double burden double burden term describe workload people work earn money responsible significant amounts unpaid domestic labor phenomenon known second shift book couples partners paid jobs women spend significantly time men household caring work caring sick family members outcome determined large traditional gender roles accepted society time labor market constraints play role determining bulk unpaid work efforts document effects double burden couples placed situations studies traced effects division labor cases notable difference time men women contribute unpaid labor etymology term double burden arises fact women men responsible domestic labor paid labor thinking woman time spent domestic work valuable woman time spent paid work man time spent paid work valuable man time spent domestic work issue women having large paid unpaid work leading double burden alternative terms double burden include double day second shift double duty unequal work world world pre world war traditional female male model characterized female employment prior world war turn 20th century continental united_states percent women age reported receiving income non farm employment women typically young single white native born contrast married women non farm labor force predominantly blacks immigrants poor working mothers exited labor force children old earn money opportunities early 1920s facilities release women domestic freed participate fully sphere production migration women workforce shook traditional ideology gender roles importantly catalyst double burden noticeable 1930s encouraged women fulfill termed great honorable duty nature given evident soviet_union officially sponsored cult anti abortion legislation accompanied depression living standards led industry immense demand laborers got women industrial workforce unprecedented numbers urban women found assuming double burden known double shift waged work outside home lion share unpaid labor second world war typically seen catalyst increasing female employment best exemplified propaganda efficient patriotic woman worker world war increased demand female labor replace million men mobilized serve substantial number women worked war factories majority jobs service sector caused expectations time altered roles tested reassigned incoming decades post world war period marked relatively high levels female participation workforce particularly countries large proportion women exited workforce immediately following world war idea working class women able root percent workers women percent women age labor force increased demand women labor factors contributed growth participation educational opportunities later marriage ages idea double burden evolved times concerning sexes newfound roles role provider expected women women enter workforce independent ideology effect forces women decide career family choose strictly choose carry burden lifestyles modern men tend believe principle equal sharing domestic labor fail actually live belief constant war time spent creates new speed bump little bit higher previous ones modern times dilemma dual income couples face trying reconcile unpaid domestic work paid employment burden encompassing plays toll sexes today societies south_america past thirty years power worker diminished informal economy flourished latin_america abundant workers help domestic work consequently domestic service cheap diminishing family tensions surrounding issue domestic work currently half working population employed informal sector leading unemployment social exclusion delay providing welfare care children elderly pressure provide aid working families minimal addition domestic workers women leave countries work informal sector northern countries order increase income families delaying pressure governments provide aid families change 2000s thinking unpaid work influx paid jobs women shortage people available domestic work increase jobs women benefits policy changes families working parents debates conditions work places mexico influx industry produces products sold developed nations female workforce exploited having unsafe working conditions stress major cause illnesses women increasing issue rise cash transfer programs latin_america program mexico program meant provide poor families increase income led time poverty family members charge fulfilling conditions woman increased inequality work burden family africa africa hiv aids major cause falling life currently crisis decreasing number available care workers increasing population requiring care reason phenomenon occurs hiv aids affects working age people evidence women affected younger age greater numbers reason influx hiv aids government led health policies breaking increasing care work community work women lack care workers available young old started participating care work resulting poorer quality care women africa face different time struggles women need perform domestic collecting water wood takes away free time aspect double burden africa class divide meaning white families including poor ones employ live worker time worker addition urban house shortage relatives friends given room board exchange unpaid work work western_europe 1960s western_europe participating series political debates increase women rights workforce 2000s change considering women rights mother rights focusing rights pregnant women mothers issues creating laws specifically mothers inherent gender bias women ones care children parts western_europe especially scandinavian countries creating family friendly policies aided gender difference participation work force countries highest female participation rates work force world salary differences lowest government aid providing care elderly young enabled women scandinavia working population nearly high rate men examples government aid include paid parental leave benefits post entry programs programs led greater participation women workforce higher birth rate robust economy eastern_europe communism guaranteed employment women suffered double burden paid unpaid work leading lower birth rates commitment social equality issue declining birth rates allowed women rights child care child example soviet_union leave extended years time work introduced collapse communism rights revoked new largely male