uprising french insurrection nationalist rebellion french colonial rule madagascar lasting march december starting late madagascar deputies political party led effort achieve independence madagascar legal channels failure initiative harsh response drew socialist administration elements population including leaders militant nationalist secret societies evening march coordinated surprise attacks launched nationalists armed mainly spears military bases french owned plantations eastern island concentrated nationalist cause rapidly adopted south spread central highlands capital following month number nationalist fighters estimated million french began counter nationalists french number troops island primarily transferring soldiers french colonies africa colonial authorities sought fight physical psychological fronts engaged variety terror tactics designed population french military force carried mass execution torture war rape entire villages collective punishment atrocities throwing live prisoners airplane death flights estimated number casualties varies low high nationalists killed approximately french nationals supporters pro france political party created support colonial authorities compete august majority nationalist leaders killed captured uprising effectively december violent repression nationalist left deep society generation managerial class wiped creating challenges country achieved independence madagascar deputies arrested tortured kept prison given amnesty leader survived conflict jailed years founded madagascar considerable influence politics france classified documents related uprising french government maintained silence subject french president termed unacceptable official visit madagascar directors set films period uprising government declared march annual holiday museum dedicated uprising inaugurated background close 19th century madagascar largely control royal palaces capital kingdom existed early 16th century expanded control traditional borders 1820s king british government officially recognized sovereign entire island madagascar failed attempts impose authority island france military force capture royal palace september exiled prime minister officially island february queen allowed remain emergence popular uprising termed rebellion queen held responsible rebellion harshly crushed queen exiled rebellion manifestation ongoing opposition french rule occasionally erupted violent clashes colonial authorities madagascar secret nationalist societies began form 1910s conscription soldiers fight france world war strengthened resentment foreign rule interwar period nationalist organizations germany defeat french army occupation france regime madagascar subsequent occupation island british colonial government image popular anger especially aroused policies forced labor lieu taxes conscription army fight world war required contribution large quantities rice head annually hopes greater sovereignty stirred remarks given general conference announced colonies french overseas territories entitled representation promised citizenship rights residents overseas colonies despite partial implementation reforms forced labor french owned plantations rights abuses madagascar continued nationalist secret society panama founded followed called type local red bird organizations sought achieve independence force necessary saw membership swell period following end second world war key nationalist leaders attempted achieve independence madagascar legal means post war constituent assembly convened paris november draft constitution french fourth republic madagascar represented doctors named future writer early formed political party platform built national independence france leaders politically prominent royal court movement sought independence madagascar embraced french vision island global economic cultural community platform garnered mass support cut geographic ethnic class divisions november trio elected represent madagascar deputies deputies submitted bill liberate madagascar french rule french deputies rejected deputies attracted disapproval france socialist prime minister minister colonies french ask britain yield madagascar world war ended french political leaders suspected britain south_africa attempt madagascar france quest independence received blow french prestige authority raised violent conflict launched vietnamese nationalists french month responded declaring war autonomy movement refusal french government support democratic process independence madagascar drew criticism united_states government strongly denounced french reaction criticized leadership leadership militant nationalist groups madagascar sensing mood country march deputies jointly issued statement urging public maintain absolute calm face kind destined stir troubles population sabotage peaceful policy independence movement nationalist began evening march evening palm sunday timing additional significance historic date traditional new year festival historically celebrated ritual period anarchy followed sovereign order nationalists chief members nationalist secret societies coordinated surprise attacks eastern island police camp near rail line coastal town points lower key french plantations located historians share view escalated conflict violence basis false information transmitted individuals groups attempting nationalist influence members involved initial attacks stated organizations obliged attack signal action transmitted group later discovered secret ties national police researchers documented reports nationalists member organizations joined conflict commands issued police british nationals french settlers living madagascar despite role leading uprising colonial authorities immediately held responsible movement responded targeting party members supporters attacks east immediately followed similar actions south island rapidly spreading country early april violence erupted number nationalist fighters estimated attacks french military bases multiplied course month central highlands far south far north lake movement enjoyed particularly strong support south revolt attracted million peasants fight nationalist cause guerrilla zones established eastern fighters extended control points nationalists grouped established new configurations including militias leadership structure including generals war ministers militias led traditional leaders local communities insurgents soldiers returning world war frustrated limited recognition opportunity afforded french colonial government numerous railway workers hid dense eastern use guerrilla tactics attack french interests rail line connecting eastern port town height movement nationalist insurgents gained control island eruption conflict provided pretext violence highland coastal ethnic groups linked history politics founded interest