russian ukrainian december december november general secretary communist_party soviet_union presiding country death eighteen year term general secretary second duration rule global influence soviet_union grew dramatically expansion soviet military time tenure leader marked beginning era economic social soviet_union born russian worker family graduating engineer iron steel industry ukraine joined active member drafted immediate military service world war left army rank major general member succeeded secretary succeeded post soviet premier leader took care consult colleagues acting attempt govern meaningful economic reforms led national decline mid-1970s period referred significant increase military expenditure time death stood approximately country aging ineffective leadership set stage compared western nations helm ussr pushed eastern western countries time presided warsaw pact invasion czechoslovakia stop prague spring sent soviet military afghanistan attempt save fragile regime fighting war december decided militarily intervene poland instead allowing country government impose martial law effectively marking end doctrine years declining health died november quickly succeeded post general secretary fostered cult personality nearly degree lead ussr denounced legacy drove process soviet_union spite opinion polls russia popular russian leader 20th century early life career origins education born december ukraine wife parents live russia moving ethnicity specified ukrainian documents including passport russian like youths years russian revolution received technical education land management started land surveyor graduated engineer iron steel industries eastern ukraine political development joined communist_party youth organisation party served compulsory military service taking courses tank school served political tank factory later director technical college transferred regional center party secretary charge city important defence industries survivor great purge able advance quickly created numerous openings senior middle ranks party state governments world war nazi_germany invaded soviet_union june like middle ranking party officials immediately drafted worked evacuate industries east soviet_union city fell germans august assigned political october deputy political administration southern rank colonel ukraine occupied germans sent deputy head political administration april head 18th army later year 18th army 1st ukrainian regained initiative advanced westward ukraine senior political supported career pre war years met shortly joining party long continued rise ranks protégé end war europe chief political 4th ukrainian entered prague german surrender immediate post war temporarily left rank august spent entire war political military commander working reconstruction projects ukraine general secretary deputy soviet_union soviet_union highest legislative body later year appointed party secretary meeting promoted communist_party candidate member died march reorganisation followed abolished smaller member appointed head navy rank senior position patron succeeded general secretary opponent succeeded chairman sided years general secretary communist_party surface brief simple new lands productive reality involved development soviet missile nuclear arms programs including initially successful soon failed solve growing soviet food crisis recalled moscow harvest years following disappointing hurt political career remained february returned moscow candidate member assigned control defense industry space program including heavy industry capital construction senior member entourage june backed struggle old guard party leadership called following defeat member second secretary promoted post chairman making nominal head state real power resided secretary honorary citizen belgrade removal position party leader secure leader aged grew erratic performance undermined confidence fellow leaders soviet_union mounting economic problems increased pressure leadership remained loyal involved plot remove leader power possibly playing leading role succeeded protégé secretary positioning likely successor second secretary literally deputy party leader returning scandinavia czechoslovakia october unaware plot went holiday resort black_sea return officers congratulated work office visited present situation head crucial conspiracy duty inform plotting leadership sacked requested opinion members false starts fellow october requested return moscow discuss state soviet agriculture finally understood happening said question fight minority headed wanted remove office secretary retain chairman majority headed wanted remove active politics altogether appealed blaming economic failures accusing behavior influenced allies members voted remove office addition members wanted undergo punishment kind assured office general secretary saw little reason punish old mentor appointed secretary time believed transition leader sorts shop leader appointed appointed head government retained head state companions supported general party line taken death felt reforms removed soviet_union stability reason continually overruled party members according contempt party collective ideals newspaper soviet_union wrote new enduring themes collective leadership scientific planning consultation experts ending schemes left public spotlight popular soviet citizens including anticipated period steady development soviet society continuing economic growth years ahead leader consolidation power replaced new general secretary communist_party held ultimate political authority leader soviet_union shared collective leadership chairman nominal head state premier soon maximize grip power dominating authority collective leadership early policy reforms seen predictable forbade single individual hold powerful posts country office general secretary premier chairman disliked new collective leadership reforms bid supreme leadership calling restoration obedience order failed gather support position fairly secure able remove office removed mainly disregard high ranking organisations soviet government era soviet_union controlled collective leadership officially coined leadership late 1960s 1970s consensus party collective leadership prevailed supreme leadership individual argued end 1960s stable system emerged soviet_union power assessment true time coincided strengthening power means apparent clash american 1960s mistakenly believed dominant leader soviet foreign policy period gathering support strengthen position soviet politics meantime charge economic administration role chairman position weakened proposed economic reform widely referred reform communist_party reform led backlash party conservatives continued oppose witnessing results reforms leading