muslim conquest sicily muslim conquest sicily began june lasted major byzantine stronghold island fell isolated fortresses remained byzantine hands island henceforth muslim rule conquered turn 11th century sicily raided muslims century raids threaten byzantine control island remained largely peaceful opportunity came commander island fleet rose revolt defeated loyalist forces driven island sought aid regarded opportunity expansion energies military establishment alleviate criticism islamic scholars dispatched army aid following arab landing island quickly sidelined initial assault island capital syracuse failed muslims able weather subsequent byzantine counter attack hold fortresses aid reinforcements took capital new muslim province byzantine government sent expeditions aid locals muslims preoccupied struggle eastern frontier unable mount sustained effort drive muslims decades raided byzantine possessions unopposed strong fortress centre island main byzantine muslim expansion capture following fall muslims increased pressure eastern parts island long siege captured syracuse byzantines retained control fortresses north eastern corner island decades launched number efforts recover island 11th century unable seriously challenge muslim control sicily fall major byzantine fortress held mark completion muslim conquest sicily muslim rule sicily prospered eventually detached form semi independent island muslim community survived norman conquest prospered norman kings giving birth unique cultural mix deported failed uprising background imperial roman period sicily quiet prosperous 5th century suffer raids operating coasts north_africa island came byzantine control raided gothic war calm returned protected sea island spared inflicted invasions late 6th early 7th centuries retained urban life civilian administration increasing threat muslim expansion thrust writes land desirable possession sicily central position basins mediterranean rendered object supreme importance eastern sea power commercially politically aggressive ambitious ruler africa italy gates adriatic consequently island early targeted muslims raid occurring years establishment muslim navy following onset muslim attacks north_africa crucial strategic base residence imperial court constituted theme governing came assume control scattered imperial possessions southern italian mainland island raided especially half 8th century come threat muslims completed conquest north_africa moved governor plans invade island force attempt capture thwarted rebellion founder dynasty secured recognition position autonomous marking establishment practically independent state centred modern tunisia concluded year truce byzantine governor sicily renewed son successor time preoccupied rivalry west plan assault sicily instead commercial traffic sicily presence arab traders island rebellion occasion invasion sicily provided rebellion commander island fleet according later possibly fictional accounts driven lust nun forced marry brothers protested emperor byzantine ruler ordered island investigate matter charges found true cut nose punishment came returning naval raid african coast learned arrested instead sailed syracuse occupying city governor sought refuge soon managed gain support large island military leadership repulsed attempt constantine recover syracuse pursued drove eventually captured executed proclaimed emperor historian doubts romantic story origin revolt believes ambitious general simply moment central byzantine government weakened recent revolt thomas contemporary muslim conquest crete seize power point deserted closest powerful allies man known arab sources according probably corruption title holds named cousin michael commander men denounced imperial title marched syracuse defeated took city like predecessors rebelled resolved seek refuge empire enemies supporters sailed sent delegation court pleaded army help conquer sicily pay annual tribute offer came great opportunity faced long ethnic tensions arab settlers rebellions arab ruling elite criticism concerns islamic system taxation luxurious lifestyle school time arrival suppressed dangerous year revolt writes undertaking expand islam expense conquest major undertaking invasion silence criticism time destructive energies restless channel secure new sources manpower wealth council divided issue end respected ibn quotations support case placed head expedition retaining office normally incompatible military post muslim expeditionary forces said consisted thousand foot soldiers seven cavalry possibly fleet comprised seventy ships added vessels initial operations conquest muslim landing siege syracuse june allied fleets sailed days reached southwestern sicily landed met soldiers loyal alliance soon began muslim detachment partisans loyalist troops skirmish ensued troops ordered place helmets distinctive mark announced intention wage campaign soon taken functions title imperial island appeared nearby byzantine force armies clashed plain south east men leader gained victory retreated italian mainland hoped gather troops instead died shortly arrival left turned syracuse muslim army advanced southern shore island capital possibly ancient met embassy city offered tribute muslims halted advance proposal probably designed