presidency presidency began turbulent reconstruction period following american civil war grant elected 18th president united_states elected office serving march march grant republican main supporters radical factions united_states peace world era prosperous severe national depression dominated grant second term grant bolstered enforcement powers signing law implemented protect civil rights african americans grant expanded federal authority protected african american civil rights domestic terrorism south grant presidency represented civil war values included union freedom equality grant reconstruction policy challenged impose democracy legal equality regardless resistance democrats south grant worked hard ensure passage fifteenth amendment gave black men right vote grant notable efforts president included civil rights civil service reform indian policy grant foreign policy successful improved anglo american relations grant opposed liberal faction republican_party founding fathers denounced grant violating party emphasis fighting corruption liberals insisted reconstruction successful slavery dead liberals demanded army troops withdrawn south normal political life resume liberals nominated long time republican spokesman grant intellectual base republican_party quietly supported democrats decisively defeated grant develop political advisers grant choosing cabinet relied heavily army associates thin understanding politics weak sense civilian ethics presidential reputation severely damaged repeated scandals having struggled self man grant extremely loyal family close military associates turn caused believed plotting overthrow presidency grant dismissed cabinet members notice explanation cabinet war navy personal secretary high officials named treasury department joined federal tax corruption charges rampant grant appointed reformer grant defended integrity government service attacked middle class public opinion key element republican_party base turned hostile grant scholars maintain corruption charges exaggerated grant administration grant implemented civil service reform ended system grant played role gold ring prosecution whiskey ring attorney general edwards general sweeping reforms respected departments initiated civil service departments false start weak selections grant named cabinet leading including fish secretary state negotiated treaty washington successful keeping united_states trouble britain spain secretary treasury ended corruption whiskey ring corrupt officials millions tax brilliant attorney general successfully negotiated panel peacefully settle controversial election grant attorney general enforced civil rights legislation protected african americans destroyed grant encouraged peaceful congressional negotiations controversial election signed compromise ended reconstruction economically grant conservative favored hard money gold based anti policy entailed paying large national debt gold reduced governmental spending decreased federal work force reduced national debt tax revenues increased second term office caused rampant railroad speculation shook nation financial institutions banks failed prices fell unemployment panic years tremendous industrial growth civil war fueled lavish money making schemes personal greed national corruption president grant money supply worsened panic ensuing major depression followed lasted years causing massive economic damage country panic wiped fortunes business corruption continued included escalated violence status fractured state party alliances elections completion west wide open challenged hostile native americans grant implemented innovative peace policy successful native americans hostilities took place war great war culminated famous lieutenant colonel killed millions buffalo slaughtered room settlers grant favored land use domestic cattle rejected legislation limited slaughter fatal peace commission grant native american policy incorporated military strategies favored grant gave legislative support early movement corruption rampant secretary grant secretary success establishment america national park corruption cleaned grant secretary grant presidential legacy suffered heavy handed use prop political allies southern states mid-1990s presidential reputation improved historians emphasize enforcement african american civil rights south peace policy indians presidency grant presidency traditionally viewed historians incompetent corruption examination presidency reveals grant successes failures terms office recent years historians elevated presidential rating support african american civil rights heavily radical camp sided reconstruction policies signing law prosecute foreign policy grant won praise treaty washington settling alabama claims issue britain arbitration economically sided eastern signed public credit act paid debts gold blamed severe economic depression lasted grant wary powerful congressional leaders president ask line item veto century left office historians denounced reconstruction policies followed grant recently grant support enforcement african americans civil rights earned praise scholars corruption existed southern state governments supported army civil rights advances african americans vigorous enforcement 14th 15th amendments prosecuted thousands persons violated african american civil rights military force political louisiana mississippi south_carolina depression increasingly unpopular reconstruction program weakened reputation party allowing democrats gain majority house_of_representatives presidency inundated scandals caused low standards political personal associates practiced grant family members relatives financially benefited government appointments employment grant odds matters foreign policy political patronage followed foreign policy grant practice making political appointments historian described extraordinary array departures normal course military rule close connection select group unsuccessful effort annex island country santo domingo grant bypassed sending military associate produce treaty grant disregarded opinion attorney general mining claim patents grant foreign policy heavily influenced able secretary state grant depended fish advice domestic issues money policy reconstruction secretary treasury given charge national economic policies grant began series appointments included qualified administration starting prosecuted departure white_house grant administration took civilian military style election main divisive issues continued democrats advocated allowing confederate soldiers hold offices republicans endorsed fifteenth amendment constitution allowed african americans vote controversial issue concerned redemption war bonds gold paper money known democrats wanted bonds rest gold known cheap money republicans wanted pay redemption war bonds gold position attractive investors finding popular hero endorsed reconstruction policies republicans nominated grant speaker democrats ignoring politically damaged president political independent nominated governor new_york missouri wealthy conservative came attack weakness war favoring anti war campaigning nasty republicans bloody shirt treason democrats grant campaigned slogan let peace apology jewish voters