early early range tall commercial buildings built predominantly american cities new_york chicago cities united_states traditionally low rise buildings significant economic growth civil war increasingly intensive use urban land encouraged development taller buildings beginning 1870s technological improvements enabled construction iron framed structures deep foundations equipped new elevator electric lighting technically commercially viable build new class taller buildings chicago foot tall opened numbers grew rapidly labelled chicago initially led way skyscraper design constructed center financial district late 1880s early 1890s termed products chicago school architecture attempted balance aesthetic concerns practical commercial design producing large square styled buildings hosting shops restaurants ground level containing offices upper floors contrast new_york frequently narrower towers eclectic style criticized lack chicago banned construction new taller feet leaving development taller buildings new_york decade 20th century saw new wave skyscraper construction demand new office space hold america expanding workforce white collar staff continued grow engineering developments easier build live taller buildings chicago built new existing style new_york experimented tower design iconic buildings followed foot tall foot foot commercial successes criticism mounted broke ordered city skyline neighboring streets buildings perpetual shadow combined economic led introduction restraints new_york interwar years spread nearly major cities handful built western countries economic boom 1920s extensive real estate speculation encouraged wave new skyscraper projects new_york chicago new_york_city resolution helped shape art set style leading structures focused volume striking richly decorated skyscraper heights continued grow claiming new records reaching feet feet respectively onset great depression real estate market collapsed new builds halt popular academic culture embraced skyscraper films photography literature ballet seeing buildings positive symbols science alternatively examples modern life society skyscraper projects world war typically rejected designs early instead embracing international style older redesigned suit contemporary tastes demolished world tallest skyscraper background commercial social drivers early emerged result economic growth financial organization american businesses intensive use land new_york centers early skyscraper construction history key located small island manhattan east coast consequence colonial history new_york real estate broken small parcels land large sites half 19th century national center american finance banks financial district wall street competed fiercely english institutions international dominance great fire destroyed old financial buildings place wide variety new buildings erected demolished quick succession 1840s 1850s traveler suggested entire city rebuilt decade buildings adopted italian renaissance inspired style architecture popular rivals england rose stories new_york restrictions height buildings practice low rise buildings norm tallest buildings city churches new_york population property values increasing percent west city chicago major site development early contrast new_york chicago emerged major metropolis mid-19th century growing village inhabitants city nearly chicago railroad hub american west primary trading city emerging territories famous commercial culture saw different cities east coast immensely proud status growing vibrant center 1870s chicago main financial center west october great chicago fire destroyed wooden heart city city rebuilt large plots land new grid network followed new city prohibited construction wood factors encouraged building taller properties new innovative designs like new_york saw range businesses services packed single buildings construction taller buildings 1870s hindered financial panic ensuing economic depression lasted construction slowed property values recovery underway new builds new_york returning pace economic making construction taller buildings attractive financial option establishing development skyscraper technological developments emergence possible technological improvements middle 19th century developments iron framed building traditional buildings supported internal floors walls taller building thicker walls particularly base buildings substantial height rapidly saw lower floors eaten brick masonry 1860s french engineers experimented built plate wrought iron construct buildings supported internal metal frames frames stronger traditional masonry permitted thinner walls extensively described engineering journals initially build warehouses metal frames taller buildings meant exposing potentially devastating effects wind pressure consequence protective wind introduced enabled work produced calculating loads moments larger buildings metal framed buildings particularly vulnerable fire required special french engineers advances area early 19th century major came work architect 1860s spurred catastrophic fires chicago boston findings turned wide variety patented fire products 1870s taller heavier buildings required stronger foundations smaller buildings earlier buildings typically rested foundations rubble turn laid soft layer ground called buildings taller heavier support weight foundations increasingly needed rest directly bedrock new_york chicago required digging considerable distance soft soil hole filling water foundations complete deeper foundations needed greater challenge special water tight boxes called invented deal problem england adopted 1850s 1860s development elevator essential emergence early office building taller stories impractical powered elevators installed england 1830s spread factories hotels 1840s elevators ropes function effectively low rise buildings limitation encouraged introduction hydraulic elevator early models contained dangerous design flaws problems resolved providing solution early new environmental technologies heating lighting ventilation critical creating taller buildings attractive work central heating easily extended serve larger buildings 1850s system low pressure steam steam operated fans adopted construction later buildings lit gas carried safety risks difficult install taller buildings alternative electric