language language script official language largest known member language family number speakers million including vast majority residents residents dialect written times latin social networking predominant language diverse written traditional script discussion grammar follow variety treated standard written language writing conventions school grammar said valid vernacular spoken especially classify languages like classification line current international standard harmony complex structure language allows clusters finally typical language relies chains verbal nominal domains basic word order subject object ordering phrases relatively free roles indicated system cases voices marked voice aspect tense sentence linking special role played modern evolved middle language spoken 13th 14th centuries transition major shift harmony occurred long developed case system slightly reformed verbal system related language belongs northern asian linguistic area including korean languages languages grouped debated language family contrasted mainland southeast_asia linguistic area literature attested written form 13th century earlier literature peoples geographic distribution official national language spoken nearly million people estimate official provincial language china million ethnic china language spoken roughly half country million ethnic estimate exact number speakers china unknown data available language proficiency country citizens use china specifically witnessed periods decline revival years language experienced decline late period revival second decline second revival decline spite decline language urban areas educational spheres ethnic identity chinese speaking likely going survive presence urban ethnic communities situation appear efforts ethnic preserve language unknown number china completely partially lost ability speak language registered ethnic continue identify ethnic children inter ethnic chinese marriages claim registered ethnic classification belongs languages language disputed theoretical problem resolution fact existing data major varieties easily according common set linguistic criteria data account historical development dialect qualities studies comparatively developed basis laid comparative study example highly diverse varieties status certain varieties group languages distinct disputed varieties including variety spoken russia china spoken disagreement dialect state point agreement ends example influential classification proposed language consisting judged independent languages hand proposed broader language consisting central dialect eastern dialect western dialect northern dialect consisting varieties western scholars propose relatively researched variety independent language conservative structure inventory placement variety like cultural influence historically tied border varieties like likely remain problematic classification central problem remains question classify relation relation split reconstructed found cited fundamental distinction example year versus hand split past tense verbal central varieties eastern varieties usually seen merely difference official language policy divides language southern southern said consist authorities synthesized literary standard grammar said based southern pronunciation based dialect spoken western southern closer eastern southern example closer central languages grouping include spoken eastern vicinity spoken regions possibly extinct afghanistan classification family relative languages theory increasingly received proposes family member larger family include usually languages languages grammar following description based primarily particular section describes dialect spoken capital varieties differ considerably contrast said morphology holds true somewhat diverse section discusses stress standard language seven aligned harmony groups called advanced tongue root groups neutral alignment superseded alignment according oral scholars describe characterized distinction west indicate historically system rounding harmony length seven occurs short long short highly long central following table seven length variants arranged described harmony divides groups system harmony mentioned historical reasons traditionally labeled conventionally rendered expressed case sections article modern appropriate instead characterize harmony groups dimension tongue root position neutral belonging group word including belong group word likewise word case change conform different words patterns contain realized example household instrumental household instrumental occur realized case lead lead example word stem use forms rounding harmony rounding harmony apply close stem contains specified open respectively process blocked presence came inserted length pronunciation long short depends position word word initial syllables contrast length long length short word word final syllables long long short initial syllables distinct initial short short syllables differ short initial syllables long centralized position determined according requirements following table lists enclosed occur lacks voiced lateral instead voiced lateral realized word final position followed historical forms realized occurrence restricted words contain word final contexts preceding short deleted structure word final single short rarely appears final position word historically restricted occur historical reasons clusters following restrictions obtain preceded appear second position occur second preceded counterparts clusters conform restrictions broken takes place right left example work neutral respectively cases inserted prevent clusters examples given words form follows harmony triggered preceding usually centralized version sound following exceptions preceding produces ignored earlier word followed stress stress distinguish different meanings considered depend entirely structure scholarly opinions stress placement sharply native regardless dialect speak claim stress falls western scholars proposed heavy gets stress positions taken works published walker proposes stress falls heavy word final heavy defined length short word initial syllables excluded word heavy word final gets stressed cases short word initial stress recently extensive collection data far studies applied partial account stress placement closely related dialect conclusion drawn words short stressed second long data different acoustic parameters support conflicting conclusions intensity data indicate stressed indicate second stressed morphology exclusively language exception consist single example word consists root found derivative forms created action like organisation complex denoting belongs modified word nominal compounds frequent verbal productive speak speak formally independent words derived verbal roughly divided classes final sentence finally mainly future generic statements second person called verbal clause finally perfect past want link clauses function function connects sentences action main clause takes place action expressed begins roughly speaking cases unmarked instrumental directional direct object definite addition case number exist usually govern case form historical reasons analogy maybe case indicating marked possessed subject sentence friend save perfect saved friend somewhat like case seemingly attached directly left unmarked overt markers restricted humans modified usually personal exist second person old come form person word classes include particles numerous expressed particle particles preceding example constructions exist tend replaced constructions phrase structure phrase order sentences titles people low indicating groups focus head different forms follow examples verbal phrase consists center preceded modifying followed mainly sentence final particles following example clause saying complement order avoid ambiguity derived preceding complement fast immediately cases immediately complete treatment verbal