general order banned jewish merchants zone civil war alleged grant won popular vote won landslide votes votes grant helped fact southern states controlled radical republicans kept voting cabinet grant took unorthodox approach cabinet choices declining consult senate keeping choices secret submitted confirmation grant purposely avoided choosing republican_party leaders effort create national harmony personal loyalty grant appointed friends secretary war served days resigning claims ill health plan designed greater diplomatic grant appointed minister france grant appointed conservative new_york statesman secretary state fish grant successful appointment relationship fish grew strong friendship men wives later died tuberculosis replaced grant selected non politicians cabinet including limited success served briefly secretary navy replaced stewart prevented secretary treasury statute senator senator opposition amend law place stewart grant appointed known integrity secretary treasury grant cabinet appointments interior general attorney general received grant cabinet members know names offered senate confirmation grant independent times problematic manner choosing cabinet started rift republican party veterans denied consultation modified tenure office act march president grant known desired repealed stating stride revolution free system passed congress sponsored radical republicans curb power president making government office appointments controversial law invoked trial johnson march bill brought congress repeal act senator opposed unwilling grant free hand making appointments grant bolster repeal effort declined new appointments law overturned political office pressure congress repeal law national pressure governmental reform compromise reached new bill passed allowed president complete control removing cabinet government needed approval congress thirty day period grant desire party split matter signed bill received criticism getting repeal law unpopular measure completely repealed grant criticized appointing family members considered highly sought government posts practice known political initially president grant popular political newspaper elite political began early spring fall critical discouraged grant presidency aftermath black friday scandal lost enthusiasm administration attorney general ambassador britain prominent journalists concerned alleged incompetence lack national direction grant personal animosity remained grant senate rejection common citizen revered grant service civil war reconstruction civil rights freed slaves given vote congress active state politics fourteen elected congress state government governor lieutenant governors state formed voting base republican_party local whites called new arrivals north called southern whites opposed republicans called conservatives grant repeatedly took role state affairs example december established federal military rule georgia restored black legislators expelled state legislature historians 21st century consider reconstruction failure historian argued reconstruction purpose making sure main goals war filled union held forever able work slavery rivalries confined permanent fear appeals state sovereignty backed armed force reconstruction looks like respect lasting success fifteenth amendment according biographer grant north believed american_civil_war extended democracy african american grant political pressure ensure states ratified fifteenth amendment citizen denied right vote based race color previous condition passed hailed measure importance act kind foundation free government present day south determined african american males right vote june grant signed bill law passed congress created aid attorney general grant appointed attorney general america solicitor general vigorously prosecute members early 1870s years grant term office members convictions convictions serving brief sentences imprisoned years federal albany new_york result dramatic decrease violence south gave credit grant told friend better stronger grant came terrorists successor december continued prosecute spring grant second term office william having inundated outrage cases effective man power continue act july grant signed law act allowed persons african descent citizens united_states revised earlier law act allowed white persons good moral character citizens law prosecuted persons fictitious names identities deceased individuals applying citizenship force acts add enforcement 15th amendment congress passed act guaranteed protection voting rights african americans grant signed bill known force act law law designed attacking threatening african americans act placed severe penalties persons intimidation physical assault prevent citizens voting placed elections federal jurisdiction january president grant submitted congress report violent acts committed south march president grant told reluctant congress situation south dire federal legislation needed secure life liberty property enforcement law parts united_states president grant stated mail collection revenue jeopardy congress investigated activities eventually passed force act allow prosecution act known act written representative passed congress specifically local units sensitive charges establishing military dictatorship grant signed bill law april convinced secretary treasury federal protection having cited documented atrocities law allowed president suspend corpus armed combinations act empowered president arrest break disguised night actions defined high crimes acts rebellion united_states consisted local secret organizations formed violently oppose republican rule reconstruction organization local level wearing white hide identity attack threaten republicans strong south_carolina south_carolina governor corruption charges allowed rise power grant fed violent tactics ordered disperse south_carolina lay arms authority october response october grant issued suspension corpus counties south_carolina grant ordered federal troops state captured vigorously prosecuted destroyed white groups emerge including texas union march mississippi february virginia january georgia confederate state union july members house_of_representatives senate seated confederate states technically united_states united country ease tensions grant signed amnesty act gave amnesty act allowed war taken oath uphold constitution united states hold elected public office remained forbidden hold elected public office indian affairs human rights peace policy indians grant campaign slogan let peace defined policy south opening new era relations western indian tribes major address grant stated building rail roads access given agricultural mineral regions country rapidly bringing settlements contact tribes indians matter ought relations settlements fact way end system looks extinction race nation wrath citizen disregard human life rights dangerous society remedy placing indians large reservations giving absolute protection goal peace policy minimize military conflict indians looking forward course tends civilization ultimate citizenship indians stay reservations receive government subsidies training supervised religious denominations indians longer allowed engage raids send war parties reservations