lights installed onwards powered basement generators ventilation challenge smoke drifting offices streets gas lighting air quality major health issue steam driven forced draft ventilation system invented widely taller buildings 1870s overcoming problem improvements iron permitted running hot cold water facilities installed taller buildings time emergence skyscraper skyscraper academic disagreement building considered skyscraper term describe particularly tall horse later applied sail ship mast tall hats tall men ball hit high air 1880s began applied buildings describe large public monuments label tall office blocks coming widespread use decade identifying true skyscraper straightforward candidates exist depending criteria applied example tall office building use elevator substantial structural advances metal frame design chicago opened labelled skyscraper innovative use structural steel metal frame design foot tall story skyscraper designed baron trained engineer france leading architect chicago design unusual incorporated steel building internal metal frame alongside traditional wrought iron frame took weight floors building helped support weight external walls proving important step creating genuine non structural curtain walls feature later design perfect weight carried masonry walls metal frame clearly significant advance tall building construction approach quickly caught chicago building replaced metal design stronger approach chicago introduced interior light courts structural design building remaining technical issues resolved resulting entirely self supporting steel framed skyscraper buildings building combined elements newer older styles generally chicago rapidly adopted steel structures flexible effective way produce range tall buildings specialist professional structural engineers began establish practices chicago steel frames need new skyscraper technical challenges overcome boom skyscraper construction chicago onwards city leading way new form chicago built stories tall tightly centre financial district chicago constrained contemporary limits steel frame design muddy sub soil city limited stories chicago rapidly tourist destinations views wider city provided upper floors attractive sites right tourists advised hire street tours lying cab able safely tops tall buildings temple prominent new built chicago time fast growing social community lavish foot tall skyscraper stories holding shops higher levels containing private meeting halls able hold people roof garden observation gallery competing local rivals odd intended build higher skyscraper feet tall announced tallest building world newspapers picked story circulating facts size temple making comparison historical buildings capitol statue liberty odd project failed temple capitalized publicity declared tallest commercial building world comparison new_york trailed chicago having buildings stories tall delay caused city authorities authorize metal frame construction techniques relented allowed construct tower building story iron framed skyscraper encouraged building skyscraper towers new_york city remained cautious technology years finally breakthrough construction story foot high steel development broke chicago height record new_york thoroughly embraced skeleton frame construction particular new_york newspaper companies adopted skyscraper building park row termed newspaper row 1880s 1890s early constructed baltimore boston pittsburgh buffalo including buildings early examples west_coast include building san_francisco washington architectural challenges architects early faced number challenges fashionable architectural style late 19th century french movement termed style applied classical aesthetic principles modern buildings american architects trained style des began return home 1880s bringing ideals standards applying contemporary standards early straightforward buildings movement emulated built typically shorter broader skyscraper impossible accurately reproduce style tall narrow building primarily commercial buildings economics aesthetics play important design architectural writer noted current american architecture matter art business building pay investor ready money meet cost curse glory american architecture echoed theme condemning unnecessary features basis cubic foot purely ornamental purposes needed express use class waste 1890s chicago architects producing solution problem creating new architectural style termed chicago school architecture school included architects baron designs combined architectural aesthetic theory practical commercial sense favoured placing rich ornate designs outside ground level simpler ornamentation upper levels strong vertical lines roofs typically formed outline structure seen distance city skyline intent draw observer eye upwards celebrating sullivan termed nature skyscraper resources intricate detailing unlikely appeal busy businessman time lavish ground floor designs building stand pull necessary business successful commercial building community saw close collaboration architects specialist structural engineers building contractors emerge new skyscraper projects historically industry dominated individuals small firms combined roles architect engineer broke chicago period replaced partnership specialist architects focused appearance skyscraper specialist engineers focused structures enabled built chicago architectural firms grew large numerous specialist staff famous example felt like small factory visitors ultimately expanded employ staff resulting chicago school produced large solid looking built common appearance common height result usually box like illuminated large light court space allowed center outside building commonly divided parts base middle section roof line design intended emulate classical columns reflect functions different parts skyscraper central court form simple courtyard companies preferred roof courtyard glass produce shops restaurants shops times office space important difference income property chicago skyscraper windows feature style large fixed windows flanked smaller windows provided access sunlight adequate ventilation building form slight bay exterior chicago buildings relatively plain entrance ways fitted grand style unity building example reported including alps green artistic screen glass bronze marble balcony