buy time city better prepare siege persuaded assurances needing rest army halted advance days time began regret alliance opened secret contacts urging resist arabs muslims advance soon laid siege city byzantium time forced face threat closer home crete unable send aid island muslims received reinforcements africa imperial venice came city aid able raise siege suffered lack supplies outbreak disease spring cost life replaced byzantine fleet arrived arabs raised siege tried sail africa hindered byzantine ships thwarted muslim army burned ships retreated land castle surrendered days siege byzantine counterattack despite contacts willing serve guide evidently hoping muslims failure strong guide serve purposes surrendered muslim army divided took west attacked garrison began negotiations offering acknowledge authority small escort met murdered unknown happened supporters death dispersed continued fighting alongside muslims spring sent new fleet sicily acquainted island having served past landing marched army arabs continuing siege defeated subsequent battle able find refuge fortress men muslims confident victory struck coins island died short replaced shortly managed reverse situation led routed muslim raiding party defeated main muslim army day killing men pursuing rest muslims fortified placed siege muslims tried break night sortie expecting routed ambush remains muslim army sought refuge blockaded soon reduced point eating horses dogs heard reversal arab garrison abandoned city retreated autumn sicily cleared muslim invaders assistance death success completed early summer fleet ibn arrived sicily despite political difference rivalry sent military assistance conquer sicily clearly serving interest recorded ships joint forces present confront hoping depart raiding garrison managed contact raiders proposed joint action agreed provided recognized overall commander fresh troops marched unable confront retreated siege broken july august combined army laid siege town possibly modern plague broke camp killing town fell later autumn arabs numbers depleted abandon retreat west launched pursuit inflicted heavy casualties departed island killed time possibly skirmishes advanced island laid siege city held year september commander surrendered exchange safe departure city senior officials possibly garrison city suffered greatly siege arab historian records city population fell taken slaves city bishop luke managed escape reach constantinople informed emperor disaster fall marks decisive step muslim conquest sicily muslims gained important military base possession city henceforth known simply city allowed consolidate control western portion island established regular province march governor arrived capable man able violent expansion muslim province western sicily fell relatively quickly muslim hands conquest eastern portion island protracted affair little evidence large scale campaigns pitched battles warfare dominated repeated arab attacks byzantine coupled raids surrounding countryside aimed looting extraction tribute prisoners threatened type warfare south eastern island suffered comparatively mountainous inaccessible north eastern portion expeditions operations reported sicily years fall muslims probably preoccupied organizing new province byzantines weak react expect reinforcements empire faced mounting pressure east launched repeated invasions byzantine threatened march constantinople sudden death august struggle years focused main byzantine stronghold central sicily early campaigned defeated garrison field forced withdraw town fortifications spring garrison forth defeated driven raided central sicily defeated army byzantine probably island opposed taking byzantine commander wife son captive process success sent raid eastern parts island reached far broke muslims murdered killers found refuge byzantines replaced displayed great energy immediately arrival led raid syracuse central sicily byzantine marched meet muslims withdrew mountainous forested area byzantines pursue waiting vain muslims accept battle turned army ambushed muslims men flight muslims seized byzantines arms equipment animals managed capture severely wounded despite success replaced september new governor prince ibn cousin time long awaited byzantine reinforcements arrived byzantine fleet contested passage small fleet lost ships byzantine attack storms byzantines prevent reaching driven squadron city muhammad ibn launching naval raids christians taken prisoner time muslim cavalry raid reached eastern parts island burning villages crops taking captives launched fresh attacks muslim force seized fortress known arabic probably island northern coast driven away byzantine counter attack muslim fleet raided seized number forts northern coast sicily notably meantime cavalry raid dispatched region successful price byzantine captives expeditions muslim army ibn attacked defeated byzantines taken prisoner muslims responded reinforcing position placed siege following winter discovered path leading town allowing muslims entire lower town byzantines managed maintain control citadel negotiations secured muslim withdrawal exchange large ransom undertook effort relieve sicily assembled large army placed command son law arrived sicily spring time relieve fortress