crisis crisis french period political conflict today began immediately independent belgium ended unofficially entire country rule series civil wars crisis conflict cold war soviet_union united_states supported opposing factions people believed killed crisis nationalist movement belgian demanding end colonial rule led country independence june minimal preparations issues questions ethnicity remained unresolved week july mutiny broke army violence erupted black white civilians belgium sent troops protect fleeing whites areas country belgian support amid continuing unrest violence united_nations deployed secretary general refused use troops help central government fight prime minister charismatic leader largest nationalist faction reacted calling assistance soviet_union promptly sent military advisors support involvement soviets split government led president command army broke coup état expelled soviet advisors established new government effectively control placed captivity subsequently executed rival government founded supporters eastern city gained soviet support crushed took aggressive stance killed plane crash late supported troops defeated movements start government control compromise constitution adopted exiled leader recalled head interim administration fresh elections organised held inspired calling rose east country took control significant territory proclaimed communist government forces gradually retook territory november belgium united_states intervened militarily recover hostages captivity defeated collapsed soon following elections march new political stalemate developed forcing government near mounted second coup état november taking personal control rule renamed transformed dictatorship endure deposition background belgian rule colonial rule began late 19th century king belgium frustrated belgium lack international power prestige attempted persuade belgian government support colonial expansion largely belgian government idea led eventually create colony account support number western countries viewed useful rival colonial powers achieved international recognition personal colony turn century violence officials indigenous ruthless system economic extraction led intense diplomatic pressure belgium official control country creating belgian rule based colonial trinity state missionary private company interests belgian commercial interests meant large amounts capital flowed individual regions specialised occasions interests government private enterprise closely tied state helped companies break strikes remove barriers imposed indigenous population country split nesting organised administrative subdivisions run uniformly according set native policy contrast british french generally favoured system indirect rule traditional leaders retained positions authority colonial oversight high degree racial segregation large numbers white immigrants moved end world war came social spectrum nonetheless treated superior blacks 1940s 1950s experienced unprecedented level colonial administration began development programmes aimed making territory model colony results measures development new middle class african cities 1950s wage labour force twice large african colony rich natural resources including nuclear programme world war led substantial interest region soviet_union united_states cold war developed politics african nationalist movement developed 1950s primarily movement divided number parties groups broadly divided ethnic geographical lines opposed largest united organisation dedicated achieving independence reasonable time created charter signed accused party moderate leading figure end party claimed members main rival led advocated radical ideology based calls immediate independence promotion regional identity stance ethnic nationalist argued independent run pre colonial kingdom party led major organisation advocated primarily represented southern province joined number smaller parties emerged nationalist movement developed including radical factions representing interests minor ethnic groups like largest african nationalist parties different factions took differing number issues increasingly moderate radical mass membership radical faction headed split away july failed induce mass members faction known majority group split divided party support base endured chiefly region north east backed popular southern city ethnic group major riots broke capital january political demonstration turned violent force colonial force people killed total casualties high nationalist parties influence expanded outside major cities time nationalist demonstrations riots regular occurrence year bringing large numbers black people outside class independence movement blacks began test boundaries colonial system refusing pay taxes minor colonial regulations bulk leadership arrested leaving position developments led white community increasing whites planned attempt coup état black majority government took power law order began break white civilians formed militia groups known european volunteer corps police militias frequently attacked blacks independence fallout riots report belgian parliamentary working group future published strong demand internal autonomy noted august minister colonies launched high profile brussels january leaders major parties attendance arrested following riots released run conference headed delegation belgian government hoped period years independence pressure conference led june set date issues including ethnicity future role belgium affairs left unresolved delegates failed reach agreement began campaigning wanted accused communist hoping fragment nationalist movement supported rival ethnic based parties like hoped independent form federation like close economic political association belgium continue independence approached belgian government organised elections resulted broad majority proclamation independent republic end colonial rule occurred planned june ceremony nation gave speech presented end colonial rule culmination belgian mission begun king address gave speech angrily attacked described independence success nationalist movement address acclaimed figures nearly provoked diplomatic incident belgium politicians perceived provocative independence celebrated politically new state semi presidential constitution known executive power shared president prime minister system known proclaimed president prime minister despite objections constitution largely concentrating power central government significant powers provincial level beginning crisis mutiny racial violence belgian intervention despite proclamation independence belgian government intended colonial social order end immediately belgian government hoped whites position indefinitely reliant colonial institutions like force function day day white technical experts installed retained broad absence suitably qualified black replacements partly result colonial restrictions higher education people assumed independence produce immediate social change retention whites positions importance widely resented lieutenant general belgian commander force refused independence marking change nature command day independence festivities gathered black non commissioned officers garrison told things command stay point