fourteenth amendment united_states constitution fourteenth amendment amendment united_states constitution adopted july amendment addresses citizenship rights equal protection laws proposed response issues related slaves following american_civil_war amendment contested particularly southern states forced order regain representation congress fourteenth amendment particularly section parts constitution forming basis landmark decisions wade abortion bush gore presidential election sex marriage amendment limits actions state local officials including acting behalf official amendment section includes clauses citizenship clause privileges process clause citizenship clause provides broad definition citizenship supreme_court decision held americans descended african slaves citizens united_states privileges interpreted way little process clause prohibits state local government officials persons life liberty property legislative authorization clause federal judiciary bill rights applicable states recognize substantive procedural requirements state laws satisfy requires state provide equal protection law people jurisdiction clause basis brown supreme_court decision precipitated racial segregation decisions rejecting unnecessary discrimination people belonging groups second fourth sections amendment seldom second section reference rebellion crime invoked constitutional ground fifth section gives congress power enforce amendment provisions appropriate legislation city congress enforcement power supreme_court interpretation amendment text section persons born united_states subject jurisdiction thereof citizens united_states state reside state shall enforce law shall privileges citizens united_states shall state person life liberty property process law deny person jurisdiction equal protection laws section representatives shall states according respective numbers counting number persons state excluding indians right vote election choice president vice president congress executive judicial officers state members legislature thereof denied male inhabitants state years age citizens united_states way participation rebellion crime basis representation shall reduced proportion number male citizens shall bear number male citizens years age state section person shall senator representative congress president vice president hold office civil military united_states state having previously taken oath member congress officer united_states member state legislature executive judicial officer state support constitution united states shall engaged insurrection rebellion given aid comfort enemies thereof congress vote thirds house remove disability section validity public debt united_states authorized law including debts incurred payment services suppressing insurrection rebellion shall questioned united_states state shall assume pay debt obligation incurred aid insurrection rebellion united_states claim loss emancipation slave debts obligations claims shall held illegal void section congress shall power enforce appropriate legislation provisions article adoption proposal congress final years american_civil_war followed congress repeatedly debated rights black slaves freed emancipation proclamation thirteenth amendment formally abolished slavery following passage thirteenth amendment congress republicans grew concerned increase create congressional representation democratic dominated population freed slaves counted determining congressional representation previously mandated dramatically increase power population based house_of_representatives regardless slaves allowed vote republicans began looking way offset advantage protecting attracting votes slaves congress passed civil rights act citizenship regard race color previous condition slavery bill guaranteed equal benefits access law direct assault passed post war states attempted return slaves like condition things restricting movement forcing enter year long labor contracts prohibiting owning firearms preventing court strongly urged congress sign bill president vetoed march veto message objected measure conferred citizenship time states congress favor african americans whites weeks later johnson veto measure law despite victory republicans supported goals civil rights act began doubt congress possessed constitutional power turn goals laws experience encouraged radical moderate republicans seek constitutional guarantees black rights relying temporary political proposals amendment drafted late proposed amendment stating citizens barred voting basis race state counted purposes representation state amendment passed house blocked senate coalition radical republicans led believed proposal compromise wrong democrats opposed black rights consideration turned proposed amendment representative ohio enable congress safeguard equal protection life liberty property citizens proposal failed pass house april proposal congress carefully negotiated compromise combined elements second proposals addressing issues confederate debt voting house_of_representatives passed house resolution 39th congress weeks later sent senate action resolution debated amendments proposed amendments sections adopted june modified resolution passed vote house agreed senate amendments june vote concurrent resolution requesting president transmit proposal executives states passed houses congress june radical republicans satisfied secured civil rights blacks disappointed amendment secure political rights blacks particular right vote example leader disappointed radical republicans said find shall obliged content worst portions ancient leaving parts swept storms abolitionist called fatal total surrender point later addressed fifteenth amendment ratification states ratification amendment contested state confederate state exception tennessee refused refusal led passage ignoring existing state governments military government imposed new civil governments established fourteenth amendment ratified prompted congress pass law march requiring confederate state fourteenth amendment said state shall declared entitled representation congress states fourteenth amendment connecticut june new_hampshire july tennessee july new_jersey september rescinded ratification february march ratified april oregon