hay natural region tropical wetlands southern portion state florida comprising southern half large drainage basin system begins near orlando vast shallow water leaving lake wet season forms slow moving river miles wide miles long flowing southward limestone shelf florida bay southern end state experience wide range weather patterns frequent flooding wet season drought dry season writer douglas popularized term river grass describe marshes complex system ecosystems include swamps forests tropical hardwood pine marine environment human southern portion florida peninsula dates years ago european colonization region dominated native tribes spanish colonization tribes declined gradually following centuries formed creek people north peoples created new culture forced northern florida wars early 19th century adapted region able resist removal united_states_army migrants region wanted develop plantations proposed draining work type attempted canals constructed half 20th century spurred south florida economy prompting land development congress formed built miles canals water control devices miami metropolitan area grew substantially time water diverted cities portions transformed farmland primary crop approximately percent original developed agricultural urban areas following period rapid development environmental degradation ecosystem began receive notable attention conservation groups 1970s internationally convention designated wetland area global importance construction large airport miles north blocked environmental study found severely damage south florida ecosystem heightened awareness appreciation region restoration began 1980s removal canal straightened development concerns remained region deterioration including poor water quality linked diminishing quality life south florida urban areas comprehensive restoration plan approved congress combat problems date expensive comprehensive environmental restoration attempt history implementation faced political complications names written record spanish maps seen land named unknown area gulf atlantic coasts florida lake holy spirit area featured maps decades having explored writer stated indians represent southern points british coasters means exploring borders sea coast mouths rivers british surveyor mapped coast florida called area river douglas suggest substituted river appeared map spelled late hay meaning grassy water region labeled american military map earlier called survey found emerged distinct vernacular region florida comprises interior areas southernmost largely corresponding sparsely populated areas state geology geology south florida warm wet subtropical climate provides conditions suited large ecosystem layers limestone create water bearing rock soil affect climate weather south florida properties rock underneath explained history state crust underneath florida point african region million years ago north_america merged africa connecting florida north_america volcanic activity centered eastern florida covered prevalent rock rock continental began separate north_america million years ago florida africa initially water cooler period florida platform shallow marine environment rocks deposited cretaceous period florida remained tropical sea floor varying depths peninsula covered seven times bedrock formed limestone fluctuating sea levels compressed numerous layers calcium sand shells resulting limestone formations developed million million years ago created serves main source fresh water northern portion florida lies beneath thousands feet rock lake southern tip peninsula formations southern portion florida formation miami limestone miami compression highly light colored sands pockets feet thick named trail follows upper bedrock southern portion named river formation highly composed sandy shell clay sand water underneath typically formations developed surrounding southern lake dense hard limestone shells sand rain water likely limestone form solution holes smaller versions intersect water table formation beds generally underneath metropolitan areas composed limestone sand representing salt marsh filled solution holes formed period formations influence miami limestone forms floor lower tiny formations egg shaped concentric shells calcium formed single grain sand miami limestone named miami comprises organisms unique structure material housing early 20th century south florida composition formation affects plant life wildlife rock especially stores water dry season chemical composition determines vegetation prevalent region miami limestone acts dam metropolitan areas miami located rise elevation eastern coast florida called eastern coastal ridge formed waves compressed single formation western border slight rise compressed sand divides runoff big slight rise elevation sides creates basin forces water lake southwest formation limestone lies surface serves miami metropolitan area fresh water source rainfall stored water directly rise sea levels occurred pleistocene approximately years ago runoff water slowed created vast known slower runoff created accumulation feet area presence deposits dated years ago evidence widespread flooding occurred consistent flooding fed extensive peace rivers central florida broad directly square miles km2 average depth feet vast shallow lake soil deposits basin indicate deposited land flooded consistently year calcium deposits left flooding shorter deposits occur areas water rises falls depending rainfall opposed water stored rock year calcium deposits present limestone exposed area orlando tip florida peninsula point single drainage unit rainfall exceeded capacity lake river flowed southwestern direction florida bay prior urban agricultural development florida began southern edge lake flowed approximately miles gulf_of_mexico limestone shelf wide slightly angled instead having narrow