july december general commander expeditionary force sent china convicted war crimes executed allies involvement massacre born chose military career served combat russo japanese war volunteered overseas assignment shortly graduating rose ranks earned reputation foremost expert china ardent advocate pan played key role founding influential retired active duty called service august start second sino japanese war lead japanese forces engaged winning battle succeeded convincing japan high command advance chinese capital city troops command captured december responsible notorious massacre finally retired army following japan defeat world war convicted war crimes far_east executed hanging convicted war criminals shrine act stirred controversy early life military career born july sixth son impoverished completing elementary school parents insisted continue education worried father debts want burden financially short thin young man opted career army japan time military schools charged lowest tuition fees enrolled accepted excellent student graduated second class november classmates included future generals admitted elite institution accepted percent annual applicants taking classes february college closed outbreak russo japanese war immediately sent overseas served company commander combat unit wounded action company killed war end resumed studies graduated class november china expert lifelong interest chinese civilization father scholar chinese classics studied chinese language military education admirer recently deceased continental pan army officer hometown served china believed china japan strongest powers asia forge close trading commercial partnership japanese resist western idea incorporated graduating immediately requested stationed china officer request posting china considered undesirable time stated ambition second army general staff gave assignment france got wish china worked aide military intelligence work worked china resident officer shanghai posted siberia staff officer returned china served advisor city intelligence work japan extensive experience china recognized important china experts known army love things chinese hobby writing chinese poetry work took china came know prominent chinese soldiers politicians formed especially warm friendship president young chinese soldier named wanted study abroad helped find place stay japan head intelligence quickly rose ranks promoted rank major general serve influential post chief china expert appointed position major influence determining japan foreign policies china chief strong supporter attempting end civil war china unify country leadership hoped succeed form strong partnership japan resist western influence asia communism tenure office punctuated series crises advice japanese government sent troops chinese city protect japanese property civilians ended headed help settle affair japanese army officers assassinated leader supporter immediately left find happened demanded officers responsible assassination punished december left post chief order official year long trip europe interested france china spoke fluent french work france french pan asian vision sino japanese relations september invaded time japan commanding end year sent geneva switzerland attend army condemned invasion work army officers equally believed unfair japan chinese delegates suspected western powers deliberately attempting provoke conflict japan china believed million relieved japanese invasion conquest called empire sympathy good faith solution larger regional problem nations asia create asian league extend million people china help deep sympathy given returning japan late abruptly appeared office tokyo based think tank presented members bold plan expand small organization international mass movement persuaded adopt ideas march study group described historian single influential organization pan goal promote unification liberation independence asian peoples use organization powerful vehicle promote concept japan abroad writings published association widely read japan political military august dispatched taiwan command october promoted rank general highest rank taiwan took opportunity set branch declared honorary advisor returned japan august seat japan sino japanese relations continued deteriorate gradually nationalist government government strongly promoted serving chief issue official bulletin denounced china leaders having sold country china betrayed asia allegedly pro western attitudes time group army general staff led general advocating japan use military force overthrow career came abrupt end august member called control faction assassinated member rival point fed ruthless divided decided responsibility scandal resign active duty army general reserves time pursue pan asian project october december toured major cities china speaking chinese politicians businessmen pan setting new branch return japan december president february march amid ongoing tension china second trip china time government sponsored goodwill tour met personally found little common ground united anti communism came meeting believing joint anti communism basis sino japanese cooperation future december following incident agreed join resist japan viewed personal betrayal war china july following polo bridge incident scale war broke japan china initially limited northern china fighting spread august shanghai japanese government decided send divisions reinforcements drive shanghai organized sea shortage active duty generals army general staff opted pull reserves lead new army august officially appointed commander sea reason selected entirely clear reputation china expert likely major factor historian argues time army general staff hoping seek settlement china shanghai secured japan close friendships china leaders seen ideal candidate conduct negotiations declared mission chinese people recognize japanese troops real friends china likewise stated going fight enemy state mind sets brother old acquaintances remarked new_york_times friendship war china japan sailing adopted plan drawn divide sea landing sites north shanghai use force attack shanghai directly force august oversaw landing operation aboard