english language english language spoken early medieval england global english official language official language sovereign states commonly spoken language united_kingdom united_states canada australia ireland new_zealand widely spoken areas caribbean africa common native language world spanish widely learned second language official language united_nations european_union world regional international organisations english developed course years earliest forms english set anglo brought great_britain settlers fifth century called old english began late 11th century norman conquest england early modern english began late 15th century introduction printing press london king james bible start great shift worldwide influence british_empire modern english spread world 17th mid-20th centuries types printed electronic media emergence united_states global english leading language international discourse regions professional contexts science navigation law modern english little compared languages relies auxiliary word order expression complex aspect mood passive constructions despite noticeable variation accents english different countries regions terms vocabulary grammar spelling english speakers world able communicate surprising ease classification english european language belongs group languages closely related english languages english form anglo low german languages closely related low german english grouped languages modern english descends turn descends old english particular old middle english developed number english languages including scots extinct forth ireland english classified language shares new language features different european languages languages dutch german swedish shared innovations languages descended single common ancestor shared features languages use division strong weak classes sound changes affecting known laws law word foot begins languages european languages begin english classified anglo language english share features history old english english sing sang sung dutch german sang strong english laugh laughed dutch german weak english foot dutch german norwegian swedish initial derived law latin stem modern greek russian pod sanskrit original english cheese dutch english like languages developed independently continental languages influences english mutually continental language differing vocabulary dutch strong english especially earlier stages english history changed considerably response contact languages particularly scholars argued english considered mixed language theory called hypothesis high degree influence languages vocabulary grammar modern english widely acknowledged specialists language contact consider english true mixed language history old english earliest form english called old english old english developed set originally spoken coasts jutland tribes known fifth century settled britain romans withdrew britain seventh century language dominant britain replacing languages celtic language latin brought britain roman occupation england english originally named angles old english divided saxon educational reforms king alfred ninth century influence kingdom west saxon dialect standard written variety epic poem written earliest english poem hymn written modern english developed mainly scots language developed short inscriptions early period old english written script sixth century latin alphabet adopted written half included letters modified latin letters ash old english different modern english difficult 21st century english speakers understand grammar similar modern german closest relative old endings forms word order modern english case forms endings old english case endings person number endings translation matthew shows examples case endings singular ending present nest fox fox hole heaven bird nest holes birds heaven nests middle english period 8th 12th century old english gradually transformed language contact defined beginning conquest england developed period waves norse northern parts british isles 8th 9th centuries old english intense contact language norse influence strongest northeastern varieties old english spoken area york centre norse today features particularly present scots northern english centre english anglo saxon norse features spread english varieties intense contact norse speakers elements norse influence persist english varieties today beginning replaced anglo saxon norman conquest england language subject contact romance language closely related modern french england eventually developed norman spoken primarily nobles lower classes continued speaking influence norman consisted introducing wide range related politics legislation prestigious social domains greatly simplified system probably order reconcile old english different similar distinction case lost personal instrumental case dropped use case limited describing possession system irregular forms gradually simplified system agreement making word order flexible passage written han han retained case endings present 12th century middle english fully developed integrating norse norman features continued spoken transition early modern english middle english literature includes arthur period use regional writing dialect traits effect authors early modern english period history english early modern english early modern english characterised great shift linguistic great shift affected stressed long chain shift meaning shift triggered subsequent shift system mid open raised close broken example word bite originally pronounced word today second word pronounced word boot today great shift explains irregularities spelling english retains explains english letters different letters languages english began rise prestige reign began english official documents new standard form middle english known standard developed london introduced printing press england began publishing printed books london expanding influence form english literature early modern period includes works william_shakespeare translation bible commissioned king shift language sounded different modern english example clusters knight sword pronounced features modern reader shakespeare find archaic represent distinct characteristics king james version bible written early modern english matthew says holes birds nests loss case effects sentence structure replacement word order use instead non introduction french word replacements bird originally meaning replaced spread modern english late 18th century british_empire facilitated spread english colonies dominance commerce science technology diplomacy art formal education contributed english truly global language english facilitated worldwide international communication england continued form new colonies turn independent developed norms speak write language english adopted north_america india parts africa regions post colonial period newly created nations multiple indigenous languages opted continue english official language avoid political difficulties