deep channel characteristic rivers vertical gradient lake florida bay inches mile creating mile wide river travels half mile day slow movement broad shallow river known gives nickname river grass water leaving require months years reach final destination florida bay travels slowly water typically stored wet season limestone substrate flow water shaped land ecosystem south florida estimated years existence motion water defines plant communities animals adapt habitats food sources climate climate south florida located broad transition zone subtropical tropical climates like regions climate type basic seasons dry season winter runs november april wet season summer runs october annual rainfall south florida occurs wet season brief intense tropical dry season sees little rainfall points humidity low dry season severe times water restrictions place annual range temperatures south florida small ranging monthly mean temperature january july high temperatures hot wet season summer typically exceed inland south florida coastal locations cooled winds gulf_of_mexico atlantic_ocean high temperatures dry winter season average freeze rare south florida annually coastal cities like miami naples report zero days frost times decade low temperatures fall south florida annual rainfall averages approximately inches eastern coastal ridge receiving majority precipitation area surrounding lake receiving inches unlike wetland system earth sustained primarily atmosphere sum plant earth land surface atmosphere associated thunderstorms key mechanism water leaves region year unaffected drought rate reach inches year place rate peak inches exceed rainfall water leaves area plant matter activated primarily solar energy moved wind patterns areas border flow watershed system responsible approximately percent water entering undeveloped wetland regions precipitation wet season primarily caused air mass thunderstorms easterly flow subtropical high bermuda high intense daytime heating ground causes warm moist tropical air rise creating afternoon typical tropical climates mean time daily late wet season august september precipitation levels reach highest levels tropical depressions lows add daily rainfall occasionally tropical lows severe tropical cyclones cause significant damage landfall south florida tropical storms average year major hurricanes years tropical cyclones struck directly close strong winds storms disperse plant seeds forests coral reefs ecosystems dramatic fluctuations precipitation characteristic south florida climate floods tropical cyclones natural water system formative sustaining processes complex system ecosystems douglas described area river grass metaphor represents portion system area recognized prior drainage web marshes square miles km2 size borders ecosystems subtle systems shift grow shrink die years decades factors climate frequency fire help create maintain replace ecosystems water water dominant force shaping land vegetation animal life south florida starting glacial maximum years ago continental ice sheets retreated sea levels rose submerged portions florida peninsula caused water table rise fresh water saturated limestone away created springs abundance fresh water allowed new vegetation root formed convective thunderstorms land rain continued fall slightly acidic dissolved limestone limestone wore away came contact land surface created massive wetland ecosystem region appears flat limestone created slight valleys areas rise fall inches subtle south florida topography small variations affect flow water types vegetation hold rock underlying bedrock limestone basin affects long area region stays flooded year longer possible areas submerged beneath longer periods time geology florida forming water held limestone older types rock spent time sea level months growth shorter months promotes beds growth algae microscopic organisms types soil longer builds hundreds thousands years generations decaying plant matter grows soil develops composition initial attempts developing agriculture near lake successful nutrients rapidly removed process called soil causes loss volume bacteria dead slowly underwater oxygen water drained 1920s bacteria interacted oxygen reaction occurred degraded carbon dioxide water burned settlers clear land homes built areas early farms foundations moved deteriorated areas lost approximately feet soil depth fire fire important element natural maintenance majority fires caused lightning strikes thunderstorms wet season effects largely superficial serve foster specific plant growth burn water roots preserved underneath fire marshes serves larger bushes trees releases nutrients decaying plant matter efficiently wet season dead plant matter tips grasses trees burned dry season fire fed organic burn deeply destroying root systems fires confined existing water rainfall takes approximately years foot develop locations dense years existence scientists indicate fire cause cited reason black color layers detected portions indicate region endured severe fires years time trend occurrence bce ecosystems marshes ecosystems present boundaries subtle absent primary feature marsh iconic water combination shallow river miles long miles wide spans lake florida bay referred true prior drainage attempts occupied nearly lower florida peninsula slowly moving water die unusually deep floods oxygen unable reach roots particularly vulnerable immediately fire marsh months longer grows densely animals plants live choose locations nesting room grows supports insects amphibians turn consumed food birds fish reptiles calcium water adds composition free flowing channels water develop feet deeper marshes stay flooded months year multiple years row aquatic animals turtles snakes fish thrive usually feed aquatic invertebrates submerged floating plants grow major system include flowing