founded later known company exploited natural rubber private property king belgium company founded british belgian capital based belgium longer british shareholders changed changed residence tax purposes company granted large concession north country rights tax inhabitants tax taken form rubber obtained relatively rare rubber vine collection system revolved series trade posts main rivers concession post commanded european agent manned armed enforce taxation punish rebels enjoyed boom late 1890s selling kilogram rubber europe cost came cost human rights couldn pay tax imprisonment corporal punishment recorded failure suppress destructive harvesting methods maintain rubber plantations meant increasingly scarce profits began fall early 1900s famine disease spread concession natural disaster judged exacerbated operations rubber collection 1900s saw widespread rebellions rule concession attempts mass migration southwards events typically resulted armed force restore order series reports operation free state issued starting report followed reports commissioned detailed unlawful killings abuses embarrassed reforms began appointment american director rubber exports continued fall rebellions increased resulting free state assuming control concession continued receive portion profits rubber exports rubber plantation harvesting company later history company unknown active origins corporate state privately owned king belgium founded recognised later territory land river basins tributaries north state local populace farmers engaged trade river fishermen hunters force people followers slave trader arrived head took hostages nearby villages ransom return ivory enrolled local people army controlled entire eastern half basin free state concerned development enacted monopoly act declared products area jurisdiction began campaign drive traders region stage establishment supply post campaign long eventually successful entire basin free state control began new found control region levy taxes local population gathered similar hostage tactics taxes initially collected form ivory ivory supplies began run low free state switched natural rubber rubber collected rubber relatively scarce area average frequency plant acre rubber gathered tapping rubber vine placing pot beneath collect latex production rubber european market long distance ground climb tree tap plant hold collecting pot beneath vine possibly entire day rubber collection labour intensive process unpopular villagers preferred free state authorities took low bulk high value items ivory slaves long distances homeland state transports afford people harvest low value high bulk rubber september military forces attack occupy villages river valleys expand tax base establishment king decided concessions territory private companies collect rubber tax export mind approached british colonel fortune chilean capital fund concession company north agreed provided belgian initial investment result informally known established antwerp august company divided shares value british investors including north held shares whilst held remaining shares addition ordinary shares actions entitled holder share profits paid shareholders holder actions return received exclusive rights forest products basin years land miles designated posts police powers limits concession supply guns ammunition soldiers help establish posts preparation state employees ordered establish headquarters barely begun local villagers rebelled state rule killed men concession provided lay north country commercial concession areas established concession bounded north concession east concession west concession flowed south lay crown domain private property comprised best land richest rubber concession included river river river tributaries main rivers concession operated independently exploited area commercially main rubber companies largest country established headquarters position confluence allowed expand rivers tributaries establishing new posts way progress slow activities population west hostile east remained control company post relocated threats locals rubber collection began series bloody conflicts villagers men post system post system cornerstone commercial activity post run european agents oversee local operations salary agent year increasing second year standard contract period years agents received trade goods month buy food despite low wages commission agent received rubber production majority agents pay example agent received commission result applicants post agents hired expectation increase production tons month implemented extending post include villages increasing expected villagers indirectly forcing women children harvest rubber production fell agents lost profits company pay post consisted residence agent barracks armed sheds rubber drying storage built labour villagers typical post employed african sort dry rubber seven servants agent thirty local river transport paid year goods commonly salt blanket trade goods value post system managed director operations central office assisted job keeping production expenses free state employee concession commander police police commander charge suppressing revolts villages dropped access large force men river stationed quickly site large scale rebellions effective police commanders receive bonuses paid post maintained census males nearby villages implement tax initially set dry rubber wet rubber man fortnight post force village slaves armed muzzle loading rifles resided villages enforce taxation kept expense villagers imprisonment execution production failed enforce mistakes fined half salary fired imprisoned addition village post men armed modern breech loading rifles lived post punish villages suppress rebellions paid similar wages post despite strict working conditions popular job offered position power villagers choice food women luxury items left year term wives sold comply law company pay villagers bringing rubber payments goods recorded payments inch knife value basket rubber inch knife worth basket worth smaller rubber main incentive villagers bring rubber small payments fear punishment man family taken hostage released filled man imprisoned prevent collecting rubber later agents simply chief village fell july post recorded held chiefs prison prisons poor condition posts recorded death rates prisoners day records resisting company deported forced labour camps camps addition imprisonment corporal punishment tax hide whip reported agents tie men platforms facing sun burn tree means punishment boom collected tons dried rubber rising tons time operational posts time price rubber increased kilogram kilogram costs amounted kilogram purchase rubber collectors lieu tax transportation export duty paid storage total cost kilogram year sell rubber europe kilogram profits rose increasing quantity price rubber years company recorded total profit increased recorded profit year result paid share profits spite increasing costs doubling export duty construction railway increased cost moving rubber coast entire trip antwerp taken entered means tax avoidance escape belgian business regulations immediately longer acronym instead right change company longer supported british investment partly colonel north died heirs sold shares new company simpler shares system shares value divided investors free state held shares tax resident received profits corporation tax addition kilogram