inherent promoting indigenous language 20th century growing economic cultural influence united_states status following second world war worldwide broadcasting english bbc broadcasters significantly accelerated spread language planet 21st century english widely spoken written language major feature early development modern english explicit norms standard usage official media public education state sponsored publications published dictionary english language introduced standard set spelling conventions usage norms published english language effort establish norm speaking writing american english independent british standard britain non standard lower class dialect features increasingly leading quick spread prestige varieties middle classes terms evolution modern english reached stage loss case complete case found word order fixed changes use support earlier english use word general auxiliary modern english question constructions support increasingly use progressive forms appears spreading new constructions forms built common irregular forms slowly continues dreamed instead alternatives forms common instead british english undergoing change influence american english strong presence american english media prestige associated world power geographical distribution million people spoke english language english probably largest language number native speakers spanish combining native non native speakers probably commonly spoken language world english spoken communities continent oceanic islands major oceans countries english spoken grouped different categories english country inner circle countries native speakers english share international standard written english jointly influence speech norms english world english belong country belong solely descendants english settlers english official language countries populated descendants native speakers english far important language international communication people share native language meet world circles english speaking countries distinguishes countries english spoken circles model model inner circle countries countries large communities native speakers english outer circle countries small communities native speakers english widespread use english second language education broadcasting local official purposes expanding circle countries countries learn english foreign language bases model history english spread different countries users acquire english range uses english country circles change membership time countries large communities native speakers english inner circle include britain united_states australia canada ireland new_zealand majority speaks english south_africa significant minority speaks english countries native english speakers descending order united_states million united_kingdom million canada million australia million south_africa million ireland million new_zealand million countries children native speakers learn english parents local people speak languages new immigrants learn english communicate inner circle countries provide base english spreads countries world estimates number english speakers second language foreign language speakers vary greatly million million depending proficiency defined estimates non native speakers native speakers ratio circles model outer circle countries countries philippines jamaica india pakistan singapore nigeria smaller proportion native speakers english use english second language education government domestic business english routinely school instruction official interactions government countries millions native speakers dialect ranging english based standard version english speakers english acquire english process growing day day use listening broadcasting especially attend schools english medium instruction varieties english learned speakers native speakers born english speaking parents influenced especially grammar languages spoken varieties english include words little native speakers english inner circle countries differences inner circle varieties standard english inner circle countries taken norm use english outer circle countries circles model countries poland china brazil germany japan indonesia egypt countries english taught foreign language expanding circle english language second language foreign language change particular countries time example netherlands countries europe knowledge english second language nearly universal percent population able use english routinely communicate foreigners higher education countries english government business widespread use english countries puts boundary outer circle expanding circle english unusual world languages users native speakers speakers english second foreign language users english expanding circle use communicate people expanding circle interaction native speakers english plays decision use english non native varieties english widely international communication speakers variety encounter features varieties today conversation english world include native speakers english including speakers different countries english language means national authority sets standard use language english divided language despite long standing joke originally attributed united_kingdom united_states countries separated common language example english broadcasting generally follows national pronunciation standards established custom regulation international broadcasters usually identifiable coming country accents scripts composed largely international standard written english norms standard written english maintained purely consensus educated english speakers world oversight government international organisation american listeners generally readily understand british broadcasting british listeners readily understand american broadcasting english speakers world understand radio programmes television programmes films parts english speaking world standard varieties english include formal informal styles distinguished word choice use technical non technical registers settlement history english speaking inner circle countries outside britain helped level dialect produce form english south_africa australia new_zealand majority immigrants united_states british ancestry rapidly adopted english arrival majority united_states population english speakers english given official status state governments english global language english ceased english language sense belonging people english use english growing country country internally international communication people learn english practical ideological reasons speakers english africa saxon language community different countries proceeded british_empire 1950s 1960s colonies reject english continued use independent countries setting language policies example view english language indians gone economic progress english continues official language india english widely media literature number english language books published annually india largest world english rarely spoken language numbering couple