electric ray confused torpedo known electric ray electric ray torpedo species electric ray family found coastal waters north_sea south_africa benthic fish inhabits rocky reefs beds sandy muddy flats shallow moderately deep waters survive environments little dissolved oxygen tidal pools electric ray nearly circular pectoral fin disc muscular tail bears dorsal fins nearly equal size large caudal fin identified long finger like projections dark brown color pattern individuals plain colored males females typically reach long respectively nocturnal solitary electric ray found lying sea floor buried eyes slow moving predator feeds exclusively small bony fishes strong electric bursts defends turning threat swimming loop underside facing outward electric drive prospective predator paired electric organs capable producing volts electricity species viviparous developing embryos sustained yolk milk produced mother mating takes place november january females bear litters pups year gestation period months newborn ray immediately capable electricity hunt electric shock delivered electric ray severe directly life threatening properties known classical antiquity live rays treat conditions chronic electric ray species model organisms research coastal fisheries electric ray captured rays usually discarded little commercial value impact fishing population uncertain listed ray mediterranean_sea remains common electric ray areas increasing number taxonomy french naturalist described electric ray torpedo des des natural history fishes specific epithet means latin refers ray color pattern type specimens known designated original illustration species genus torpedo electric ray belongs subgenus torpedo differs subgenus having fringed margins generally ornate dorsal coloration common names species include common torpedo spotted torpedo distribution habitat widely distributed electric ray found scotland southern north_sea southward cape good hope south_africa including mediterranean_sea prefers temperatures cooler species typically found depths britain ireland italy tunisia recorded deep electric ray tends found deeper common torpedo torpedo shares southern portion range dwelling nature electric ray inhabits rocky reefs beds nearby areas sandy muddy bottoms warm summer months pregnant females known migrate northwestern france commonly found shallow muddy pools near beds species conduct northward migration summer autumn waters british isles description body electric ray soft entirely lacks dermal denticles thick pectoral fin disc nearly circular comprises total length paired kidney shaped electric organs visible beneath skin outside small eyes immediately posterior eye large oval bears long finger like projections rim meet center prominent pores nostrils curtain skin broader long reaches small arched mouth teeth small single pointed arranged pattern pavement like band jaw pairs gill slits small located beneath disc dorsal fins rounded placed close base fin measures thirds height rear dorsal fin base located rear pelvic fin bases second dorsal fin slightly smaller short robust tail skin running terminates large caudal fin shaped like triangle blunt corners upper surface dark pattern light dark brown background individuals uniformly brown underside plain white darker fin margins species grow long exceed long males long females larger sizes attained females attributed resource investment needed reproduction little geographic variation maximum size maximum weight record biology ecology solitary slow moving electric ray remain days time active night spends day buried sediment eyes showing consistent sluggish nature electric ray low blood oxygen carrying capacity heart rate beats min oxygen sharks rays similar size highly tolerant deprived oxygen allowing cope waters stranded small pools falling tide ray stops breathing entirely oxygen partial pressure water drops survive state hours deals extreme additional energy producing pathways serves slow accumulation potentially harmful cells like members family electric ray produce strong electric shock attack defense produced pair electric organs derived muscle tissue electric organ consists vertical columns column composed stack roughly filled essentially act like battery ray measured producing volts maximum potential electric discharge estimated high volts strength electric shock declines progressively ray experiments found nerves electric organ essentially stop functioning temperatures water temperature wild regularly drops threshold winter possible ray use electric organ year alternately ray unknown mechanism adapt electric organ function cold known parasites electric ray include feeding electric ray ambush predator employs electricity capture prey vision little importance hunting ray eyes obscured lies buried instead likely relies lateral line attacks moving prey contribute prey detection small benthic bony fishes constitute electric ray diet weight include sea bass jack sea cephalopods european squid elegant minor secondary food source single record individual study captive rays found reject live crabs southern france far important prey species food items record ray long consumed long distinct types prey capture behavior observed electric ray jumping ray attack prey fish swim close head typically farther jump ray pulls head disc upwards reaching times high prey fish simultaneously makes single tail stroke produces high frequency increasing temperature burst electricity initial electric burst short containing strong cause body prey fish breaking column ray forward motion jump sweeps paralyzed prey beneath disc mouth electric bursts continues produced process total number electric single jump increases size ranging newborn long adult long jump lasts seconds second type prey capture behavior ray stationary slow moving prey includes stunned prey drifted reach jumping attack ray makes small motions disc coupled small beats tail raising disc draws water beneath pulls prey ray lowering disc tail beats ray prey small reaches prey ray opens mouth suck short electric bursts produced necessary depending movement prey continue defense size electrical defenses electric ray fall prey animals sharks species exhibits different defensive behaviors depending prospective predator disc tail ray touched disc quickly turn threat producing electric followed fleeing straight line bury ray touched tail propel upward loop escaped maneuver ray ring belly facing outward present area body highest electric field gradient underside electric organs threat behaviors accompanied short strong electric ray tends produce electric bursts protecting tail protecting disc life history electric ray exhibits developing embryos initially yolk later supplemented nutrient rich milk produced mother adult females functional inner lining bears series parallel reproductive cycle females probably males capable mating year mating occurs november january young born following year gestation period months litter size ranges increasing size female electric organs appear embryo long time distinct eyes pectoral pelvic fins external gills length gill close leaving gill slits beneath disc rays time blocks cells electric organ rapidly embryo pectoral fins fuse snout length giving typical circular electric ray shape embryo long external gills develops embryo produce electric length strength discharge increases magnitude course gestation reaching volts length close adult measure approximately long immediately capable performing characteristic predatory defensive behaviors males mature sexually approximately long years age females mature significantly larger older long years age maximum lifespan years males years females human interactions shock delivered electric ray painful seldom life threatening danger shocked underwater properties known classical antiquity leading electric fishes medicine ancient greeks romans applied live rays afflicted conditions chronic recommended meat eaten electric ray caught incidentally nets little economic value discarded sea captured presently lacks population fishery data assess conservation status northern mediterranean surveys found remains common electric ray abundant italian waters electric ray species model organisms research electric organs rich play important role human nervous system
Marbled electric ray