flagship initial landings went increasingly intense fighting ensued land casualties mounted believed given soldiers handle job continuously pressing high command reinforcements able ashore shanghai september day army general staff informed additional divisions deployed command new troops proved insufficient chinese mistakenly judged beginning october withdraw shanghai ordered concentrated infantry charges chinese positions expectation campaign wrapped november fact sea chinese defensive lines point turning point campaign come november entirely new army 10th army led landed south shanghai forced hasty retreat battle won cost japanese dead fighting took toll chinese civilians height battle took special interest plight chinese refugees october ordered improvements living conditions chinese refugee camps later large personal donation french humanitarian father help establishing safety zone chinese civilians shanghai road november appointed commander new position created provide unified leadership sea 10th army continued command sea prince appointed december nonetheless army general staff keen keeping war contained possible time created laid operation restriction line forbidding leaving vicinity shanghai clear superiors left japan august determined capture capital city china lay kilometers west shanghai asserted war china end control envisaged fall result total collapse government fall hoped play role forming new government china according conception democracy better serve interests japan people china historian sees personal motives insistence capturing suspects aging general relatively military record desperately wanted crown career battlefield victory like capture chinese capital ultimately november abruptly crossed operation restriction line began advancing response act claimed effort insisted high command marching right course action december army general staff finally came approved operation japan units field way gotten way understood troops tired fighting shanghai decided advance slowly aim securing city months subordinates refused play instead raced revised plans discovering armies ahead scheduled operational targets argued unable men command elderly general pulled retirement younger subordinates little respect orders assumed reserves shortly way command problems complicated fact december december frequently bouts malaria shown symptoms november ill forced press duties issuing orders december moved command post shanghai order closer december ordered summons surrender dropped airplane respond day approved attack city suffered significant casualties fighting mountainous terrain north city forbidden men artillery prevent damage coming famous historical sites chinese garrison defending collapsed pressure japanese attack days instead formally surrendering chinese soldiers simply threw away uniforms weapons merged city civilian population japanese occupied night december japanese soldiers city prisoners war engaged random acts murder looting rape collectively known massacre massacre staff officers especially intent ensuring property citizens party nations harmed order avoid causing international incident possibility troops orders entering poorly disciplined possibility lengthy entitled assaulting comprehensive operational orders passed units december instructed divisions allow regiments city order reduce contact chinese civilians reminded subordinates criminal acts like looting arson severely punished court martial december taking note looting incidents wrote truth acts ultimately orders buildings civilian homes outside burned japanese shelter subordinate commanders decided choice station men city instructions said treatment chinese inadvertently contribute major way demanded december entrance scheduled early date december time subordinates objected process chinese soldiers hiding city facilities hold regardless held firm cases men responded ordering prisoners executed immediately capture large scale took place occurred days immediately prior entrance city december spent day recovering malaria hot springs east day rode head large victory parade clear extent aware atrocities chief staff sea later testified informed cases outrage shortly entering city field diary mentions told japanese troops committed acts rape looting commented field diary truth acts representative came investigate matter admitted crimes occurred blamed subordinate commanders allowing soldiers city violation orders war aide camp claimed long capture caught wind plan subordinates massacre chinese hearing immediately stop researchers discovered testimony contained large number left december returned shanghai reports incidents japanese soldiers continued filter headquarters following month returned february day tour assembled subordinates including prince failing prevent number incidents past days final days china capture led surrender predicted war china continued began planning new military operations places like soon returned shanghai big task occupying time january february plan establish new chinese government bound determined press forward ambition found new regime rival nationalist government finish job leaving office eventually come march leaders japan showed interest plan create new government china repeatedly refused approve new military campaigns command beginning february contemplating suicide protest lack enthusiasm movement army general staff removed post reports atrocities reached japanese government army general staff blamed crisis causing japan international embarrassment wanted court japanese government planning dismissing solely massacre displeased anti western statements commander including comment recognize neutrality foreign concessions shanghai army general staff concerned severe personality conflicts subordinate commanders interfering chain command army minister told general inability subordinates coordinate cooperate reason removed february received messenger army general staff informed disappointment soon relieved command replaced ultimately army general staff punish shake field command china eighty senior officers including recalled time life retirement sailed shanghai february landed japan february time place