alongside columns finely carved capitals gold leaf silver silver elevators aim project sense prosperity solid financial credentials turn attract tenants willing pay high tenants surroundings good business credibility affirmed social status professionals new_york faced similar architectural challenges comparison chicago skyscraper architects worked closely engineers specialists instead held strong backgrounds movement perceived role primarily artistic partnership mechanical arts practices tended smaller resembling style workshops structural engineers new_york took longer build strong professional role trend reflected lower engineering quality early city new_york style emphasised stunning height somewhat eclectic use architectural features periods creating energetic flamboyant appearance towers common making best use relatively small plots land new_york new_york emulated style chicago broke exterior different layers style proponents argued reintroduced sense human proportion tall buildings critics felt results confused life early early mainly small office commonly feet placed adjacent long corridors following pattern invented building england allowed average small company rent small space offices held option future expansion renting additional office required later date skyscraper office relied natural sunlight windows necessary lit electric desk lamps standards day offices modern air latest fixtures fittings modern communication systems including telephone tubes installed result businesses chose older low rise offices chicago new felt convenient mainly occupied male workers changed 1890s female employees common percentage female clerical workers chicago example increased percent percent reaching percent moral concerns raised men women mixing offices characterised masculine spaces tobacco smoke profanity unsuitable women new female workers typically worked recently invented grew number offices provided wide range house services tenants including shops restaurants professional specialists libraries employed substantial number service staff maintain support building spent percent rental revenue service staff employing people including elevator operators engineers collection services facilities period referred small cities right criticism reform chicago opposition chicago began grow late 1880s early 1890s development skyscraper criticized large buildings chicago dominating churches private houses sentiment strengthened critics complained concentration tall buildings center city causing huge congestion new skyscraper burning additional coal power facilities consuming total million tons year leaving smoke air hanging chicago concerned risk major fire breaking spreading building building chicago having concerns growth skyscraper boston buildings built late 1880s feet feet tall respectively protests local civic real estate industry resulted city passing law limit new buildings maximum feet effectively banning construction cities philadelphia los_angeles washington similarly introduced height controls limit skyscraper construction decisive factor favour change chicago economic early 1890s end financial panic recession combined frantic building previous years meant chicago suddenly significant surplus office space threatening occupancy levels regulation introduced city council control problem support real estate industry hoped slow construction additional office space shore diminishing profit margins height new buildings limited feet lower height levels narrower streets effectively construction taller great age pre war boom early years 20th century saw range technically sophisticated confident built new_york academics term great age skyscraper building relatively conservative buildings classical style atlantic mutual designed clinton russell broke new ground including building opened near madison square chicago firm designed feet high story structure unusually shaped narrow building needed particularly strong wind facade richly incorporated stylistic features common chicago critical popular success likened time new_york icon construction singer tower announced company intended produce tallest skyscraper world company lower rise buildings new_york tower incorporated planned rent half tower tenants use upper half skyscraper designed advocate noted critic existing justified taking project way generating support skyscraper reform design technically challenging tall narrow tower needed special wind deep bedrock site required particularly deep foundations tower faced dark brick followed style rest complex lobby fitted italian marble opened stories feet tall visitors paid terms use observation area building views opened culmination long building project sons hold growing headquarters staff strong feet high stories world new tallest building intended skyscraper promote company image build surrounded publicity tower featured prominent magazines sides corn boxes coffee cars tower loosely modelled featured extensive early renaissance styled detailing modern additions huge clock faces electric night time illumination observation deck contemporary architects described building latest ideas ventilation air conditioning sound artificial lighting tubes bells unit operating clock systems special elevator installations design won critical acclaim american architectural profession construction building announced wanted create largest income producing property project grew finally opted story foot high skyscraper latest tallest building world cost million billion terms architect designs included high proportion usable floor space great deal light flexible floor plan subdivided different tenants date fittings installed encourage high class tenants including world fastest elevators safety features swimming pool gilbert adopted style glass emphasis vertical lines echoing structural frame underneath incorporating 15th 16th century styled features capped tower blended sky produce illusion greater height building night topped red white flashing lights famously dubbed cathedral commerce gilbert displeasure attempted avoid copying ecclesiastical architecture chicago skyscraper industry decade world war city elevated train network operating allowing workers come centre square feet new offices opened end decade chicago second largest number headquarters offices chicago