oriented democracy place increase female workers need welfare support child care met ignored asia western women represent work force women modernized asian countries involved informal sector traditional jobs women caring teaching benefits employee health insurance pension plans issue double burden exacerbated asian countries large cultural norm women care work held men women developed countries women drop work children order time care countries women paid work order feed family lack regulation safety standards female workers large informal work available thailand example severe economic crisis women jobs informal industry home based work domestic jobs concurrently paid jobs increases work intensity women job time shown deteriorating effects women health causes double burden gender ideology gender linked beliefs appropriate behaviour men women plays major role determining gender valued time culture necessarily traditional gender contributed double burden women men providers gender occupying sphere influence research shown attitudes gender roles past decades changes gender attitudes accompanied corresponding changes allocation labor market constraints despite women increasing participation work force gender division labor persist number constraints labor market contribute double burden women represented informal work concentrated lower quality jobs self employment informal market generally characterized low wages benefits lack social offered formal market formal market segregation gender wage gap segregation horizontal vertical horizontal segregation limits women certain sectors vertical segregation particular positions men women found different levels hierarchy glass ceiling relative absence women senior managerial positions institutional barriers norms female dominated men occupy skilled better paid positions gender wage gap possible consequence segregation gender wage gap difference wages earned women men globally men estimated earn cent women gender wage gap progress remains slow additionally gender wage gap attributed decrease men wages instead increase women wages persistent gender wage gap regions reflect number factors including women continued disadvantage terms education skills lack organized voice power gender specific constraints labour market mobility relatively high involvement time temporary jobs characteristics labor market employment opportunities women easier responsible care work societal pressures societal pressures combine create double burden including economic thinking domestic work thoughts net household gain perceived notion women likely ask leave men classical believe child care contribute economic growth nation believe welfare states sweden work think children like pet growing productive workers notion net household gain woman taking hour away unpaid labor order paid labor net household gain man taking hour away paid labor unpaid labor creates thought women paid work lose time domestic jobs man taking time away paid work domestic jobs creating deficit hours necessary unpaid work need filled addition women seen likely ask leave men meaning difficult obtain paying job negative effects female employment political pressure political pressures suggested issue considerations policies politicians usually consider work paid labor account unpaid work paid work common think women economic decisions similarly men typically case men payment simply compensation lost leisure time women working paid sector losing money provisions domestic labor unable caring children making dinner scratch lack resources child care net financial gain financial gain man spend earnings providing provisions addition increasing paid work hours order money negative effects woman increased total work hours decreased leisure time policies greater power people paid labor cutting public expenditure order income taxes adverse effect female employment effect double burden females policies greater power consideration people work paid sector people work unpaid sector political issue surrounding double burden sort policies directly indirectly affect domestic work policies companies lower rate time workers firing workers pregnant seen women debate gender segregation continues women pregnant women time work instead time suggesting women argument similar men fail meet standards company comply contract women perform work performance expected given benefits given exceptions men separate notion paid work unpaid work term double burden suggest people consider paid work unpaid work consider separate entities man woman time reality men especially women undertake paid unpaid labor simultaneously creating issue work intensity person activities time order compensate time necessary accomplish things day household surveys let people write thing given time consideration cooking cleaning taking care children time taken child care domestic activities mechanism undertaking tasks especially seen women developing countries example caribbean rural women use method increasing number things accomplish day increased family increasing trend decreased fertility rate increased family families immediate relatives depend times need phenomenon families extended family depend need domestic work turn market member immediate family domestic paid work instead gender differences women studies investigate division household labor couples specifically gender roles played variety people worldwide according state world children women generally work longer hours men regardless live developed developing country studies found parents faced time job women faced higher domestic workload men according latin american mexican women labor force spend approximately hours week performing household responsibilities contrast husbands contribute approximately hours week striking daughters contribute hours weekly helping mothers sons spend time fathers hours weekly study households average man spent hours day dealing house work women average spent little study highlights unequal distribution labor partners people surveyed percent couples agreed work house percent women participated food preparation compared percent men surveyed book canadian family crisis explores effects double burden gender conway studies discovers physical emotional psychological differences men