ending french rule regaining political dominance independence reaction founding des formed attracted membership members coastal communities empire highland based slaves initially non nationalist party eventually favored gradual process independence preserve close ties france prevent french authorities supported accused launching uprising establish rule socialist dominated french politicians sought cast champions oppressed masses french response french security forces initially taken surprise unable organize effective response contain uprising french military begun counter nationalists attacks north african battalions arrived madagascar end july enabling french initiative french army strength remained modest soldiers numbering april number troops increased french forces included soldiers colonial infantry brought french territories french strategy followed oil spot method general governor island root crush guerrilla fighters addition security forces adopted strategy terror psychological warfare involving torture collective punishment burning villages mass arrests executions war rape practices later employed french military war intensity cruelty french response unprecedented colonial history france soldiers machine officials detained wagons killing unarmed activists hundreds killed women group prisoners thrown alive airplane people occurred nationalists equipped spears little protection firearms french military expected united_states intervene favor action taken washington addition majority population rise join fight july september key leaders uprising captured killed rebel stronghold named inaccessible europeans fell november defeated remaining nationalist fighters disappeared eastern december casualties french government official estimate number killed conflict high commissioner madagascar added figure estimated number fled forest believed dead declaring true number dead believe actual number killed population madagascar time uprising approximately million estimated losses represented nearly percent population colonial administration revised casualty number known dead according official french figures killed rioting remainder died starvation exhaustion fleeing fighting historians continue disagree number casualties original figure casualties quoted historian contested estimate noting losses magnitude normally manifested demographic curve madagascar population growth began accelerated estimates deaths violent remainder disease starvation conflict areas interpretation challenged suggested trauma population growth normally observed casualties masked improvements malaria survival rates resulting major colonial anti malaria campaign undertaken period according war crimes madagascar intent estimated french nationals died conflict soldiers addition estimated supporters killed pro nationalist conflict aftermath leadership consistently maintained innocence party outlawed french colonial rulers french government classified uprising documentation military french media reported little event happened relatively little mention nationalist struggle mentioned leftist publication considered leading anti colonial advocate launch french offensive private publications served forums express condemnation french government response uprising commentary appeared left leaning catholic monthly criticisms published leftist publications like combat penned french colonial administration published combat details rising subsequent repression reported time outside france decades followed independence french government news sources france remained largely silent issue official criticized french having diplomat present annual commemoration ceremonies official condemnation uprising suppression french colonial authorities expressed president official visit madagascar july met president qualified repression uprising unacceptable anniversary uprising prime minister issued request french government archival materials related uprising request approved trials executions july october french organized large public trial uprising charging officials french authorities claimed appeals calm immediately prior outbreak violence diversion tactic mask involvement organizing rebellion french alleged secretly launched way telegram arrested imprisoned april followed months later paris uprising began violation right diplomatic immunity debates august concluded decision immunity deputies tortured prison trial held july october marked numerous irregularities principal witness prosecution shot dead days trial evidence defendants obtained torture found guilty conspiracy state national security points raised trial sentenced death nationalists sentenced life prison july death sentences life prison trio remained imprisoned granted amnesty individuals notable exception founder south claimed responsibility leadership role insurrection trial military courts relayed civilian courts condemned nationals military courts civilians military courts delivered death penalties carried executions death penalties pronounced civilian courts enacted prisoners leaders freed national trauma uprising repression caused trauma continues manifest population nationals fought struggle reconcile remorse guilt healing national level complicated fact leaders proclaimed madagascar independence major players political party favored colonial administration crushing revolt according historian french crushing uprising resulted near managerial class madagascar consequences continued decades country independence leading figures uprising went dramatically shape political social landscape madagascar independence jailed french years founded madagascar shortly release party key leading peasant uprising president brought neo colonial administration following year initially supporting admiral successor led demonstrations favor severely wounded process son active member served prime minister commemoration government organized official annual uprising march declared day mourning president observed day annual administration brought perpetrators war crimes surviving victims nationalist leaders family members killed characterized uprising tragic mistake late 1970s administration took new tone pride gratitude nationalist fighters sacrificed ideals paved way later nationalist leaders national museum dedicated uprising inaugurated president kilometers east town long site national monument conflict town entrance near containing remains estimated local nationalists killed conflict commemorated print cinema film directed relates experience insurrection eyes adolescent boy named solo won awards cannes film festival festival term means noise troubles language remains common refer uprising film director depicts uprising remade include references political crisis french directors produced documentary uprising entitled insurrection madagascar
Malagasy Uprising