export tax initial capital investments material expenses africa property equipment expenses antwerp reached boundaries concession covered million hectares years spent filling gaps existing posts controlled posts managed agents profitable year shares taxes provided revenue state year total share early 1890s share decline abuse power rubber vine harvested cutting vine latex whilst lay ground quicker easier non destructive harvesting practised villagers wished fill avoid punishment especially supplies vine began run low addition destroyed deliberately villagers believed rubber gone leave concession destruction rubber depleted months post opening attempt slow destruction issued orders prohibited destructive harvesting methods largely ineffective ordered plant rubber trees ton rubber exported replace harvested increased plants ton plantation post held million plants post employed workers manage plantation despite plantation project ultimately failure fact agent remained post years working plantation benefit successor free state forestry officers noted plantations smaller required existed paper plant looked similar vine produce rubber consequence free state required instead plant vine easily produce rubber years reached maturity evidence plantations produced rubber began run tap rubber production fell half tons rubber miles posts leading violent clashes rival villages control remaining plants entirety concession west produced tons rubber presence area exacerbated effect natural disasters famine disease tax collection system forced men villages collect rubber meant labour available clear new fields planting turn meant women continue plant worn fields resulting lower yields problem aggravated stealing crops farm animals post experienced famine missionaries recorded terrible famine region modern descendants villagers refer period company control period famine disease problem smallpox moving east reported reaching concurrent smallpox epidemic moving west destroyed villages reached sleeping sickness reported spread despite arrival deadly diseases main killers area lung diseases killed times people smallpox sleeping sickness combined missionary attributed rise disease rubber collecting abuses power villagers reported missionaries began operations real public disclosure came publication report written agent belgian newspapers began investigation abuses inquiry established heard evidence missionaries concession result took action missionaries stopping carriage mail company stopping missionaries boats mail carried missionaries buying food villagers forcing buy stores issued condemned system resulted free state launching investigation later year evidence unlawful killings uncovered investigation powers arrest submit report free state authorities lack action resulted deteriorating relations missionaries attempted shooting missionary evidence abuses came governor north west claimed prior people driven actions known forced rebellions peoples turn century killed near peoples forcibly closer post troops intervened stop emigration people villagers near stop small scale emigration instigated permit system people wishing visit village post agent led expedition tribe resulted civilian deaths hundreds captured prison died tribe attempted captured sent forced labour camp people successfully fled despite chaos managed increase exports tons recording second highest profits history partial recovery long soon profits falling attempts reform embarrassed complaints british government human rights abuses dispatched commission inquiry investigate entirety commission visited concession december january despite attempts witnesses away heard evidence violence committed included villages murder rape hostage taking excessive commercial body mentioned report brutality said concession black spot history central african settlement commission instigated limited reforms laying new interpretations existing legislation included limit working hours week collectors option paying taxes rubber removal villages months sent royal high commissioner check reforms carried told intention reforms commissioner established deputy public prosecutors concession investigated missionaries second brought cases men important result spurred carrying reforms stages reforms appointment american explorer soldier fortune director held keen interest slave trade worked belgian governments duties including suppression slavery given extensive executive powers placed position unusual opportunity correction past abuses despite problems increased company reported increase rebellions rule killed wounded half uprising post resulted cutting food supplies post military forces proved insufficient restore control spring summer forced state troops european officers free state troops toured area threatening villages rubber harvested despite post recorded absolutely harvest similar event occurred half population fled area remained forcibly relocated closer post agent tried prevent rebellion reducing rubber collection fortnight weeks temporarily successful outpost later burned company unwilling admit falls rubber plant stocks publicly stated rebellions missionaries visited concession reported abandoned villages territory villagers fled deepest parts forest avoid taxes villagers living makeshift leaf shelters march director admitted situation area control suggested assume control concession september year unable contain increasing number rebellions facing falling profits forced completely withdraw area hand control concession point rubber collectors listed company books major rubber companies concessions taken state control free state takeover legacy free state happy concession state built sufficient income able afford run tax collections addition free state embarrassed continuing allegations atrocities caused institute reforms effectively control authorised takeover hope able resume rubber collection exports september agreement signed stated profits concession free state return payment kilogram rubber harvested told shareholders expected exports return normal levels years restore control free state dispatched force men european officers command inspector concession returned months later leaving areas rebellious news rubber plants left result expected man cut rubber year struggling find state income whilst costs controlling concession continued increase time making profit taking share rubber exported expenditure rubber plants left concession free state authorities granted permission villagers cut remaining plants grind bark retrieve rubber process completed rubber tax abolished company merged form management rubber plantations gathering rubber later year agreed belgian government reduce size operations monopoly status july banned collecting rubber confines old concession months subject new laws introduced later history company unknown continued operate split oil palm concessions company rubber gathering practices notorious concession companies human rights abuses involved primary resource gathering despite owned european operated style similar supported operations required enormous profits generated strengthen control country formative years concession companies gave time revenue required secure plan long term stable program ultimately failed harvesting process valued high production doomed live boom bust cycle despite production model french government basis concession system
Abir Congo Company