architectural firms graham anderson continued design style popular previous decade chicago hosted world exposition massive international event excited interest themes classical architecture designed city landscapes chicago extensive discussions potential designing large parts city chicago resulting reflected debates substantial quarter block wide common height divided classical design sporting classical columns features despite apparent design individual buildings varied considerably detail designs effort express particular identities texture white example improvements construction process building sophisticated starting acquisition real estate needed site working commission secretly acquire individual bits land required project operating variety names avoid price increasing planned build known properties site typically bought news broke skyscraper owning property plot little choice sell funding skyscraper developments normally lent banks insurance companies raised bonds sold specialised bond house increasingly popular world war efforts improve processes largely work general contractors turn drew recent work efficiency specialist time schedules devised work undertaken cost carefully monitored reports produced day results demonstrated building construction project tonnes steel assembled days record period improved techniques introduced use skyscraper foundations grew advanced construction manhattan municipal building successfully sunk feet surface specially workers operating shifts constant medical support new technologies introduced buildings fast elevators powered electricity steam driven began installed time safety air protecting passengers case failure lighting improved recommended levels twice level electric lighting 1890s nonetheless relied primarily natural sunlight required installing large windows having tall ceilings allow sunlight penetrate offices office deeper feet considered practical design life reasons increase numbers period growth demand office workers demand firms larger complex white collar sectors insurance banking grew scale driven changing technology joined office adding machine telephone filing adding demand office space requiring increasingly specialised workers tenants rental income essential financial success skyscraper largest founded prominent companies rented office space owners charge significantly office space close main windows making efficient build premium office space possible cost slightly construct instance result standard pattern office units new_york chicago emerged single rectangular office adjoining exterior wall shaped design reception room giving way offices separated glass usually took large numbers relatively small companies tenants skyscraper different tenants example typical tenant rent office units skyscraper criticism particularly new_york attracted considerable comment negative return new_york writer condemned buildings american scene simply giants mere market mercenary monsters doomed torn turn larger buildings took place chicago combination environmental pollution meant complained scarcely streets damp day huge buildings black sky wider artistic sentiments varied like mixed feelings new_york reflected famous portrait building work old new new york contrasts growing steel frame emerging old low rise blocks street poets wrote issues early modernist describing city stir monstrous shape massive flight artists experimented producing portraits new_york capturing positive negative aspects modern structures artist produced romantic interpretation future new_york filled giant supporting aerial bridges receiving globe architectural community exposition chicago inspired america champion designing cities unified design building unique features complemented neighbours typically built common height horizontal visual unity aftermath exposition advocates joined movement form city beautiful movement proposing low rise cities wide built classical style critics condemned new_york describing produced sierra city skyline complaining modern skyscraper turned architectural success argued skyscraper rights rest city destroying collective appearance urban area architects stanford white refused work projects altogether reform new_york calls new_york legislation prevent growth citing effect city attempts faced legal obstacles constitution local authorities authority prevent buildings grounds aesthetics law new_york considered likely face judicial challenge argued legal reform skyscraper construction needed public health safety reasons area law normally supportive state intervention risk fire concern relatively height conventional fire fighting difficult architect considered large scale devastating high rise fire inevitable regulation forthcoming baltimore fire widely cited example risk baltimore real city lawyers argued taller buildings caused flames spread city blaze baltimore subsequently passed law banning buildings higher feet argued access light air noting tall buildings rose straight cast long shadows street preventing healthy sunlight reaching smaller buildings early attempts limit height new_york failed unsuccessful attempts followed legislation turned partially pressure real estate industry property market new_york entered recession vacancy levels buildings began rise campaign change helped construction building estimated cost million billion terms rapidly infamous vast height bulk blocked views cast neighbours permanent shade real estate industry finally ceased objections new legislation resolution passed details legislation largely work architect ford sympathies city beautiful movement disliked form new_york concerns urban public health found tall buildings exciting believed horizontal visual unity produced boring architecture consequence ford influence new_york laws relatively complex divided city different zones zone particular envelope applied controlling height buildings built typically building rise vertically feet building set set angle allow sunlight reach street quarter site owner build high wished restrictions inter war period boom depression post war boom real estate boom occurred end world war particular surge construction new new_york quarter financial district rebuilt square feet new office space added chicago saw pressure grow existing office space war limited wartime construction created supply