prague spring opponents helped task strengthening position soviet system adept politics soviet power structure team player acted hastily unlike decisions substantial consultation colleagues willing hear opinions early 1970s consolidated domestic position forced retirement chairman soviet_union making position equivalent executive president remained premier shortly death replaced premier dominant driving force soviet_union mid-1970s death domestic policies repression policy included ending reforms cultural freedom years supported leader arbitrary rule rehabilitation victims cautious soviet intellectual cultural policy soon leader began reverse process developed increasingly conservative attitude trial writers daniel public trials day marked cultural policy state security service form regained powers enjoyed return 1930s 1940s legacy remained largely soviet mid-1970s estimated political religious prisoners soviet_union living conditions suffering prisoners considered soviet state mentally unfit hospitalised mental soviet_union rule anti government organisations ensured little opposition power base violence seen rule economics economic growth soviet agriculture output increased annually industry improved eighth year plan output factories mines increased compared aggressively anti able convince leave communist leader economic reform entitled new economic mechanism granted limited permission establishment retail markets approach taken leadership believed government needed western loans facilitate rapid growth heavy industry soviet leadership gave approval soviet_union afford maintain massive form cheap oil gas exports soviet_union accept kinds reforms example warsaw pact invasion czechoslovakia response reforms abandoned experiments years taking power abolished organized manage regional economies soviet_union ninth year plan delivered change time industrial consumer products produced industrial capital goods consumer goods watches furniture radios produced abundance plan left bulk state investment industrial capital goods production outcome seen positive sign future soviet state majority party government consumer goods expanding slower industrial capital goods policy continued despite commitment rapid shift investment satisfy soviet consumers lead higher standard living happen soviet_union growing economically pace eventually catch united_states western_europe true despite advantage united_states ussr hampered effects world war left ruins process catching rest west came abrupt end seen scholars start beginning coincided financial crisis western_europe early 1970s soviet_union world second largest industrial capacity produced steel oil pig iron cement country soviet economy expanding rate faster small margin united_states ussr kept steady pace economies western_europe soviet economy stood roughly half output head western_europe little agricultural policy agricultural policy reinforced conventional methods organising collective farms output continued imposed centrally policy farms continued shared belief bigger increase productivity pushed increase state investments farming mounted time high 1970s state investment figure include investments farm equipment billion dollars contemporary exchange rate invested agriculture agricultural output higher average production rate crop output increased improved results encouraging soviet_union criterion assessing agricultural output grain harvest import began fact normal phenomenon soviet standards difficulties sealing commercial trade agreements united_states went argentina trade necessary soviet_union domestic production fodder crops severely sector hitting wall sugar harvest declined 1970s way resolving issues increase state investment member advocated division farm work force called links links entrusted specific functions run farm dairy unit argument larger work force responsible felt program proposed 1940s opposed death unsuccessful turned removed experimentation links local basis secretary experimenting links region meantime soviet government involvement agriculture according incompetent facing mounting problems agriculture issued resolution titled development concentration agricultural production basis inter farm operation resolution ordered close collaborate efforts increase production meantime state subsidies food agriculture sector prevent bankrupt farms operating rises price produce offset rises cost oil resources oil cost late 1960s cost resources climbed late 1970s answer problems issue called increase maximum size privately owned plots soviet_union half measures removed important obstacles expansion agricultural output solve problem private plots yielded national agricultural production cultivated land seen proof necessary prevent soviet agriculture collapsing leading soviet politicians supporting drastic measures ideological political interests underlying problems growing shortage skilled workers wrecked rural culture payment workers proportion quantity quality work large farm machinery small collective farms countryside face options schemes large land irrigation projects course radical reform economic term coined seen result compilation factors including ongoing arms race soviet_union united_states decision soviet_union participate international trade abandoning idea economic isolation ignoring changes occurring western societies increasing policies sending soviet tanks crush prague spring intervention afghanistan domestic bureaucracy overseen elderly men lack economic reform political corruption supply structural problems economy rule social domestically stimulated growing demands workers labour shortages decline productivity labour discipline albeit sporadically attempted reform economy late 1960s 1970s ultimately failed produce positive results reforms economic reform initiated origins traced reform cancelled committee admitted economic problems exist soviet economy slowed began west high level expenditure armed forces little spending light industry consumer goods soviet agriculture feed urban population let provide rising standard living government promised fruits mature socialism industrial productivity depended prominent critics economical policies leader called economy rule lowest stage socialism soviet growth rates began decrease 1970s level held 1950s 1960s growth rates began western_europe united_states growth rate slowing year soviet technology falling farther west soviet_union facing economic early 1980s years power cia monitored soviet_union economic growth reported soviet economy peaked 1970s calculating reached american development gap nations widened united_states growing average year growth rate soviet_union significant reform undertaken government believe pre era joint decision named improving planning