thousand people population speak fluent english india claimed combining native non native speakers india people speak understand english country world number english speakers india uncertain scholars concluding united_states speakers english india modern english described global regarded world language english world widely language newspaper publishing book publishing international telecommunications scientific publishing international trade mass entertainment diplomacy english international treaty basis required controlled natural languages international languages aviation english replaced german dominant language scientific research achieved french language diplomacy treaty versailles negotiations time foundation united_nations end world war english pre eminent main worldwide language diplomacy international relations official languages united_nations worldwide international organisations including specify english working language official language organisation regional international organisations set english organisation sole working language members countries majority native english speakers european_union allows member states designate national languages official language union practice english main working language organisations countries english official language currently language taught foreign language countries english widely spoken foreign language nineteen member states official language countries ireland malta official poll percent respondents outside countries english official language said speak english conversation language commonly mentioned foreign language french widely known foreign language ireland conversation percent respondents working knowledge english requirement number medicine computing english important scientific publishing percent scientific journal articles written english percent articles natural science publications percent articles publications increased use english language globally effect languages leading english words languages influence english led concerns language death claims linguistic provoked resistance spread english number speakers continues increase people world think english provides opportunities better employment improved lives scholars mention possibility future divergence english mutually languages think likely outcome english continue function language standard form speakers world english language wider communication countries world english grown worldwide use constructed language proposed international auxiliary language including english differ usually interfering mutual communication variation affects inventory speech sounds distinguish meaning variation differences pronunciation overview mainly describes standard united_kingdom united_states received pronunciation section accents varieties symbols english share inventory shown valid english conventionally table stops appear pairs strong second weak pronounced muscular tension breath force partly voiced beginning end fully voiced stops additional acoustic features occur beginning stressed cases unreleased pre end single word stop shortened noticeably shorter stops stops pin spin happy lateral main pronunciation variants clear plain light dark dark cases clear light dark light following following end word clay snow button pronunciation varies great deal aspects speaker accent table lists examples words occur sets compiled represented symbols given standard british publications length long marked triangular table need opposed bid long shortened like like open syllables rich neat safe noticeably shorter ridge need save light shorter lie frequently end length important cue following occur syllables result reduction distinguish roses end dialect feature called weak merger coloured butter word final english includes nucleus consisting sound onset coda start end optional start sounds sprint end texts gives english following structure represents appear restricted order appear types clusters stop play fly sly stop stay stop string clusters nasal stop allowed clusters agree voicing clusters point prohibited furthermore limited occur initial position final position stress rhythm stress plays important role english certain syllables stressed stress combination duration intensity quality changes pitch stressed syllables pronounced longer syllables syllables frequently reduced stressed syllables words primarily short function words weak strong forms depending occur stressed non stressed position sentence stress english pairs words distinguished stress instance word contract stressed meanings example reduce size stress connected reduction contract stressed contract reduced stress distinguish words phrases compound word receives single stress unit corresponding phrase versus versus terms rhythm english generally described stress timed language meaning time stressed syllables tends equal stressed syllables pronounced longer syllables syllables stresses shortened syllables shortened shortening causes changes quality reduction regional variation varieties english vary pronunciation generally groups british american north_america settled late 17th century american canadian english time greatly varieties english centuries travel slow australian new_zealand south african english hand settled 19th century shortly ocean going commonplace close similarities english english spoken ireland scottish english fall groups differences shown table varieties standard english features english undergone historical sound changes affecting varieties affecting standard varieties affected great shift changed pronunciation long slightly different results north_america number chain shifts canadian shift produced different landscapes regional accents fewer phones standard varieties conservative varieties like sound contrasts voiced wine words voiced dialect feature called wine merger sound found scottish english distinguishes lock accents like dropping lack stopping like african american vernacular estuary english dental replace dental stops changes affecting local varieties processes dropping reduction clusters general american vary pronunciation historical end coda dialect meaning end non meaning loses position english classified non depending like like complex variation words open open distinguished australia new_zealand south_africa merge canadian english merge addition words vary dialect table open shows variation sets sounds occur grammar modern english grammar result gradual change typical european dependent marking pattern rich morphology relatively free word order pattern little fairly fixed word order complex traits typical languages persist english distinction irregularly strong stems changing stem pairs speak spoke foot feet weak stems love loved hand hands case gender system found system typically european language english follows alignment english distinguishes seven major word classes articles analyses add class separate add class english rich set auxiliary expressing categories mood aspect questions marked support movement question words beginning word order seven word classes exemplified sample sentence phrases english number possession new formed divided proper names common common turn divided concrete abstract count mass count number use irregular forms mass use count bread bread regular formation singular cat dog cats dogs irregular formation singular man woman foot fish knife mouse men women feet fish knives mice possession expressed traditionally called historically reserved today distinction clear speakers use separated root constructions woman husband child child husband woman form phrases head words depend phrases short man composed include red tall tie single long tall man long red trousers wife uses regardless length functions unit example cases lead ambiguity follow entire phrase president india wife follows india president class specify terms marks definite indefinite definite assumed speaker known indefinite specified previously known include specify terms quantity number agree number man men constituents phrase modify providing additional information english come modify modern english agree form modify european languages example phrases slender boy slender girls slender change form agree number gender degree comparison positive degree unmarked marking comparative marking small boy boy smaller girl boy smallest irregular comparative forms good better best formed constructions marking comparative marking happy happy variation speakers use comparison studies shown tendency forms common expense form case person english conserve traits case gender personal retain difference objective case persons gender distinction person singular distinguishing case corresponds old english case objective case sense previous case role patient direct object sense old english case role recipient indirect object case subject finite clause objective case noted english cases correspond traditional latin based system contemporary example retain traditional labels cases calling cases respectively exist dependent independent forms dependent form functions chair independent form stand chair english system person longer distinction formal informal address forms 2nd person singular identical form introduced innovative 2nd person found southern american english african american vernacular english found irish english refer entities points person object identifying relative speech situation example identifies speaker refer entity mentioned assumed speaker known audience example sentence told oblique argument identical subject phrase sent impact phrases phrases composed dog friend school england wide range uses english describing movement place relations different entities uses introducing complement clauses oblique arguments example phrase gave marks recipient traditionally words considered governed case preceded example causing use objective form contemporary longer consider government case defining class defining words function heads phrases phrases english tense aspect marked agreement person singular subject agreement second person subjects auxiliary paired past progressive forms form complex aspects moods auxiliary differ followed occur constituent question sentence forms primary forms plain present person singular present past form secondary forms plain form past retain original takes different forms depending subject person present tense form person singular form form second person singular past tense aspect mood english primary past non past form regular includes strong change stem non past form unmarked person singular takes english future tense action expressed auxiliary shall varieties use near future constructed going use auxiliary primarily contrast perfect non perfect past tense run running compound perfect running present perfect running expression mood english uses number shall past tense forms mood based plain form person singular subordinate clauses important run day run form uses plain form verbal clauses subordinate finite verbal clause finite verbal clauses formed present form clauses auxiliary finite main treated subordinate clause example auxiliary time main complement clause saw leave main form leave english makes frequent use constructions traditionally called phrases root particle follows phrase functions single terms fused writing written separate word examples ask hang etc frequently highly meaning specialised restricted simply combination complement lay meaning terminate employment spite meaning including consider type construction form constituent refrain term instead consider construction simply phrase complement morning ran mountains equivalent function modify action event described providing additional information manner occurs derived speakers tend commonly example phrase woman walked quickly quickly derived quick describes woman way walking commonly irregular forms good form modern english language moderately developed features word order resources conveying meaning auxiliary mark constructions questions negative passive voice progressive aspect basic constituent order english word order moved second word order exclusively subject object combination order use auxiliary creates clusters centre sentence hoped try open sentences english marks relations word order subject constituent object constituent follows example demonstrates roles constituent marked position relative exception found sentences constituents case marked word order case subject takes case form object follows takes objective case form example demonstrates double marking sentence object subject represented person singular masculine indirect objects placed object double object construction gave jane book phrase gave book jane clause english sentence composed clauses turn composed phrases clause built includes constituents sentence clause main clause matrix clause clauses subordinate subordinate clauses function arguments main clause example phrase think lying main clause headed think subject object phrase subordinate clause lying conjunction shows clause follows subordinate clause omitted relative clauses clauses function constituent main clause example sentence saw letter received today relative clause received today meaning word letter object main clause relative clauses introduced omitted contrast languages major differences word order main subordinate clauses auxiliary constructions english relies auxiliary functions including expression tense aspect mood auxiliary form main clauses main function heads subordinate clause auxiliary example sentence dog find bone clause find bone complement subject auxiliary constructions including focus constructions auxiliary simple sentences usually serves add emphasis shut inverted clauses referred rules english permit constructions auxiliary present modern english allow addition ordinary finite know added auxiliary auxiliary present required auxiliary produce form like don know applies clauses requiring including questions involve subject auxiliary possible know rules require know main follows auxiliary contracted form auxiliary questions negative constructions require occur support modern english don know correct answer question know know construction found older english passive constructions use auxiliary passive construction active construction way object active phrase subject passive phrase subject active phrase omitted demoted role oblique argument introduced phrase formed past auxiliary varieties english allow use example putting sentence sees passive seen gets seen questions yes questions questions english formed subject auxiliary going tomorrow eat require support like cases words words appear fronted position example question word appears constituent despite object sentence word subject forms subject occurs saw cat phrases fronted question theme house night personal case variant serving objective case form form going use contexts discourse level discourse level english tends use topic comment structure known information topic new information comment strict topic sentence generally subject sentence cases topic subject sentence frequently topic promoted subject position means way passive construction girl bee way sentence main clause demoted complement clause sentence dummy subject girl bee girl bee dummy subjects constructions subject clauses cars street use complex sentence constructions subjects english able maintain topic comment sentence structure focus constructions emphasise particular piece new information sentence generally main sentence level stress focal constituent example girl bee bee example wasp girl bee contrasting possibility example boy topic focus established item focused relative main clause example girl bee girl similar effect achieved bee girl reference girl established sentences achieved use exactly mean refers fact known locate time narrated event relative time previously narrated event discourse markers signal progression ideas sentences help create discourse markers constituents sentences discourse markers stance taking speakers position specific attitude said example way true marker way expressing disbelief boy hungry marker boy expressing emphasis discourse markers particularly characteristic informal spoken registers english written formal registers vocabulary vocabulary english vast counting exactly words english language impossible oxford suggest quarter million distinct english words early studies english vocabulary scholars formally study vocabulary lack comprehensive data actual vocabulary use good quality linguistic collections actual written texts spoken passages statements published end 20th century growth english vocabulary time dates use words english sources english vocabulary corrected new analysis linguistic corpus data available word formation processes english forms new words existing words roots vocabulary variety processes productive processes english conversion word different role example productive word formation process nominal producing compound words ice cream process common old english modern english productive use derive new words existing words especially origin stems especially words latin greek origin formation new words called based greek latin roots example television highly productive process english modern european languages difficult determine language originated reason attributed words international scientific vocabulary compiling new international dictionary active word formation process english words formed single word longer phrases nato laser word origins english forming new words existing words roots words languages process adding words languages commonplace world languages english characterised especially open borrowing foreign words years commonly words english words english learned children learn speak particularly words dominate word count spoken written texts words inherited earliest periods development old english consequences long language contact french english stages development vocabulary english high percentage words derived french especially latin romance languages french words periods development french vocabulary english english borrowed words directly latin ancestor romance languages stages development words borrowed english latin earlier borrowed latin greek latin greek highly productive sources stems form vocabulary subjects learned higher education sciences philosophy mathematics english continues gain new loan translations languages world words languages ancestral anglo saxon language percent vocabulary english english formal informal speech registers informal registers including child directed speech tend predominantly words origin percentage vocabulary origin higher legal scientific academic texts english languages english strong influence vocabulary languages influence english comes factors opinion leaders countries knowing english language role english world large number books films translated english languages use english leads conclusion places english especially suitable language expressing new ideas describing new technologies varieties english especially american english influences languages languages chinese write words borrowed english japanese readily english written sound indicating script dubbed films television programmes especially source english influence languages europe writing system ninth century english written latin alphabet called roman alphabet earlier old english texts anglo saxon short inscriptions great majority literary works old english survive today written roman alphabet modern english alphabet contains letters latin script capital forms spelling system english multi layered elements french latin greek spelling native system complications arisen sound changes kept pace compared european languages official organisations promoted spelling reforms english spelling consistent indicator pronunciation standard words difficult guess knowing word pronounced systematic spelling differences british american english situations prompted proposals spelling reform english letters speech sounds correspondence standard english spelling spelling rules account structure changes derived words word accent reliable english words standard english spelling shows relationships related words obscured closer correspondence pronunciation spelling example words photograph photography photographic words electricity electrical scholars agree conventional english near optimal rationale current english spelling patterns standard english widely writing system world standard english spelling based words written clues meaningful units word readers english generally rely correspondence spelling pronunciation fairly regular letters spell sounds letters represent respectively letters normally represent soft pronounced soft pronounced differences letters signalled following letters standard english spelling represent sequences include greek derived words single letter generally pronounced word