shortages rent levels rose response percent level potential profits encouraged explosion new building projects city boom inflated prices real estate market leading speculative financing building projects including introduction percent new builds early edition fortune magazine commented man needs skyscraper money land able money continued grow height 1920s result improvements technology steel frame structures increasingly efficient improvements elevator design taller buildings easier ascend commercial factors work growing commercial demand pushed enabling taller projects higher offices attracted sunlight permitting charging premium tallest buildings acquire publicity owners turn making easier find best tenants furthermore higher cost underlying real estate taller building needed generate suitable return investment minimum sensible commercial height skyscraper project grew stories story relatively common influential study demonstrated best rate return skyscraper build stories high returning annual profit percent continued spread internationally new_york chicago remained center skyscraper development major centres built frequently result competition rival cities status investment cincinnati built followed tower complex detroit opened fisher building cleveland acquired built van brothers short period second tallest building world seattle built smith tower early los_angeles local government granted exemption city planning restrictions order build los_angeles city hall built providence built developed countries reaching near level construction seen partially lack funding local architectural preferences european cities including london paris laws ban tall buildings began appear including toronto antwerp european proposed excited planning soviet russia began construction foot palace soviets late 1930s socialist style tallest building world war intervened skyscraper completed post war years style result monumental seven sisters moscow building technology constructing continued develop time increasingly factor projects architects specialist teams developed faster ways design construct buildings interest payments build arrival rental income erected months teams workers totalling men floors assembled typical week building skyscraper towers involved adaption engineering techniques effectively different buildings designed base tower needed efficiently linked elevators service facilities new offices settled standard size feet wide deep depending height ceiling multiple small windows considered better larger ones output electric lighting continued improve began excessive heat offices air conditioning installed 1930s new_york set style 1920s 1930s designed art style architectural approach typically combined terms aesthetic simple mass use rich colour ornamentation surfaces buildings aim attention increasingly complex dimensional shape skyscraper contrast earlier styles historian suggests merely short buildings taller additional stories windows emphasised favour creating strong sense shape mass surrounding walls treated fabric dressing building underneath period typically lost ornamental horizontal divisions broken physical changes shape looked building forming striking silhouette new_york act allow light air reach streets encouraged stepped approach skyscraper design set style use percent site allowed law complete tall tower encouraged diversity buildings maintaining element harmony consistency style paramount building wall street example constructed set style towers partially limited size sites towers relatively narrow packed necessary elevators service facilities economically built larger expensive plots opted tallest towers possible including million billion terms new_york continued lead tall period times number tall buildings nearest rival chicago new_york complemented traditional offices linked corridors larger open plan spaces called general offices number workers fitted given space provided greater flexibility expensive corporate created 1930s especially wall street typically highest levels buildings corporate executives usually outfitted range traditional exotic styles remained grand affairs banks renting space shops restaurants favour exclusive atmosphere largest held workers common buildings held wide range services support including beauty private clubs skyscraper directly employed staff manage protect property technology offices grew sophisticated automatic machines teams specialised office workers chicago towers chicago altered laws 1920s allow towers built maximum building height chicago increased feet structures building ornamental towers allowed extend feet high additional changes came taller occupied towers permitted time subject controls overall volumes main building skyscraper feet tall tower built percent plot tower volume sixth main block practice meant tower built stories tall typical chicago skyscraper development initially chicago preferred styled buildings large light courts centre remained profitable designs building built law demonstrated effect ornamental towers skyscraper revised law building building took design added somewhat towers early 1920s producing profitable buildings period famous buildings emerged competition held celebrate 75th anniversary newspaper largest world competition members public invited influence design skyscraper build loyal following readership generate free publicity final design determined competition panel largely company chose tower design resulting tower conservative gothic design controversy decision broke immediately criticized hood design derivative tower regardless critics received visitors observation gallery opened second place entry competition simplified stepped design proved highly influential popularity older style began favor greater emphasis towers common way building chicago laws build square main block central service core simply place tower massive main block taller tower form good examples approach alternatively main block chicago civic opera building building sacrificing volume producing visual effect high wings flanking tall tower distinctive new_york setback style adopted chicago example style great depression boom skyscraper construction began following fast economic growth giving way slump years great depression building sorts slowed considerably real estate market lay new