bordering big eastern wet slightly elevated like marshes greater plant diversity surface covered water seven months year water average shallow inches deep flooded support variety water plants solution holes deep pits limestone worn away remain flooded dry support aquatic invertebrates amphibians feed young birds regions tend border marshes created niche wet claws dig low spots create ponds free vegetation remain submerged dry season holes integral survival aquatic invertebrates turtles fish small mammals birds extended drought periods feed animals come hole tropical hardwood small islands trees growing land raised foot feet called tropical hardwood range acres area appear freshwater slightly elevated limestone risen inches surrounding grow land unharmed deep fires hardwood exhibit mixture subtropical hardwood trees southern live oak royal palm grow dense near base sharp saw flourish making difficult people penetrate small mammals reptiles amphibians find islands ideal habitat water flows islands creating ecosystems maintained promoted fire decades centuries recover protect trees trees limited height weather factors frost lightning wind majority trees grow higher feet land called pine ecosystem located highest little floors flooded solution holes months time significant feature single species south florida slash pine communities require fire maintain trees adaptations simultaneously promote resist fire sandy floor pine forest covered dry pine highly south florida slash bark protect heat fire competing vegetation forest floor opens pine seeds period significant fire turn hardwood larger trees overtake slash shrubs pine fire resistant saw palm west indian diverse group plants pine community herbs dozen species plants contain mechanisms allow quickly prior urban development region pine covered approximately acres km2 acres km2 pine forests protected outside park acres km2 pine communities remained averaging acres area misunderstanding role fire played disappearance pine forests area natural fires pine transitioned hardwood prescribed fires occur pine seven years swamps found largest covers located west commonly called big refers area height diameter trees conservative estimate swamp measures square miles km2 boundary big calculated square miles km2 big sits atop bedrock covered thinner layer limestone limestone underneath big contains creates sandy soil hosts variety vegetation different found areas basin big receives average inches water wet season big largest growth swamps south florida swamps found near atlantic coastal ridge eastern marshes deciduous conifers uniquely adapted thrive flooded conditions root projections water called knees bald trees grow formations tallest center rooted deepest grow smaller thinner giving small forest appearance dome outside grow strands slightly elevated ridge limestone bordered hardwood trees found red maple swamp bay pop ash removed ecosystem mixed swamp forest coastal prairie eventually water lake makes way ocean trees adapted transitional zone water fresh salt water meet ecosystem comprised completely forests covers acres km2 wet season fresh water begins grow closer coastline dry season particularly extended periods drought salt water inland coastal prairie ecosystem freshwater marshes absorbing sea water trees begin grow fresh water ecosystems salt water goes far inland species trees considered red black white different families grow oxygen poor soil survive drastic water level changes tolerant salt fresh water species integral coastline protection severe storms red reaching roots trapping sediments help build coastlines storms types trees absorb energy waves storm serve crustaceans fish birds region supports pink shrimp stone crab industries percent commercially harvested species florida salt waters born spend time near florida bay coast inner built border coastal marshes bay marine ecosystems florida bay considered watershed ecosystems connected affected square miles km2 protected representing largest body water park boundaries approximately keys florida bay forests fresh water coming creates perfect conditions vast beds turtle grass algae formations foundation animal life bay sea turtles eat grass animals worms eat algae formations microscopic female sea turtles return annually nest shore spend winter months warmer water bay sea grasses serve stabilize sea beds protect erosion absorbing energy waves history native americans humans arrived florida peninsula approximately years ago indians came florida probably following large game included giant toothed cats bears found arid landscape supported plants animals adapted desert conditions years ago climate changes brought landscape large animals extinct florida indians slowly adapted archaic peoples environmental changes created tools resources available late archaic period climate approximately bce rise water tables allowed increase population cultural activity developed distinct similar cultures named bodies water near located peoples major nations emerged area largest powerful nation south florida controlled villages located florida west coast lake florida keys villages located mouths rivers key islands hunter lived small game fish turtles plants tools bone teeth effective hunting war weapons consisted bows arrows spears transportation south florida tribes rarely lived canoe trips cuba common estimated numbers beginning spanish occupation ranged society declined power population number estimated early 18th century came attack north asked spanish refuge cuba died illness soon relocated second power number south florida occupied southeastern portion lower peninsula modern day counties like societies centered mouths rivers main village probably spanish depictions state greatly feared sailors suspected killing survivors spanish priests attempted set missions noted assault