september rescinded ratification october ratified april vermont october new_york january ohio january rescinded ratification january ratified march illinois january west_virginia january michigan january minnesota january kansas january maine january nevada january indiana january missouri january pennsylvania february rhode_island february wisconsin february massachusetts march nebraska june iowa march arkansas april florida june north_carolina july rejection december louisiana july rejection february south_carolina july rejection december july secretary state certified amendment constitution july ratification new_jersey ohio ineffective following day congress adopted transmitted concurrent resolution declaring fourteenth amendment constitution directing secretary state new_jersey ohio named congressional resolution having ratified amendment inclusion states congress goes merits ratification affirmed approving ratification rejected appear congress determined impact ratification process miller accordingly issued certificate ratification dated july declaring fourteenth amendment duly ratified states preceding week additional states ratified amendment left doubt amendment operational fourteenth amendment subsequently ratified alabama july georgia july rejection november virginia october rejection january mississippi january texas february rejection october delaware february rejection february maryland april rejection march california kentucky march rejection january ohio new_jersey ratified fourteenth amendment states existed reconstruction ratified amendment citizenship civil rights background section amendment formally defines united_states citizenship protects civil rights denied state state actor denial civil rights private persons addressed amendment supreme_court held civil rights cases amendment limited state action authorize congress outlaw racial discrimination private individuals organizations congress reach discrimination parts constitution justice commented civil rights cases individual invasion individual rights subject matter 14th amendment deeper broader scope makes void state legislation state action kind privileges citizens united_states life liberty property process law denies equal protection laws radical republicans advanced thirteenth amendment hoped ensure broad civil human rights newly freed people scope disputed went effect fourteenth amendment wanted principles constitution protect new civil rights act declared unconstitutional supreme_court prevent future congress altering mere majority vote section response violence black people found constitutional amendment protect black people rights welfare states section amendment frequently amendment amendment turn frequently constitution citizenship clause citizenship clause overruled supreme_court scott decision black people citizens citizens enjoy benefits citizenship members congress voted fourteenth amendment order eliminate doubts civil rights act ensure subsequent congress later repeal alter main provisions act civil rights act granted citizenship persons born united_states subject foreign power clause fourteenth amendment rule varying interpretations original intent congress states based statements congressional debate amendment customs prevalent time major issues arisen clause extent included native americans coverage non citizens legally present united_states child clause allows citizenship clause applies illegal immigrants explored question citizenship countries argues things claimed uniquely american devotion individual freedom example social opportunity exist countries citizenship united_states canada unique developed world citizenship expression commitment equality expansion national consciousness marked reconstruction citizenship legacy struggle reconstruction era create genuine democracy grounded principle equality native americans original congressional debate amendment senator michigan author citizenship clause described clause having content despite different wording earlier civil rights act native americans maintain tribal ties persons born united_states foreigners aliens belong families ambassadors foreign ministers according historian good number fellow senators supported view citizenship clause agreed children ambassadors foreign ministers excluded senator wisconsin asserted native americans subject united_states jurisdiction phrase indians chairman howard disputed arguing federal government jurisdiction native american tribes govern treaties united_states clause meaning tested birth united_states automatically extended national citizenship supreme_court held native americans voluntarily quit tribes automatically gain national citizenship issue resolved passage indian citizenship act granted citizenship indigenous peoples children born citizens countries fourteenth amendment provides children born united_states american citizens regardless citizenship parents time amendment passage senators including author civil rights act president asserted civil rights act fourteenth amendment citizenship children birth senator pennsylvania definitively contrary opinion congressional remarks applied non citizens present united_states problem unauthorized immigration exist scholars dispute citizenship clause applies unauthorized immigrants law land continues based standard interpretation congress 21st century occasionally discussed clause reduce practice birth tourism pregnant foreign national gives birth united_states purposes child citizenship clause meaning regard child legal immigrants tested united_states supreme_court held fourteenth amendment man born united_states chinese citizens permanent residence united_states carrying business united_states parents employed diplomatic official capacity foreign power citizen united_states subsequent decisions applied principle children foreign nationals non chinese descent loss citizenship loss national citizenship possible following circumstances fraud process technically loss citizenship purported declaration immigrant citizen united_states voluntary citizenship accomplished procedures specially established actions demonstrate desire national citizenship country history voluntary acquisition exercise foreign citizenship considered sufficient