skyscraper builds collapsed value properties dropped dramatically tower cost million billion terms build valued million million debts sale million major bond house successful developments million billion bonds held investors developer brothers went bankrupt vacancy rates began increase recession bit increasing percent central new_york early percent percent face recession projects canceled scaled plans company build story skyscraper alongside existing tower forward shelved face recession public criticism expenditure economic climate instead phase project known ended stories high building height fully completed cases projects commissioned continued completion resulted square feet new office space added new_york start recession adding problem buildings iconic structures pushing limits skyscraper height sharply upwards completed depression began affect industry architect competed designers produce tallest building world famously erected minute secret order acquire title story foot tall building exterior built white grey brick metal extensively including eagles heads winged helmet mercury entrance black granite contrast windows gave way red marble mural ceiling design building distinct elevator different design placed floor building observation deck exclusive cloud club upper levels originated project story mixed use development purchase site million billion set record new_york year entered project financial concluded project profitable site build extremely tall story skyscraper instead revised financial estimates suggested height cut having world tallest building considerable instead additional stories added ensure building feet taller observation deck built attract tourists proved valuable source revenue limestone granite aluminium skyscraper specially designed easily erected standardized structural fittings completed months opening recession percent occupied 1930s ran loss critics dubbed state building originally intended new location brought end scheme decided develop large office center instead taking advantage low construction costs recession center development building heavily influenced architect long slab like distinct axes appeared narrow tower rose like sheer wall structure highly distinctive economically effective design available light offices eliminated darker internal rooms core building entirely taken elevators engineering services recession took building filled tenants chicago final pre war skyscraper built field building commissioned final boom years inter war economy skyscraper built demolished way wing tower development skyscraper social commentary public interest increased 1920s particularly competition competition drawings circulated display coming chicago month aftermath images flourished american culture commencing historian dubbed skyscraper city exhibition celebrated existing skyscraper featured futuristic murals depicting skyscraper heart city future short film explored form ending sunset shot skyscraper authors wrote novels important motifs settings produced ballet theme designed range popular skyscraper furniture commentary positive reflecting optimism technology direction urban life general seen expression rational engineering perfect buildings mankind live celebrated artist proponents likened medieval symbols modern age poems depicted objects sublime rational beauty describing buildings like crystals walls translucent glass sheer glass blocks steel chicago exposition technology portrayed solution america current future problems french swiss architect acclaimed new_york overwhelming amazing exciting violently alive went complain built tall employed record building portrayed skyscraper construction teams courageous heroes creating genre photography continued critics expressed concerns effect modern technology urban living human condition arguing generated pollution noise imposed lifestyle people worked social commentator reflected concerns critiques entitled skyscraper political theorist condemned buildings covering sky breath inventor expressed fears expansion result disaster artist oppressive character new traditional city photographic studies new_york 1930s explored complex theme urban change effect older ways life city echoing work decade century hollywood extensively popular films new_york 1920s produced skyscraper films prominently hero clock los_angeles building early silent movies closely associated masculine identity lloyd climbing closely associated characters transformation young men mature adults winning heroine film included iconic use early skyscraper final scenes giant scaled shortly death scene interpreted contrasting natural instinct modern building wider new_york legacy skyscraper development years second world war development began 1950s 1960s skyscraper entered different phase development usually called international modern period experimental designs style built european architectural concepts early 1930s notably post war modernist themes new generation stood individual plots fashion centre building row buildings forming huge towers featuring huge glass breaking earlier skyscraper traditions inside new technologies lighting widespread air conditioning meant older architectural features light courts windows unnecessary trend substantial implications early redesigned fit new tastes ornate detail removed 1960s example fit contemporary older adapted lacked physical depth build larger modern offices space new service facilities demolished way new larger structures singer tower demolished replaced international style 21st century buildings west street renovated housing partially extensive windows access sunlight critical discussion early began 1880s onwards architectural community continued growing cultural academic community inter war period terms chicago school movement began time 1940s academics label early chicago architects regarded early marking clear break earlier architectural forms interpretation chicago later challenged argued links movement pre existing chicago culture 1980s 1990s analysis early increasingly shifted away architects architecture individual buildings considerations roles wider urban context histories stressing social economic cultural dimension began produced new_york receiving greater attention address theme founded new_york historian preserve history skyscraper
Early skyscrapers