animal testing animal testing known animal experimentation animal research testing use non human animals experiments seek control affect behavior biological system study approach contrasted field studies animals observed natural environments experimental research animals usually conducted universities medical schools companies defense establishments commercial facilities provide animal testing services industry focus animal testing varies pure research little regard uses understanding applied research focus answering question great practical importance finding cure disease examples applied research include testing breeding defense research including testing education animal testing component biology psychology courses practice regulated varying degrees different countries worldwide estimated number animals non human ranges tens millions million annually official statistics indicate research important realise mice rats birds fish frogs invertebrates animals included figure protected relevant legislation species represent animals research true total number animals research estimated million estimate mice rats million million animals research mice rats fish amphibians reptiles account research animals animals experiment sources laboratory animals vary countries species animals purpose bred minority caught wild supplied dealers obtain pounds supporters use animals experiments argue virtually medical achievement 20th century relied use animals way argued animal research replaced sophisticated computer models unable deal extremely complex interactions molecules cells tissues organs organisms environment animal rights animal welfare organizations question need legitimacy animal testing arguing cruel poorly regulated medical progress actually held misleading animal models reliably predict effects humans tests outdated costs benefits animals right harmed experimentation definitions terms animal testing animal experimentation animal research testing similar different literally means cutting living animal historically referred experiments involved live animals term occasionally refer experiment living animals example defines operation living animal experimental healing purposes broadly experimentation live animals point broader definition people opposed work word negative implying torture suffering death word preferred opposed research scientists typically use term animal experimentation history earliest references animal testing found writings greeks 2nd 4th centuries bce aristotle perform experiments living animals physician 2nd century rome pigs goats known father arabic physician 12th century practiced introduced animal testing experimental method testing surgical procedures applying human patients animals repeatedly history research founders members medical profession interested studying animals alive dead 1880s convincingly demonstrated theory medicine inducing sheep 1880s infected mice guinea pigs tuberculosis 1890s famously dogs describe classical conditioning world war german agents infected sheep bound russia horses french cavalry disease germans infected argentina bound american forces resulting death isolated dogs treatment diabetes november soviet dog animals orbit earth 1970s treatments developed given humans ability humans change animals took large step forwards able produce integrating dna virus mice genetic research progressed rapidly sheep born adult cell testing important 20th century 19th century laws regulating drugs relaxed example government ban drug company prosecuted selling products harmed customers response disaster eponymous drug killed users congress passed laws required safety testing drugs animals marketed countries enacted similar legislation 1960s reaction tragedy laws passed requiring safety testing pregnant animals drug sold historical debate experimentation animals increased especially practice criticism controversy advocate physiology said miserable torture places body unnatural state argued animal physiology affected pain rendering results unreliable objections ethical basis benefit humans justify harm animals early objections animal testing came angle people believed animals inferior humans different results animals applied humans debate favor animal testing held experiments animals necessary advance medical biological knowledge known prince father physiology wife founded anti society france famously wrote science life superb hall reached passing long kitchen arguing experiments animals entirely conclusive man effects substances man animals save differences degree bernard established animal experimentation standard scientific method physician said second types described said common sense conscience lead crime conscience common sense lead crime divisions animal testing groups came public attention brown dog affair early 1900s hundreds medical students clashed anti police memorial dog animal protection law enacted british parliament followed law specifically aimed regulating animal testing legislation promoted wrote march ask opinion agree real investigations physiology mere curiosity subject makes sick horror word shall sleep night response lobbying anti organizations set britain defend animal research formed mutual benefit protection formed focused policy making understanding animal research formed known facts experiments animals country immense importance welfare mankind experiments great saving human life health directly opposition use animals medical research arose united_states 1860s founded america specifically anti organization founded era generally believed spread mercy great cause civilization cruel usa efforts defeated legislature overwhelmed superior organization influence medical community overall movement little legislative success passing laboratory animal welfare act care use animals guiding principles ethical use animals testing described replacement refers preferred use non animal methods animal methods possible achieve scientific aims methods include computer modeling reduction refers methods enable researchers obtain comparable levels information fewer animals obtain information number animals refers methods alleviate minimize