cause national citizenship concept series treaties united_states countries supreme_court concept holding citizenship clause fourteenth amendment barred congress citizenship congress citizenship previously granted person born united_states privileges protects privileges national citizenship interference states patterned article protects privileges state citizenship interference states supreme_court concluded constitution recognized separate types citizenship national citizenship state citizenship court held privileges prohibits states interfering privileges possessed virtue national citizenship court concluded privileges national citizenship included rights owe existence federal government national character constitution laws court recognized rights including access waterways right run federal office protection federal government high seas jurisdiction foreign country right travel seat government right assemble petition government privilege writ corpus right participate government administration decision overruled specifically reaffirmed times largely result opinion clause subsequently lay dormant century court ruled component right travel protected privileges clause despite fundamentally differing views concerning coverage privileges clause fourteenth amendment notably expressed majority opinions common ground clause protects component right travel writing majority explained privileges conferred clause citizen united_states citizen state union residence rights citizens state emphasis added actually wrote right citizen state residing state conferred article consideration emphasis added clause consideration mcdonald chicago justice majority incorporating second amendment states declared reached conclusion privileges instead process clause referred justice thomas opinion complete restoration privileges process clause process clause fourteenth amendment applies states identical fifth amendment applies federal government clauses interpreted encompass identical doctrines procedural process substantive process procedural process guarantee fair legal process government tries interfere person protected interests life liberty property substantive process guarantee fundamental rights citizens government process clause fourteenth amendment incorporates provisions bill rights originally applied federal government applies states substantive process beginning louisiana court interpreted process clause providing substantive protection private contracts prohibiting variety social economic regulation principle referred freedom contract court struck law maximum hours workers new_york struck minimum wage law nebraska court stated liberty protected doubt denotes merely freedom restraint right individual contract engage common life acquire useful knowledge marry establish home bring children worship god according conscience generally enjoy privileges long recognized common law essential orderly pursuit happiness free men court uphold economic regulation state prohibition laws kansas laws declaring maximum hours workers hardy laws declaring maximum hours female workers oregon president intervention railroad strike wilson new federal laws regulating united_states court explicitly freedom contract line cases judge adopted broad view liberty protected fourteenth amendment process clause scope liberty guaranteed found limited precise terms specific guarantees provided constitution liberty series isolated points terms taking property freedom speech press religion right bear arms freedom searches rational broadly speaking includes freedom substantial arbitrary restraints recognizes reasonable sensitive judgment certain interests require particularly careful scrutiny state needs asserted justify broad view liberty adopted supreme_court connecticut information freedom contract described fallen 1960s court extended interpretation substantive process include rights freedoms constitution according court extend derive existing rights example foundation constitutional right privacy court ruled privacy protected constitution connecticut overturned connecticut law birth control justice wrote majority right privacy found provisions bill rights justices wrote opinions liberty protected included individual privacy right privacy basis wade court texas law forbidding abortion save mother life like opinions majority opinion authored justice located right privacy process clause protection liberty decision state federal abortion restrictions controversial court history court decided essential holding wade retained reaffirmed lawrence texas court found texas law sex sexual intercourse violated right privacy court ruled fundamental right marriage included sex couples able marry procedural process government seeks burden person protected liberty interest property interest supreme_court held procedural process requires minimum government provide person notice opportunity heard oral hearing decision neutral decision maker example process government agency seeks terminate civil service employees expel student public school cut welfare recipient benefits court ruled process clause requires judges cases judge conflict interest example court ruled justice case involving major contributor campaign election court incorporation state modeled united_states_constitution federal laws state necessarily include provisions comparable bill rights baltimore supreme_court unanimously ruled bill rights restrained federal government states supreme_court subsequently held provisions bill rights apply states fourteenth amendment doctrine called incorporation incorporation intended amendment debated legal historians according legal scholar early supporters fourteenth amendment believed ensure states required recognize individual rights federal government rights likely understood falling privileges amendment half 20th century nearly rights bill rights applied states supreme_court held amendment process clause incorporates substantive second fourth fifth grand jury clause cruel unusual punishment clause eighth amendment amendment applied states supreme_court ruled apply states circuit jurisdiction carey seventh amendment right jury trial civil cases held applicable states amendment clause applies federal courts case tried jury state