writing independence independence message hugely unpopular rank file men expected rapid promotions increases pay accompany independence july units white officers camp hardy near insurrection spread day later garrisons country deploying belgian troops wished dismissed renamed force black soldiers promoted rank promoted directly sergeant major major general head army replacing time sergeant major close personal aide deputy army chief staff government attempted stop revolt intervened personally persuaded lay arms country mutiny intensified white officers civilians attacked white owned properties looted white women raped belgian government deeply concerned situation particularly white civilians began entering neighbouring countries refugees stance appeared justify prior concerns july belgium deployed state permission protect fleeing white civilians belgian intervention divided accepted belgian operation denounced called defend republic menace request white civilians port city evacuated july belgian ships bombarded city civilians killed action prompted renewed attacks whites country belgian forces entered towns cities including clashed troops south july leader declared southern province independent state capital president mineral rich region traditionally shared closer economic ties neighbouring rest economic importance administered separately rest country furthermore contended people distinct partly motivated desire wealth generated province mining operations avoid sharing rest major factor held law order central north eastern announcing said chaos major mining company begun supporting days belgian rule amid worries seek company assets independence largely owned prominent holding company based brussels close ties belgian government encouraged belgian government provided military support ordered civil servants region remain posts engaged mercenaries mainly whites south_africa supplement command troops supported received formal diplomatic recognition country highlighted fundamental weakness central government chief advocate unified state month august section region situated slightly north declared autonomy central government based city south smaller mining region largely populated ethnic group president claimed largely sparked persecution rest south government supported belgian mining company received concessions new state return financial support foreign reaction intervention belgium support states led calls united_nations remove belgian troops country secretary general believed crisis provide organisation chance demonstrate potential major force encouraged sending multinational contingent command july adopted resolution calling total belgian withdrawal replacement commanded force arrival initially welcomed central government believed help suppress states initial mandate covered viewing internal political matter refused use troops assist central government argued represent loss breach sovereignty frustrated turned soviet_union agreed provide weapons logistical material support soviet military advisors soon landed actions distanced rest government especially feared implications soviet intervention americans feared soviet aligned form basis major expansion communism central africa soviet support troops launched major offensive attack extremely successful course offensive involved ethnic groups result number large civilians killed violence advance caused exodus thousands civilians fled homes flee fighting involvement soviet_union alarmed united_states american government line belgian criticism long believed communist track strategically placed soviet client state august cia agents region reported agency experiencing classic communist takeover warned follow path cuba political central government split coup appeal soviet support split government led mounting pressure western countries remove power addition appealed believed moderate resolve issue took effective control army routing foreign aid promotions specific units officers secure allegiance september announced dismissed national radio pretext promise american backing american representative position block communications faction prevent coordinated reaction news chambers parliament supported denounced attempted dismiss position support constitutional crisis ostensibly order resolve launched coup replaced college des consisting panel university graduates led soviet military advisors ordered leave allegedly coup intended force politicians cooling period resume control practice sided placed house arrest guarded troops outer ring soldiers appointed president february coup onwards able exert considerable power politics scenes following attempted factions began negotiations end formation compromise agreement reached prevented taking effect negotiations broke amid personal animosity attempted reconciliation july led formation new government led brought deputies south factions failed bring reconciliation rebel members fled led formed rebel government november opposition central government government recognised states including soviet_union china official government approximate troops compared central government faced pressure government collapsed january arrested escaped house arrest fled eastwards believed rally support pursued troops loyal captured port december flown hands bound despite appeals legal process soviet_union denounced responsible arrest demanded release meeting called december consider soviet demands seek immediate release restoration head government forces resolution defeated december vote captivity tortured transported later handed forces loyal january executed troops near news execution released february provoked international outrage yugoslavia attacked protesters belgrade violent demonstrations occurred london new_york united_nations end initial resolution july issued resolutions calling total withdrawal belgian mercenary forces progressively stronger terms comprised nearly men mandate prevented taking sides mandate arrest foreign mercenaries encountered september attempt group mercenaries violence operation went wrong turned fire fight claim undermined mid september company irish troops captured numerically superior forces following day siege proceeded hold prisoners war development deeply embarrassed mission proponents september flew border attempt broker cease fire forces aircraft crashed attempting land airport killing everybody board stark contrast attempts pursue moderate policy successor supported radical policy direct involvement conflict released captured irish soldiers mid october cease fire deal agreed pull troops propaganda coup american support mission murder italian pilots november strengthened international demands resolve situation december finally overrun troops arrested ending south resolution issued november called respond deteriorating human rights situation prevent outbreak scale civil war resolution completely rejected claim authorised troops use necessary force assist restoration maintenance law order response launched operation seize strategic positions faced international pressure signed december agreed principle accept authority central government state constitution abandon claim independence following declaration talks reached troops continued harass troops diminishing support