potential pain suffering distress enhance animal welfare animals methods include non invasive techniques broader scope simply encouraging alternatives animal testing aim improve animal welfare scientific quality use animals avoided implemented testing establishments worldwide adopted pieces legislation regulations despite widespread acceptance countries including canada australia israel united_kingdom germany reported rising experimental use animals recent years increased use mice cases fish reporting declines use cats dogs rabbits guinea pigs countries china escalated use animals resulting increase overall animal use regulations regulations apply animals laboratories vary species provisions animal welfare act guide care use laboratory animals guide published procedure performed animal successfully argued scientifically justified general researchers required consult institution research facility obliged maintain ensure alternatives including non animal alternatives considered experiments pain relief given interfere study regulate testing institutions receiving federal funds usa provisions animal welfare act include purpose bred birds species equally regulated policies govern animal welfare act regulations enforced regulations enforced cases according report looked oversight animal use year period institutional animal care use committees adequately approve monitor report experimental procedures animals found result animals receiving basic humane care treatment cases pain distress experimental procedures according report year period nearly half american laboratories regulated species cited violations relating improper oversight similar findings report criticized composition asserting committees predominantly animal researchers university representatives biased animal welfare concerns laboratory animal writes experience work seriously regardless species involved use non human raises calls red flag special concern study published science magazine july confirmed low reliability reviews animal experiments funded year study found animal use committees know university personnel approval decisions animal use committees know university personnel specifically blinded committees ask information approving studies scientists india protesting recent issued ban use live animals universities laboratories numbers accurate global figures animal testing difficult obtain estimated million experimented world year million reports global annual estimates range million animals figures include invertebrates shrimp fruit flies according total number animals million number include rats mice research animals comparing data species counted estimated million research article published argued use animals dramatically increased recent years researchers found increase largely result increased reliance genetically modified mice animal studies researchers estimated million animals american laboratories reduction high million reported estimates animals range million upwards million year best estimate million million figures million procedures carried procedures non human procedure refers experiment minutes months years animals procedure animals frequently experiment death procedures procedures conducted animals thousand assessed sub threshold thousand assessed non recovery thousand assessed mild thousand assessed moderate thousand assessed severe severe procedure instance test death end point fatalities expected mild procedure like blood test scan invertebrates invertebrates animal testing studies largely law frequently species fruit fly worm case worm body completely transparent precise lineage organism cells known studies fly use amazing array genetic tools invertebrates offer advantages animal testing including short life cycle ease large numbers housed studied lack immune system simple organs prevent worms aspects medical research development similarly fruit fly immune system differs greatly humans diseases insects different diseases fruit flies useful studies identify novel factors active compounds systems considered acceptable alternatives early stage discovery screens similarities innate immune system insects mammals insects replace mammals types studies particularly important analysis traits insects proven valuable identification compounds favorable decision adopt models generally involves accepting lower degree biological similarity mammals significant gains experimental numbers rats mice estimated million year commonly guinea pigs mice commonly species size low cost ease handling fast reproduction rate mice widely considered best model inherited human disease share genes humans advent genetic engineering technology genetically modified mice generated order provide models range human diseases rats widely physiology cancer research genetic manipulation harder rats mice limits use basic science nearly fish amphibians main species translucent stage african frog rabbits animal testing rabbits eye tests test rabbits tear flow animals lack eye pigment effects easier rabbits frequently production cats cats commonly research cats half experiments potential cause pain distress cat experiments involved potential pain relieved dogs dogs widely research testing education particularly gentle easy handle allow comparisons historical data reduction technique models human diseases bone joint studies research tends highly invasive according united_states common use dogs safety assessment new human use second species following testing accordance regulations set shows dogs registered facilities non human non human tests studies aids studies behavior reproduction caught wild purpose bred united_states china domestically purpose bred europe majority imported purpose bred reported experimented european laboratories according laboratories imported including caught wild experiments spider approximately laboratories survey found singly housed exhibited self abnormal behaviors including pacing rocking hair pulling biting produced development method introduce new genes technology applied search treatment genetic disorder disease notable studies non human development development current heaviest non use occurs monkey aids