court brought supreme_court appeal created largely response lack equal protection provided law states blacks sue evidence witnesses punished harshly whites supreme_court stated west_virginia designed assure colored race enjoyment civil rights law enjoyed white persons race protection general government enjoyment denied states clause individuals similar situations treated equally law text applies states supreme_court applied clause federal government fifth amendment doctrine called reverse incorporation supreme_court clarified meaning person jurisdiction limited discrimination african americans extend races colors case legal aliens united_states chinese citizens provisions universal application persons territorial jurisdiction regard differences race color equal protection laws pledge protection equal laws persons jurisdiction entitled equal protection state largely article beginning guaranteed privileges citizens states supreme_court rarely phrase jurisdiction relation natural persons court held aliens illegally present state jurisdiction raise equal protection claims court meaning phrase jurisdiction follows phrase jurisdiction confirms understanding fourteenth amendment protection extends citizen stranger subject laws state reaches corner state territory court reached understanding things senator howard member floor manager amendment senate senator howard explicit broad objectives fourteenth amendment intention provisions applicable happen jurisdiction state clauses section amendment disable state merely citizen united_states person life liberty property process law denying equal protection laws state class legislation states away injustice persons code applicable adopted states forever disable passing laws fundamental rights privileges citizens united_states person happen jurisdiction emphasis added relationship fifth addressed united_states observed respect phrase jurisdiction term person fifth amendment broad include human jurisdiction republic resident alien born entitled protection laws citizen entitled owes obedience laws country consequence entitled equal protection laws contention persons territorial jurisdiction republic protection law heard pain argument bar face great constitutional amendment declares state shall deny person jurisdiction equal protection laws supreme_court decided foreign corporations jurisdiction state ruling foreign corporation sued state court licensed business recover possession property taken state jurisdiction subjected unequal maintenance suit state admitted foreign corporation business borders corporation entitled equal protection laws necessarily identical treatment domestic corporations court reporter included statement chief justice decision court wish hear argument question provision fourteenth amendment constitution state deny person jurisdiction equal protection laws applies corporations opinion established corporations enjoyed repeatedly reaffirmed later courts remained predominant view twentieth century challenged justices cases involving corporations vastly outnumbered involving rights blacks decades following adoption fourteenth amendment supreme_court overturned laws barring blacks west_virginia chinese americans regulation laundry businesses violations supreme_court held states impose segregation long provided similar facilities formation separate equal doctrine court went restricting kentucky holding states force private actors prohibiting colleges having black white students early 20th century eclipsed point justice holmes dismissed usual resort constitutional arguments court held separate equal doctrine years despite numerous cases court found segregated facilities provided states equal brown reached court ruled segregated black white schools equal quality facilities teachers segregation inherently harmful black students unconstitutional brown met campaign resistance white decades federal courts attempted enforce brown mandate repeated attempts resulted controversial handed federal courts parts nation court ruled race factor determining public schools parents transfer children supreme_court struck texas statute denying free public education illegal immigrants violation fourteenth amendment discrimination basis illegal immigration status substantial state interest court reasoned illegal aliens children citizens united_states texas people ordinary sense term afforded texas court held fourteenth amendment protects racial classes white negro extends racial ethnic groups mexican americans case half century following brown court extended reach historically groups women illegitimate children applied somewhat stringent standard applied governmental discrimination basis race united_states virginia levy louisiana supreme_court ruled university california action form racial public university violation civil rights act race factors violating court considered race conscious systems university_of_michigan university claimed goal systems achieve racial diversity court struck points based undergraduate system added points minority status finding violated court upheld race conscious process university law school race factors determine admission fisher court ruled race public university admission policy race neutral alternative coalition defend action court upheld state constitutional prohibition state local use action reed reed struck idaho law favoring men decision court ruled arbitrary gender discrimination violated court ruled statutory administrative sex classifications subjected intermediate standard judicial review reed later served strike number state laws gender supreme_court interpreted requiring states congressional districts state legislative seats according man vote court struck plans race key consideration court prohibited north_carolina plan aimed creating majority black districts balance historic state congressional served basis decision bush gore court ruled valid florida votes presidential election held needed deadline decision effectively secured bush victory disputed election league united latin american citizens perry court ruled house majority leader texas plan intentionally votes violated state actor doctrine individual liberties guaranteed united_states_constitution protect exception thirteenth amendment