army job force goal indians american society indian leave reservation time join larger society citizenship indians reservations citizens sharp reversal federal policy native americans wars wicked told congress second inaugural address president lobbied successfully preserve native american lands westward advance pioneers economic forces western led conflicts native americans settlers military native americans increasingly forced live reservations statistical data number indian wars year revealed battles decreased grant terms office battles lowest rate battles grant appointed aide general indian native american commissioner parker year office number indian wars year dropped chief wanted meet president grant learning parker appointed indian commissioner chief came washington train met parker president grant grant held personal animosity native americans personally treated dignity met grant white house given dinner entertainment equal shown young prince arthur white_house visit britain second meeting red cloud informed grant whites native american lands people needed food clothing concern native americans grant ordered generals west military force necessary prevent native american hostilities wars grant lobbied signed indians act act ended governmental policy treating tribes independent sovereign nations native americans treated individuals state indian policies congressional statues historians debated issues significance inconsistencies political competition involved substantive federal policy according scholar examined peace policy emphasizing implementation grant administration focused meaning limited goals placing good men positions influence convincing native peoples fundamental government attempts create new departure federal native relations characterized conflict disagreement according creation known peace policy tells varied attitudes americans consolidation empire west following civil war innovation grant native american peace policy appointing indian agents posts nation destroyed power patronage congress reluctant church appointments april congress created grant appointed volunteer members eminent intelligence philanthropy previous commission set given extensive power supervise native americans massacre january major killed tribal members women children grant determined divide native american post appointments religious churches indian agencies divided religious denominations protestant clergy predominantly controlled central southern plains indian territories surrounding territories control appointed military officers congressional reaction losses suffered col unit battle little big horn shock dismay failure peace policy grant blamed wholly defeat stating sacrifice troops unnecessary indian measure august marked end given choice selling lands cash receiving government gifts food supplies historian contended grant saw inconsistencies dividing native american posts religious leaders military officers added grant policy despite having good intentions failed solve real dilemma motivations purposes ways thinking white native american cultures inconsistencies evident breakdown peace negotiations military tribal leaders war president grant indian peace policy enforced coordinated brig arizona required reservations receive supplies agriculture education slipped occasionally raided white settlers raid believed conducted warriors settlers mail runners murdered near arizona townspeople traced raid reservation camp grant lived camp grant near angered murders townspeople hired whites revenge war party reached camp grant april murdered women children known seven captured children sold mexican slavery attempt small federal military party capture leader chase killed grant immediately removed command arizona detrimental rampant corruption secretary sec tenor federal money intended supply native american tribes food clothing corrupt indian agents allied traders addition persons posing indian attorneys charged indian tribes money representation washington newspapers exposed grant defended investigate matter sec supported defined grant indian peace policy instrumental creation reformer administration previous grant appointment secretary run department efficiency merit cox considered best interior nation history cox resigned patronage considerations party bosses sec finally resigned replacement sec reformed banned indian fired corrupt working grant secretary war charge indian trading posts received illicit profit payments fort indian sec resigned replaced reformer house trial senate summer acquitted west_point reduced president grant advocated african americans enter initially failed protect african american cadet racist cadets lack protection influenced grant son west_point cadet participated smith appointed superintendent west point reformed academy having reduced cadets strong efforts practice african americans eventually followed smith entrance west_point admitted academy graduate academy smith forced academy having failed unconventional private test defiance traditional west_point practice smith finally commissioned officer west_point years later utah territory american civil war president lincoln signed law bill outlawed territories practiced utah resisted law territorial governor election grant mentioned enforce law tensions began early utah began arm practice military drilling fourth july militia salt_lake_city utah verge fighting territorial troops heads prevailed violence president grant believed utah state rebellion determined arrest practiced outlawed act october hundreds rounded prison camp arrested trial convicted received fine years prison hard labor november leader ill health charged young attorney stated young intention flee court persons shut charged murder intent kill act proved hard enforce proof marriage required conviction december president grant stated utah remnant civilization laws united_states march anti led easily secured passage federal crime mail articles immoral use grant signed bill assured personally enforce went special agent appointed secretary prosecuted imprisoned banned nude art stopped information tried ban considered bad books early suffrage movement grant presidency early women suffrage movement led gained national attention anthony lobbied female suffrage equal gender pay protection property women resided washington april grant signed law protection married women property husbands debts ability women sue court washington march representative introduced bill women federal workers equal pay equal work years later grant signed modified senate version bill law law required federal female paid fully compensated salary lower female law increased women clerk salaries 1870s culture patronage continued republicans needed women campaign grant presidential election added platform open discussion women rights actually endorsing women rights economy treasury reform taking office grant signing act strengthen passed ensured public debts particularly war bonds paid gold price gold new_york exchange fell lowest point suspension payment grant protected wages working law passed reduced government working day hours law later repealed allowed day wages reduced protect workers grant signed executive order reduction shall wages