model proposal ban experiments sparked vigorous debate pain suffering extent animal testing causes pain suffering capacity animals experience subject debate according animals including rats mice birds invertebrates procedures include pain distress procedures pain distress relieved studies cause pain distress relieved research projects classified mild moderate substantial terms suffering researchers conducting study cause fourth category means animal killed recovering consciousness according researchers december project licenses force classified mild moderate substantial suggestions procedure severity idea animals feel pain human beings feel traces 17th century french philosopher argued animals experience pain suffering lack consciousness principal author federal laws regulating pain relief animals writes researchers remained unsure 1980s animals experience pain trained simply taught ignore animal pain interactions scientists regularly asked prove animals conscious provide scientifically acceptable grounds claiming feel pain writes view animals feel pain differently minority view academic reviews topic noting argument animals simple conscious thoughts feelings strong support critics continue question reliably animal mental states determined ability invertebrates experience pain suffering clear legislation countries new_zealand norway protects species animal testing defining text animal welfare regulation animal testing guide care use laboratory animals defines parameters govern animal testing states ability experience respond pain widespread animal kingdom pain relieved lead unacceptable levels stress distress animals guide states ability recognize symptoms pain different species vital efficiently applying pain relief essential people caring animals entirely familiar symptoms subject relieve pain guide states selection appropriate reflect professional judgment best meets clinical humane requirements scientific aspects research protocol accordingly issues animal pain distress potential treatment required regulatory issues receiving animal protocol approval regulations require scientists use animals possible especially terminal experiments policy makers consider suffering central issue animal way reduce suffering argue lives laboratory animals value regulations focus particular methods cause pain suffering death undesirable animals end studies sample collection post examination studies pain suffering falls certain categories regarded unacceptable depression infection treatment failure large animals eat days unsuitable breeding unwanted reason methods laboratory animals chosen induce rapid death pain distress methods preferred published councils animal gas carbon carbon dioxide placed chamber use face mask prior given amphibians fish immersed water containing physical methods depending method recommended methods include small rabbits breaking neck spine birds mice immature rats rabbits grinding small pieces day old chicks high intensity microwave brain preserve brain tissue induce death second currently captive bolts typically dogs horses pigs rabbits causes death concussion brain gunshot cases penetrating captive bolt physical methods acceptable animal unconscious cattle sheep animals unconscious prior electrical tool base brain usable animals unconscious slow rapid freezing inducing air acceptable prior induce research classification pure research basic pure research investigates organisms behave develop function opposed animal testing object pure research little practical purpose researchers argue forms necessary basis development applied research rendering distinction pure applied research research specific practical aim unclear pure research uses larger numbers greater variety animals applied research fruit flies worms mice rats account vast majority small numbers species ranging sea examples types animals experiments basic research include studies developmental biology created adding specific genes deleted gene targeting studying changes development changes produce scientists aim understand organisms normally develop wrong process studies particularly powerful basic controls development genes similar functions organisms diverse fruit flies man experiments behavior understand organisms detect interact environment fruit flies worms mice rats widely studies brain function memory social behavior use rats birds species research combined strategies animals captivity allows engage wider range activities breeding experiments study evolution laboratory mice flies fish worms generations create strains defined characteristics provide animals known genetic background important tool genetic analyses larger mammals rarely bred specifically studies slow rate reproduction scientists advantage animals dog cattle breeds comparative purposes scientists studying animals evolve use animal species variations organism lives niche produce adaptations physiology morphology example study types selected produce adaptations animals morphology evolution new species applied research applied research aims solve specific practical problems compared pure research largely academic origin applied research usually carried industry universities commercial partnerships involve use animal models diseases conditions discovered generated pure research programmes turn applied studies early stage drug discovery process examples include genetic modification animals study disease animals specific genes inserted modified removed mimic specific conditions single gene disorders disease models mimic complex diseases genetic components diabetes mice carry occur development cancer models allow investigations disease develops providing ways develop test new treatments vast majority models human disease lines mice species genetic modification efficient smaller numbers animals including rats pigs sheep fish birds amphibians studies models naturally occurring disease condition certain domestic wild animals natural certain conditions found humans cats model develop virus study natural virus certain breeds dog suffer making major model study human condition humans animal species naturally suffer bacteria responsible disease