women faced double burden canada studies found women raising children workforce prone anxiety stress related effects women faced men effects raising children having career simultaneously seen women societies men situations affected greatly seen situations males effects men differ greatly females affected extra responsibility crisis author suggests reason effects unnoticed studies surveys women stress seen direct labor consisting career men stress cases come decision making work family conflicts situations arise male best choice future family specifically include things workload overtime hours shift decisions accepting promotion transfer situations man forced major choices affect entire family brings stress effects unnoticed traditional gender roles male supposed backbone family past seen weakness male display emotions rest family surveys studies males like seen weak handle responsibilities role adult male household past consisted major economical supporter physical figure family mind possible lied surveyed topics types double work family large task parent career cause double burden work family conflict strain begins develop women men find demands family conflicting demands job faced double burden like affects decisions career family burden potentially effect couple decides children women jobs prime conflict family work presents unpaid work home cut certain health effects solution deal greater demands workplace social visits family things cut work family conflict study found man higher importance family likely stay home work order deal extreme family demands ways double burden hired help house day care facilities longer leaves women instance norway women allowed options months leave pay months leave paid earnings companies realizing effect double burden work family having employees offering flexible work schedules order help employees cope flexible hours help employee deal stress benefits company workers likely absent productive turnover rate lower company says joy let let celebrate joy brings celebrate steps words school play graduation day passing exams landing job getting married making grandparents let celebrate children easy art mastered family school raising family easy task deciding school raising family decision family says jewish employ advice considering going school talk educational consultant people field want adds commitment decision involve family available child game time cook dinner reasons school children older wanting leave hand baby constantly young age children older parent pursuing education start missing school events normally attended guilt having leave child attending educational matters child old able ask questions parent response pursuing education family cost benefits include getting higher paying job gaining knowledge stable financially time burden include person trying balance job family schooling need work order provide family present moment people hard time fitting classes schedule needs family options required work course place online example nursing master science nursing programs people complete online single married parents single parent double single parents typically luxury dividing tasks adults home parents married couple family able divide tasks parent work related income producing activities parent home related non income producing activities married parents option split workload usually happen single parents option sharing workload double burden usually view primary problem single women married women recognized men trials hard times parent trying balance work family book canadian family crisis conway addresses issue argument says social science fails understand men tending ignore potential conflict work home men married men avoid impact double burden single fathers totally incapable avoiding double burden family work single fathers face problems single mothers face advantages play favor men usually higher income shorter time single women remarried woman help house men deal sexual emotional frustration woman deal balancing work domestic responsibilities single fathers usually doubtful ability parent challenged psychologically problems faced working single father merely logistical problems shared working parents change way feels man man single parent feelings effects double burden interfere career single mother career study showed percent single fathers fired form jobs double burden percent quit double burden burden balance work family said single fathers feel effect double burden women double burden single mothers endure historical precedent exists currently single mothers usually higher rates employment children home highest levels overall double burden women typically economic resources men partner share workload single mothers fall heavily economic vulnerability face job discrimination earn difficulties maintaining double burden single mother families tend near poverty line poverty rate twice high men married parent double women expanded roles workforce generally accompanied expectations family domestic activities women today face double burden home work responsibilities women largest portion domestic obligations home working time jobs breeds anger frustration women know majority careers said reasons gender roles difference performed men women theories suggested women expectations household higher men women feel like responsible condition home way men men invest time careers women spend double time caring children state home taking care domestic responsibilities compare workload married men women ages women displayed performing percent men men displayed having leisure time women double burden increased women critical marriages men wanted men house ease burden second shift double burden women jobs shoulder majority home leads women filing initiating divorce concept double burden married couples worldwide phenomenon different cultures world women spend total hours work men japan married expected devoted wives mothers effort home day work latin american women entering work force large numbers face double day journey latin american culture men starting interact children helping house main domestic responsibilities fall women house women primary wage relegated domestic work european men likely play interact children likely participate fully daily care