regardless reduction hours government day workers treasury secretary reorganized reformed united_states treasury unnecessary employees started sweeping changes protect currency tax collections collection revenue changes soon led treasury monthly surplus reduced national debt million september national debt reduced million achieved selling growing gold surplus weekly buying wartime bonds currency wanted government buy bonds new_york_times praised grant administration debt policy years grant administration treasury helm expenditures reduced million million cost collecting taxes fell grant reduced number employees working government persons march december increased tax revenues million administration national debt fell billion billion rare case reform major general dismissed hold position commissioner grant appointment approved unauthorized tax associated alleged connecticut firm treasury secretary promptly stopped personally informed grant incompetent hold office refusing resign request protested openly congress president grant removed potential scandal broke buffalo conservation organized exploration upper began fall cook expedition month long journey basins somewhat official expedition explored regions upper basins naming old faithful park features official reports monthly accounts brought increased public awareness natural wonders region influenced public speeches east_coast sought funding congress expedition auspices march grant signed law congressional legislation finance given instructions grant secretary interior columbus expedition party composed civilians scientists military escorts survey party artist photographer published reports magazine articles paintings photographs jackson convinced congress preserve natural wonders upper december bill introduced simultaneously senate senator kansas house_of_representatives congressman establishment park influence congress readily apparent examining detailed information contained report bill congress objective withdrawal settlement occupancy sale laws united_states tract land miles sources sets apart great national park pleasure ground benefit enjoyment people bill presented congress bill chief supporters prepared convinced colleagues region real value park area preserved natural state bill approved comfortable margin senate january house february march grant played role signing act dedication law established region nation national park possible years exploration thousand white buffalo hunters working kansas arkansas killing buffalo hides thousands acres land dedicated solely drying hides slaughtered buffalo native americans protested destruction food supply destroyed western southern plains united_states concern destruction buffalo mounted bill congress passed buffalo hunting illegal whites taking advice secretary grant chose pocket veto bill believing demise buffalo reduce indian wars force tribes stay respected reservations adapt agricultural lifestyle plains hunting buffalo favored buffalo slaughter open pasture land cattle buffalo food supply lowered native americans forced stay reservations act prohibited fish game including buffalo destruction confines park congress appropriate funds legislation enforcement result secretary hire people aid tourists protect 1880s buffalo majority found national park indian wars ended congress appropriated money enforcement legislation signed law president protected preserved buffalo wildlife grant signed legislation protected northern fur seals alaska law history specifically protected wildlife federally owned land foreign policies foreign policy administration generally successful attempt annex santo domingo annexation santo domingo president grant unrealistic effort relieve plight blacks south reconstruction step end slavery cuba brazil dangers confrontation britain alabama question resolved peacefully monetary advantage united_states issues canadian boundary easily settled achievements work secretary spokesman caution stability poll historians stated secretary fish greatest united_states history fish appointed secretary state grant march served grant cabinet end grant second term march secretary fish briefly served president march dominican_republic annexation treaty grant proposed annex independent largely black nation dominican_republic known santo domingo previously president attempted annex dominican_republic santo domingo house_of_representatives defeated resolutions protection dominican_republic santo domingo annexation dominican_republic july grant sent negotiated draft treaty dominican_republic president annexation santo domingo united_states sale million island nation secure power grant ordered naval ships unauthorized congress secure island invasion internal insurrection signed annexation treaty november offered federal state department authorization secretary fish drew final draft proposal offered million dominican national debt annexation santo domingo american state acquisition rights bay years annual rental guaranteed protection foreign intervention january santo domingo treaty submitted senate ratification despite support annexation grant mistakes informing congress treaty encouraging national acceptance enthusiasm grant believe island use navy particularly sought use chip providing safe haven believed exodus black labor force southern whites realize necessity significant workforce accept civil rights grant believed island country increase exports lower trade deficit hoped ownership island urge cuba puerto_rico brazil abandon slavery march headed recommended treaty passage leading spokesman african american civil rights believed annexation enormously expensive involve ongoing civil war threaten independence haiti west_indies blocking black political progress grant went congress urged passage dominican annexation treaty strongly opposed ratification successfully led opposition senate june santo domingo annexation treaty failed pass senate votes favor treaty votes grant cabinet divided santo domingo annexation attempt assistant sec secretly giving information state department negotiations grant determined dominican_republic treaty public debate mentioning dominican_republic annexation december state union address grant able congress january create special commission investigate island senator continued vigorously oppose speak annexation grant appointed african american civil rights activist commissioners dominican_republic returning united_states months commission april issued report stated dominican people desired annexation island beneficial united_states celebrate commissions return grant invited commissioners white_house african american leaders upset issue invited white_house dinner brought presidential election douglas personally disappointed invited white_house remained loyal grant republican_party commission supported grant annexation attempt enthusiasm congress vote second annexation treaty unable directly grant immediately removed close respected friend ambassador grant senate finally deposed grant coalition known new working enemies massachusetts new_york indiana giving fish demands cuba rebels rejected moving southern patronage radical blacks allied moderate republicans set stage liberal republican revolt allies publicly