language language ability acquire use complex systems communication particularly human ability language specific example system scientific study language called questions concerning philosophy language words represent experience debated argued language originated emotions like held originated rational logical thought 20th century philosophers argued philosophy study language major figures include estimates number languages world vary precise estimate depends partly arbitrary distinction languages natural languages spoken signed language secondary media visual example signed human language independent depending philosophical perspectives definition language meaning general concept language refer ability learn use systems complex communication describe set rules makes systems set produced rules languages rely process relate signs particular meanings oral sign languages contain system symbols form sequences known words system words combined form phrases human language properties productivity displacement relies entirely social convention learning complex structure wider range expressions known system animal communication language thought originated early started gradually changing communication systems acquiring ability form theory minds shared development thought coincided increase brain volume structures language having evolved serve specific social functions language processed different locations human brain especially areas humans acquire language social interaction early childhood children generally speak approximately years old use language deeply entrenched human culture addition strictly uses language social cultural uses signifying group identity social social entertainment languages evolve time history evolution reconstructed comparing modern languages determine traits ancestral languages order later developmental stages occur group languages descend common ancestor known language family european family widely spoken includes languages english russian hindi sino family includes chinese languages family includes arabic hebrew languages include hundreds languages spoken africa languages include indonesian hundreds languages spoken pacific languages family spoken include tamil telugu academic consensus holds languages spoken beginning 21st century probably extinct year definitions english word language derives ultimately tongue speech language latin language tongue old french language word refer codes kinds artificially constructed communication systems formally defined computer languages computer programming unlike conventional human languages formal language sense system signs information article specifically concerns properties natural human language studied discipline object linguistic study language primary meanings abstract concept specific linguistic system french swiss defined modern discipline explicitly formulated distinction french word language concept specific instance language system parole concrete usage speech particular language speaking language general concept definitions stress different aspects phenomenon definitions different approaches language inform different incompatible schools linguistic theory debates nature origin language ancient world greek philosophers debated relation words concepts reality argued language represent objective experience human experience communication truth impossible maintained communication possible language represents ideas concepts exist independently prior language enlightenment debates human origins fashionable speculate origin language argued language originated expression emotions originally closer music poetry logical expression rational thought philosophers held opposite view turn 20th century began wonder role language shaping experiences world asking language simply reflects objective structure world creates concepts turn experience objective world led question philosophical problems firstly linguistic problems resurgence view language plays significant role creation circulation concepts study philosophy essentially study language associated called linguistic turn philosophers 20th century philosophy debates language relation meaning reference consciousness remain active today mental faculty organ instinct definition sees language primarily mental faculty allows humans undertake linguistic behaviour learn languages produce understand definition stresses language humans emphasizes biological basis human capacity language unique development human brain proponents view drive language acquisition innate humans argue supported fact normal children raised environment language accessible acquire language formal instruction languages develop spontaneously environments people live grow common language example languages spontaneously developed sign languages view traced philosophers understands language largely innate example theory american philosopher extreme theory kinds definitions applied studies language science framework formal symbolic system definition sees language formal system signs governed rules combination communicate meaning definition stresses human languages described closed structural systems consisting rules relate particular signs particular meanings view language introduced remains approaches language proponents view language advocated formal approach studies language structure identifying basic elements presenting formal account rules according elements combine order form words sentences main proponent theory theory grammar defined language construction sentences generated considers rules innate feature human mind constitute language way contrast commonly provide formal definitions language commonly formal logic formal theories grammar applied philosophy language view linguistic meaning residing logical relations reality developed philosophers formal tool communication definition sees language system communication enables humans exchange verbal symbolic definition stresses social functions language fact humans use express manipulate objects environment functional theories grammar explain structures functions understand structures language result process grammar tailored serve needs users view language associated study language pragmatic interactive linguistic theories tend study grammar dynamic phenomena structures process changing employed speakers view places importance study linguistic classification languages according structural features shown processes tend follow partly dependent philosophy language view central language meaning associated later works ordinary language philosophers unique status human language human language unique comparison forms communication non human animals communication systems animals bees closed systems consist finite usually limited number possible ideas expressed contrast human language open ended productive meaning allows humans produce vast range finite set elements create new words sentences possible human language based dual code finite number elements meaningless sounds letters gestures combined form infinite number larger units meaning words sentences