neighboring tribe members left removed havana british surveyor described multiple deserted villages region lived common descriptions native americans florida term following demise native americans southern florida referred spanish indians probably relations spain creek invaded florida peninsula conquered left pre societies creek confederacy joined remnant indian groups formed new tribe originally settled northern portion territory addition free blacks fugitive slaves way florida spain promised slaves freedom arms converted catholicism pledged loyalty spain african americans gradually created communities near known groups acted allies invaded florida annexation united_states known florida territory conflicts settlers increased tried acquire lands lasted afterward forcibly removed oklahoma west mississippi_river died war conflict broke war fought forces swamps finally decided leave protracted expensive warfare numbered living hunting trading white settlers raised animals villages hardwood roots fish turtles small game villages large limited size end war people lived relative isolation majority culture construction trail beginning spanning region tampa miami altered ways life began work local farms stands people interacted european americans began reservations 1940s bases government federally recognized florida people kept traditional ways settlements trail tended speak language later federally recognized tribe indians florida metropolitan areas south florida began grow groups closely associated struggled maintain privacy serving tourist attractions earned money wrestling selling florida reservations lands tribe indians collectively considered sixth reservation tribes developed casino gaming properties generate revenue support services economic development exploration military penetration southern florida offered opportunity map poorly understood largely unknown country expedition offered printed account general public read anonymous writer described terrain party crossing country heard bears resemblance like vast sea filled grass green trees intended retreat indian white man seek drive land inspire extreme reactions wonder hatred second war army surgeon wrote fact region live perfect paradise indians frogs kind explorer spent days party mouth sent observations described water healthy numerous springs lake party encountered thousands birds near killing hundreds continued return pointed rest country explored mapped florida writing tract land thirty miles long seventy miles wide unknown white man heart africa drainage national push expansion progress united_states occurred later 19th century stimulated interest draining agricultural use according historians middle nineteenth century middle twentieth century united_states went period wetland removal questioned considered proper thing draining suggested early resolution congress passed prompted secretary treasury request experience opinion possibility drainage officers served wars favored idea congress passed law gave states wetlands state boundaries swamp overflowed lands act ensured state responsible funding attempts developing wetlands florida quickly formed committee consolidate grants pay attempts civil war reconstruction halted progress civil war state agency called purpose improve florida roads canals rail lines discovered deeply debt found pennsylvania real estate developer named interested implementing plans drain land agriculture purchased acres km2 land million began constructing canals near canals work lowering water levels wetlands surrounding rivers effective lowering apparent capacity insufficient wet season canals drain purchase economy florida news attracted tourists land buyers years property values doubled population increased significantly able invest development projects purchase opportunity improve transportation arose oil began purchasing land building rail lines east coast florida far south way built resort hotels transforming territorial outposts tourist destinations land bordering rail lines developed citrus farms rail line extended months train arrived residents miami voted incorporate town miami prime destination extremely wealthy people opened gubernatorial race strongest candidate promoted draining called future south florida empire soon successful election began work drain ridden swamp pushed florida legislature form group commissioners oversee flooded lands established began study build effective canals fund governor ran lost paid land developer tour state promote drainage elected senate died office land sold acre month died continued build railway stations towns soon populations growth urban areas construction canals newly reclaimed land promoted united_states land developers sold lots months advertisements promised weeks arrival farmer making living took months clear land tried burning vegetation learn continued burn animals got useless dried turned fine black powder created dust storms initially crops quickly quickly died seemingly reason increasing population towns near hunted area widely hunted skins hunting went trip hunter killed water birds particular target hunting bird feathers women hats late 19th early 20th centuries million birds estimated killed feathers shot usually spring feathers colored mating nesting called business sold price gold million year industry motivated lay watch nests colored birds nesting season shoot parents small bore rifles leave chicks birds found havana new_york_city london paris hunters collect birds good day runners hiding spot prohibition vast law enforcement officers patrol arrival railroad discovery adding trace elements like copper remedy crops dying quickly soon created population boom new towns like crops primary crop grown south florida miami experienced second real estate boom earned developer million undeveloped land north miami sold acre miami newspapers published editions weighing pounds real estate advertising waterfront property highly valued trees cut replaced palm trees improve view acres south florida slash pine cleared pine lumber pine forests cleared development flood control catastrophic hurricanes caused lake breach killing thousands people government began focus control floods drainage created financed state federal funds president toured towns affected hurricane ordered assist communities surrounding lake miles long built southern edge lake control waters lake delegated federal powers united_states declared legal limits lake feet massive canal constructed feet wide feet deep lake rose high excess water left canal million spent entire project production canal built populations small towns surrounding lake jumped world war immediately effects seen extended drought occurred 1930s wall preventing water leaving canals ditches removing water turned dust salt ocean water miami wells city brought expert explain discovered water area appeared surface million acres burned black clouds fires hung miami scientists took soil samples draining account organic composition prone soil dry naturally occurring bacteria assist process water generally slow partially low levels dissolved oxygen water levels low surface bacteria interacted higher levels oxygen air rapidly breaking soil places homes moved feet soil lost national park idea national park pitched miami land developer named established support declared national park congress took years dedicated december month dedication park editor freelance writer named douglas released book titled river grass researching region years described history ecology great detail characterized river instead swamp chapter titled eleventh hour warned dying reversed year park dedicated hurricanes wet season caused inches fall south florida human casualties agricultural interests lost approximately million congress approved divided basins northern water conservation areas bordering south lake southern national park pumping stations bordered released water times removed pumped ocean times flood took approximately percent original constructed miles canals hundreds pumping stations decades 1950s 1960s miami metropolitan area grew times fast rest nation million people moved south florida people moved miami week developed areas mid-1950s late 1960s water reclaimed sent newly developed areas agricultural area established acres km2 percent prior development late 1920s agricultural experiments indicated adding large amounts produced profitable harvest vegetables primary cash crop beans rice grown fields typically acres bordered canals sides connected larger canals water pumped depending needs crops vegetables high concentrations nitrogen decayed soil necessary production pumped south introduction large amounts chemicals provided opportunities exotic plants hold defining characteristics natural ecology ability support nutrient poor environment introduction began alter plant life region proposition turning point came development proposition expanded airport miami international airport capacities new planned larger hare airports combined chosen location miles north sentence study environmental impact read development proposed attendant facilities destroy south florida ecosystem studies indicated proposed create gallons raw sewage day short tons jet engine year project met staunch opposition new_york_times called blueprint disaster wisconsin senator wrote president richard_nixon voicing opposition test committed country protecting environment governor withdrew support project douglas persuaded years old tour hundreds speeches nixon instead established announcing special message environmental program restoration final construction project mile river drained way grazing land agriculture started building canal effects seen immediately birds fish disappeared prompting sport demand region restored canal finished general projects criticized temporary ignored future consequences costing dollars end sight governor initiated save campaign section canal graham announced restored closely possible pre drainage state project approved congress estimated cost million convert miles canal entire project complete water quality problems environment arose vast bloom appeared fifth lake year discovered overtaking marshes scientists discovered canals pumped lake lake drained entered water marshes changing nutrient levels kept forming soils arrival allowed spread quickly grew dense thick birds nest dissolved oxygen promoted algae prohibited growth native invertebrates food chain time mercury found local fish high levels consumption warnings posted fishermen florida found dead levels mercury high kill human scientists found power plants fossil mercury atmosphere fell rain dust naturally occurring bacteria reduce ecosystem transforming mercury food chain emissions standards helped lower mercury coming power plants turn lowered mercury levels found animals continue concern forever act introduced governor attempt lowering waterways act charge testing enforcing low levels parts billion 1980s near fields water leaving flows ponds lined lime rock layers testing shown method effective previously anticipated bringing levels invasive species center trade travel caribbean south_america south florida especially vulnerable invasive species species plants animals adapt aggressively conditions allowing reproduce faster grow larger naturally native environments approximately species fish reptiles birds mammals south florida exotic region hosts highest numbers exotic plant species world controlling invasive species acres km2 infested land south florida costs authorities million year hosts exotic plant species actively region species considered native south florida tree takes water greater amounts trees grow taller