grown culture primary source studies induced animal models human diseases animal treated develops symptoms resemble human disease examples include restricting blood flow brain induce stroke giving cause damage similar seen disease studies difficult interpret argued comparable human diseases example models widely study disease british anti interest group argues models resemble disease symptoms time course cellular contrast scientists assessing animal models disease medical research charity appeal state models led improved surgical treatments new drug treatments later deep brain animal testing included use testing cases animals treated substance produces effect administered order determine biological alterations experience substance administered results compared obtained active compound research involves tissues organs species way overcome shortage human organs use organ current research involves recipients organs pigs genetically modified reduce immune response pig tissue rejection remains problem recent clinical trials involved pig cells reduce people need documents released news media animal rights organization campaigns showed wild imported africa subsidiary conjunction cambridge_university experiments involved pig tissues suffered fatal injuries scandal occurred revealed company communicated british government attempt avoid regulation testing testing known safety testing conducted companies testing drugs contract animal testing facilities behalf wide variety customers according figures million animals year europe tests procedures according nature animals chemical tested needed test tests conducted interactions drugs affect animals chemicals interfere results tests examine finished products food packing materials air chemical ingredients tests involve testing ingredients finished products according manufacturers believe tests toxic effects substances repeat tests finished products obtain toxic label substances applied skin eyes injected placing mask animals placing chamber administered tube stomach simply animal food given repeated regularly months lifespan animal different types acute tests lethal dose test evaluate substance determining dose required kill test animal population test removed international guidelines replaced methods fixed dose procedure use fewer animals cause suffering writes acute test accounts animal tests worldwide measured test test substance applied animal eyes skin usually rabbit eye testing test involves observing effects substance intervals grading damage test halted animal killed shows continuing signs severe pain distress united_states writes procedure cause test criticized scientists cruel inaccurate sensitive failing reflect human real world accepted alternatives exist modified form test called low volume eye test reduce suffering provide realistic results adopted new standard september test substances severe stringent tests reserved drugs number tests performed lasting month acute months months chronic test general damage organs eye skin reproductive problems cost complement tests million dollars substance years complete tests provide words united states report critical information assessing hazard risk potential animal tests risk false positive results particular problem false appear common results arises effects high chemicals small numbers laboratory animals try predict effects low large numbers humans relationships exist opinion divided use data species predict exact level risk testing testing animals particularly controversial tests conducted involve general eye skin triggered light testing animals banned india european_union israel norway legislation brazil currently considering similar years discussion european_union agreed phase near total ban sale animal tested ban related animal testing france home world largest company protested proposed ban lodging case asking ban ban opposed represents companies switzerland belgium france germany italy october india passed laws ban products tested animals drug testing early 20th century laws regulating drugs currently new undergo rigorous animal testing licensed human use tests products involve tests investigating drugs absorbed body introduced tests gauge acute sub acute chronic acute studied rising dose signs apparent current european legislation demands acute tests carried species covering different routes administration sub acute drug given animals weeks level causes rapid poisoning order discover toxic drug build time testing chronic years european_union required involve species mammals non studies test experimental drugs work inducing appropriate illness animals drug administered double blind controlled trial allows researchers determine effect drug dose response curve specific tests reproductive function potential required law depending result studies type drug tested education estimated million animals annually educational purposes united_states including classroom exercises live animal frogs pigs perch cats commonly classroom alternatives use animals classroom widely school districts students offered choice citing wide availability alternatives local frog species india banned hosts annual discuss use invertebrates education efforts countries find alternatives animals education database maintained lists products alternatives animal use education training personnel work animals include alternatives schools similar database loans system november based company released sale public electronic attached operator required antennae use wear shell insert wire circuit board insect mobile phone app control suggested use device teaching aid promote interest science makers funded state device intended encourage children interested defense animals military develop weapons battlefield surgical techniques defensive clothing example united_states defense advanced research projects agency live pigs study effects improvised explosive device explosions internal organs especially brain military goats commonly train combat goats main animal species purpose pentagon phased dogs medical training 1980s modern medical training efficient behavior human body feel goat exercise provide sense urgency real life trauma