likely help wives home rarely tackle domestic task equally men commonly fail live belief equal sharing domestic labor believe equal workload house taking work wives stops following middle class poor families middle class families middle class families use domestic work lost time working paid sector buy time taking care children hired help day care centers decrease burden paid work unpaid work household laundry machines buying pre food eating laundry services poor families poor families constrained economic ability buy lost time market instead buying market try meet needs spending money taking care children instead hiring help taking care sick instead taking hospital making food scratch instead buying pre food way poor families deal time debt main intensify time spend working multiple jobs instead job time people increase intensity work compensate lack time finish needs called work intensity health problems occur effects double burden health effects stress faced double burden having deal responsibilities career domestic duties person health affected people faced circumstances higher chance sick health stress stress implicated eighty percent illnesses found report status women article written team researchers found men women faced work family issues times likely absence sickness men women situations proven likely faced psychological stress colleagues situation women faced double burden usually stress women today society proven cases psychologically women faced circumstances stay home mother working woman children care mortality rate study research presented suggests women presented double burden lower mortality rate women simply women observed time jobs mortality rate lower women time jobs children study suggests women young children likely die women children older children evidence strictly attributed double burden having children career field good indication trend society study conducted multiple countries including england wales united_states gives information presented study global perspective double burden sickness western countries seen sickness women far greater men investigating reasons study sweden published found half difference dismissed days missed pregnant women taking account health effects double burden child birth possibility mothers faced taking care children having career effects health studies people tried relate difference sickness directly double burden effect somewhat successful women faced work child care known request sick days men situation additionally working wives children twice absence rate men placed position work family conflicts loss sleep stress maintaining career household lead loss sleep traditional gender roles usually mother family going morning breakfast takes children school goes job night mother activities house cause person retire night merely gender roles set stone hold true found working women sleep minutes night solely responsibility domestic work applying larger scale leads assumption women average lose thirteen hours sleep month domestic duties assumed possible average woman lose hours sleep year domestic work duties work intensity poor women men work hours reached point cut leisure time anymore time domestic paid work work intensity issue intensify work time activities taking care children cooking work intensity lead negative health consequences lack sleep stress lack recreation economic effects economic effects person shoulder double burden tends woman relationship analysis economic effect double burden women according women earn men thought woman fit paid job household activities taking care children domestic duties women time jobs jobs informal sector order balance paid work domestic work time jobs jobs informal sector earn time jobs men increase paid work hours order compensate lacking family income weaken earning power strengthen leading unequal distribution power household allow man exploit woman unpaid work situation negative consequences especially woman perceived contribution household domestic work seen contribution paid work negative consequences include lack divorce threat woman economic means ask divorce time job money personally receives decreasing perceived contributions household solutions double burden family friendly initiatives family friendly initiatives possible solution load unpaid work double burden possible initiatives include flexible work hours time job sharing options parental leave child care subsidies site options primary approaches assisting working families stresses importance action emphasis private internal local initiatives firms organizations alter workplace norms conventions practices approach calls government designed facilitate proper care children sacrifice parents job opportunities advancement compensation government initiatives countries use family friendly initiatives example month parental leave divided thirds iceland months mother non months father months parents share cent salary october average number days taken men increased cent fathers non dual income families norm especially countries uncommon large corporations practice form family friendly initiative government family friendly initiatives child subsidies cheaper child care facilities greatly decrease gender difference workplace woman able work longer hours outside home addition developing policies related paid work important gender impact assessments order assess impact policy paid unpaid sector workplace initiatives talk new policies new work time policies argument longer work hours exchange shorter work week example favor longer work hours hour days hour days best work hours people care children children school hours day prefer opposite shorter hours longer weeks hour work days times week limits evening work overtime flexible schedules order burden taking care children domestic duties working paid sector consider policies account preferred work hours addition case workers domestic work paid work order effective workers companies consider changing policies order attract best people field criticism paper rejecting statistics main source women unfair burden gender inequality states idea double burden myth conclude instead average women men europe total number productive work hours paid jobs unpaid household work added roughly hours day
Double burden