denounced grant supported congressional investigation june led senator revealed land interests increase value santo domingo treaty ratified ships president grant authorization sent protect invasion dominican rebel treaty negotiations taking place investigation initially called settle dispute american businessman united_states government imprisoned hatch trial opposition government hatch claimed united_states failed protect imprisonment majority congressional report dismissed hatch claim hatch incident kept certain senators enthusiastic treaty cuban insurrection grant urged popular opinion support rebels cuba military assistance diplomatic recognition grant fish instead attempted use arbitration spain minister negotiating grant fish wanted cuban independence end slavery military intervention occupation fish popular pressure able grant officially recognizing cuban independence endangered negotiations britain peace negotiations failed madrid grant fish popular pressure military involvement cuban rebellion grant fish sent message congress written fish signed grant message urged strict neutrality officially recognize cuban revolt national fears treaty washington historians credited treaty washington implementing allow outside experts settle disputes grant able secretary state orchestrated events leading treaty previously secretary state johnson administration proposed initial treaty concerning damages american merchants confederate warships florida alabama built britain damages collectively known ships inflicted tremendous damage merchant ships civil war washington wanted british pay heavy damages including turning canada april overwhelmingly rejected proposed treaty paid little contained admission british guilt war senator spoke congress publicly denounced queen_victoria demanded huge opened possibility canada ceded united_states payment speech angered british government talks matters cooled negotiations new treaty began january britain sent sir meet fish joint high commission created february washington consisting representatives britain united_states commission created treaty international tribunal settle damage amounts british admitted regret fault destructive actions confederate war cruisers grant approved signed treaty senate ratified treaty washington tribunal met geneva switzerland represented international august tribunal awarded united_states million gold million awarded great_britain noted treaty washington arbitration bequeathed world legacy addition million arbitration award treaty resolved disputes borders fishing rights october william emperor germany settled boundary dispute favor united_states korean incident primary role united_states_navy 19th century protect american commercial interests open trade eastern markets including japan china korea excluded foreign trade sought treaty dealing sailors crew stranded american commercial ship killed long term goal open korea western markets way commodore opened japan naval display military force rear admiral fleet ships arrived mouth seoul fleet included colorado largest ships navy guns officers man crew waiting senior korean officials negotiate rogers sent ships navigational purposes american fleet fired korean fort little damage rogers gave korean government days apologize begin talks kept silent days passed june rogers began series amphibious assaults destroyed korean forts military engagements known korean soldiers americans killed korea refused negotiate american fleet sailed away refer military action president grant defended rogers annual message congress december change regimes seoul negotiated treaty treaty korea western nation corruption reform main scandals included black friday whiskey ring grant scandal origins having carried actual scandal exposed result political congressman congressman stocks owned ambassador britain fraudulent considered embarrassment scandal successes term president economy civil rights foreign policy scandals associated administration beginning emerge publicly grant directly responsible profit corruption subordinates reluctant believe friends commit criminal activities result failed direct action rarely reacted strongly guilt established grant protected close friends presidential power pardoned persons convicted whiskey ring scandal serving months prison second term ended grant wrote congress failures errors judgment intent rampant family relatives financially prospered grant president thwarted september financial set elaborate corner gold market buying gold time drive price plan government selling gold driving price president grant secretary treasury found gold market speculation ordered sale million gold black friday september thwarted price gold dropped effects releasing gold disastrous stock prices food prices dropped devastating farmers years civil service commission grant president recommend professional civil service pushed initial legislation congress appointed members united states civil service commission temporary commission recommended competitive exams issuing regulations hiring promotion government employees grant ordered recommendations effect having lasted years december port took hundreds millions dollars year revenue persons applied entry position pass civil service examination appointed stated examinations excluded unfit persons getting employment positions congress mood reform denied long term reform refusing enact necessary legislation changes permanent historians traditionally divided patronage meaning appointments merit system labelled corruption movement reform reflected distinct objectives eliminate corruption non professional bureaucracy check power president johnson election looked grant ram legislation congress refused saying civil service reform rests entirely congress members claiming patronage step gained immense human nature members congress human nature seek power use help friends corruption condition representative form government grant patronage build party help friends protected thought victims injustice attacks enemies guilty grant believed loyalty friends writer called friendship early 1870s lucrative postal route contracts given local contractors pacific_coast southern regions united_states known star routes given official documents remote routes hundreds miles long went rural parts united_states horse obtaining highly prized postal contracts intricate ring straw bidding set office ring consisted contractors postal straw bidding highest practice grant appointment federal investigation matter minority house report bribe 42nd congress postal contractor results investigation congressional investigation democratic house shut postal ring years ring prior congressional investigations took place corruption grant collector appointments private warehouses taking imported goods docks charging storage fees grant friend allegedly involved storing goods splitting profits grant collector appointment implemented secretary treasury reform goods protected docks private storage salary grab march president grant signed law authorized president salary increased year year salaries increased representatives received pay bonus previous years service secret attached general bill reforming newspapers quickly exposed law bonus