furthermore symbols rules particular language largely arbitrary system acquired social interaction known systems communication animals hand express finite number genetically determined species animals proved able acquire forms communication social learning instance named learned express set symbolic similarly species birds learn songs imitating members species animals acquire large numbers words symbols able learn different signs generally known average year old human acquired resembling complex grammar human language human languages differ animal communication systems employ categories present past express complex meanings human language unique having property example phrase contain phrase lips clause contain clause dog running human language known natural communication system referred independent means communication channel medium example spoken language uses sign languages writing use visual writing uses human language unique able refer abstract concepts imagined hypothetical events events took place past happen future ability refer events time place speech event called displacement animal communication systems use displacement communication bees communicate location sources sight degree human language considered unique origin theories origin language differ regard basic assumptions language theories based idea language complex imagine simply appearing final form evolved earlier pre linguistic systems pre human ancestors theories called continuity based theories opposite viewpoint language unique human trait compared found non humans appeared suddenly transition pre early man theories defined based similarly theories based view language language innate faculty largely genetically theories system largely cultural learned social interaction prominent proponent based theory human language origins philosopher proposes random took place maybe strange cosmic ray shower reorganized brain language organ brain taking story literally insists closer reality fairy tales told evolutionary processes including language continuity based theories held majority scholars vary development language innate example psychologist hold animal language socially learned tool communication psychologist having developed animal communication vocal communication assist cooperation continuity based models language having developed music view espoused prominent proponent view archaeologist states age spoken languages estimated years researchers evolutionary origin language generally find plausible suggest language invented modern spoken languages way related relation longer recovered limitations methods available reconstruction language emerged early man existence written records early development left historical traces believed comparable processes observed today theories stress continuity look animals example display traits seen analogous pre human language like early human fossils inspected traces physical adaptation language use pre linguistic forms symbolic behaviour signs human fossils suggest linguistic abilities size brain relative body mass presence capable advanced sound production nature tools manufactured artifacts undisputed pre human communication systems significantly different found great general scholarly opinions vary developments appearance genus million years ago scholars assume development primitive language like systems language early million years ago place development primitive symbolic communication million years ago million years ago development language proper revolution years ago study language study language developing science descriptions particular languages india years ago development script modern science concerns aspects language examining theoretical viewpoints described academic study language conducted different disciplinary areas different theoretical angles inform modern approaches example descriptive examines grammar single languages theoretical develops theories best define nature language based data extant human languages studies languages social purposes informing turn study social functions language description studies language processed human brain allows experimental testing theories builds theoretical descriptive construct models language aimed processing natural language testing linguistic historical relies descriptions languages trace individual histories reconstruct trees language families comparative method early history formal study language considered started india 5th century formulated rules sanskrit morphology studied differences grammar subsequent traditions developed ancient cultures adopted writing 17th century developed idea languages reflection universal basics thought grammar universal 18th century use comparative method british expert ancient india sparked rise comparative scientific study language language general early 20th century introduced idea language static system units defined introducing distinction analyses language laid foundation modern discipline introduced basic dimensions linguistic analysis fundamental contemporary linguistic theories parole distinction distinguishing language abstract system language concrete manifestation system parole contemporary 1960s formulated theory language according theory basic form language set rules universal humans human languages set rules called describing primary objective discipline considered individual languages importance allow universal underlying rules linguistic generated opposition formal theories school functional theories language propose language fundamentally tool structures best analyzed understood reference functions formal theories grammar seek define different elements language describe way relate systems formal rules operations functional theories seek define functions performed language relate linguistic elements carry framework interprets language terms concepts universal specific particular language forms primarily concerned mind creates meaning language architecture language speech speaking default language cultures production spoken language depends sophisticated capacities controlling lips tongue components vocal apparatus ability speech sounds apparatus required acquiring producing language study genetic bases human language early stage gene definitely implicated language production cause kind language disorder affected brain language brain coordinating center linguistic activity controls production linguistic meaning mechanics speech production nonetheless knowledge bases language limited advanced considerably use modern imaging techniques discipline dedicated studying aspects language called early work involved study language people brain specific areas affect language speech way 19th century discovered areas brain implicated language processing area area located posterior section superior temporal dominant cerebral hemisphere people area brain develop receptive condition major language speech retains natural sounding rhythm relatively normal sentence structure second area area located posterior inferior frontal dominant hemisphere people area develop expressive meaning