ban slavery actions private persons entities actions government officials fourteenth amendment supreme_court ruled action section fourteenth amendment action fairly said states amendment shield merely private conduct court added state action particular character prohibited individual invasion individual rights subject matter amendment deeper broader scope makes void state legislation state action kind privileges citizens united_states life liberty property process law denies equal protection laws federal constitutional rights limited situations state action meaning action government officials exercising governmental power virginia supreme_court found fourteenth amendment reference actions political body state instruments modes action taken state acts legislative executive judicial authorities act way constitutional provision mean agency state officers agents powers exerted shall deny person jurisdiction equal protection laws virtue public position state government property life liberty process law denies takes away equal protection laws constitutional acts state clothed state power act state instances people victims civil rights violations occur circumstances involving government officials private actors 1960s adopted expansive view state action opening door wide ranging civil rights litigation private actors act state actors acts sanctioned way state court found state action doctrine equally applicable privileges process equal protection laws critical factor determining existence state action governmental involvement private persons private corporations inquiry sufficiently close state challenged action regulated entity action fairly treated state facts weighing circumstances involvement state private conduct attributed true significance supreme_court asserted establish private party acted color challenged statute actions properly state actions state apparently state compelled actions state merely established process statute regulation private party acted rules developed supreme_court business regulation mere fact business subject state regulation convert action state purposes fourteenth amendment state normally held responsible private decision exercised power provided significant encouragement overt covert choice deemed state representation house_of_representatives section altered way state representation house_of_representatives determined counts residents article section clause constitution counted state slave population section reduces state denies adult male right vote section enforced continued use prevent blacks voting passage voting rights act abolitionist leaders criticized amendment failure specifically prohibit states denying people right vote basis race section protects right vote adult males adult females making provision constitution explicitly basis sex section condemned women long seen cause linked black rights separation black civil rights women civil rights split movements decades argued section repealed fifteenth amendment supreme_court acknowledged provisions section later decisions example richardson court cited section states hunter case involving black supreme_court concluded tenth amendment save legislation prohibited subsequently enacted specifically court concluded laws passed purpose operation crime provision section court held section designed permit racial discrimination section fourteenth amendment participants rebellion section prohibits election appointment federal state office person held certain offices engaged insurrection rebellion treason thirds vote house congress limitation congress enacted general removal section limitation citizenship confederate general restored joint congressional resolution june section congress posthumously removed service ban confederate president section prevent member convicted violating espionage act anti views taking seat house_of_representatives validity public debt section confirmed legitimacy public debt appropriated congress confirmed united_states state pay loss slaves debts incurred confederacy example civil war british french banks lent large sums money confederacy support war union perry united_states supreme_court ruled section united_states bond went congressional power debt ceiling crises raised question president authority section legal scholar fiscal expert treasury secretary argued debt ceiling unconstitutional void long duty government pay interest outstanding bonds payments owed railroad retirement act recipients legal analyst argued section gives president authority raise ignore national debt ceiling challenged supreme_court likely rule favor expanded executive power dismiss case altogether lack standing professor dean argued dire financial emergency president raise debt ceiling reasonable way interpret constitution allows knight professor constitutional law yale_university opined like congress president bound fourteenth amendment violate amendment president obey section requirement validity public debt question argued president obama obliged incoming revenues pay public debt interest government bonds obligations falls category entirely clear large number government obligations certainly payments future services count sacrificed include example payments power enforcement section known enforcement clause fourteenth amendment enables congress pass laws enforcing amendment provisions civil rights cases supreme_court interpreted section narrowly stating legislation congress authorized adopt behalf general legislation rights citizen legislation words amendment congress pass laws combat violations rights protected sections morgan court upheld section voting rights act prohibits certain forms literacy requirements condition vote valid exercise congressional power section enforce court ruled section enabled congress act protect rights guaranteed amendment city court narrowed congress enforcement power holding congress enact legislation section defines interprets fourteenth amendment rights court ruled legislation valid section injury person fourteenth amendment right means congress adopted prevent remedy injury cases citizenship privileges incorporation substantive process equal protection richardson hunter power enforcement
Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution