indonesian indonesia armed conflict diplomatic struggle indonesia internal social revolution took place indonesia declaration independence dutch recognition indonesia independence end indonesian independence movement began commemorated struggle lasted years involved sporadic bloody armed conflict internal indonesian political communal major international diplomatic dutch military forces able control major towns cities industrial assets republican java sumatra control countryside international pressure netherlands existing partial military stalemate recognised indonesian independence revolution marked end colonial administration dutch_east_indies netherlands new_guinea significantly changed ethnic reducing power local rulers significantly improve economic political fortune majority population able gain larger role commerce background indonesian nationalism movements supporting independence dutch grew rapidly half 20th century pursued strategies operation joining dutch initiated people council hope indonesia granted self rule chose non cooperative strategy demanding freedom self government dutch_east_indies colony notable leaders students nationalist leaders benefited educational reforms occupation indonesia japan half years world war crucial factor subsequent revolution netherlands little ability defend colony japanese army months initial attacks japanese occupied dutch_east_indies java lesser extent sumatra indonesia dominant islands japanese spread encouraged nationalist sentiment japanese political advantage support indonesian independence support created new indonesian institutions including local neighbourhood organisations elevated political leaders significantly subsequent revolution japanese destroyed replaced dutch created economic administrative political infrastructure september war going badly japanese prime minister promised independence indonesia date set supporters announcement seen collaboration japanese independence declared pressure radical youth groups proclaimed indonesian independence august days japanese emperor surrender pacific following day elected president vice president revolution people indonesia declare independence indonesia matters concern transfer power things executed careful means shortest possible time august people indonesia signed october mid september news declaration independence spread outer islands far capital believe news spread came regard pro republican mood revolution swept country external power shifted weeks entered indonesia dutch weakened world war japanese hand required terms surrender lay arms maintain order contradiction resolved handing weapons japanese trained resulting power weeks following japanese surrender created atmosphere uncertainty opportunity republicans joined struggle groups disciplined soldiers japanese formed disbanded groups groups circumstances formation perceived revolutionary spirit weeks japanese troops withdrew urban areas avoid confrontations september control major infrastructure installations including railway stations java largest cities taken republican encountered little japanese resistance spread revolutionary message set radio stations newspapers graffiti proclaimed nationalist sentiment islands struggle committees militia set republican newspapers journals common fostered generation writers known generation believed work revolution republican leaders struggled come terms popular sentiment wanted passionate armed struggle reasoned approach leaders leftist spread idea revolutionary struggle led won indonesian contrast interested planning government institutions achieve independence diplomacy pro revolution demonstrations took place large cities including led people fearing violence successfully september self proclaimed ready die freedom getting common ethnic groups dutch chinese considered spy subjected intimidation kidnap robbery murder organised attacks continue course revolution present period known dutch authorities attempted retrieve bodies victims survivors period provided legal testimony attorney general office continued revolutionary warfare bodies found cases came court graves victims found war cemetery appropriated indonesia headquarters commander personally supervised summary executions hundreds civilians archived eyewitness testimony events october states execution asked crowd enemy people crowd kill named victim stroke sword victim left boys years old mutilated body women tied tree yard pierced bamboo spears died orders bodies disposed sea women thrown river death toll period runs tens thousands bodies europeans identified killed registered civilians abducted returned indonesian revolutionaries lost young fighting men estimates number indonesian fighters killed lead range japanese forces lost soldiers british forces registered soldiers british indians killed similar number missing action actual dutch military hardly involved started return indonesia march april formation republican government end august central republican government established adopted constitution drafted japanese occupation indonesian independence general elections held appointed assist president similar committees established provincial regency levels questions allegiance immediately arose indigenous rulers central example immediately declared republican rulers outer islands enriched support dutch enthusiastic reluctance outer islands radical non aristocratic islamic nature java centric republican leadership support come south including king bone recalled battles dutch early century supported republican governor christian accepted republican authority fearing dutch attempt establish authority indonesia new leaders moved quickly strengthen fledgling administration indonesia newly formed government enthusiastic fragile focused java focused rarely loosely contact outer islands japanese troops particularly japanese naval areas sympathetic japanese commanders fewer republican leaders activists november parliamentary form government established appointed prime minister week following japanese surrender groups disbanded japanese command structures membership vital national army consequently dismantled formed trained armed organised army republican armed forces began grow september usually younger trained groups built charismatic leaders creating rational military structure central authority major problems revolution problem remains contemporary times self created indonesian army japanese trained indonesian officers prevailed trained dutch thirty year old school teacher elected commander chief meeting november allied counter revolution dutch accused collaborating japanese denounced republic creation japanese dutch_east_indies administration received million dollar loan united_states finance return indonesia allied occupation netherlands critically weakened world war europe return significant military force early japanese members allied forces reluctantly agreed act forces focusing japanese home islands archipelago jurisdiction british admiral supreme allied commander allied existed indonesian borneo parts dutch administrators returned areas japanese navy areas arrival allied troops