language formally language people official language approximately million speakers second widely spoken language vietnamese influenced considerably sanskrit especially royal religious registers buddhism registers influenced influenced thai vietnamese geographical proximity long term cultural contact form southeast_asia earliest recorded earliest written language family significant margin vietnamese old language historical presumably earlier predecessor state vast majority speakers speak central dialect central plain heavily concentrated regional accents exist remote areas regarded varieties exceptions speech capital province differ sufficiently central considered separate outside distinct spoken ethnic native areas historically northern dialect spoken million southern regions treated separate language language vietnam living remote mountains speak conservative dialect displays features language primarily language case endings instead particles auxiliary words indicate relationships general word order subject object follow word modify appear numbers count consistently languages like chinese spoken topic comment structure common perceived social relation participants determines sets vocabulary proper differs neighboring languages thai vietnamese language words stressed final words conform typical pattern stressed preceded minor language written script descended script southern script seventh century script form use evolved centuries modern features include versions write clusters division series different inherent approximately able read classification member language family family area stretches southeast_asia includes vietnamese studied proposed language family despite research doubt internal relationship languages places eastern branch languages classification schemes closest genetic relatives languages recent classifications doubt validity sub grouping place language branch branches family geographic distribution spoken million people official language second language minority groups indigenous hill tribes additionally million speakers native southern vietnam census million northeast thailand mutually marked notable variations found speakers capital city rural area areas adjacent southern vietnam form running roughly north south mutually speaker vietnam instance great difficulty communicating native thailand following classification scheme showing development modern western central northern standard related including central language taught schools media based dialect spoken region encompassed northwest central provinces northern called refers spoken border provinces present day northeast thailand fall early 15th century mountains served natural border leaving north mountains sphere influence conquests political economic isolation proper leading dialect developed relatively independently period resulted distinct accent influenced surrounding languages thai differences differences distribution final silent pronounced classify northern separate closely related language dialect called spoken small isolated population mountain range extending western eastern little studied variety unique maintains definite system vocal register disappeared modern spoken capital surrounding areas dialect characterized merging complete syllables considered speakers regions relaxed pronunciation instance shortened characteristic speech observed words initial second member cluster english word bread pronounced pronounced quality preceding causing harder emphasized pronunciation unique result spoken low rising tone like tone vietnamese example people fish dropped begins lower tone standard speech rises effectively doubling length example word study pronounced described southern spoken indigenous population controlled vietnam persecuted vietnamese government native language 1950s forced vietnamese names consequently little research published dialect generally influenced vietnamese centuries accordingly displays pronounced accent tendency words differences spoken river valleys districts province following decline abandoned northern territories settled 17th century led force retake area living area modern times presumed descendants group dialect thought resemble pre modern historical periods linguistic study language divides history periods period subdivided pre pre old language known words phrases sanskrit texts era old language spoken 9th century weakening empire 13th century attested primary sources studied depth scholars notably following end language lost influence language government accordingly underwent turbulent period change morphology language transition period 14th 18th centuries referred saw borrowing thai lesser extent vietnamese changes period profound rules applied correctly understand language recognizable spoken 19th century till today following table shows conventionally accepted historical stages modern emerging transitional period represented fell influence french thailand centuries claimed controlled succession throne began losing influence language fully integrated french brought french speaking aristocracy led french language higher education intellectual class french half modern day including north northwest thai prestige language thai control country native scholars early 20th century led monk named resisted french thai influences language forming government sponsored define modern language championed foreign elements reviving use roots historical sanskrit coin new words modern ideas opponents led embraced total denouncing classical languages favoring use contemporary favored borrowing thai influential later joined supported views prolific work won credited modern language identity culture overseeing translation entire buddhist canon created modern language dictionary use today ensuring survive flourish french colonial period system described inventory sounds standard spoken language represented appropriate symbols occur etc difference sounds position analyzed sequences analysis supported fact inserted stop example big size occurs initially longer regarded mere detail slight expected following initial voiced pronounced speakers feature weak educated speech final position approach respectively stops release occurring finals addition occur occasionally recent loan words speech familiar french languages authors proposed slightly different analyses system wide degree variation pronunciation individual speakers region description follows number values vary differences exist system dialect standard based addition analyzed nucleus plus coda followed final include short long long structure begins single cluster rarely possible clusters start analyzed sequences possible clusters including etc analyzed etc clusters shown following table mark non slight occurs clusters consisting followed beginning cluster initial cluster comes nucleus listed end followed coda single stressed short final sounds appear coda final heard notably minor preceding main word structure nasal syllables usually short conversation reduced careful formal speech including television radio clearly articulated example word person pronounced stress stress falls final word predictable pattern stress non distinguish different meanings words consist syllables native words minor fully words described having half syllables words behave minor takes secondary stress words compounds single generally example language pronounced words syllables compounds usually derived sanskrit recently french nonetheless adapted stress patterns primary stress falls final secondary stress second end word secondary stress word second secondary stress word syllables secondary stress long conversation compounds preserve stress patterns constituent words kind literally bird nest pronounced secondary stress second composed words nest bird tone distinction survives archaic dialect western distinction arose historically voiced voiced example voicing lost distinction maintained later disappeared processes explain origin called series series script dialect developed contrast level versus peaking tone compensate conveys context distinguishing statements questions available means making ambiguous example final particle serve emphasizing cases particle pattern typical phrase steady rise followed abrupt drop don want different type phrase doubt similar yes questions english doubt remain fairly tone rise sharply end want phrases follow typical steadily rising pattern rise sharply instead falling book expensive grammar primarily language relations mainly determined word order old particles mark categories survived literary formal language makes extensive use auxiliary serial construction zero language instead preferring emphasis avoid ambiguity complex sentences basic word order subject object subjects dropped topic comment constructions common language generally head initial follow words modify process fully understood western scholars example clear certain features grammar actor treated morphological process purely device morphology purely decorative performs known work categories hard define early scholar claimed language parts speech later scholar parts speech particles hand identifies couple dozen parts speech words freedom perform variety functions depending factors word order relevant particles location clause context important categories function demonstrated following example sentence taken hospital morphology language means uses little productive morphology means remnant productive modern language morphology evidence historical process language point past changed language adopting forms form new words common examples given common process takes forms coordinate compounds repetitive compounds coordinate compounds join independent words similar meaning form compound signifying concept general word coordinate compounds join repetitive compounds productive features use entire word derive words meaning depend class word repetitive compound indicates mean intensification coordinate compounds repetitive compounds gender singular articles expressed word following dog marked particles following similar intensification usually ambiguous context classifying particles thai chinese example dropped speech divided groups mass specific overwhelming majority mass possession colloquially expressed word order placed possessed alternatively complex sentences emphasis required construction word property object employed formal literary contexts particle subject complicated system social register choice depending perceived relationships speaker audience social registers terms nicknames proper names including person subject frequently dropped conversation phrases use particles common particles create sec particles order form abstract derived sanskrit occurs fixed forms borrowed sanskrit health healthy follow modify likewise follow distinguished words serving function employed sentences rarely use degrees comparison constructed expressed word common way express intensity expressed similar languages region use typical east asian languages tense aspect mood expressed auxiliary particles placed express continuous aspect yesterday earlier tomorrow understood context serial construction common relatively open class divided types main auxiliary defined word divided main classes followed direct object followed object word class equivalent english modifying function respectively main equivalent english rules processes describe sentences formed particular language words relate clauses phrases phrases relate sentence convey meaning relationships words phrases primarily word order supplemented auxiliary particularly formal literary registers marking particles phenomena aspect marked particles sentences marked particles words equivalent english words complete sentence consists basic elements include optional topic optional subject particles topic subject phrases phrases phrase acting object verbal attribute follows basic constituent order combining phrases sentence order typically direct object indirect object present markers preferred order case direct object phrase contains multiple components indirect object immediately follows direct object phrase direct object follow indirect object ordering objects changed meaning clarified inclusion particles word normally means arrive meaning alternatively indirect object direct object object marking spoken discourse possible emphasizing object topic comment like structure phrase phrase typically following structure phrase elements optional class words serve index social status terms personal names second person specialized words god royal religious objects common word vague phrase contains follows descriptive attribute occurs construction expected examples typical phrases particle marked attributes phrases formal literary language follows attribute modern usage carry mild intensity phrase completely subject topic introduced clear context phrase dropped simplest possible sentence consists single example mean going went gone let etc results long strings uses translates english general convey identity nominal meaning exists achieved putting particle end sentence clause speech need final particle placing past tense conveyed yesterday use particles different senses future action expressed use like tomorrow future tense marker placed immediately unmarked example addition meanings given sentence mean words particles added command varying degrees including point form addition particle end phrase questions basic types questions questions requesting specific information use question words polar questions indicated particles commonly particle tag questions indicated particles rising word order generally inverted questions formal contexts speech questions marked beginning particle passive voice passive voice construction utilizing main hit correct affect auxiliary meaning subject undergo results sentences translated english passive voice clause complex sentences formed addition clauses main clause types clauses include coordinate clause relative clause subordinate clause word order clauses basic sentences described coordinate clauses necessarily marked simply follow explicitly marked joined words similar english clause final conjunction like mean indicated relative clauses introduced deal similar coordinate clauses simply follow main clause example phrases mean hospital bed wheels relative clauses likely introduced deal immediately follow head subordinate subordinate clause subordinate include words order counting based system numbers form etc words related basic numbers probably borrowed thai script versions arabic principal number words listed following table gives western spelling intermediate numbers formed elements powers denoted loan words thai sanskrit numbers formed placing particle corresponding cardinal number social registers employs system registers speaker conscious social status person spoken different registers include common speech speech speaking speaking monks employ alternate names body parts results appears foreigners separate languages fact isolated villagers unsure speak raised completely court feel comfortable speaking common register example word eat reference animals reference higher social status monks word result system complex variations shown table writing system written script developed script india 7th century known inscription appeared written left right signs placed follow script similar appearance usage thai based system script related script ancestor modern script inherited indian widely hindu arabic literacy alphabet estimated symbols divided groups series series carries inherent second series carries inherent names series voiced respectively indicate second series represent voiced voicing stops lost contrast shifted attached turn evolved simple difference quality process resulted alphabet having symbols symbol having possible readings depending series initial
Khmer language