nomenclature series encompasses metallic chemical elements atomic numbers series derives element series informal chemical symbol general discussions chemistry refer block elements corresponding filling electron shell block element generally considered comparison block elements variable large atomic exhibit unusually large range physical properties late onwards behave similarly elements similar transition metals chemistry radioactive release energy radioactive decay naturally occurring produced abundant earth nuclear nuclear weapons diverse current historical uses chambers modern smoke occur naturally substantial quantities small amounts natural identified radioactive decay produces amounts occasionally produced reactions purely synthetic elements nuclear weapons tests released heavier environment analysis debris hydrogen bomb explosion showed presence presentations periodic table shown additional rows main body table selected single element series respectively shown single cell main table respectively convention entirely matter aesthetics rarely wide periodic table series proper places parts table sixth seventh rows periods discovery isolation synthesis like form family elements similar properties overlapping groups elements follow periodic table elements follow compared found nature quantities rare abundant easily synthesized followed existence elements suggested based experiments known time understood formed family similar prevailing view dominated early research regular elements 7th period corresponding 6th period respectively synthesis gradually undermined point view observation failed exhibit states supposed 6th period platinum reach state prompted called hypothesis studies known discoveries elements provided data support point view phrase hypothesis hypothesis decisively proven remained active use scientists late 1950s present major methods producing elements lighter elements accelerated charged particles method important applications nuclear allows production amounts synthetic limited relatively light elements advantage second method elements heavier obtained formed attempts united_states produce series underground nuclear explosions small samples rock extracted blast area immediately test study explosion products mass number greater detected despite predictions relatively long half lives decay attributed spontaneous owing large speed products decay channels nuclear discovered identified german chemist ore named planet discovered years earlier able yellow compound likely acid solution reduced obtained yellow powder extracted black substance metal years later french scientist identified isolated sample metal heating potassium atomic mass calculated corrected laws value confirmed discovered mineral found norway characterized material detail reduction potassium isolated metal named norse god thunder lightning isolation method later discovered assistant waste left removal described substance similar similar discovery questioned arguing publications contradicted earlier work comes greek meaning beam ray metal discovered radiation radiation daughter products owing close similarity low abundance pure produced term probably introduced possibly isolated identified encountered short lived half life minutes studies decay named new element latin meaning brief changed greek meaning beam element groups scientists led austrian germany great_britain independently discovered shortened element little characterized workers produced grams tonnes waste left extraction ore named planet neptune planet named discovered berkeley california produced half life days bombarding slow element produced elements occur quantities nature commonly synthesized nuclear reactions conducted nuclear example partially converts formula way collaborators nuclear obtained significant amounts nuclear weapons highest mass numbers synthesized bombarding nitrogen oxygen carbon neon particle produced bombarding formula elements synthesized obtained bombarding particles formula produced nuclear element named husband noted discovering work bombarding particles resulted similar procedure yielded new elements named berkeley california analogy named village sweden obtained bulk chemical compound element years quantities amounts accumulated allowed production amounts elements produced compound obtained identified fallout ivy mike nuclear test november successful test hydrogen bomb exposure large resulting explosion produced heavy including decay yielded discovery new elements new data capture initially kept secret orders military cold war tensions berkeley team able prepare civilian means bombardment published work studies carried elements ivy mike studies published significant amounts produced colleagues half life min synthesized bombarded target alpha particles inch element synthesized time attempts obtain swedish american groups reliable result synthesis russian group acknowledged experiments bombarded obtained mass number clearly established possibly time synthesized recognized nuclear physics teams thirty excited states identified found nature produced laboratory natural applications member radioactive series discovered decay product half life days available promising applications half life years occurs small quantities radioactive contains member radioactive series formed decay half life hours discovered known mass numbers excited states found nature short lifetime half life years important intermediate product obtaining affordable artificial convenient half life energy radiation studies chemistry half life days highest number natural synthetic mass numbers present quantities nature important final product slow higher efficiency low energy thermal compared chemistry studies carried owing long half life years mass numbers highly radioactive popular scientists long lived years short