quickly prevented revolutionary activities australian troops followed dutch troops administrators took japanese surrender lack strong resistance australian_army divisions succeeded occupying eastern indonesia british charged restoring order civilian government java dutch took mean pre war colonial administration continued claim sovereignty indonesia british indian troops land java accept japanese surrender late september lord immediate tasks included japanese freeing prisoners war want resources commit troops long struggle regain indonesia dutch british troops reached late september arrived cities north sumatra west sumatra south sumatra central java east java october attempt avoid clashes british commander lieutenant general sir diverted soldiers dutch colonial army eastern indonesia dutch proceeding smoothly tensions mounted allied troops entered java sumatra clashes broke republicans perceived enemies dutch prisoners dutch colonial troops chinese europeans japanese stages warfare initiated october accordance terms surrender japanese tried establish authority relinquished towns cities japanese military police killed republican october japanese troops drove republican handed city british fighting involving japanese october british forces began occupy city retreating republican forces killing japanese prisoners holding japanese killed japanese captured city days later british forces arrived allies repatriated remaining japanese troops civilians japan elected remain later assisted republican forces fighting independence british subsequently decided evacuate europeans european volatile interior british detachments sent towns encountered strong republican resistance air attacks arranged november late november fighting resumed british withdrew coast republican attacks allied alleged pro dutch civilians reached peak november december killed returned offensive march departing republicans responded british ultimatum leave city deliberately burning southern half city popularly known indonesia sea fire british troops left indonesia november time dutch troops landed java battle heaviest single battle revolution national symbol indonesian resistance groups second largest city indonesia seized arms ammunition japanese set new organisations time allied forces arrived end october described strong unified fortress september october europeans pro dutch attacked killed indonesian ferocious fighting erupted british indian troops landed city negotiated republicans british forces led following killing october british sent troops city november cover air attacks european forces largely captured city days poorly armed republicans fought november thousands died population fled countryside despite military defeat suffered republicans loss manpower weaponry severely republican forces rest revolution battle defence mounted nation support independence helped garner international attention dutch removed doubt republic organized resistance popular support convinced britain lie neutrality revolution years britain support republican cause united_nations installing british assistance dutch landed forces key centres republican sources reported deaths january defence hold city republican leadership established city crucial support new sultan went play leading role revolution result city granted status near republican officials imprisoned preparation dutch occupation sumatra largest cities bombed december led commando counter expert captain accused southern region arbitrary terror techniques copied anti republicans republican militia supporters killed weeks java sumatra dutch found military success cities major towns unable subdue villages countryside outer islands including republican sentiment strong elite consequently occupied dutch comparative ease autonomous states set dutch largest encompassed eastern indonesia established december administrative capital british indian army participated campaign republicans muslim soldiers inspired republicans war cry defected republic weapons soldiers survived war decided stay indonesia returned india pakistan diplomacy military agreement agreement british concluded november saw netherlands recognise republic facto authority java sumatra parties agreed formation united_states indonesia january semi autonomous federal state monarch netherlands head republican controlled java sumatra states alongside areas generally stronger dutch influence including southern great east consisted agreement february republic dutch satisfied march dutch parliament ratified stripped version treaty accepted republic sides soon accused violating agreement operation product midnight july dutch launched major military offensive called intent conquering republic claiming violations agreement dutch described campaign police actions restore law order task time majority dutch troops indonesia belonged soon end world war volunteers marines sent overseas later followed larger numbers netherlands offensive dutch forces drove republican troops parts sumatra east west java republicans confined region java maintain force java numbering troops dutch gained control lucrative plantations oil coal installations java control deep water ports international reaction dutch actions negative neighbouring australia newly independent india particularly active supporting republic cause soviet_union significantly united_states dutch ships continued loading unloading australian workers blockade began september directly involved conflict establishing sponsor negotiations making dutch diplomatic position particularly difficult called resolution ordered dutch august military action december dutch troops killed civilians village agreement attempt collapsed agreement ratified january recognised cease fire called van line artificial line connected advanced dutch positions republican positions held dutch lines agreement required held political future dutch held areas apparent republicans garnered important american goodwill diplomatic efforts netherlands republic continued political pressures domestic international hindered dutch attempts decide objectives similarly republican leaders faced great difficulty people accept diplomatic concessions july negotiations netherlands pushed van federal indonesia concept new federal states south sumatra created viable support base netherlands set body comprising leadership federal states charged formation united_states indonesia interim government end dutch plans place republic accepted minor role defined later plans included java sumatra dropped mention republic main sticking point negotiations balance power netherlands high representative republican forces mutual distrust netherlands republic hindered negotiations republic feared second major dutch offensive dutch objected continued republican activity dutch line february men led marched central java relocation intended ease internal republican tensions involving division area battalion clashed dutch troops crossing dutch believed systematic troop movement fear incursions actually succeeding apparent republican dutch established state negative reports led dutch leadership increasingly seeing losing control