know want typically able understand said unable speak symptoms present expressive include problems word finding word repetition producing complex sentences writing exhibit speech inability use information determine meaning sentences expressive receptive affect use sign language analogous ways affect speech expressive causing sign slowly incorrect grammar receptive sign little sense difficulties signs shows specific ability use language physiology speech production technological advances late 20th century incorporated non invasive techniques functional magnetic resonance imaging study language processing individuals anatomy speech spoken language relies human physical ability produce sound longitudinal wave propagated air frequency capable ear drum ability depends physiology human speech organs organs consist lungs voice box upper vocal tract throat mouth nose controlling different parts speech apparatus manipulated produce different speech sounds sound speech analyzed combination elements elements follow sequences usually represented distinct letters scripts roman script free flowing speech clear boundaries segment usually words segments distinguished distinct sounds result different phenomena encompass elements stress type voice effects multiple segments segments combine form syllables turn combine form distinguished space different segments characterized different structures visible recorded sound wave illustration structures english peaks frequency spectrum specific sound sounds friction caused upper vocal tract vary quality according degree lip placement tongue oral cavity called close lips relatively closed pronunciation english open lips relatively open english tongue located mouth quality changes creating english quality changes depending lips rounded opposed creating english rounded german sounds friction closure point upper vocal tract sounds vary place place vocal tract commonly lips teeth ridge place produces different set sounds distinguished manner kind friction closure case called stop different degrees creating voiced depending vocal set vibration production sound voicing separates english bus buzz voiced speech sounds involve release air flow nasal cavity called sounds sounds defined way tongue moves mouth sounds called air flows sides tongue sounds called characterized tongue positioned relative air stream speech organs humans produce hundreds distinct sounds appear world languages common certain language families language areas specific single language structure described system symbolic communication language traditionally seen consisting parts signs meanings code connecting signs meanings study process signs meanings combined interpreted called signs composed sounds gestures letters symbols depending language spoken signed written combined complex signs words phrases communication sign transmitted channel receiver properties define human language opposed communication systems linguistic sign meaning predictable connection linguistic sign meaning linguistic system meaning linguistic structures built combining elements larger structures seen layered sounds build words words build phrases elements language meaning elements linguistic signs constructed units sounds words distinguished rearranged different patterns productivity linguistic system meaning finite number linguistic elements combined theoretically infinite number combinations rules signs combined form words phrases called grammar meaning connected individual signs words phrases texts called division language separate connected systems sign meaning goes linguistic studies branches languages express meaning relating sign form meaning content sign forms perceived example sounds images gestures related specific meaning social convention basic relation meaning linguistic signs based social convention linguistic signs considered arbitrary sense convention established socially historically means natural relation specific sign form meaning languages vocabulary signs related specific meaning english sign dog denotes example member species language array arbitrary signs connected specific meanings called single sign connected meaning called meanings language represented single words concepts embedded morphology language form categories languages contain structure structure property state action traditionally understood study speakers assign truth values statements meaning understood process said true false entity recently model complemented dynamic models meaning incorporate shared knowledge context sign interpreted production meaning models meaning explored field sounds symbols depending language structure based systems sounds speech gestures sign languages graphic symbols writing ways languages use sounds signs construct meaning studied study humans produce perceive vocal sounds called spoken language meaning produced sounds system sounds contribute expressing meaning given language limited number distinct sounds created human vocal apparatus contribute constructing meaning sounds linguistic system called abstract units sound defined smallest units language serve distinguish meaning pair different words called minimal pair english example words bat pat form minimal pair distinction words different meanings language contrasts sounds different ways example language distinguish voiced sounds occur considered single consequently meaning similarly english language distinguish non languages like korean hindi spin pin considered merely different ways variants single called chinese difference pronunciation distinguishes words accent means pronounced high tone spoken languages different categories combined form syllables segments languages use sound ways convey meaning languages example use stress pitch duration tone distinguish meaning phenomena operate outside level single segments called languages example language respectively languages like sign languages equivalent called defined basic elements gestures hand shape orientation location motion correspond manners spoken language writing systems represent language visual symbols correspond sounds spoken language latin alphabet based derived originally based representation single sounds words constructed letters generally denote single structure word scripts sign represents scripts sign represents entire word generally bear relation sound word spoken language languages large number words purely scripts known exist written language represents way spoken sounds words follow arranging symbols according pattern follows certain direction direction writing system entirely arbitrary established convention writing systems use horizontal axis left right latin script right left arabic script traditional chinese writing use vertical dimension writing systems use opposite directions alternating lines ancient maya script written direction rely graphic cues reader direction reading order represent sounds world languages writing developed international alphabet designed represent sounds known contribute meaning human languages grammar grammar study meaningful elements called