lived days sixteen known mass numbers important alpha soft intense rays obtained pure form chemical properties studied later shifted times radioactive disadvantage production short lived daughter considered data analysis accessible shorter lifetime radiation undergo spontaneous associated long lived formed mixture short mixture dominated begins accumulate especially longer half life years convenient carrying chemical research high rate spontaneous longest lifetime years formed large quantities strong induced thermal fourteen identified mass numbers available large quantities relatively short half life days soft particles detection alpha radiation weak respect radiation detect alpha long half life years hard obtain quantities formed stability mass number mass numbers formed nuclear rest mass numbers high rate spontaneous especially spontaneous relatively long half life years weak spontaneous strong identification formed large quantities nuclear slow decay parent large cross section interaction accumulated pure form decay product pre selected produced consists predominant large study hindered strong radiation known mass numbers affordable half life days relatively weak small spontaneous rate compared prolonged produces long lived days nineteen known mass numbers short half life hours isolated significant amounts days accumulate prolonged strong characterized high rates spontaneous known mass numbers studied mainly electron capture radiation half life minutes alpha half life days produced rare respectively limits availability long lived heavier elements relatively short half lives known mass numbers chemical properties studied min longest lived half life hours distribution nature abundant nature respective mass concentrations occurs earth crust mixture minerals called black color dozens minerals composition natural relative abundance largest half life years worldwide production amounted tonnes mined important mining countries canada australia russia abundant minerals minerals contain vice versa significant fraction rich deposits minerals located united_states tonnes australia india tonnes canada tonnes abundance earth crust present containing minerals smaller quantities content natural objects corresponds parent affected weak migration abundant earth crust discovered ore distribution follows half life longest lived compared age earth present nature amounts produced intermediate decay products traces minerals found systematic results summarized table detected samples upper limit abundance longest living detected samples lunar soil owing nature produced extraction owing low abundance extraction complex process usually water easily separated reactions reduced calcium formula easiest extracted reacted acid produced treated rare earth separated increasing solution extraction method solution metal extracted filtered washed water dissolved concentrated acid acidic solution results precipitation contaminated rare earth rest rare earth remains solution dissolved acid rare earth elements efficient method dissolution acid resulting solution extraction organic metallic separated reacting calcium atmosphere extracted mixture potassium highly pure extracted crystal bar process extracted ways method ore burned reacted acid convert dissolved state treating solution solution transforms organic form filtered extracted reaction hydrogen ore rich minerals etc minerals consume acid case method extraction main component solution converts complex stable solutions low concentrations advantages method chemicals low compared non metals solution disadvantage compounds ore treated elevated temperature oxygen pressure equation suggests best processing mixture high results precipitation treated hydrogen presence yielding separation method uses exchange processes result separation washed solution acid yields heated turns converted hydrogen reacting dioxide acid changes yields metal reaction metal extract dissolved acid reducing agent added resulting solution addition changes state remains form solution treated reducing agent results precipitation compounds method extracted reacted washing recovered major difficulty separation similarity properties synthesized nuclear reactions separated exchange procedures properties similar properties electronic shells filled shell filled increase atomic number shell filled experimental evidence filling shell obtained radius decreases atomic number principle physical properties typical metals soft color air relatively high density cut knife electrical varies similar soft steel heated pure rolled sheets pulled wire nearly half dense harder radioactive exception phases seven crystal structures clear similar transition metals especially finely divided spontaneously reaction air melting point clear dependence number unusually low melting point explained formation directional bonds metals chemical properties like highly react easily especially small number prone explained similarity electron energies shells exhibit larger variety states stable similar explained similar electronic structure like pronounced basic properties acidic weakest tendency solutions active owing lack compounds solutions dominated relatively large depending coordination number radius result weak tendency distinctive ability high water polar organic exhibits states stable state easily solutions obtained action strong reducing agents hydrogen atmosphere similar water forms properties close complex chemical behavior consequence start filling shell element stable state similar group elements compounds non variable composition example actual chemical formula dioxide varies compounds weak contain linear group accommodated plane perpendicular group group acts hard acid forms stronger complexes oxygen donor nitrogen donor common form state compounds exhibit reducing properties easily atmospheric oxygen iii strong reducing agent owing presence shell forms compounds states simultaneously observed solutions stable state solution preferred solid compounds metal prone formation coordination compounds exhibits states inclusive similar highly quickly forms film air hydrogen temperatures low easily forms compounds reactions different states diverse enter reactions largest chemical diversity observed obtained dry compounds non solutions states typical solutions solid state forms stable solid compounds dioxide complexes solutions reported solution state data proved erroneous stable solutions solid compounds dominant subsequent elements possible exception dioxide shows stable observed solid dioxide stability solution close observed state proven stable state shows solutions potential formula increases revealing increasing reduction ability form black color salt like properties produce general formula compounds depending exists forms basic easily react water forming bases bases poorly water activity close rare earth metals strongest base compounds black cubic system calcium reacting oxygen exclusively forms dioxide formula dioxide material highest melting point known adding structure better mechanical stability vibrations dissolve heated heating produces resistant form small addition dissolution dioxide obtained black white easier obtain basic weak poorly base certain example air yields orange yellow forms stable reaction hydrogen results dioxide similar properties basic corresponds form basic unstable obtained far chemical formula characterized depending easily react forming compound synthesized like rare earth elements water easily yields temperature separation gas properties close sensitive moisture forming black synthesized unstable action yields non salt low state reactions hydrogen react metal forming corresponding water easily obtained corresponding water solutions forming high easily transform basic like weakly water state form complex example form types comparison easily form coordination compounds ability increases form coordination compounds forms complexes forms corresponding example general formula coordination nature coordination number equal easier produce complex stable coordination compounds obtained reactions applications established daily life applications smoke gas nuclear weapons use fuel nuclear areas exploit property release enormous energy nuclear reactions certain conditions self sustaining chain reaction important nuclear power applications thermal concentration natural exceed strongly thermal releasing energy act converts day importance reaching critical mass enters self sustaining chain reaction typically nucleus divided fragments release example formula promising nuclear power product fuel cycle important maintaining nuclear chain reaction synthesis heavier converts decay like capable spontaneous world nuclear built energy producing nuclear weapons half produced light material gas added light strong high melting point widely aviation industry production missiles good electron properties long lifetime low potential barrier relative content widely estimate age objects including stars dating major application nuclear weapons key component ease availability based designs allow reducing critical mass fat man bombs produced manhattan_project explosive compression obtain significantly higher normal combined central source begin reaction increase efficiency needed explosive yield equivalent tnt nuclear weapon design little maybe single atomic bomb sophisticated assembly designs potentially efficient nuclear smaller critical mass continues release thermal energy decay chain reaction stopped control rods application limited high price usd water systems space satellites stations apollo spacecraft powered kilogram quantities heat transformed electricity decay produces relatively harmless alpha particles accompanied gamma energy source heart lasts times longer conventional batteries source high specific energy possibility obtaining significant quantities stable compounds attractive use long lasting generators remote use indicator chemical research high energy easily detected widely intense gamma source industry medicine development self glowing materials new area addition alpha glasses crystals radioactive substances harm human health local skin contamination internal exposure radioactive iii external activity radiation elements dangerous radioactive high specific activity important feature ability accumulate remain surface layer skeletons initial stage poisoning liver danger undergoes radioactive decay faster digestive tract smaller body tends accumulate bones maximum safe dose human body corresponds present air times toxic acid entering body air food blood wound lungs liver bones going organs remains decades long residence time body partly explained poor water radiation damages surrounding cells median lethal dose days dogs injection body mass lethal dose humans approximately person weighing respiratory exposure approximately times greater estimate assumes times toxic content body nearly invisible microscope trials animals maximum dose reduced studies animals revealed dangerous exposure route substances retained body depending particle size compounds localized lungs system absorbed blood transported liver bones contamination food likely way case compounds blood rest exposure damaged skin retain nearly nuclear fuel sealed radioactive sources advanced materials self glowing crystals potential benefits concern extremely high migration environment use unstable forms sealed radioactive sources appropriate modern safety standards challenge develop stable bearing materials provide safe storage use final disposal key need application solid solutions host phases
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