reinforcing effects economic mechanism raising effectiveness production improving quality work commonly known reform reform contrast reform sought increase central government economic involvement enhancing duties responsibilities death successor conservative approach economics little reform actually carried eleventh year plan soviet_union delivered disappointing result change growth earlier tenth year plan tried meet target growth failed able economic collapse trading western_europe soviet_union produced united_states heavy industry sector era dramatic result rule certain countries economically advanced soviet_union society eighteen years ruled soviet_union average income head increased half quarters growth came 1960s early 1970s second half reign average income head grew quarter half period income head increased slightly growth previous years explained reversal policies consumption head rose estimated quarters growth happening quarter second half rule increase consumer production early era attributed reform ussr economic growth stalled 1970s standard living housing quality improved significantly instead paying attention economy soviet leadership tried improve living standard soviet_union extending social benefits led increase minor public support standard living russian soviet socialist republic fallen georgian soviet led russians believe policies soviet government hurting russian population state usually moved workers job ultimately feature soviet industry government industries factories mines offices staffed personnel great effort jobs ultimately led according work shy workforce effective counter measure country lack unemployment areas improved era majority civilian services deteriorated living conditions soviet citizens fell rapidly diseases rise decaying healthcare system living space remained small world standards average soviet person living square metres thousands moscow inhabitants homeless living parked nutrition ceased improve late 1970s staple food products returned instance state provided recreation facilities annual holidays hard working citizens soviet trade unions rewarded hard working members families beach georgia social common feature soviet society era 1930s 1940s common expect promotion white collar job studied soviet authorities case holders attractive positions long possible mere incompetence seen good reason dismiss way soviet society passed static foreign defence policies soviet relations eighteen years leader ussr major foreign policy innovation differ domestic foreign policy started sees simply continuation foreign policy despite increased tension west relations generally improved evidenced installation red telephone line white_house policy differed ways comprehensive wide ranging aims included signing agreements arms control crisis prevention east west trade european security human rights second policy based importance military strength united_states soviet_union defence spending increased annual increases continued year death spent military mid-1970s clear policy soviet_union failed rested assumption type found countries hoping signing salt increase soviet trade stop aggressive growth communism world happen soviet_union started funding communist fought actively vietnam war ended vietnam war stalemate lost vietnam communism lost presidential election american foreign policies hostile soviet_union communist world attempts stop funding anti communist governments united_states supported standing decrease defense initiatives later years carter presidency increase spending military 1970s soviet_union reached peak political strategic power relation united_states salt treaty effectively established nuclear weapons soviet eastern_europe united_states defeat vietnam scandal weakened prestige united_states nixon agreed pass anti missile treaty banned countries designing systems intercept incoming missiles soviet_union tempted strike fear retaliation soviet_union extended diplomatic political influence middle_east africa vietnam war initially supported solidarity war escalated urged north vietnamese leadership quest continued rejecting offer assistance north vietnamese government instead told enter negotiations resumed aiding communist resistance vietnam february travelled dozen soviet air force generals economic experts soviet visit president authorised bombing raids north vietnamese soil retaliation recent attack johnson privately suggested guarantee end south vietnamese hostility guarantee north vietnamese interested offer initially told north vietnamese government interested diplomatic solution war rejected offer johnson administration responded rejection expanding american presence vietnam later invited ussr negotiate treaty concerning arms control ussr simply respond initially fighting right represent ussr abroad later dirty war vietnam early johnson offered deal said prepared end bombing raids ended bombing raids halted days publicly announced support offer north vietnamese government failed respond continued raids leadership concluded event seeking diplomatic solutions ongoing war vietnam hopeless later johnson invited united_states discuss ongoing problems vietnam arms race summit marked friendly atmosphere concrete aftermath sino soviet border conflict chinese continued aid north vietnamese regime death china strongest link vietnam gone meantime richard_nixon elected president united_states having known anti communist rhetoric nixon said relations communist china plan slow withdrawal troops vietnam retaining government way thought possible improving relations communist china ussr later visit moscow negotiate treaty arms control vietnam war vietnam agreed visit moscow nixon signed salt marking beginning era proclaimed new era peaceful replace hostility existed cold war sino soviet relations soviet foreign relations quickly deteriorated attempts reach liberal eastern european states yugoslavia west consolidated power base 1960s china descending crisis cultural revolution led ruling offices leadership promoted idea start self destructive drive finish socialist revolution according time problems leadership soviet model aftermath soviet invasion czechoslovakia soviet leadership proclaimed doctrine said ussr right intervene communist state follow soviet model doctrine increased tension asian communist states relations communist countries deteriorated level able gather fourteen ruling communist parties attend international conference moscow aftermath failed conference soviets concluded leading center international communist movement later chinese forces started sino soviet border conflict sino soviet split premier great deal refused accept briefly visited beijing increase tension ussr china early 1980s chinese soviets issuing statements calling