language combined free bound free moved usually called words bound words called way meaningful elements combined language governed rules rules internal structure words called morphology rules internal structure phrases sentences called categories grammar described system categories set rules determine categories combine form different aspects meaning languages differ widely use categories units categories common nearly universal universal categories include relations participants distinguishing relations temporal spatial relations system person governing reference distinction speakers speaking word classes languages organize parts speech classes according functions positions relative parts languages instance basic distinction group words denotes things concepts group words denotes actions events group includes english words dog song usually called second includes run sing called common category words describe properties qualities red big word classes open new words continuously added class relatively closed fixed number words class english class closed class open infinite number constructed like languages korean situation opposite new constructed number fixed word classes carry differing functions grammar construct arguments sentence runs runs word specific state argument curse arguments cursed john single argument called arguments called word classes exist different languages like serve join sentences articles introduce wow like splash mimic sound event languages describe spatial position event entity languages identify belonging particular type having particular shape instance japanese general humans counting humans called san lit human student students trees san lit long objects tree trees morphology study internal structure complex words processes words formed called morphology languages possible construct complex words built instance english word unexpected analyzed composed expect classified according independent called roots occur attached bound classified according position relation root root follow root inserted middle root serve modify elaborate meaning root languages change meaning words changing structure word example english word run past tense ran process called furthermore morphology distinguishes process word process creates new word existing english sing forms singing sung form singer derived languages differ widely rely morphological processes word formation languages example chinese morphological processes information forming strings single words type called correspondence single word single aspect meaning languages words consisting vary degree units languages notably european languages single distinct meanings analyzed smaller segments example latin word bonus good consists root meaning good indicates masculine gender singular number case languages called languages meanings fused single opposite languages languages construct words chains unit example language turkish example word houses consists den meanings house languages rely morphology greatest extent traditionally called languages express equivalent entire english sentence single word example persian single word means didn understand consisting meanings example complexity word means said going hunt word consists meanings appear isolation languages use morphology cross reference words sentence called agreement example european languages cross reference modify terms number case gender latin bonus good agree masculine gender singular number case languages cross reference subjects objects types languages single include information require entire sentence english example phrase saw past tense auxiliary similar english agrees subject expressed prefix object expressed sentence directly way languages convey meaning order words sentence rules produce new sentences words known called rules language determine sentence english love meaningful love rules determine word order sentence structure constrained constraints contribute meaning example english sentences slaves master master slaves mean different things role subject role object appearing conversely latin mean master slaves slaves case showing object sentence master case showing subject latin uses morphology express distinction subject object english uses word order example rules contribute meaning rule word order questions exists languages rule explains english phrase john talking turned question john talking john talking example way placing special emphasis slightly altering meaning question includes rules complex sentences structured grouping words units called phrases occupy different places larger structure sentences described consisting phrases connected tree structure connecting phrases different levels right graphic representation analysis english sentence cat sat mat sentence analyzed constituted phrase phrase phrase divided phrase phrases consist article reason sentences seen composed phrases phrase moved single element operations carried example cat phrase mat treated single units decision emphasize location moving forward phrase mat cat sat different propose theories describing structures based different assumptions language described analyze sentence different manner languages classified relation types languages belong different families nonetheless features common shared features tend example languages classified basis basic word order relative order constituents normal indicative sentence english basic order snake bit man example corresponding sentence australian language snake man bit word order type relevant basic word order type corresponds parameters relative order use called example languages type languages structure sentences subject object languages differ way classify relations actors actions english uses word english clauses subjects sentences run sentences love treated way shown languages called distinguish instead agents patients languages single participant sentence run treated patient sentence giving equivalent run love sentences equivalent way roles map relations different ways grouping subject agents type patients type making roles differently called type shared features languages belong class type arisen completely independently occurrence universal laws governing structure natural languages language result languages evolving solutions recurring problems humans use language solve social contexts use transmission humans ability learn language grow environment language exists language dependent communities speakers children learn language elders peers transmit language children languages speak communicate solve social tasks aspects language use seen adapted specifically purposes way language transmitted generations communities language changes new languages language contact process similar process evolution process descent modification leads formation phylogenetic tree languages differ biological organisms readily incorporate elements languages process speakers different languages come contact humans frequently speak language acquiring language languages children learning new languages grow increased language contact world small