repealed january grant missed opportunity veto bill strong statement good government congress sustained grant year salary election grant remained popular nation despite scandals evident term office grant supported patronage system allowed republicans infiltrate control state governments response president grant federal patronage senator missouri german immigrant civil war hero started second party known liberal republicans advocated civil service reform low amnesty confederate soldiers liberal republicans successfully ran governorship missouri won democrat support party completely split republican_party nominated editor candidate presidency democrats time strong candidate choice reluctantly adopted candidate governor running mate supported grant reminded black voters grant destroyed violent republicans content reconstruction program south senator wilson practical reformer intended ticket potentially political rift grew grant grant remained popular civil war hero republicans continued wave bloody shirt patriotic symbol representing north republicans favored high continuation policies supported military districts southern states grant favored amnesty confederate soldiers like liberal republicans political liberal republicans democrats physically ailing match hero lost popular vote grant swept votes minor candidates received votes grant won percent popular vote minor candidates hard fought political campaign died weeks election able receive electoral votes respect grant attended funeral second term reconstruction conservative resistance republican state governments grew elections destruction new secret paramilitary organizations arose mississippi north_carolina south_carolina louisiana operated openly better organized goals republicans return conservative whites power use illegal methods needed achieve loyal veterans grant remained determined african americans receive protection massacre november election louisiana split state controversial election candidates claiming victory governor violence black republicans party liberal republicans democrats claimed victor republicans claimed senator months later candidate sworn governor january federal judge ruled rightful winner election ordered republican based majority seated supported prepared use military force remove office grant ordered troops enforce court order protect march federal troops flag truce state militia defeated party insurrection dispute arose installed judge sheriff courthouse grant parish seized control march aid protection black state militia troops april forces attacked courthouse black captured total blacks killed trying defend courthouse governor april grant sent 19th infantry regiment restore order grant issued new proclamation restore order louisiana finally told followers obey orders president orders brought brief peace new_orleans louisiana ironically brooks war arkansas fall republican_party split arkansas ran candidates governor massive fraud characterized election declared winner took office brooks gave finally local judge ruled brooks entitled office swore sides mobilized militia units rioting fighting streets anticipation president grant brooks grant delayed requesting joint session arkansas government figure peacefully governor refused participate president grant issued proclamation legitimate governor arkansas hostilities ceased fall people arkansas voted republicans came power months later early grant nation reversing announcing brooks legitimately elected grant send troops brooks regained office instead grant gave high paying patronage job brooks died episode brought discredit grant riots august city government elected white reform party consisting republicans democrats initially lower city spending taxes despite early intentions reform movement turned racist new white city officials went county government majority african americans legal means threatened life expelled black county sheriff tax collector went governor seek help regain position sheriff governor told african americans use force retain position sheriff time population half african american december african american militia approached city declared whites political series battles occurred resulted african americans whites killed white militia retained control jail december grant gave presidential proclamation people stop fighting louisiana dispatched troops reinstated sheriff restored peace questioned matter governor denied told use african american militia june shot death white deputy drinking bar origins shooting remained mystery louisiana revolt september democratic militia took control state house new_orleans republican governor forced flee confederate general african american militia metropolitan police counterattack troops consisting confederate soldiers experienced troops routed army september grant sent federal troops restored government following controversial election november rose high violence mixed fraud rampant state affairs new_orleans control results republicans democrats elected remaining seats decided legislature grant careful watch elections secretly sent law order state arrived new_orleans days january legislature opening meeting convention democrats military force took control state building republican hands initially democrats protected federal troops colonel escaped republicans removed state building governor requested republicans returned state house force democrats building republicans organized house speakers protected annexed command claimed federal troops neutral protected democrats earlier south_carolina election year south_carolina state rebellion republican governor conservatives determined win election confederate wade violence intimidation republicans went nominate chamberlain second term supporters red shirts disrupted republican meetings gun tensions violent july african americans murdered hamburg rifle clubs wearing red shirts better armed blacks south_carolina ruled chamberlain government black militia fought charleston september known king street riot white militia assumed defensive positions concern possible intervention federal troops september took offensive action openly killing african americans outside massacre state representative killed october governor chamberlain declared martial law told rifle club members weapons meantime wade ceased remind chamberlain rule south_carolina desperation chamberlain wrote president grant asked federal intervention riot took place october republicans held rally brick church outside blacks whites opened fire whites black killed grant upset riots finally declared presidential proclamation october ordered persons days cease activities disperse homes total federal sent south_carolina violence stopped election day quiet chamberlain claimed victory acted governor took office president withdrew federal troops chamberlain left state indian affairs grant peace policy wars settlers federal army american indians decreasing year low year discovery gold completion threatened grant peace policy white settlers native land gold indian wars year jumped remained highest casualty indian battles took place american history battle little indian war casualties montana went war january grant native american peace policy challenged weeks grant