belgium increasing reluctance support demonstrated state survive indefinitely december troops clashed near fighting broke attempts reach failed troops occupied prompting leave country agreed soon indian troops acting orders occupied preventing loyalists gradually overran rest january surrendered final stronghold effectively ending attempted political reconciliation following end political negotiations began reconcile disparate political factions negotiations coincided formation political group neighbouring negotiations culminated creation new revised constitution known constitution city written create compromise balance power new constitution increased power presidency ending system joint consultation president prime minister increasing number provinces increasing autonomy constitution changed state constitution passed constitutional referendum june parliament dissolved await new elections exiled leader interim prime minister personally capable supported anti communist western powers denounced african leaders king morocco puppet role interim government fresh elections scheduled march rebellion broke central eastern parts rebellions period political crisis led widespread central government brought independence demands second independence political capital grew second independence slogan taken inspired revolutionaries including served junior capacity government political instability helped channel wider outright revolt disruption rural begun led peoples end unrest regions central eastern broke january cities disruption uprisings spread east later sparking insurrection outbreak larger rebellion rebels began expand territory rapidly advances northwards capturing july august rebels called lion populist vague ideology loosely based communism equality aimed increase overall wealth active revolutionaries young men hoped rebellion provide opportunities government magic initiate members believed following moral code bullets magic important rebels extensive use protect opponents advanced rebels numerous territory captured order remove political opposition population rebels founded state capital president new state supported soviet_union china supplied arms african states notably supported cuba sent team advisors led advise tactics doctrine rebellion coincided wide cold war amid speculated rebellion rapidly defeated scale american military intervention occurred vietnam suppression belgian american intervention end august rebels began lose ground recaptured late august early september backed recalled mercenaries oppose mercenaries led mad mike whites central southern africa formed unit known commando commando served known widespread killing torture looting mass recaptured rebel areas press interview described men mercenaries supported cia november rounded remaining white population whites held hostage city use tools order recover hostages belgian parachute troops flown american aircraft intervene november belgian landed quickly secured hostages total hostages civilians killed vast majority evacuated belgian troops orders liberate hostages push city attack broke eastern insurrection recovered civilians returned belgium aftermath intervention belgium publicly accused result intervention lost support dismissed post prime minister october soon mercenary troops captured putting end rebellion pockets resistance continued hold eastern notably led cross border lasted 1980s coup état scheduled march elections convention won large majority seats large party soon defected form new making overall result unclear controlled controlled senate attempting use situation block appointed anti leader prime minister designate november largely refused appointment instead seeking compromise candidate declared prime minister rejected creating political government near seized power coup ostensibly stop political november auspices exception equivalent state emergency assumed sweeping absolute power years claimed democracy restored coup promised economic political stability supported united_states western governments initially rule met widespread popularity increasingly took powers post prime minister parliament aftermath legacy established sole source political power gradually consolidated control number provinces reduced autonomy curtailed resulting highly state increasingly placed supporters remaining positions importance demonstrate legitimacy created party nation legal political party new constitution state renamed efforts remove colonial influences remaining foreign owned economic assets country including despite initial successes time rule characterised widespread corruption economic years crisis able remove opposition figures crisis threaten control sent second exile accused treason broke involving mercenaries eventually sentenced death year kidnapped held arrest algeria death allegedly natural causes provoked speculation government involved lured exile promise amnesty tortured murdered political legacy issues ethnicity politics state resolved crisis partly contributed decline support concept state people strongly favour acts provinces abolish independent legislative capacity subsequent loss faith central government reasons labeled failed state contributed violence factions advocating ethnic local continued eastern 1980s left legacy instability eastern borders led anti insurrection crisis succeeded son incumbent president restored following fall founded political party elected prime minister historical controversy presentation crisis particularly role american western intervention controversial academics accused governments distortion belgium allegations belgian killing led state backed subsequent official apology moral responsibility direct involvement assassination united_states multi volume official history american foreign service accused academics deliberately misleading american involvement crisis installation international importance turmoil crisis helped portuguese colonial war especially war independence neighbouring nationalists long close ties lived dos nationalist organisation drew support supported politicians hopes rebuilding altering borders established colonial period believing independence stage process launched revolt conflict later governments continued provide support rebels participated directly subsequent civil war crisis caused newly independent african states reconsider internal ties particular led division african states factions moderate leaning states joined called degree unity african states maintenance ties france radical states joined called federation chaotic violence crisis fate country whites entered northern refugees contributed widespread belief whites black nationalist politicians ready govern prompted fears immediate majority rule lead similar situation negotiations britain repeatedly broke predominantly white government declared independence prove politically influential africa civil war explicitly rejected bid remove southern backed government following experience officially stating civil war region nigeria accused interests northern ethnic groups frequently compared academic writing unlike achieved limited official international recognition rejected support western multinational companies involved local oil industry defeated integrated nigeria
Congo Crisis