languages endangered speakers shift languages afford possibility participate larger influential speech communities usage meaning study meaning assumes meaning located relation signs meanings firmly established social convention study way social conventions affect language studying way words signs case words different meanings depending social context use important example process called describes way certain words refer entities relation specific point time space word words example word person speaking moment speaking position speaking signs change meanings time conventions governing usage gradually change study meaning linguistic expressions changes depending context called important way use language point entities world concerned ways language use patterned patterns contribute meaning example languages linguistic expressions transmit information perform actions certain actions language nonetheless effects act naming creates new entity act man wife creates social contract marriage types acts called speech acts course carried writing hand signing form linguistic expression correspond meaning actually social context example dinner table person asks reach salt fact question length arms addressed request pass salt table meaning implied context spoken kinds effects meaning called social rules ways language considered appropriate certain situations understood relation context vary communities learning large acquiring language language acquisition healthy normally developing human beings learn use language children acquire language languages languages receive sufficient exposure childhood development essentially children acquiring sign oral languages learning process referred language acquisition unlike kinds learning requires direct teaching specialized study descent man naturalist called process tendency acquire art language acquisition proceeds fairly regular sequence wide degree variation timing particular stages normally developing birth respond readily human speech sounds month age babies appear able distinguish different speech sounds months age child begin producing speech sounds languages words appear age months average vocabulary eighteen month old child words child literally sentences use word communicate idea months child begins producing words produce word months begin produce speech short sentences complex adult speech regular structure roughly age years child ability speak sign refined point resembles adult language studies published indicated capable language acquisition degree acquisition second additional languages come age exposure daily life courses children learning second language likely achieve native like adults general rare speaking second language pass completely native speaker important difference language acquisition additional language acquisition process additional language acquisition influenced languages knows language culture languages understood particular set speech norms particular community larger culture community speaks languages differ pronunciation vocabulary grammar having different cultures speaking humans use language way signalling identity cultural group difference speakers language different ways language exist signal affiliation particular larger culture particularly linguistic specialized studying ways speaking vary speech communities use term varieties refer different ways speaking language term includes geographically defined styles linguistic language define style ways language understood particular culture norms language use shared members specific group style way displaying constructing group identity linguistic differences markers divisions social groups example speaking language particular accent imply membership ethnic minority social class area origin status second language speaker kinds differences linguistic system important people use language social tool constructing groups languages conventions signal social position speaker relation use registers related social divisions languages stylistic differences ways men women speak age groups social classes languages employ different words depending listening example australian language married man use special set words refer everyday items speaking presence mother law cultures example elaborate systems social systems signalling social distance linguistic means english social shown distinguishing addressing people surname titles boy doctor honor languages systems highly complex codified entire grammar vocabulary language instance languages east asia thai different words according speaker addressing higher lower rank oneself ranking system animals children ranking lowest gods members royalty highest writing literacy technology history number different ways representing language graphic media invented called writing systems use writing language useful humans makes possible store large amounts information outside human body retrieve allows communication distances impossible languages conventionally employ different genres styles registers written spoken language communities writing traditionally takes place entirely different language spoken evidence use writing effects development humans acquiring literacy generally requires explicit formal education invention writing systems roughly contemporary beginning bronze age late 4th millennium archaic script egyptian generally considered earliest writing systems emerging ancestral symbol systems earliest coherent texts generally agreed writing independent invention debated egyptian writing developed completely independently case cultural similar debate exists chinese script developed pre writing systems including maya scripts generally believed independent origins language change languages change speakers adopt new ways speaking pass members speech community language change happens levels level levels vocabulary morphology discourse language change initially evaluated negatively speakers language consider changes decay sign slipping norms language usage natural inevitable changes affect specific sounds entire system sound change consist replacement speech sound feature complete loss affected sound introduction new sound place sound changes case sound changed occurs vicinity certain sounds sound change usually assumed regular means expected apply structural conditions met non factors hand sound changes sporadic affecting particular word words simple change chain shift entire system affected happened languages sound change known law affected stop system original languages previous turn previous process applied stop explains languages latin words like languages like english father fish example great shift english reason spelling english correspond current pronunciation shift brought established pronunciation source sound change erosion words pronunciation gradually increasingly indistinct words leaving syllables sounds kind change caused latin eventually french madame american english change happens grammar languages discourse patterns particular constructions frequently happens words system rearranged compensate lost element example