elected second term fighting broke settlers near california oregon border led captain jack killed white settlers found strong defensive position grant ordered general attack indians settle matters peacefully commission sent major general captain jack killed reverend methodist minister killed indian agent severely wounded murders shocked nation wired grant overruled captain jack executed remaining relocated episode great war undermined public confidence grant peace policy according historian war erupted southern plains leader led tribal warriors attacked buffalo hunter supply base texas army general launched military campaign casualties forced indians reservations destroying horses winter food supplies grant agreed army plan advocated generals imprisoned insurgents florida corruption massive fraud prevailed secretary proved grant indian peace policy agents worked department fortunes retired money pay allow secretary allowed indian attorneys paid native american tribes day plus food traveling expenses representation washington corruption charges brought secretary forced resign grant appointed secretary interior vigorously uncovered cleaned fraud department firing banned indian attorneys access washington grant church appointments partially lack food staples housing government great war gold discovered white settlers rushed seeking mining gold land reserved tribe treaty fort avoid conflict president grant met chief washington offered government purchase land offer declined november white_house meeting claimed president army defend tribe settlers grant ordered round reservation strategy convergence army columns force reservation june columns led colonel met battle little big horn slaughtered approximately federal soldiers civilians killed compared american indians death shocked nation northern plains defeated reservation august president grant signed giving nation rations relinquished rights mile land tract west august seven man committee appointed grant gave additional harsh order receive government assistance men banished reservation receive government rations indians work land reluctantly september indian leaders people agreed committee demands signed agreement great war grant came conflict col testified corruption secretary grant arrested breach military protocol chicago barred leading upcoming campaign grant finally relented let fight brig killed subsequent battle little big horn defeat federal army months later grant press saying regard massacre sacrifice troops brought wholly unnecessary wholly unnecessary nation shocked death grant peace policy congress appropriated funds troops forts constructed army took indian agencies indians barred purchasing rifles ammunition grant president visit late april having traveled special presidential car president grant stayed residence governor grant appointed earlier april grant presidential party included wife daughter private secretary reception held governor guard hall grant met white people aggressively sought grant met indians desired great father shook hands colorado territory governors met grant visited president grant impressed colorado scenery expressed desire territory civil rights civil rights act presidency grant continually concerned civil rights americans color religion grant signed civil rights act allowed citizens access public eating establishments hotels places entertainment particularly protect african americans united_states bill passed honor senator previously attempted pass civil rights bill chinese prostitution october grant traveled utah surprised treated told utah territorial governor concerning december return washington grant wrote congress seventh annual state union address institution banished land grant believed negatively affected children women grant advocated second law stronger act passed punish crime morality grant denounced immigration chinese women united_states purposes prostitution saying evil secular education grant believed strongly separation church state championed complete public schools september speech grant advocated security free thought free speech free press pure morals religious sentiments equal rights privileges men color religion regard public education grant endorsed child receive opportunity good common school education pagan leave matter religion family altar church private schools church state forever separate support jews grant regretted wartime order jewish traders jewish community angry grant feared status america president lincoln forced grant order immediately grant publicly apologized president set argues eager prove prejudice grant appointed jews public office predecessors human rights extended unprecedented support persecuted jews russia romania time partly result enlarged vision meant american partly order live general orders grant consciously worked assist jews secure equality appointments policies grant rejected calls christian nation embraced jews america people administration jews achieved heightened status national scene anti jewish prejudice declined jews look forward liberal characterized sensitivity human rights cooperation panic panic worldwide depression started stock market vienna austria crashed june year unsettling markets soon spread berlin europe panic eventually reached new_york banks went broke september major railroad september ensuing depression lasted years ruined thousands businesses depressed daily wages brought unemployment rate causes panic united_states included destruction credit speculation stock markets railroad industry years unprecedented growth civil war brought thousands miles railroad construction thousands industrial factories strong stock market south experienced boom agriculture growth borrowed money banks united_states speculated railroad industry million stringent monetary policy secretary treasury height railroad contributed unsettled markets created monetary selling gold bought bonds act gold facto currency metal silver september finally responded grant secretary treasury replacement bought million bonds gold monday september richardson bought million bonds legal tender notes purchased million legal tender certificates september september treasury department bought million bonds certificates september secretary interest million bonds bought security banks october january richardson kept bonds million reserves issued lost revenue treasury actions help curb effects general panic allowing currency commercial banks allowing money lent spent historians blamed grant administration responding crisis promptly taking adequate measures reduce negative effects general panic monetary policies secretary richardson inconsistent government ultimate failure confidence businesses source distrust eventually ran course despite limited efforts government grant smith calls apparent overruled army experts help wartime friend engineer building major railroad bridge mississippi authorized congress nearing completion chief engineers agreeing steam boat interests ordered build canal bridge bridge obstacle navigation talking white house grant reversed order feet long steel arched bridge went completion canal economy inflation bill rapidly accelerated industrial growth post civil war america world crashed banks loans went