relations states conditions given soviets chinese reduction soviet military presence sino soviet border withdrawal soviets troops afghanistan end support vietnamese invasion responded march speech called relations sino soviet relations prove years soviet ruler came power intervention afghanistan communist revolution afghanistan authoritarian actions forced populace communist regime led civil war leading popular backlash regime soviet_union worried losing influence report claimed afghanistan taken matter weeks party officials agreed intervention afghanistan parts soviet military establishment opposed sort active soviet military presence afghanistan believing soviet_union leave politics president carter following advice denounced intervention describing danger peace stopped grain exports soviet_union summer olympics held moscow soviet_union responded summer olympics held los_angeles eastern_europe crisis regime came attempt communist leadership czechoslovakia communist system prague spring july publicly criticised leadership anti soviet august orchestrated warsaw pact invasion czechoslovakia removal invasion led public protests countries assertion soviet_union right interfere internal affairs satellites safeguard socialism known doctrine existing soviet policy enacted hungary aftermath invasion reiterated speech november forces hostile socialism try turn development socialist country capitalism problem country concerned common problem concern socialist countries situation czechoslovakia discussed pushing hardest use military force aware dire situation voted soviet intervention czechoslovakia faced growing turmoil domestically archival evidence suggests looking temporary compromise reform friendly government relationship brink significant voices soviet leadership demanded installation called revolutionary government military intervention met reformer member said voted soviet armed assistance czechoslovakia sitting today possibly wouldn political crisis emerged poland emergence solidarity mass movement end october solidarity million members december million public opinion poll organised polish government respondents supported solidarity polish leadership split majority want impose martial law suggested soviet_union unsure handle situation pressed military action formal letter proposed joint military measure control escalating problems poland cia report suggested soviet military invasion representatives nations met discuss polish situation eventually concluded december better leave domestic matters poland polish delegates ussr intervene asked effectively marked end doctrine domestic matters escalating control poland imposed state war polish version martial law december cult personality years rule marked growing personality cult love medals received known december 60th birthday awarded hero soviet_union received award came times celebration birthday awarded rank marshal soviet_union highest military honour soviet_union awarded medal attended 18th army veterans meeting dressed long coat saying attention marshal coming conferred rare order victory time decoration awarded outside world war medal posthumously revoked meeting criteria citation weakness medals proven poorly written memoirs recalling military service world war treated little known minor decisive military theatre despite apparent weaknesses memoirs awarded prize literature met critical acclaim soviet press book followed books victim political jokes warned replied fun means like believed western historians political analysts books written court writers keeping traditional socialist kissed politicians career memorable instance kiss health problems personality cult growing time health rapid decline physical condition deteriorating lifelong heavy addicted sleeping pills begun drinking excess years overweight death central nervous system underwent chronic deterioration minor strokes suffered heart attack receiving walked words according american intelligence expert united_states officials knew years suffered severe believed suffered unspecified american intelligence officials publicly suggested suffering reported fitted control heart rhythm chief fourth doctors times brought near death occasions time senior officers wanted alive men growing increasingly frustrated policies want risk new period domestic turmoil caused death time world commentators started heirs apparent notable candidates older younger died natural causes years death years health worsened winter meantime country governed crucial decisions absence question succeed signs indicated ailing leader dying choice successor influenced died age january took seat obvious try bid office general secretary help fellow associates started circulating rumours political corruption worse tenure leader attempt create environment hostile actions showed afraid wrath rarely appeared public soviet government claimed seriously ill admitted surrounded doctors suffered severe stroke refused relinquish office november despite failing health present standing annual military parade demonstration workers commemorating anniversary october revolution event mark final public appearance dying days later suffering heart attack honoured state funeral followed day period nationwide mourning buried wall red square national international globe attended funeral wife family attended daughter outraged spectators showing hand dressed burial marshal uniform medals legacy presided soviet_union longer person criticised prolonged fundamental economic problems ignored soviet political system allowed decline tenure leader increase criticism years claims followed fierce neo line discourse blamed failing country change times later statement assurances bad saying like cartoon figure intervention afghanistan major decisions career significantly undermined international standing internal strength soviet_union defence said soviet_union reached unprecedented repeated levels power prestige internal calm rule fared opinion polls compared successors predecessors russia west commonly remembered starting economic triggered dissolution soviet_union opinion poll majority russians chose live era period 20th century soviet history center poll conducted beat russia favourite leader 20th century approval poll voted best russian leader 20th century personality traits family problem reign instance moscow secretary refused sing praises forced local politics given obscure main passion driving foreign cars given leaders state world usually drove according historian disregard public safety lived moscow lived married final years lived virtually abandoned everybody suffered long time diabetes nearly blind years daughter son later life alcoholic circus director started gold fraud gang later years soviet_union
Leonid Brezhnev