muslim attack scored number successes muslim raiding parties constantinople enemies launched accusations contacts arabs designs throne furthermore death infant wife maria cut link emperor sent archbishop syracuse recall june died succeeded brother ibn new sent fresh troops sicily muslims regained upper hand departure muslims captured fortresses possibly forts raided far period muslims established italian mainland muslims asked assist sacked following murder outbreak civil war seized bases muslims launch destructive raids coasts italy adriatic_sea bases italian mainland notably destruction muslim advances fall late support muslims conquered fortress fell byzantines peace received reinforcements eastern theme armies met near byzantines suffered crushing defeat losing men wake disaster byzantine position deteriorated rapidly far took ruse fortress followed garrison forced severe famine surrender muslims razed ground time late attempt byzantine fleet land troops near failed subsequently byzantines lost seven ships storm capable muslim governor general died local muslims elected ibn victor successor waiting confirmation appointment new governor attacked captured northern fortress turned south byzantine commander refused meet field continued raid devastated besieged months inhabitants came terms secured withdrawal delivering prisoners little details known events years picture painted sources unopposed muslim raids remaining byzantine territories captured fortresses including population allowed safe departure razed besieged taken summer sides engaged naval combat probably brother ali managed defeat byzantine fleet ships engagement turn defeated forced flee second january muslims scored major success capture aid byzantine prisoner hitherto remarks capture fortress major importance key muslim expansion eastern sicily bringing control muslims able capture consolidate towns risk losing gains fall followed comprehensive slaughter defenders january military terms achievement early sicily fall fall reduced byzantines eastern coastal strip syracuse forced emperor send large army fleet reportedly ships arrived syracuse autumn soon byzantine navy defeated major battle muslims byzantines lost fleet arrival large byzantine army induced settlements previously submitted muslims rise revolt soon suppressed uprisings marched armies met near ensuing battle byzantines heavily defeated retired syracuse strengthened position syracuse governorship ibn died autumn raid byzantine territory buried byzantines later burned corpse replacement muslims chose uncle tenure short february deposed favour son general able capture byzantine fortresses despite suffering defeat battle elevation acknowledged replaced months office ibn sent son muhammad raid syracuse defeated byzantines forced retire february march aid byzantine muslims captured led person expedition byzantines held forts vicinity moving syracuse son muhammad defeated ambush losing men marched syracuse marched coast north met delegation citizens concluded treaty soon broke year muslims retook byzantines apparently recaptured simply failed renew tribute payments previous captured fortress called towns illness forced return summer illness passed led army syracuse raiding september byzantine emperor killed succeeded new emperor energetic predecessor relative peace eastern frontier allowed soon turn attention west admiral sent relieve arab siege establish imperial authority sailed italy abortive attempt conclude marriage alliance joint siege western emperor fleet dispatched sicily spring byzantines heavily defeated battle muslims freely raided syracuse return son muhammad launched raid mainland italy possibly besieging return sicily january february muhammad led attempt capture treason small muslim detachment gained control gates muhammad arrive main army detachment fearing capture abandoned city month later launched attack region probably town modern muhammad raided syracuse byzantines sortied city defeated muhammad men inflicting heavy casualties forcing turn syracuse reportedly laid siege city weeks turning june march home assassinated dissatisfied soldier fled syracuse heavy loss muslims motives murder remain unclear suggests dispute division sections muslim army suggested possibility soldier byzantines pay muslim capture malta syracuse succeeded son muhammad elected army confirmed contrast previous energy muhammad governor preferring remain capital campaign person tenure furthermore cut short assassinated court tenure associated major success long term significance capture malta islands sicily remain byzantine hands fleet ibn ibn attacked byzantines having received timely reinforcements resisted successfully muhammad sent fleet sicily island fortress fell august local governor fell town plundered reportedly took local cathedral marble columns palace fortifications razed fall malta important defence remained byzantine sicily malta hands muslims completed island easily aid sent east apparently period calm sources silent military operations sicily probably chiefly internal turmoil muslim sicily governors reported having taken office period weakness government metropolis italy muslim raids continued byzantines major success death took possession pleasure loving died succeeded energetic