varieties caribbean spanish final eroded away standard spanish uses final marking second person subject caribbean varieties express second person means sentence standard spanish caribbean spanish simple sound change affected morphology common cause change gradual new forms example way english going construction lost aspect movement varieties english fledged future tense gon language change motivated language internal factors changes pronunciation motivated certain sounds difficult distinguish produce patterns change cause rare types constructions drift common types causes language change social certain membership certain groups social classes adopted wish identify groups ideas way issues identity politics profound effects language structure language contact important source language change contact resulting linguistic traits languages language contact occurs speakers languages varieties interact regular basis likely norm human history people modern world rise concept national state characteristic mainly populations inhabiting small islands ideology people state language desirable political arrangement started spread world nonetheless countries world corresponding languages means countries languages exist close contact languages speakers different languages interact closely typical languages influence sustained language contact long periods linguistic traits languages languages belonging different families converge similar areas languages close contact lead formation language areas unrelated languages share number linguistic features number language areas documented balkan language area language area language area larger areas europe southeast_asia considered language areas widespread specific features language contact lead variety linguistic phenomena including language convergence borrowing replacement native vocabulary language situations extreme sustained language contact lead formation new mixed languages considered belong single language family type mixed language called occurs adult speakers different languages interact regular basis situation group learns speak language group case construct communication form traits languages simplified structure language comes contain categories exist languages languages defined having native speakers spoken people language language language main language speech community eventually children grow learning language generation child grow seen change structure acquire greater degree complexity type language generally called language example mixed languages official language originally arose based english languages french based language spoken haiti mixed language canada based native american language french linguistic diversity defines living language speaker language exact number known living languages varies depending precision definition language particular defines distinction languages living human languages establishes linguistic groups based studies mutual includes categories conservative classifications example danish language scholars consider single language classified distinct languages danish according languages nearly million speakers languages account world population world languages account remaining global population right table world spoken languages population estimates figures languages clear distinction language dialect notwithstanding famous attributed language dialect army navy example national boundaries frequently linguistic difference determining linguistic varieties languages example classified chinese different swedish norwegian yugoslav civil war considered single language croatian serbian considered different languages employ different writing systems words distinction political considerations cultural differences distinctive writing systems degree mutual language families world world languages grouped language families consisting languages shown common ancestry recognize hundreds language families possibly grouped larger units evidence available depth studies carried present dozens language languages shown related languages world spoken europe new_mexico mexico japan pakistan language family world speakers european languages spoken world population family includes major world languages like english spanish russian european family achieved prevalence subsequently european colonial expansion brought european languages politically numerically dominant position americas africa sino languages spoken world population include languages including chinese hundreds smaller languages africa home large number language families largest language family includes languages speakers languages account world population similar number people speak languages include populous semitic languages arabic hebrew language languages region languages languages spoken world population stretch madagascar maritime southeast_asia way oceania includes languages indigenous languages indonesia taiwan languages considered originated taiwan spread oceanic region island based advanced nautical technology populous language families languages telugu languages turkish languages southeast_asia including thai areas world greatest linguistic diversity americas west_africa contain hundreds small language families areas account majority world languages majority speakers americas largest language families include families south_america language families north_america australia indigenous languages belong family home large number small families number languages language language occurs language risk falling use speakers die shift speaking language language loss occurs language native speakers dead language eventually speaks language extinct language languages gone extinct human history disappearing accelerated rate 20th 21st centuries processes neo economically powerful languages dominate languages commonly spoken languages dominate commonly spoken languages commonly spoken languages eventually disappear populations total number languages world known estimates vary depending factors consensus languages spoken extinct year languages spoken million speakers spoken world population languages spoken small communities speakers operates levels language safe vulnerable spoken children outside home definitely endangered spoken children severely endangered spoken oldest generations critically endangered spoken members oldest generation semi speakers notwithstanding claims world better adopted single common english consensus loss languages cultural diversity world common belief going biblical narrative tower linguistic diversity causes political conflict contradicted fact world major episodes violence taken place situations low linguistic diversity yugoslav american civil war genocide stable political units highly projects aim prevent slow loss endangered languages promoting education literacy minority languages world countries enacted specific legislation protect stabilize language indigenous speech communities minority argued language loss natural process documenting endangered languages sufficient commentary notes
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