return japan kept secret military reporters quickly caught wind return soon greeted went cheering crowds later year bought new home spend winters living summers living old house lake spite retiring military hoped job china working japanese sponsored government ultimately instead accepted position cabinet councillor advisory post june continued serve capacity january resigned protest prime minister opposition alliance nazi_germany commissioned construction statue mercy special temple built named means consecrated honor japanese chinese soldiers perished second sino japanese war time newspaper new_york_times praised act noting western generals devoted declining years memory men died battles henceforth single day spent rest life pray early morning evening time remained active pan asian movement reorganized times point cease serve president vice president organization following japan entrance world war december strongly advocated japan grant independence new territories occupied war form alliance asian states combat june august undertook tour asia including china singapore thailand burma malaysia indonesia philippines order promote ideas met china head singapore caused diplomatic incident nominally french colonial rule delivered speech demanding granted independence efforts played key role creation consolidation culmination lifelong vision united west addition served war president anti western anti semitic organization founded february support japanese war effort allies bore philippines declared radio japan withdraw philippines tokyo reduced ashes soon stated plans speak lecture meeting august opposing surrender august home heard emperor announce japan surrendered allies allied occupation japan began soon november supreme commander issued arrest warrant suspicion war crimes ill pneumonia time given march recover final acts going prison ask wife adopt longtime maid daughter converted buddhism asked wife march checked prison trial tokyo april individuals formally indicted far_east tribunal established try japanese war criminals prosecution charged class war crimes crimes peace alleging participated conspiracy wage aggressive war countries class war crimes conventional war crimes alleging responsible massacre told friends going prison planned defend japan wartime conduct insisted japan acted defensively aggression foreign powers japan war aims liberate asia western concerning origins second sino japanese war called fight brothers asian family stated war fought chinese hate contrary love family elder brother taken stand ill behaved younger brother order behave properly matter massacre admitted aware isolated crimes committed individual soldiers including acts rape looting murder denied large scale occurred city admitted bore moral responsibility wrongdoing men denied bore legal responsibility claimed military police division charge individual criminal acts army commander testified urged offenders punished statement prosecution quickly noted implied level legal responsibility ultimately dismissed accusations laid thirty counts charged found guilty thirty seven including charges relating class war crimes judges rejected membership evidence involved conspiracy wage wars aggression nonetheless role massacre convicted sentenced death count charging defendants having deliberately disregarded legal duty adequate steps secure prevent laws war delivered following verdict november tribunal satisfied knew happening effective issue orders capture city conduct troops later issued orders orders effect known known command army responsible knew power duty control troops protect unfortunate citizens held responsible failure discharge duty notes verdict represents earliest command responsibility history international law shortly hearing verdict prison chaplain feelings atrocities delivered subordinates february blamed atrocities alleged moral decline russo japanese war said incident terrible disgrace immediately memorial services assembled higher officers tears anger commander chief told efforts enhance imperial prestige lost moment soldiers imagine officers laughed happy ended way sense serve urge self reflection members military time night december met fellow condemned inmates prison chapel oldest member group asked lead shouting cheers emperor led group hanged simultaneously shortly midnight morning december soon executed cremated army took away ashes prevent memorial created unbeknownst ashes hidden owner later brought ashes shrine founded remain day seven war criminals executed including officially shrine secret ceremony conducted head priest event publicly known following year assessments perception japan majority historical literature life focuses role massacre depict tragic general executed detractors assert blood massacre hands detractors historian believes mistakes contributed massacre insisted advancing ensuring proper logistical support forced men rely second established policies protect safety chinese permitted excessively large number soldiers enter city fourth cooperate sufficiently fifth insisted entrance held early date demand subordinate commanders responded increasing speed severity operations finally spent time political maneuvering neglected duties commander historian researcher likewise find bears responsibility urging government march led directly massacre place policies protect chinese ordered premature entrance city historians like argued death sentence severe penalty crime mere failing stop massacre journalist points penalty severe compared convicted defendants found guilty counts found guilty counts cases including count given prison sentences contrast found guilty count sentenced death historian argues prosecution attempt seriously investigate involved massacre instead decided sole somewhat infamous reputation china today popular author asserts heard referred hitler japan chinese citizens travels city connection massacre notorious china reason denounced war criminal propaganda work group massacre historian notes focus current scholarship role massacre distracted fact pan defining characteristic life writings english dispute far_east geneva tokyo office greater asia association
Iwane Matsui