac liberate blocking poisonous large parasites plant cells useful seed phase vegetable strong able kill bacteria fungi cretaceous period saw appearance plant defense mechanisms flowering plants time associated sudden burst insects insects represented major selective force plant evolution led selection plants defensive adaptations early insect bit vegetation evolution plants lead evolution forms leaf mining forming feeding relative abundance different species plants ecological communities including forests determined level defensive compounds different species cost replacement damaged leaves higher conditions resources scarce plants growing areas water nutrients scarce invest resources anti defenses records understanding geological time comes sources plants preserve evidence defense spines related damage observation plant debris animal construction long thought phenomenon evidence found soon fossils million years fossils stems close million years ago evidence consumed animals fed spores early plants provides evidence organisms fed plants pierce suck technique plants time preserved spine like performed defensive role opted develop leaves ensuing million years plants evolved range complex organs roots seeds gap million years organ evolving fed hole feeding recorded early surface fluid feeding evolving end period evolution dependent plants food evolved mechanisms obtain food despite evolution diverse arsenal plant defenses adaptations plant defense likened offensive traits consist adaptations allow increased feeding use host plant relationships host plants results evolutionary change called evolution eats plant plants mount defensive response cases relationship demonstrates evolution trait traits evolve species thought evolved escape radiation mechanism evolution presents idea adaptations host plants driving force played role radiation insect species age evolved ways plant defenses benefit chemicals protect predators plant defenses generally complete plants tend evolve tolerance types plant defenses classified generally induced defenses present plant induced defenses produced mobilized site plant injured wide variation composition concentration defenses range mechanical defenses external mechanical defenses large defenses require large amounts resources produce difficult variety molecular approaches determine mechanism induced plant defenses responses induced defenses include secondary products morphological changes advantage opposed defenses produced needed potentially costly especially variable chemical defenses evolution chemical defences plants linked emergence chemical substances involved essential activities substances secondary organic compounds directly involved normal growth development reproduction organisms produced products synthesis primary products secondary thought play major role defenses analysis recent relevant studies suggested minimal compared non secondary primary chemistry physiology complex involvement defense secondary characterized defined interfere blocking specific reactions chemicals present plants relatively low concentrations dry weight dependent usually small water molecules rapidly synthesized transported stored relatively little energy cost plant usually effective non adapted specialists chemicals present high concentration plants dry weight equally effective specialists plant cell walls animals effects dependent higher chemicals proportion diet nutrition gain plant tissues typically large molecules defenses expensive produce maintain longer transport example produces unique chemical compound defend japanese beetles minutes chemical chemical usually wears hours time beetle consumed predators types chemical defences plants evolved secondary involved plant defense collectively known compounds classified sub groups nitrogen compounds including derived known exist examples include cocaine effects humans animals activate alter fat storage formation bonds involved breakdown certain synthesis proteins affect dna repair mechanisms affect cell membrane structure causing cells weaken collapse leak affect nerve transmission act diversity systems humans animals uniformly bitter taste stored inactive forms plant toxic eat plant break cell membranes allowing come contact releasing hydrogen blocks cellular activated way products cause mouth secondary defence characteristic grasses stored inactive plant tissue disruption contact release toxic present following considered plant defenses referred organic chemicals similar derived carbon units known types structures differ functional groups basic carbon skeletons continuing units volatile essential units widely distributed latex toxic responsible making leaves poisonous plant produced including red blood cells called consist carbon ring group properties disrupt activity range simple complex plants red blue yellow white complex called capable producing different types effects humans including properties examples defense plants condensed composed molecules binding consumed plant proteins making difficult animals digest interfering protein absorption digestive completely animals grind insect necessary feeding addition larger groups substances mentioned acid defense water derived acid acid simple acid sweet leads humans synthesis plants example use small molecules disrupt case acid cycle tropical species consumed fishes relatively low level mechanical defenses plants external structural defenses discourage depending physical characteristics size defensive armor plant structural defenses stems leaves deter kill defensive compounds produced internally released plant surface example wax cover terrestrial plants alter texture plant tissue leaves holly plants instance smooth slippery making feeding difficult plants produce traps insects plant leaves stem covered sharp spines hairs leaf containing plant structural features like spines reduce feeding large goats restricting feeding rate wearing sharp calcium calcium plant tissues making painful damaging mouth causing efficient delivery plant structure plant branching leaf arrangement evolved reduce impact shrubs new_zealand evolved special wide branching adaptations believed response birds similarly long spines low canopy short spines high canopy comparatively safe trees protect fruit multiple layers armor needing efficient tools break seed contents special skills climb tall relatively smooth trunk movements occur response touch defense plants leaves sensitive plant close rapidly response direct touch vibration electrical thermal cause mechanical response abrupt change pressure base leaves resulting phenomena spread electrical chemical means plant single need disturbed response surface area available presented underside results appearance physically small insects plants mimic presence insect eggs leaves insect species laying eggs female butterflies likely lay eggs plants butterfly eggs species genus passion flowers contain physical structures resembling yellow eggs butterflies leaves discourage butterflies indirect defenses category plant defenses features indirectly protect plant enhancing probability attracting natural enemies arrangement known case enemy enemy variety feature given plants group volatile organic compounds involved interactions organisms group consisting play defensive role communication members higher levels locate food sources plant attacked releases containing abnormal ratio predators sense food cues attracting damaged plant feeding subsequent reduction number fitness benefit plant demonstrates indirect defensive capabilities induced studies suggested attract plants provide housing food items natural enemies known defense mechanisms means maintain presence example trees genus adapted thin stem walls create ideal housing species genus turn protects plant addition providing housing plant provides exclusive food source food bodies produced plant similarly tree species developed swollen base forming structure acts housing trees produce leaves food ants plant use fungi defense common phenomenon plants organisms live cause disease protect plants help plant producing harmful organisms attack plant producing fungi common grasses tall leaf color suggestions leaf response provides protection diseases certain kinds leaf miners forming insects responses change leaf colors prior fall suggested adaptations help undermine camouflage autumn leaf color suggested act honest warning signal defensive commitment insect migrate trees autumn costs benefits defensive structures chemicals costly require resources plants maximize growth reproduction models proposed explore plants investment defenses optimal defense hypothesis optimal defense hypothesis attempts explain kinds defenses particular plant use reflect threats individual plant faces model considers main factors risk attack value plant cost defense factor determining optimal defense risk likely plant certain plant parts attacked related plant hypothesis states plant invest heavily broadly effective defenses plant easily found examples apparent plants produce include long living trees shrubs perennial grasses plants short lived plants early stages hand invest small amounts effective specialized second factor value protection plant able survive reproduce removal structure plant parts equal evolutionary value valuable parts contain defenses plant stage development time feeding affects resulting change fitness fitness value plant structure determined removing plant observing effect general reproductive parts easily replaced parts terminal leaves greater value basal leaves loss plant parts mid season greater negative effect fitness removal beginning end season seeds particular tend protected example seeds edible fruits nuts contain results need balance effort needed fruit attractive animal ensuring seeds destroyed animal final consideration cost particular defensive strategy cost plant energy materials particularly important energy spent defense functions reproduction growth optimal defense hypothesis plants energy defense benefits protection costs specifically situations high pressure carbon nutrient balance hypothesis carbon nutrient balance hypothesis known environmental hypothesis carbon nutrient balance model states types plant defenses responses variations levels nutrients environment hypothesis ratio plants determines secondary synthesized example plants growing nitrogen poor soils use carbon based defenses growing low carbon environments conditions likely produce nitrogen based hypothesis plants change defenses response changes nutrients example plants grown low nitrogen conditions plants implement defensive strategy composed carbon based defenses nutrient levels subsequently increase example addition carbon based defenses decrease growth rate hypothesis growth rate hypothesis known resource availability hypothesis states defense strategies determined inherent growth rate plant turn determined resources available plant major assumption available resources limiting factor determining maximum growth rate plant species model level defense investment increase potential growth decreases additionally plants resource poor areas inherently slow growth rates tend long lived leaves twigs loss plant result loss scarce valuable nutrients recent test model involved species trees clay soils nutrient rich white sand nutrient poor determine trade offs growth rate defenses restrict species habitat planted white sand protected originating clay originating nutrient poor sand presence originating white sand performed better likely higher levels carbon based defenses finding suggest defensive strategies limit habitats plants growth balance hypothesis growth balance hypothesis states plant defenses result growth related processes related processes different environments related processes defined processes enhance structure function existing cells maturation plant produce chemical defenses energy available plants highest concentrations secondary ones intermediate level available resources accounts growth defense resource availability gradient situations resources water nutrients limit carbon supply predicted limit growth defense resource availability increases requirements needed support met allowing accumulation tissues resources sufficient meet large demands growth carbon compounds instead synthesis carbon based secondary etc environments resource demands growth met carbon allocated rapidly dividing high sink strength expense secondary rapidly growing plants predicted contain lower levels secondary vice versa addition predicted change time evidenced recent study support hypothesis present literature scientists consider mature plant defense importance humans agriculture variation plant probably known early stages agriculture humans historic times observation variations provided solutions major socio economic problems introduced north_america france years destroyed nearly french yards noted american species resistant riley helped save french wine industry suggesting susceptible high quality root stocks formal study plant resistance covered extensively painter widely regarded founder area research book work pioneered research work basis research ussr fresh growth grass high acid content cause poisoning grazing livestock production chemicals grasses primarily defense human innovation cooking particularly helpful overcoming defensive chemicals plants grains prevalent pulse crops cooking making known late 17th century plants contain chemicals avoided insects chemicals man early extracted tobacco contact insect infested plants treated heating tobacco blowing smoke plants flowers species contain potent later years applications plant resistance important area research agriculture plant breeding particularly serve safe low cost alternative use important role secondary plant substances plant defense described late 1950s use botanical widespread notable examples include citrus species pepper natural materials found environment induce plant resistance derived induce plant natural defense response diseases insects including approved reduce dependence toxic selective breeding crop plants involves selection plant resistance strategies makes crop plant varieties particularly susceptible unlike wild relatives breeding host plant resistance wild relatives provide source resistance genes genes incorporated conventional approaches plant breeding augmented techniques allow introduction genes completely unrelated organisms famous approach introduction genes species plants produces proteins kill gene highly toxic proteins introduced host plant resistance toxic proteins produced plant approach controversial possibility ecological effects currently available derived secondary plants use protect including cocaine chemicals evolved affect insects specific ways pathways including humans chemicals act human ways similar insects suggested study plant insect interactions help evidence humans began plant medical preparations early active components medicinal plants isolated recently beginning early 19th century substances drugs human history example combat larvae species trees produce variety familiar extremely bitter making bark tree anti fever agent known jesuit bark especially useful treating malaria history highly sought reputed properties roots plant contain large quantities high acts central nervous system makes plant highly toxic later found pain management prior labor smaller prevent motion sickness known valuable drug isolated bark pacific early 1960s biological pest control companion planting defensive live fencing host plant resistance species beneficial biological control agents technique biological pest control programs organic wildlife sustainable sustainable landscaping organic farming sustainable agriculture restoration ecology methods habitat restoration projects references editors plant resistance ecology evolution chicago isbn sue million years war plant royal institution christmas lecture howe ecological relationships plants animals oxford isbn induced responses chicago isbn ecology insects concepts applications oxford isbn process chicago isbn plants evolutionary biology
Plant defense against herbivory