india british general 2nd appointed february serve commander chief governor presidency known presidency based calcutta oversaw consolidation british control india setting stage british instrumental administrative legal reforms fundamentally altered civil administration land management practices india according historian responsible laying foundation british rule india setting standards services courts revenue collection remained remarkably end british era raised title recognition performance anglo war extracted significant concessions ruler returned england subsequently engaged variety administrative diplomatic posted lord lieutenant commander chief similar leadership posts india returning ireland posted india arrived july died october buried india background lord british army officer civil administrator diplomat career primarily military nature including series known campaigns war american independence culminated surrender following return england prevented parole participation war financial demands eventually caused seek position greater pay half pay military officers received service india area encompassed modern india significantly fractured following decline half 18th century european colonial outposts countries including denmark portugal france east west coasts established formal permission local ruler secured force arms dominated southern tip held sway centre peninsula confederation loosely allied dominated northern reaches calcutta bombay significant british bombay madras governed separate presidency region including calcutta come direct rule authority levy taxes presidency dominated civil head governor general ranked ahead madras bombay quickly established leader british colonial administration dominated man hold title governor general military arm directed seven years war second anglo war general died later stages war company policy implemented hastings involved company shifting alliances involving france factions local territories appointment considered posting india ministry earl spring asked wanted india governor general idea viewed favour provided employment parole status weak leader turned power early replaced coalition government dominated men king george disliked lord north normally avoided politics spite holding seat house_of_lords vocal opposition ministry hoping support government younger power december doors new positions opened earl offered lord ireland refused clear posted india want supreme military command addition civil control informed demand went period soul searching torn conflicting demands family country issue parliament took consideration assignments india august prepared offer posts refused consider passed military post constable tower refusing inadequate post india february demand posts finally met year later february departing london arrived madras august prosperous passage calcutta september accorded welcome suitable rank acting governor general unhappy replaced attempted reserve use normally reserved governor general having office administered immediately announced intention occupy residence administrative reforms charged directors overhaul reform administration india company historically paid revenue collectors traders administrators india relatively little allowed engage trade including use company shipping purpose long company profitable open door corruption company expense overlooked rise manufacturing britain led collapse prices goods india company involvement wars expensive time arrived company losing money employees continued profit personally caring company money sought change practice refusing engage dealing second securing pay increases company denying personal trading privileges area reform implemented reduction political means advancement positions company seeking instead advance company interests sought promoted individuals basis merit refusing requests assist individuals good judicial reforms prior earl arrival judicial police powers territories controlled company confusion differing standards applied work introduction criminal judicial regulations significant degree indian judicial system indian cities like british cities time poorly crime widespread different civil codes applied muslims codes different languages meant virtually impossible justice properly consistently applied criminal justice system remained hands nominal local ruler company territory furthermore individuals powerful political connections community able act suffering hands likely press charges fear retribution hastings times changes administration justice significant impact problem received critical assistance effort introduce legal reforms expert languages translated existing hindu muslim codes english evaluated applied english speaking judges began giving limited criminal judicial powers company revenue collectors served civil required report regularly detention times sentences given company took administration justice introduced system circuit courts superior court met calcutta power review circuit court decisions judges drawn company european employees reforms included changes codes begin different codes use time departure work code known india substantially complete consequence code effect racism legal system manner uncommon time believed bred gentlemen european extraction superior including product mixed relationships india wrote account colour extraction considered country inferior europeans opinion possess best abilities command authority respect necessary discharge duty officer issued order person son native indian shall appointed biographers observe british elite class simply added layer complex status hierarchy religion existed india time policies explicit agreement company directors employees lower classes include somewhat desire improve condition introduced legislation protect native forced working starvation wages company employees outlawed child slavery established sanskrit college established mint calcutta addition poor providing reliable standard currency forerunner india modern currency company acquisition territories led decisions collect taxes high land produce area means reducing investment capital directed india variety taxation schemes implemented following years produced satisfactory results left power natives hands tax collectors company directors gave task coming taxation scheme meet company objectives burden working men territories went succeed governor general men came trust important contributors called essence arrangement came summer effectively hereditary paying company tax based value land shore disagreed term scheme shore arguing year time limit arrangement argued truly permanent scheme prevailed noting company english revenue collectors company finance taxation supported proposal sent london company directors approved plan began implementing regulations critics permanent settlement objected claimed company revenue advocating misunderstood historic nature note relied extensively advice extensive experience india prior arrival revenue collectors districts uniformly favour permanent settlement clear need protect land tenants writing government individual possessed land provided protects pays public revenue predecessor authorised negotiations sultan establishment company trading post island captain trader familiar negotiated agreement sultan surrounded powerful adversaries received share trade profits defensive military alliance exchange captain light representations sultan company agreed terms occupied island august concerned military aspects agreement draw company conflicts sultan adversaries dutch withheld approval agreement requested company directors decide issue company refused military alliance sultan began blockading island renamed prince light started accumulate troops view forcibly british brother william royal_navy area sailed pick troops india defence captain light routed sultan forces april reinforcements arrived agreement signed company paid sultan annual use fort captain light constructed protect principal town known earl honour king company established trade relations requested military assistance expanding territory militarily taking smaller adjacent invasion met stiff chinese response declined king request sending instead colonel dispute englishman time reached parties resolved dispute war immediately signing treaty ending second anglo war ruler hatred british declaring seek renew conflict arrival india took steps modify agreements territories northern border saw problematic respect provisions treaty assure france involved conflict territories company assist policy refused send company troops assist war recover previously lost territories early campaigns tensions british raised gained control southernmost earlier agreement exchange company agreed station troops army tensions neighbors west including rose noticeably listed treaty british ally acquired dutch east india company forts located territory vassal state dutch paid tribute forts gaining control fact bounds sufficient dispute claim began troops making threatening gestures british authorities madras warned acts aggression met british response began urging governor madras begin military preparations december defenses military man acting attempted negotiation replaced early general gave authority military campaign began negotiating support british forces india significantly lacking cavalry strengths significant cavalry forces interested recovering territories lost earlier conflicts weak attack individually trust preferred wait clear british committed act campaign limited success occupied district minimal opposition forceful counterattack reduced british holdings outposts descended coastal plain met french fruitless attempt draw conflict september british allies taking field want face strong force significant british support consequently decided personally control main british force early february began campaign targeted capital campaign largest issues confronting managing army diversity addition british_army forces german troops large number native diversity cultural backgrounds speaking different languages having varied religious requirements order meet needs forces army followed number camp followers unusually large comparison typical european north american armies increasing need reliable supply army took troops camp followers permitted artist accompany army campaign resulting artwork campaign sensitive fact likely deny invading army access local forage provisions arrangements large supply provisions arranged use elephants assist movement army siege equipment encouraged step advances join army quickly possible advantage cavalry departed near madras february reaching february days rest army set apparent intention crossing eastern directly west turned army north instead crossed mountains taken steps defend southerly passes defended army met resistance fact met significant resistance neared strongest fortresses eastern march colonel leader british cavalry lured trap set cost army men valuable horses brushed loss proceeded march city walls breached city stormed opening sending defenders gained control city fortress stormed night march walls breached camps outside city offered weak resistance attempting siege works assist besieged fortress final assault securing began retreated lack cavalry hampered british effort ordered army north junction troops finally met miles described cavalry extremely point military discipline presence army ultimately presented difficulties assistance instead acting flanking companies foraging preferred remain main army consume provisions forced alter army route join supply train carrying additional provisions army returned april set march significantly slowed early monsoon rains turned march muddy mess spite appeals men continued consume provisions army provisions began run short retreated army employing earth tactics deny enemy provisions baggage left draft animals died army including officers half rations rains flooded difficult cross favourable conditions separated army british force waiting far arrival near village miles decided offer battle position nearby heights ensuing battle complicated rains prevailed routing forces retreated following battle difficult decision retreat army supply situation desperate siege impossible joined troops hoped junction troops unlikely successfully prevented communication intelligence position reaching recent reports placed distance ordering retreat ordered siege train destroyed began retreat day met advance company army day army totalling cavalry joined army able relieve british army stresses prices charged provisions combined army reached july took advantage retreat attack fell lengthy siege november second campaign armies left grand army pursue territorial gains northern territories earl younger brother commodore engaged naval spent remainder securing supply lines madras clearing way end laid siege november december fell unexpectedly modest efforts ordered massive supply operation ensure adequate supplies pay army allies available spies sent infiltrate camps began receive reliable reports troop strengths disposition relations allies difficult military leaders stay army reported forces help british observer wrote state military discipline january moved advanced coast men harassed column progress reached capital february established chain outposts protect supply line planned attack night arrived responded night time attack lines somewhat confused battle forces flanked retreated city began siege operations february arrived bombay army began february began making peace talks hostilities suspended day agreed preliminary terms preliminary terms insisted surrender sons hostages guarantee execution agreed terms february young sons formally delivered amid great ceremony gun sides interested significantly extending company territory turning negotiated division half territory divided allies company acquisition improve defenses later wrote taken killed given capital dangerous set miserable supported company troops treasures plundered servants territories taken deprived coastline pay allied war costs march agreed terms signed treaty ending hostilities departure difficulties military campaigns took great physical toll sought return england replacement arrive march remained august assist transition oversaw capture french outpost following arrival news war broken europe august ceremony quietly sailed calcutta madras october finally sailed england board swallow india scholar explains british public able follow war newspapers greater detail case previous war india returned victorious india celebrated parliamentary company circles raised celebrated publicly commissioned portraits statues published books songs poems tea time military victory india expense non european enemy garnered public praise way widespread enthusiasm marked turning point british acceptance overseas empire conquest immediately asked return india reform unable achieve pay rank military forces company crown company officers given rank generally paid better comparable rank crown forces proposals merge pay scales met resistance bordered mutiny company directors asked deal refused serving years master ordnance asked prime minister younger serve lord lieutenant ireland commander chief broke rebellion arrival oversaw remaining pockets rebellion successfully defeated french invasion intended rebellious activity worked secure passage act union joined ireland resigned posts king refused support catholic emancipation viewed key element securing enduring peace ireland engaged king diplomatic efforts europe led british diplomatic team negotiations napoleon resulted treaty signing treaty behalf king george return india years left india company reach control country increased significantly mainly governorship lord decisively defeated gained control direct indirect southern india company came conflict began extending company reach northern territories liberal spending aggressive methods dealing appreciated company directors following military setbacks allegations directors decided replace january appointed positions governor general commander chief india described difficult passage reached madras july july resumed duties wrote wreck aide noted constitution equal contend effects climate spite declining health mental began trip boat visit army outposts northwest calcutta journey wrote general commanding forces war insisting peace received lake answer reached september ill proceed died week later october legacy biographers franklin note attitudes governance idea responsible government took hold united_kingdom 19th century later british administrators adopted ideas service example service overall benefit population called era golden age british rule india grave marked construction begun memorials erected honour bombay madras london calcutta greatly expanded government facilities town hall included hall sculpture begun finished son erected honour sculpture stands
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