densely native australia making unsuitable nesting areas birds wide choke native vegetation million spent keeping national park brazilian pepper florida holly havoc exhibiting tendency spread rapidly crowd native species plants create environments native animals especially difficult readily propagated birds eat small red brazilian pepper problem exclusive water widespread problem florida waterways major threat endemic species difficult costly old world climbing causing harm restoration blankets areas making impossible animals pass climbs trees creates fire allowing parts trees burn remain unharmed pets escaped released surrounding urban areas find conditions favorable established self sustaining populations competing food space native animals tropical fish released blue cause damage shallow waterways creating large nests consuming aquatic plants protect native young fish native southern asia relatively new invasive species species grow feet long compete food chain florida wildlife officials speculate escaped begun environment suited agents removed park prompting federal authorities ban species exotic snakes including believed responsible drastic decreases populations mammals park invasive species causes damage bird populations cat domestic feral cats let outside live close suburban populations estimated number square mile close numbers historic migratory areas devastating effects migratory bird populations comprehensive restoration plan scientists decreasing mercury levels water natural environment south florida continued decline 1990s life nearby cities reflected address deterioration miami metropolitan area governor commissioned report area published commission findings report related degradation ecosystems lower quality life urban areas report noted past environmental abuses brought state position decision acting improve south florida ecosystem report predicted inevitably cause deterioration harm local tourism jobs million annually commercial fishing jobs million annually urban areas grown capacities sustain crowded cities facing problems high crime rates traffic jams severely schools public services report noted water shortages ironic given inches rain region received annually evaluation submitted congress water development act seven year report called cited harm ecosystem percent reduction original diminished water storage harmful timing water releases canals pumping stations percent decrease bird populations past years decline output commercial fisheries bodies water including estuary reflected drastic water level changes dramatic changes marine freshwater ecosystems noted overall decline water quality past years loss wetlands act filters water predicted intervention entire ecosystem deteriorate water shortages common cities annual water restrictions came plan stop declining environmental quality proposal expensive comprehensive ecological repair project history comprehensive restoration plan proposed construction projects years store water ocean underground abandoned add treatment areas filter water flowed lower regulate water released pumping stations local waterways improve water released remove barriers raising trail destroying miami canal reuse urban areas cost estimate entire plan billion cooperation voted congress overwhelming margin signed president bill_clinton december signing state florida reports spent billion projects acres km2 treatment areas constructed filter short tons waters spanning acres km2 constructed making largest wetland world percent land necessary acquire restoration purchased state florida totaling acres km2 plan construction funding projects place named start large construction projects including large federal funds forthcoming signed government budget surplus renewed major supporters congress retired according story new_york_times state officials restoration lost maze federal bureaucracy victim analysis remains controversial projects slated environmental activists note benefit urban areas regions desperate need water neglected suggesting water diverted room people environment series reports reviewed progress fourth report series released found little progress restoring core remaining ecosystem instead project construction far occurred periphery report noted reverse ongoing ecosystem declines necessary restoration projects target central improve quality quantity water ecosystem better understand potential implications current slow pace progress report assessed current status ecosystem attributes including loads depth populations birds prey endangered south florida attributes received grades ranging degraded significantly degraded received grade near damage report assessed future trajectory ecosystem attribute restoration scenarios improved water quality improved improvements water quality helped highlight urgency restoration actions benefit wide range ecosystem attributes demonstrate cost overall report concluded substantial near term progress address water quality central needed reverse ongoing degradation late air crashes crashed including flight flight future state florida agreed buy sugar manufacturing production facilities estimated billion florida officials indicated intended allow process years dismissing employees plant area includes acres km2 land water flow lake restored november agreement revised offer billion allowing sugar mills remain production critics revised plan ensures grown decade research address continuing production minimize runoff restoration received million result package mile long bridge replace trail road borders national park north blocked water reaching southern begun december month work began reconstruct canal east park historically diverted water governor announced month million state funds restoration miles bridges proposed added trail
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