forms analysis presented valid adapted description course consists types nominal constructions express direction meanings assistance linking occupy immediate position drink leave perfect drank position filled connection auxiliary run running occupying position express aspect progressive position followed follow come perfect come explicit perfect marked meaning position occupied multiple single followed progressive position occupied express tense aspect clauses unmarked phrase order subject object generally remain clause final position phrases free change order wholly disappear topic tends placed clause initially new information end clause topic overtly marked mark focus overt focus marked overt restrictive focus inventory voices consists passive cooperative passive sentence takes agent takes instrumental case common takes person caused action raise takes instrumental case action rise takes case morphology passive contexts attribute important sentence bread eaten acceptable english acceptable voice marked cooperative allows relate subject direct object sleeps naked marginal complex sentences way clauses clause end following example verbal instrumental function similar replacing preceding sentence find yields find govern complete clauses contrast verbal case finally class particles usually clause initial distinct relate clauses find perfect found won auxiliary similar japanese literally means form saying verbal like case form complement clauses gene function marker clauses tend combined gives rise sentence structures despite resembling structures european languages subordinate clause subject different subject main clause case marginal occurrence subjects taking case subjects clauses head function case english relative clauses usually require subject head eat perfect meal meal eaten coined words distant times adopted sanskrit persian arabic chinese recent come russian english chinese mainly language commissions state busy translating new terminology vocabulary president beer yellow loan translations train fire having cart chinese fire cart train loan translations include essence chinese true quality population chinese person mouth corn chinese jade rice republic chinese public collaboration nation examples sanskrit contemporary include religion space talent good deeds instant continent planet tales stories poems verses mineral water chronicle mercury sugar venus saturn examples persian contemporary include building bars tiger chess queen female tiger bold steel crystal prison powder gunpowder microscope book high god examples chinese contemporary include board lamp electric lamp cutting board pepper mushroom sauce steamed trade dan single steel window fried cream soup flour soup jan van king princess gun duke general recorded disk restaurant lotus flower names peach cherry borrow lend manner appearance characteristic pear target weight calendar vest potato tea 20th century numerous daily life words loaned russia doctor table chocolate train wagon calendar shirt apple red car recent times fast phased social cultural language loaned numerous words english gradually evolved official terms computer fail file marketing online message confined state despite having diverse pool uses native vocabulary languages like japanese korean words chinese origin vocabulary points relative purity basis tentative survey items languages divided categories depending large proportion items vocabulary cent language belonging category proportion vocabulary low cent obvious suffered massive loss native vocabulary making good candidate mixed language cent category comprises surprisingly languages complex cent santa cent cent cent category comprises remaining languages complex cent cent cent percent category comprises rest proper notably apparently modern written proportion native vocabulary sample high cent writing systems written variety making language largest number scripts historically earliest stages languages indigenous script indicated chinese sources large script adopted early according script traditional script adapted script probably beginning 13th century time underwent minor short lived attempt introduce latin script state preparatory phase script declared mandatory government decree argued introduction script smaller written spoken form contributed success large scale government literacy campaign increased literacy rate earlier government campaigns employing traditional script managed raise literacy attempt traditional alphabet failed face popular resistance informal contexts electronic text production use latin alphabet common official language chinese regions notably entire traditional alphabet considered briefly sino soviet split types written china traditional script official nationwide clear script predominantly linguistic history earliest surviving text report sports composed script stone dated armenian words compiled 13th century written record words 13th 15th centuries language texts written scripts counting vocabulary written western scripts script adaptation alphabet script chinese secret history arabic earliest texts available texts come called middle scholarly practice documents script distinct linguistic characteristics distinguished language dynasty referred language chinese chinese means national language term non han refer languages language dynasty language dynasty language dynasty language distinct period classical dated 17th 19th century written language high degree sets apart subsequent modern notable documents language chronicles alphabet buddhist texts created giving distinctive evidence early classical changes research reconstruction middle controversies middle series disagreement dimension lie voicing early scripts distinct letters distribution according harmony class reconstructed prominent long running disagreement concerns certain word major scripts discussed preceding section word scripts zero traditional scholarship reconstructed arguing got lost instances raises question conditioning factors instances recently obvious possibility assumed correspondence zero scripts points distinct correspond word initial present scripts called assumed derive explain zero instances indicates fronted south reconstructed heavy vicinity speakers originally word final turned originally followed later dropped remained unchanged breaking words containing followed words word final dropped case forms appears standard view according view harmony shifted words following word initial position rounded followed sequences second syllables short deleted representation word long short disappears unstable drops reduction goat rounding reduction wear reconstruction recently opposed arguing developments languages economically explained starting basically system instead sound changes involved alternative scenario likely point view early middle loans korean changes morphology nominal system following discussion accordance preceding observation term middle merely cover term texts written scripts script chinese arabic case system middle remained intact present important changes occurred case undergo slight changes form shortened middle replaced originally derived denoting possession having horse having horse horse functioned parallel having suggested case introduced different case directive domain grouped different ways cases functional overlapping indicating span time second account likely lost reduced survived frozen environments finally directive modern downwards social gender agreement abandoned verbal system middle slightly larger set finite forms smaller number likely finite linking confined stable combinations number increased distinction male female subjects exhibited finite verbal lost changes neutral word order clauses subject changed object subject subject object spoke saying speak great shifted particles preceding final particle following final longer filled particles example come modern spoken
Mongolian language