operation crow general offensive frustrated negotiations republic believing weakened dutch launched military offensive december termed operation crow following day conquered city location temporary republican capital end december major republican held cities java sumatra dutch hands republican president vice president republic indonesia ministers captured dutch troops exiled east coast sumatra areas surrounding republican forces refused surrender continued wage guerrilla war leadership republican military chief staff general escaped dutch emergency republican government indonesia established dutch forces conquered towns cities republican java sumatra control villages countryside republican troops militia led colonel later president attacked dutch positions dawn march dutch expelled city hours reinforcements brought nearby cities afternoon indonesian fighters retreated dutch entered city indonesian attack later known indonesia new spelling march general offensive commemorated large monument similar attack dutch troops led col august year international opinion dutch military campaigns outrage significantly united_nations united_states january passed resolution demanding republican government united_states aid specifically dutch indonesia immediately cancelled pressure mounted congress united_states aid cut included funds vital dutch post world war rebuilding far totalled billion spent equivalent half funding campaigns indonesia united_states aid fund encouraged key voices united_states including republican_party american churches speak support indonesian independence internal turmoil social revolutions called social revolutions following independence proclamation challenges dutch established indonesian social order extent result resentment japanese imposed policies country people rose traditional village heads attempted exert popular ownership land resources majority social revolutions ended quickly cases challenges social order culture violence rooted deep conflicts split countryside revolution repeatedly second half 20th century term social revolution applied range violent activities left included attempts organise real revolution simple expressions revenge resentment power violence lessons learned japanese occupation figures identified feudal including kings simply wealthy attacked beheaded rape weapon feudal women coastal sumatra example authority dutch attacked soon japanese authority left secular local lords foundation dutch rule executed indonesia fell dutch hands lived fear uncertainty particularly significant proportion population supported dutch remained dutch control popular revolutionary cry freedom death interpreted justify killings claimed republican authority traders particularly difficult positions hand pressured republicans boycott sales dutch hand dutch police efforts stamp republican economy depended areas term exercising sovereignty people mentioned constitution demand pro active policies leaders came demanding free goods justify robbery chinese merchants particular forced goods artificially low prices threat death communist september indonesian soviet republic declared east members psi judging time right uprising intended rallying point revolt slaves japanese america won republican forces weeks leader killed governor police officers religious leaders killed rebels ended distraction revolution turned vague american sympathies based anti colonial sentiments diplomatic support internationally republic seen anti communist potential ally emerging global cold war american led free world soviet led members come felt betrayed declared break away regime islam indonesia indonesian islamic state better known islam led islamic mystic islam sought establish indonesia islamic time respond focused threat dutch leaders rebellion republic regained territories government took islam threat seriously especially provinces declared joined islam rebellion transfer sovereignty indonesian republican resistance active international diplomacy set world opinion dutch efforts establish colony second police action diplomatic disaster dutch cause newly appointed united_states secretary state pushed netherlands government negotiations earlier recommended united_nations defied netherlands dutch indonesian round table conference held august november republic netherlands dutch created federal states netherlands agreed recognise indonesian sovereignty new federal state known united_states indonesia include territory dutch_east_indies exception netherlands new_guinea sovereignty agreed retained netherlands negotiations indonesia issue indonesia gave concessions debt indonesia agreed responsibility sum billion directly dutch attempts crush revolution sovereignty formally transferred december new state immediately recognised united_states_of_america republican controlled java sumatra formed single state sixteen state federation accounted half population federal states created netherlands states dissolved republic half abortive coup january resulted dissolution populous state dissolution federal structure colonial soldiers largely clashed republican troops uprising april predominantly regions pro dutch sentiments suspicious muslim dominated republic regarded april independent republic south proclaimed suppressed republican troops campaign july november state east sumatra federal state remaining folded fell line republic august fifth anniversary declaration indonesian independence proclaimed state impacts accurate account died died far greater numbers europeans estimates indonesian deaths fighting range civilian dead exceeded high total british soldiers killed went missing java sumatra indian soldiers dutch soldiers lost lives indonesia japanese died died half died actual combat rest killed tens thousands chinese killed left homeless despite fact chinese supported revolution seven million people displaced java sumatra revolution direct effects economic conditions shortages common particularly food clothing fuel effect economies dutch republican simultaneously rebuild world war survive revolution republic set life ranging postage stamps army train tickets whilst subject dutch trade confusion resulted competing japanese new dutch money republican concurrently indonesian independence secured blend diplomacy force despite ill discipline raising prospect anarchy youth confronting foreign indonesian colonial forces republican diplomatic efforts futile revolution turning point modern indonesian history provided reference point country major political trends continue present day gave impetus communism country militant nationalism guided democracy political islam origins indonesian army role indonesian power country constitutional arrangements power indonesia revolution destroyed colonial administration ruled world dismantled seen obsolete powerless relaxed rigid racial social colonial indonesia tremendous energies aspirations created new creative surge seen writing art great demand education significantly improve economic political fortune population poverty stricken peasant majority able gain larger role commerce hopes democracy decade
Indonesian National Revolution