provide announced reduce number animals uses training exercises half released video showing guard members cutting limbs unconscious goats tree inflicting injuries shotgun pistol year citing availability human alternatives announced begin reducing animals uses training programs navy medical centers stopped exercises complaints nato countries including poland denmark use live animals combat training ethics viewpoints moral ethical questions raised performing experiments animals subject debate viewpoints shifted significantly 20th century remain disagreements procedures useful purposes disagreements ethical principles apply species poll found americans concerned somewhat concerned animals research poll taken year found american adults opposed use animals research wide range viewpoints exist view animals moral rights animal rights philosophical position proposed argues animals beings beliefs desires subjects life moral value moral rights sees ethical differences killing human non human animals argues save kill likewise moral dilemma view suggests avoiding potential benefit humans unacceptable similar grounds holds issue dilemma balancing harm humans harm animals research contrast abolitionist view animal rights holds moral justification harmful research animals benefit individual animal argues benefits human beings animal suffering human beings moral right use animal ways benefit individual prominent position philosopher argues grounds include species considerations suffering important moral considerations collaborators argue controlled animal studies employ allocation outcome assessment failure employ features apparent benefit drugs tested animals leading failure translate animal research human benefit governments netherlands new_zealand responded public concerns invasive experiments certain classes non human particularly great captive added endangered species act adding new road blocks wishing experiment similarly citing ethical considerations availability alternative research methods announced dramatically reduce eventually phase experiments british government required cost animals experiment weighed gain knowledge medical schools agencies china japan south_korea built killed animals japan annual memorial services animals sacrificed medical school specific cases animal testing drawn attention including instances beneficial scientific research instances alleged ethical violations performing tests fundamental properties muscle physiology determined work frog muscles including force generating mechanism muscle length tension relationship force velocity curve frogs preferred model organism long survival muscles possibility intact single fiber preparations possible organisms modern physical therapy understanding treatment muscular disorders based work subsequent work mice engineered express disease states muscular february team scotland announced birth sheep adult cell concerns raised undergoing testing case monkey gained public attention shut head experiment test sensory devices blind people laboratory raided removing animals conducted month investigation concluded action necessary 2000s cases headlines including experiments university_of_cambridge columbia_university undercover footage staff contract research organization provides animal testing services virginia lab shot people following release footage fined involved lab involved administrative issues equipment filmed staff showing dogs employees responsible dismissed given community service orders ordered pay costs lab technicians prosecuted animal cruelty threats researchers researcher ucla shut experiments lab threats animal rights activists researcher received grant use vision experiments monkey single experiment lasting hours researcher phone number address posted website demonstrations held home cocktail placed porch believed home ucla researcher instead accidentally left porch elderly woman unrelated university claimed responsibility attack result campaign researcher sent email stating win don bother family anymore incident ucla june placed bomb car ucla children experiments cats bomb faulty fuse detonate ucla refusing freedom information act requests animal medical records attacks similar incidents caused southern poverty law center declare animal rights movement clearly taken turn extreme prompted government pass animal enterprise terrorism act government add offense intimidation persons connected animal research organisation legislation arrest imprisonment decreased attacks alternatives animal testing scientists governments state animal testing cause little suffering animals possible animal tests performed necessary guiding principles use animals research countries whilst replacement animals alternatives animal testing principles scope broader principles welcomed step forwards animal welfare groups criticized outdated current research little practical effect improving animal welfare scientists engineers harvard created organs chip including lung chip gut chip tiny devices contain human cells dimensional system human organs chips instead animals disease research drug testing testing researchers begun create human cells testing non animal research method computer simulation mathematical modeling seeks investigate ultimately predict drug affects humans animals investigating test compounds molecular level recent advances technological capabilities ultimate goal creating treatments unique patient form uprising alternatives alternative use animals experimentation process volunteers administered small dose test compound allowing researchers investigate affects volunteers replace use animals pre clinical drug screening reduce number animals safety testing additional alternative methods include pet allows scanning human brain comparative studies disease risk factors human populations computer programs replaced use animals teaching training exercises official bodies germany promote bodies mainly driven responding regulatory requirements supporting testing ban alternative methods animal testing serves liaison industries coordinates efforts member states academic centers 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