bankrupt result causing general panic nation attempt capital stringent monetary economy secretary treasury released million argued richardson monetary policies argued illegal congress debated policy stimulate economy passed inflation bill release additional million original eastern vigorously lobbied grant veto bill reliance bonds foreign investors business gold grant cabinet divided issue conservative secretary state threatened resign grant signed bill april evaluating reasons wanting sign bill grant unexpectedly vetoed bill popular election strategy republican_party believed destroy nation credit resumption act january grant signed resumption act wrote note congress members passage act legislation drafted ohio republican senator act provided paper money circulation exchanged gold silver coins effective january act implemented gradual steps taken reduce circulation time paper coin currency worth exchanged silver coins effect stabilize currency consumers money good gold age system control inflation act stabilized economy grant considered administration foreign policy affair october steamer flying american flag carrying war materials men aid cuban insurrection violation american spanish law intercepted taken cuba hasty trial local spanish officials executed insurgents united_states citizens orders madrid delay executions arrived late war erupted spain heightened dispatches american minister madrid retired general secretary state fish kept cool demeanor crisis investigation discovered question ship right bear united_states flag president expressed profound regret tragedy willing arbitration fish negotiated spanish minister grant approval spain surrender pay surviving families americans executed salute american flag episode ended quietly hawaiian free trade treaty december grant held state dinner white house seeking hawaiian sugar duty free united_states grant fish able produce successful free trade treaty incorporating pacific islands sugar industry economy sphere war settled war native people uss alaska african american ambassador united_states requested warship sent protect american property american colony alaska arrived turner negotiated incorporation people society foreign traders corruption reform scandals continued exposed president grant second term office democrats gained control house_of_representatives held committee meetings stop political main scandal whiskey ring investigation went grant emma silver minor embarrassment associated american ambassador britain promote worked silver scandal origins presidential abraham_lincoln political congressional exposed scandal scandal cabinet infamous grant cabinet presidential involved scandals criminal activity assistant secretary treasury black forced resign grant secretary treasury resigned appointed federal judge grant attorney general resigned secretary interior agents resigned private secretary black friday whiskey ring safe conspiracy acquitted ring trials jury grant defense testimony favor whiskey ring indicted convicted served prison time claimed grant involved whiskey ring supply evidence private secretary whiskey ring secretary war resigned convicted house acquitted senate court dropped judge request grant attorney general secretary navy grant defended state union address grant believed kept modern possible lengthy tenure contracts june treasury secretary gave private contracts turn collected illegally withheld taxes fees inflated commissions profits commissions allegedly split richardson senator claimed payments expenses senator butler written law allowed collect commissions reveal split profits april discovered attorney general allegedly received bribe gift wife merchant house company drop case fraudulent entries williams forced resign grant affair interior disrepair corruption incompetence secretary discovered taken bribes secure fraudulent land grants resigned office october given lucrative contracts son brother grant grant performed work qualified hold surveying positions controlled corrupt agents enormous profits exploitation native american tribes massive fraud found corrupt government payroll refused reforms resigned public pressure grant asking resignation missed opportunity grant support ethics government october grant reforming cabinet choice appointed secretary interior cleaned firing corrupt banned agents prosecuted secretary treasury discovered millions dollars taxes illegal ring whiskey manufacturers ensued prison grant private secretary indicted later acquitted trial whiskey ring organized united_states fully operating criminal association investigation closure whiskey ring resulted convictions tax revenues returned prosecution leaders grant testified behalf friend result acquitted deposition grant great embarrassment reputation trial turned trial president grant political opponents trading post ring march discovered house investigations secretary war taking money exchange allowing indian trading post agent remain position fort allowed resign president grant result acquitted senate trial profits expense native americans supposed receive food clothing government late april grant col testified congressional committee month grant brother sec rumors talked press concerning indian post personally went white_house clear matters president grant refused times left washington return removed overall command grant denied participation having replaced brig terry insistence grant relented allowed participate campaign condition march secretary navy charged democratic controlled house investigation committee giving lucrative contracts grain supplier return real estate loans payment debts house investigating committee discovered secretary allegedly million naval construction financial paper trails evidence conviction committee claimed set corrupt contracting system known safe conspiracy september superintendent public works buildings indicted safe conspiracy case trial april corrupt building contractors washington trial safe robbery occurred secret service agents broke safe attempted frame exposed corrupt contracting ring named conspiracy later acquitted trial evidence suggests involved corrupt wanted revenge avid reformer critic evidence safe jury reforming cabinet members grant cabinet fluctuated talented individuals involved political patronage party corruption notable reforming cabinet members persons outstanding abilities positive contributions administration resisted demands patronage select efficient civil servants grant successful appointment confirmation march went immediately work collected classified bound seven volumes correspondence established new system simplified information fish created rule applicants official written examination receive appointment previously applicants given positions patronage system solely recommendations senators raised tone efficiency service congressman senator objected fish pass written test according fish biographer historian fish known gentleman wide experience capacities organizer happily united balanced judgment broad culture reforming cabinet member united_states secretary treasury confirmed senate march actions dismiss chief set system securing plates paper money printed
Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant