history han dynasty han dynasty bce founded peasant rebel leader known posthumously emperor second imperial dynasty china followed dynasty bce unified conquest interrupted briefly dynasty han dynasty divided periods bce derived locations capital cities respectively final capital dynasty court moved period political turmoil civil war han dynasty ruled era chinese cultural consolidation political experimentation relative economic prosperity maturity great technological advances unprecedented territorial expansion exploration initiated struggles non chinese peoples especially nomadic han emperors initially forced acknowledge rival equals reality han inferior partner tributary royal marriage alliance known agreement broken emperor han bce launched series military campaigns eventually caused borders china han realm expanded corridor modern province modern modern modern northern vietnam modern north_korea southern han court established trade tributary relations rulers far west court han monarchs sent envoys buddhism entered china han spread missionaries northern india beginning han imperial court threatened plots treason revolt subordinate kingdoms eventually ruled royal family members initially eastern half empire indirectly administered large semi autonomous kingdoms pledged loyalty portion tax revenues han emperors ruled directly western half empire gradual measures introduced imperial court reduce size power kingdoms reform middle 2nd century bce abolished semi autonomous rule staffed kings courts central government officials volatile dynasty growing power consort clans empress palace entrenched time issue emperors succession causing series political crises culminated downfall slaughter palaces event triggered age civil war country divided regional power finally son imperial chancellor king accepted han emperor deemed lost according bce system fate imperial government heaven natural world following han china split states empire dynasty fall contention dynasty bce established state western china outpost breed horses act defensive nomadic armies peoples conquering states han bce unified china empire divided centrally controlled control china proper affirmed enhanced prestige taking unprecedented title emperor known emperor han era historians accuse regime employing ruthless methods preserve rule died natural causes bce bce conscription officers leading rain failed meet arrival deadline claim punishment delay execution avoid started rebellion known uprising thwarted general bce subsequently assassinated soldiers point rebelled bce uncle men leading family aristocracy joined man peasant origin supervisor grandson king declared king modern support kingdoms soon formed opposition despite bce killed battle subsequently attacked king capital forcing flee siege new kingdoms came aid defeated bce forced surrender occupied king sent capture agreement officer capture region king late bce ruler claimed reduced title chief killed orchestrated deaths chancellor bce second emperor bce gained submission secured capital persuaded chief advisor bce let soldiers city instead sealed treasury contention standard histories arrived months later early bce looted burned ground executed year offered king title emperor sent remote frontier assassinated assumed title king western leader confederacy kingdoms feast considered having assassinated realizing considering killing escaped middle feast slight carved kingdoms general subordinates kings granted frontier kingdom han pose political challenge summer bce heard emperor fate decided rally new kingdoms oppose leading year war known han contention initially direct assault captured battling king resisted king forces collapsed return saved storm delayed arrival troops father wife captured forces barely escaped defeat unable pursue induced rebel occupied large grain storage threatened kill father surrender threats food supplies lost general bce having conquered north bce offered release relatives captivity split china political halves west belong han east accepted truce short lived bce modern han forces forced flee fortified camp early morning cavalry pursued han cavalry bouts fighting surrounded banks committed suicide took title emperor known emperor han bce reign consolidation rivals emperor initially capital moved near modern concerns natural defences better access supply routes following precedent emperor adopted administrative model cabinet formed subordinate headed ministers despite han general condemnation harsh methods philosophy han law code compiled chancellor bce borrowed structure substance code excavated texts modern times reinforced suspicion ruled directly increased death western portion empire eastern portion established semi autonomous kingdoms bestowed prominent followers alleged acts rebellion alliances northern nomadic people replaced members royal family according administration kingdom small scale replica central government chancellor royal kingdoms transmit census information portion taxes central government responsible maintaining armed force kings authorized troops explicit permission capital king remaining king clan great grandson died bce transformed imperial later family south sent ambassador court acknowledge sovereignty vietnamese dynasty modern northern vietnam general forced desert bce son successor built powerful empire tribes time death bce domains stretched northeast china mountain ranges chinese feared incursions guise trade concerned han manufactured iron weapons fall hands enacted trade compensate chinese border merchants northern kingdoms lost trade government officials handsome salaries outraged planned attack han invaded bce aided king confused ruling dynasty general personally led forces snow near modern ensuing battle forces heavily surrounded seven days running short supplies forced flee defeat court adviser originally named convinced emperor create peace treaty marriage alliance called agreement arrangement established bce han hoped modify nomadic values han luxury goods given tribute wine etc half chinese successor subordinate grandfather exact amounts annual tribute promised emperor given 2nd century bce shortly defeat unknown bce bce requested renewal agreement increased annual tribute wine grain silk previous amounts figures treaty acknowledged equals han fact inferior partner forced pay tribute militarily powerful emperor initially set daughter opposition emperor female relative princess married bce offering princess tributary items scarcely satisfied raided han northern violated bce treaty established great wall border han rule emperor rebelled bce emperor personally led troops received arrow wound allegedly led death following year heir apparent took throne posthumously known emperor han bce shortly widow empress potential throne poisoned mother consort brutally mutilated teenage emperor discovered cruel acts committed mother says dare brief reign saw completion defensive city walls capital bce brick rammed earth walls originally tall formed rough rectangular ground plan irregularities topography ruins stand today urban construction project completed laborers emperor reign saw repeal old laws banning certain types literature characterized cautious approach foreign policy including renewal agreement han independent sovereignty kings regency downfall clan emperor children empress death bce grand empress regent chose successor sons placed emperor han bce throne removed puppet ruler emperor han bce issued imperial reigns appointed members clan kings emperor explicit prohibition clan members key military officers civil officials court unable deal invasion modern han prisoners taken provoked conflict king imposing ban iron trade items southern kingdom proclaiming emperor bce attacked han kingdom bce rival imperial title han ambassador visited court reign empress death bce alleged clan plotted overthrow dynasty king emperor grandson rose central government forces engaged clan ousted power destroyed coup led officials resisted passed emperor mobilized troops permission central government mother family possessed ambitious attitude consort mother king considered possess noble character son chosen successor throne known posthumously emperor han bce reign reforms policies rule era named emperor successor emperor bce han empire witnessed greater economic stability central government assumed power realm attempt distance harsh rule court rulers abolished legal involving bce declared widespread bce reduced tax rate households agricultural produce fifteenth bce abolished altogether following year reinstated rate bce government policies influenced ideology mix political given patronage wife bce empress reign grand empress early reign successor emperor bce named mythical 6th century bce philosopher viewed founder ordered civilization unlike gave role legendary sage kings han imperial patrons sponsored policy central concept claimed rulers interfere little possible administrative legal systems function smoothly influence doctrines state affairs eclipsed formal adoption state ideology reign later view practices bce number kingdoms increased number nineteen large territorial expansion kingdoms rebelled han rule failed produce heir significantly reduced size abolished carved new smaller kingdoms rebellion seven states heir apparent official visit capital reign played board game called crown prince future emperor heated dispute threw game board killing outraged father king nephew emperor nonetheless obliged claim allegiance took throne bitter death son fearful targeted wave reduction kingdom sizes emperor carried advice bce king led revolt han bce head coalition kingdoms feared reductions han forces commanded ready able revolt destroying coalition seven states han kingdoms abolished later reinstated significantly reduced size emperor issued bce outlawed independent administrative kingdoms abolished senior offices chancellor henceforth reduced status appointed directly central government successor emperor diminish power kingdoms tradition ordering king divide realm male heirs relations bce wise king right raided non chinese tribes living han protection northwest modern bce sent letter emperor informing wise king allegedly insulted han officials acted permission punished wise king forcing conduct military campaign nomadic event merely larger effort recruit nomadic tribes north bulk expelled corridor fleeing west state salt marsh nomadic range states east implied threat invade china agreement renewed sparked debate officials bce wanted reject policy favored renewal agreement died han tribute reached successor bce renewed agreement negotiated opening border markets lifting ban trade significantly reduced frequency size raids necessitated tens thousands han troops stationed border successor bce continued violate han territorial sovereignty making incursions despite treaty continued conquest father driving valley han quietly built strength cavalry forces later challenge reign government recruitment emperor philosophy system ethics attributed 6th century bce enlist aid bce established han regulation recruiting men merit government service calls major impulse famous examination system emperors appointed court courts specialized later orthodox texts years took throne bce known posthumously emperor grand empress continued dominate court accept policy found unfavorable contradicted ideology death bce major shift occurred chinese political history emperor called submission memorial essays improve government favored official bce philosopher calls theologian synthesis fused ethical ideas beliefs yang elements fitting universal system governed heaven earth world man justified imperial system government providing place greater reflecting ideas emperor issued bce abolished academic chairs focused classics bce emperor established taught students beginning civil service examination system refined later sons relatives officials privileged nominations office come family officials barred entry bureaucracy education classics paramount gaining office result expanded dramatically 2nd century accommodated students invention process spread paper cheap writing medium eastern han period onwards increased supply books number educated civil service war death marked significant shift foreign policy order address threat renewal agreement emperor called court conference session bce factions leading ministers debated merits faults current policy emperor followed majority consensus ministers peace maintained year later busy raiding northern border waiting han response court conference assembled faction supporting war able sway majority opinion making compromise worried stretching financial resources indefinite campaign limited engagement border near han forces lure gifts promises order quickly eliminate cause political chaos trap failed bce realized fall trap fled north era style broken han court resolved engage scale war leading campaigns involving tens thousands troops bce han general bce recaptured desert region bce bce expelled gaining surrender battle bce generals led campaign forced flee north maintenance horses government slaves thirty different pasture lands satisfy cavalry baggage trains needed campaigns government offered exemption military labor male members household presented privately bred horse government expansion colonization king surrendered bce han acquired territory stretching corridor cutting allies new established corridor populated han settlers major allied force repelled region bce bce han forces established garrison outposts larger settlements built bce roughly settlers came region modern western southern southern northwestern northwestern surrender han court moved people region region south bend emperor forces conquered roughly million km2 million new land far largest territorial expansion chinese history self sustaining agricultural garrisons established frontier outposts support military campaigns secure trade routes leading eastern terminus han era great wall extended far west sections stand today including thirty han beacon towers fortified castles exploration foreign trade war diplomacy starting bce han diplomat traveled west unsuccessful attempt secure alliance evicted bce travels revealed entire countries chinese unaware remnants conquests bce returned china bce reported visits kingdom described agricultural urban countries like china venture described river valley territories west envoys sent states returned foreign lucrative trade noted countries chinese silk merchants discovered southwestern trade route leading burma india earliest known roman found china manufactured glass bowl found tomb dating early 1st century bce came maritime route passing likewise imported chinese silk attire popular time bce agreement broke forced extract crafts agricultural urban centers bce han battled control influence states han gaining bce tributary submission reaching expensive invasion year campaign valleys modern asserts threatened cut han access historian bce threat asserting mission means punish providing tribute prized central asian south emperor assisted king attack modern bce pro han faction overthrown court han naval forces conquered bce han war bringing areas modern northern vietnam han control emperor launched invasion bce king tributary vassal later rebellions bce bce rule han forces sent expedition north_korea bce abandoned years later bce expedition established remained bce violent resistance bce irregular raids chinese settlers conducted peaceful trade relations native lived largely independent culturally influenced sparse han settlements economic reforms fund prolonged military campaigns colonization efforts emperor turned away policy earlier reigns having central government private industries trades salt mining iron manufacturing bce government monopoly liquor established bce majority consensus court conference bce led breaking monopoly mathematician official bce later merchants drafted government help administer responsible transportation system eliminated price variation time place place government means interfere profitable grain trade eliminating speculation government stocked grain cheap sold public low price private merchants demanded higher ones criticized reign bringing unnecessary hardships merchants profits farmers forced rely poor quality government goods services transportation emperor reign poll tax minor aged fourteen raised coins rate adults remained new taxes market transactions wheeled vehicles properties meant bolster growing military budget bce new bronze coin weighing replacing coin issued government remaining standard coin china dynasty followed ban private bce earlier attempts ban private took place bce monopoly issue remained place han changed hands different government agencies bce han government billion coins average million year half western han regency emperor wife deposed bce allegations attempted help produce male heir bce similar allegations emperor son emperor second wife fear emperor believing false allegations began rebellion lasted days emperor away quiet summer retreat modern defeat committed suicide eventually good reputation half brother entrusted form regency alongside bce bce court successor child known posthumously emperor han bce died year later bce imperial counselor sang executed accused supporting emperor older brother king emperor gave power abuse power eyes establishment gained popularity reducing emperor taxes emperor died bce successor chosen replace july nephew prince removed august displaying lack character capacity rule prince removal secured memorial signed leading ministers submitted approval grandson named emperor han bce september remained power regent emperor died natural causes bce bce clan charged conspiracy throne eliminated culmination emperor revenge wife poisoned beloved empress bce replaced daughter deposed september bce son succeeded father emperor han bce reforms emperor reign regency dominant political faction party favored greater government intervention private economy government salt iron higher taxes private business price controls fund aggressive foreign policy territorial expansion followed dynasty approach discipline faults rewards service regency gained leverage state affairs policy decisions party favored government limited government intervention private economy moderate foreign policy limited colonization efforts budget reform return dynasty ideal granting rewards service display dynasty party influence seen abolition central government salt iron bce reinstated bce abolished 1st century transferred local private bce lavish games installed emperor impress foreign dignitaries cancelled grounds excessive spurred alleged signs heaven warning ruler incompetence total eighteen general granted combined reigns emperor emperor han bce emperor reduced severity punishment crimes reduced length judicial procedures bce disrupting lives accepted sums cash criminals sentences dropped reversed policy favored wealthy poor effective crime emperor major reforms state sponsored religion dynasty main legendary deities added emperor bce powers bce emperor effort gain heaven favor male heir halted ceremonies dedicated powers replaced ceremonies supreme god kings foreign relations war half 1st century bce witnessed succession crises leadership allowing han cement control han general assassinated pro king bce han formed coalition coalition forces inflicted major defeat bce han regained influence depression defeating battle bce bce han able install new king state north han interests region office western regions given bce established bce supervise colonial activities conduct relations small kingdoms bce inflicted defeat rival brother royal contender bce supporters debated request han aid han vassal decided bce sent son hostage han personally paid homage emperor bce chinese new year celebration advocacy seated distinguished guest honor rich rewards gold cash coins suits clothes silk fabric silk horses addition grain sent returned home successors encouraged pay trips homage han court increasing gifts visit cause complaint ministers bce financial consequence vassal deemed superior agreement initially attempted send hostages tribute han court hopes ending han support eventually turned han subsequently han general protector general acting explicit permission han court killed capital modern bce han court reluctant award independent missions let foreign gave modest rewards despite favor given han princess instead given lady ancient china marked departure earlier agreement chinese princess handed bride control long life empress bce wife emperor mother emperor ensured male relatives appointed role regent officially known commander chief emperor interested chasing beautiful women empire left affairs state relatives clan november bce bce nephew new general chief emperor han bce took throne grandmother emperor leading figure palace forced resign august bce followed forced departure capital bce pressure supporters emperor invited capital bce year later emperor died illness son reinstated regent emperor han bce cousin emperor married daughter child died july year grand empress confirmed acting emperor child heir succeed despite fact family revolted month earlier followed outraged assuming greater power imperial family rebellions promised hand power reached majority despite promises relinquish power initiated propaganda campaign heaven sending signals time han rule end january announced han run course accepted requests emperor dynasty reforms grand vision restore china golden age achieved early dynasty era attempted sweeping reforms including slavery institution king fields system land ownership standard land family slavery land reform regime cancelled widespread protest historian wrote reforms led downfall aside slavery land reform historian points reforms line earlier han policies new denominations currency introduced value earlier introductions lighter weight resulted economic damage renamed empire bureaucratic titles government rescinded longer enforced large scale rebellion spurred massive flooding foreign relations half chinese half noble son vocal partisan realm claims led conservative nobles break alliance han moment came assumed throne demoted lesser rank pretext war winter amassed troops northern border han china force led raiding continued hostage held han authorities executed diplomatic relations repaired took throne raided han borders kingdom located east west rebelled authority killing han protector general sent force resistance ensuring region remain chinese control widespread rebellion toppled rule extended chinese influence tribes region attack early korean state located korean peninsula widespread rebellion china mounted raided han region restoration han natural disaster civil war course emptied gradual buildup raised water level year built prevent flooding river split arm flowing south second flood changed course northern branch river emptied slightly north far south southern inundated following creation southern branch thousands peasants displaced homes formed groups rebels notably armies tried quell rebellions failed descendant led group gentry groups cousin accept title emperor han march brother future emperor han distinguished battle july relieved city forces turned tide war soon emperor executed grounds treason fearing life resigned office minister ceremonies avoided public mourning brother emperor gave promotion general forces targeted local broke capital city october october stand palace killed head sent headquarters armies reached october emperor settled new capital invited leader stay granted honorary titles fan decided flee men began desert moved capital following year red defeated forces appointed puppet ruler entered captured fleeing demoted king killing acting commissioner emperor gathered significant following putting local rebellion province claimed han throne august occupied capital november eventually unify empire claimed title emperor efforts officers forced wandering surrender march leader executed plot rebellion revealed defeated conquered east distant nearly defeated seizing domain adversary standing base modern forces successfully burned fortified bridge stretching commanding general killed assassin sent han general resumed campaign min rivers destroyed forces december located west names western han bce eastern han accepted historians tall eastern western northern walls stand today southern wall destroyed changed course walls prominent palaces existed western han expanded successors eastern han estimated held roughly inhabitants known census data china dated recorded population nearly million comparing census total population registered roughly million significant migratory shift million people northern southern china eastern han largely natural disasters wars nomadic groups north population size fluctuated according periodically updated eastern han historian notes reflect dramatic loss life government inability times register entire populace policies scrapping denominations currency reintroduced western han standard coin making lost revenue salt iron canceled private manufacturers heavily government purchased armies swords shields private businesses allowed peasants pay military tax avoid conscription armed forces year training year service instead built volunteer force lasted eastern han allowed peasants avoid month duty tax hired labor popular demoted han status effort onwards find relatives restore abolished emperor han price system government bought grain cheap sold public private commercial prices high limited stocks canceled prize scheme convinced government grain wealthy merchants richer renewed economic prosperity brought father reign emperor addressed flooding repairing dams canals april boasted southern branch south finally cut han engineering patron scholarship emperor established school young nobles aside emperor han faced crisis cattle epidemic broke addition providing disaster relief reforms legal procedures existing believed restore seasonal balance yang cure epidemic display ceased work canal works running believing causing people granted year poll tax exemption woman gave birth husbands year unlike eastern han rulers sponsored new texts tradition patron old texts tradition held scholarly debates validity schools writes major reform eastern han period amended calendar replacing emperor calendar bce inaccurate centuries measured tropical year days like julian calendar measured tropical year days lunar month days emperor han tolerant new text old text traditions orthodox studies decline works skeptical disillusioned scholarly community tradition showed interest history commissioned lady use imperial archives order complete book han work deceased father brother set important precedent imperial control recording history unlike far independent work bce floods earthquakes disrupted lives emperor relief policies cut taxes open provide government loans forgive private debts people away disaster areas believing severe drought result injustice legal system emperor personally inspected prisons found false charges sent prison rain allegedly came soon foreign relations split realm led uprising sent elderly general bce defeated sisters native son drums melted recast large bronze horse statue presented succeeded son breaking orders ruler brother valid successor nephew outraged proclaimed rival split created southern like turned han aid came pay homage han court given silk silk rice head cattle unlike time overseen han acted legal cases monitored movements followers settled han northern northern attempts enter han tributary system rejected following loss looked chinese officials families stranded fought control emperor preoccupied civil wars china simply granted king official title successor king protector general later reduced honorary title great general han subjects decided ally conquered led war kingdoms decide took advantage conquered base stage raids han year han court opened border markets trade hopes han sought battle reached far lake defeated established agricultural garrison able han appointed new protector general western regions northern invaded allies killed troops han garrison forced withdraw han expedition led battle forces chased northern allegedly killing accepting surrender tribes sent cavalry attack base followed initiative general earlier installed new king han ally king turned enlisted aid arranged alliance modern pakistan afghanistan political pressure ban later assassinated provided aid sent tribute hostages han ruler requested chinese princess bride rejected marched troops ban earth tactics forcing request food supplies intercepted ban forced withdraw ban appointed western regions office filled tributary gifts came han bringing exotic animals lions dispatched reach roman empire reach farther large sea oral accounts able describe rome having hundreds walled cities postal delivery network submission dependent states system government roman king consul permanent figure chosen man worthy elephants presented gifts han court king burma known diplomatic mission ruler japan came followed golden seal discovered mentioning buddhism china chinese clearly associated emperor buddhist temple china white horse temple built honor foreign monks indian monks allegedly translated chapters sanskrit chinese proven text translated chinese 2nd century court consort clans install original wife empress instead little drama imperial court queen son heir apparent demoted status king trouble imperial turned violent reign addition half brother committed suicide allegedly curse emperor targeted hundreds similar charges resulting exile torture gaining confessions execution trend persecution end took throne generous brothers called capital exiled greater consequence dynasty emperor coup significant involvement court politics eastern han emperor upheld good relationship titular mother widow humble empress empress widow emperor son emperor early reign identity natural mother raised family power order throne demoted crown prince king forced mother commit suicide unwilling yield power clan longer emperor enlisted aid palace led overthrow clan charges treason stripping titles forcing commit suicide placed house arrest middle age eastern han empress consort families empress widow emperor empress final appointing successor appointed placed infant son throne later known emperor han died age placed young nephew son throne known posthumously emperor han bypassing emperor son young ruler throne empress facto ruler death brother brief occupation general chief fact ruling regent death april emperor accepted charge plotted overthrow june charged clan treason dismissed office stripped title reduced status exiled remote areas drove commit suicide clan empress wife emperor pressured emperor year old heir apparent status king october charges conspiracy despite protests senior government officials emperor died april empress free choose successor grandson known emperor han child died suddenly palace coup opposing thrust throne later known emperor han sun empress house arrest brothers killed rest family exiled vietnam emperor sons son briefly took throne mother position power challenge empress child emperor han briefly sat throne empress brother regent general chief decided known posthumously emperor han throne sister younger died attempted control emperor new favorite later empress resisted brother law killed prompting emperor use power committed suicide residence surrounded imperial guards emperor died official heir wife empress known posthumously emperor han throne reforms policies middle eastern han damage caused series natural disasters empress government attempted relief measures tax donations poor immediate shipping government grain hard hit areas water control works repaired government projects relief efforts armed response large scale people rebellion aware financial constraints empress limited expenses fodder imperial horses weren pulling carriages luxury goods manufactured imperial workshops approved sale civil offices secondary ranks collect revenue sale offices continued emperor extremely prevalent emperor reign emperor continued similar disaster relief programs empress implemented reversed decisions requiring officials leave office years mourning death parent ideal morals emperor sponsorship renowned scholars aimed popularity old text scholar aligned tradition sponsored emperor enhanced emperor credentials presented groundbreaking dictionary court financial troubles worsened emperor reign public works projects handled local level central government assistance court managed supervise major efforts disaster relief aided new invention court complex system vibration sensitive swinging mechanical gears falling metal balls determine direction earthquakes hundreds kilometers miles away greatest patronage scholarship repairing dilapidated operated young enter civil service officials protested associates protest allowed sons inherit larger concern rising power faction image placing child emperors throne attempted paint populist granting general awarding people noble ranks reducing severity penalties longer allowing exiled families return home allowing settle new land frontier given formal examination system candidates exams different classics period years order gain entrance public office despite positive reforms widely accused corruption greed emperor allies students took streets thousands chanting names opposed earliest student protests history overthrown distanced establishment instead sought legitimacy revived imperial patronage renewed patronage continued reign economy worsened built new hunting parks imperial gardens palace buildings expanded house thousands gentry class alienated corrupt government dominated refused nominations serve office current beliefs dictated morality personal relationships superseded public service emperor hosted left affairs state instead play acting traveling salesman dressed market vendors dressing military costume general supreme foreign relations war middle eastern han eastern han court periodically chinese military presence western regions means combat northern han forces expelled periods financial expanding western colonies liability sending financial aid requested basin tributary states viewed court reasons reopening foreign relations region beginning empress regency protector general western regions besieged able break siege recalled replaced empress began withdraw forces transitional force needed people settled han government southeastern emperor reign aid han withdrawal eastern han revolted han authority han border officials robbed goods women children group people reinforce protector general withdrawal decided instead mutiny revolt northwestern province spurred greater rebellion cutting han access problem exacerbated combined rebellion northeast total monetary cost putting rebellion million cash average million cash annually people entire eastern province province temporarily following general reopening relations province withdrawn decade later eastern province comprising modern southeastern massive rebellion instigated han chinese rebels basin states continued offer tribute hostages china final decade han agricultural garrison gradually abandoned greater consequence han dynasty future people filled vacuum power vast northern defeated han fled valley modern quickly occupied deserted territories incorporated remnant families new federation mid 2nd century stretched western borders southern siberia way west valley people raided han force negotiation better trade agreements later leader refused titles tributary arrangements offered emperor defeated chinese armies emperor died largely fell apart grew powerful 3rd century introduced 1st century buddhism popular china 2nd century monk traveled china translations works practices chinese associated exercises monk active china translated introduced china concepts pure land buddhism teachings emperor sacrifices year book later han records romans reached china maritime south presented gifts court claiming represented roman emperor marcus speculates roman merchants diplomats official accused palace plotting treason students associates provinces opposed emperor furious arresting followers released prison following year pleas general chief emperor father law hundreds followers holding offices branded partisans emperor death urging grand tutor presented memorial court june denouncing leading corrupt calling execution empress refused proposal followed memorial presented calling heads refused took formal legal action ignored court associate gained forced confession plotted treason prepared written memorial night october opposing secretly opened read armed emperor sword hid wet nurse killed empress incarcerated use authority seal entered palace eighty followers engaged shouting match gradually surrounded detained later death prison day followers unharmed dawn general believing committing treason engaged shouting match palace gates followers slowly deserted forced commit suicide confrontations actual physical fighting break eliminated empress house arrest renewed followers hundreds officials students prohibited serving office sent families exile executed barred potential enemies court sold offices military command emperor referred mother father influence emperor convinced ascend floors tall towers capital effort conceal enormous built partisan extended hundreds including distant relatives earlier abolished outbreak largely court feared gentry bitter office join rebel cause founded religious society claiming seen holy prophet appointed representative known master created highly organized movement accepted rice money lay followers staged rebellion set state endured like yellow regions built church believed illness result personal sins needing confessions yellow militant organization challenged han authority claiming bring era peace renowned faith leader hundreds thousands followers designated yellow cloth wrapped led rebellion provinces early successes imperial troops end leadership including killed smaller groups yellow continued revolt following years large group incorporated forces chancellor asserts rebellion impact fall han events capital following death emperor points generals raised armies quell rebellion disbanded forces power outside imperial authority downfall half brother empress given authority standing army palace guards appointed general chief shortly empress son known later emperor han throne plotted discovered executed took officer plotted overthrow secretly ordering generals march capital persuade empress hand generals send petition petition empress calling dismissal states psychological war finally broke discovered empress mother brother sympathetic order rescinded september learned private conversation empress executing sent message words share sat hall meet rushed hiding beheaded ordered imperial draft dismissing asked permission showed severed head besieged attacked brother attacked gate forcing flee covered connecting killed day fighting lasted september finally broke slaughtered thousand managed flee emperor brother chased family troops committed suicide jumping river drowning coalition general van marched request saw capital flames distance heard emperor wandering hills nearby approached emperor frightened brother explained happened ambitious took effective control forced flee capital september works despite protests emperor demoted prince september brother emperor later known emperor han empress poisoned death september followed prince march left capital led coalition commanders officials soldiers fortune challenge longer viewing burned city ground forced imperial court conspiracy headed minister masses killed adopted son subordinates killed forced flee throwing chaos emperor fled returned august empire carved spheres influence ruled powerful commanders officials northeast south located southeast capital south controlled southeast southwest located north southern inhabited people rebel groups fueled speculation dynasty fate claimed loyalty han emperor pinnacle cosmic religious system ensured political survival rise colonel army western garden governor modern western eastern took emperor headquarters declared dynasty bold earned followers dying attempting offer title gaining power defeating regretted seizing emperor chance decided act confrontation culminated victory battle forcing retreat territory died sons fought inheritance allowing eliminate drive brothers seek refuge people asserted dominance northeast defeated led battle white wolf mountain brothers fled killed sent heads submission speculation imperial family service planning territory ill forced son surrender father land expecting turn inherited territory brother allied faced naval force battle significant defeat ensured continued china kingdoms fall han moved emperor took title abolished senior offices instead recreated offices occupied post duke emperor divorce empress marry daughter empress finally took title king violating rule family members kings deposed emperor died son inherited title king gained uneasy allegiance point taken territory debates signs heaven showing han lost emperor agreed han dynasty reached end december creating state soon oppose
History of the Han dynasty