brother new determined finally capture syracuse appointed new governor island far ibn muhammad sent fleet assistance far began campaign raiding byzantine territories occupying outlying forts syracuse settling city muslims supplied siege weapons launched attacks city defenders syracuse received reinforcements constantinople bulk imperial fleet apparently occupied carrying building materials new church built emperor months siege arabs gradually occupied outer defences finally stormed city population enslaved city thoroughly looted months completion muslim conquest muslims despite major success capturing syracuse muslim province sicily degenerated internal strife soon city fall far ibn muhammad murdered slaves uncle brother governorship turn overthrown september sent executed briefly named son governor appointment ibn renewed campaigns remaining byzantine strongholds northeast especially success byzantines able launch limited admiral defeated fleet daring night attack proceeded raid defeating fleet battle target determined muslim attack held muslim army annihilated byzantines causing large scale muslims years muslims launched raids king city possibly expeditions successful far yielded sufficient booty tribute pay army failed capture byzantine strongholds period saw resurgence byzantine strength italian mainland elder won string victories muslims climate military failure discontent broad sections muslim population hitherto kept check successful raiding erupted open rebellion later narrative sources conflict ruling elite lower classes simplified ethnic struggle ruling arabs rebel december people deposed governor sent appointed new governor able calm situation temporarily successful raids victory byzantine fleet enabled muslims launch destructive raids year returned fresh troops launched failed attack march rebellion broke time apparently arabs directed coupled major rebellion end muslim raids byzantines resulted conclusion truce according terms exchange peace months byzantines gradually release muslim prisoners turns group arabs group total men remarks extent christian military success eastern sicily deliberately aimed tensions muslim army playing faction negotiating release event scale civil war arabs erupted prompting dispatch son previously suppressed rebellion island head army summer muslims acquired regional dimension pitted negotiations rival parties failed marched captured september great number rebels fled city byzantines reaching constantinople arrival fall byzantines tried advantage revolt began assembling forces fleet dispatched constantinople soon suppressed rebellion marched byzantines launching unsuccessful siege returning winter spring resumed attack assaulted disrupt byzantine preparations forces crossed mainland captured july subjected savage sack vast booty collected inhabitants slaves imposed remainder return sicily came byzantine fleet arrived constantinople thoroughly defeated capturing thirty vessels early forced subjects intervention exchanged places named successor left sicily resolved mantle holy war accompanied group volunteers sicily summer act broke long standing stalemate island followers advanced defeated byzantine garrison walls laid siege left imperial government town fell august capitalized success sending raiding parties strongholds vicinity forcing capitulation destruction payment tribute crossed mainland cities far naples began prepare resist attack end advance stopped siege died october grandson stopped military campaign returned sicily aftermath strongholds northeast remained christian hands fall marked effective end consolidation muslim control island signal end arab byzantine warfare island sicily like passed control hereditary governors continued tradition christian strongholds northeast prominently byzantine possessions southern italy punctuated threw muslim control soon possibly response byzantine crete previous year retook town following week siege year muslims attacked remaining christian stronghold island prompted expedition sent byzantine emperor recover sicily byzantines successful fortresses northeast repulsed retreated year tried resume offensive annihilated battle straits result lasting truce concluded powers raids italy continued prompted intervention peninsula defeated battle byzantines turned attention sicily period consolidation position southern italy capable large force landed expedition called news came death emperor final effort talented young general dispatched sicily taking advantage internal conflicts quickly recaptured entire eastern coast conquest left incomplete recalled constantinople jealous rivals soon recovered losses byzantine outpost fell arabs remained control sicily norman conquest island prolonged affair lasting invasion surrender impact long arab byzantine struggle left traces island subsequent history muslim rule culture quickly christian communities central eastern parts largely resisted level arab influence attested surviving varied island depending length resistance extent arab settlement arab derived names western medieval mixed southeastern christian identities survived strongest northeastern island fall christian refugees parts sicily assembled furthermore remained contact byzantine southern italy
Muslim conquest of Sicily