initial position exceptions result spelled according spelling patterns languages origin proposals scholars early period modern english mistakenly follow spelling patterns latin english words origin sounds english language spelling pronunciation irregular english letters result smaller set single letter symbols set long indicated combinations letters like boat stay historically based silent note cake consequence complex history learning read challenging english longer school pupils independently fluent readers english languages including italian spanish german nonetheless advantage english reading learning specific sound symbol occur standard english commonly words instruction greatly reduces risk children experiencing reading difficulties english making primary school teachers aware representation english help learn efficiently read write english english writing includes system similar system marks languages world purpose mark meaningful relationships sentences aid readers understanding text indicate features important reading text aloud accents varieties distinguish english regional varieties differ terms grammar vocabulary regional accents distinguished different patterns pronunciation major native english divided general categories british north_america ireland place english evolved british isles particularly england home pattern united_kingdom educated dialect traditionally broadcast standard considered prestigious british spread known bbc english media caused traditional rural england youths adopt traits prestige variety instead traits local time survey english grammar vocabulary differed country process attrition led variation disappear nonetheless attrition affected variation grammar vocabulary fact percent english population actually speak remainder speaking regional accents varying degrees influence particularly class lines upper middle class speakers native speakers speakers adopt later life britain considerable variation lines social class traits common considered non standard associated lower class speakers identities example dropping historically feature lower class london english particularly today standard major english cities remains largely absent broadcasting upper crust british society english england divided major dialect regions english regions local exist northern region division yorkshire dialect spoken newcastle lancashire local urban manchester having centre danish occupation northern english particularly yorkshire dialect retain norse features found english varieties 15th century southeastern varieties centred london centre innovations spread london dialect traditionally lower classes long socially variety today large area adopted traits resulting called estuary english spread areas south beginning 1980s estuary english distinguished traits use drawing pronounced potter pronounced stop pronunciation thanks pronounced bother pronounced scots today considered separate language english origins early developed changed history influence sources particularly scots number regional addition scots varieties standard english spoken scotland varieties northern english accents influence scots ireland forms english spoken norman invasions 11th century area surrounding dublin highly conservative known forth developed spoken 19th century modern english roots english 17th century today irish english divided dialect strong influence scots southern like scots northern english irish accents preserve lost influenced north_america american english generally considered fairly compared british varieties today american accent variation fact increasing americans speak similar accents known collectively differing accents hardly noticed americans midland western american english separate american accents clearly distinct sound systems historically includes southern american english english coastal northeast famously including new_york_city english african american vernacular english canadian english maritime provinces classified shows unique raising distinct norms written pronunciation standards canadian english dominant non dropping associated lower prestige social class especially world war contrasts situation england non standard southern american english largest american accent group outside replacing region historical non prestige social variation apply southern accents colloquially described recognised readily southern shift begins spy like spa southern breaking pure syllables word press like pray pin pen merger distinctive features actually recent developments 19th century later today spoken primarily middle class african americans african american vernacular english largely non likely originated enslaved african americans influenced primarily non non standard english spoken whites minority propose traces african languages spoken slaves develop communicate slaves ethnic linguistic origins abolition african americans settled inner cities north developed highly coherent variety form broken english modern southern american english today recognise fully developed varieties english norms shared large speech community australia new_zealand english spoken oceania major native dialect australian english spoken language vast majority inhabitants australian continent general australian serving standard accent english neighbouring new_zealand lesser degree influential standard variety language australian new_zealand english closely related british english similarly non accents aside accents new_zealand stand innovative short fronted raised long australian english contrast long short found varieties australian english grammar differs british english instances difference lack verbal concord collective subjects new_zealand english differs little australian english characteristics sets accent apart use closer australian english africa caribbean english spoken widely south_africa official official language countries south_africa english spoken existing african languages languages today percent south african population speak south african english language non variety tends follow norm non varieties lacking different varieties differ based native language speakers differences differences include tendency pin pronounced varieties pronounced instead common varieties english spoken colonial possessions britain including jamaica windward_islands trinidad belize areas home local variety english local english based combining english african languages prominent varieties jamaican english jamaican central_america english based spoken caribbean coasts nicaragua panama locals fluent local english variety local languages code switching frequent way relationship standard varieties spectrum social registers forms serving like forms serving formal register caribbean varieties based british english consequently non formal styles jamaican english jamaican english differs inventory distinction long short tense standard english reverse bay boat pronounced word final clusters simplified child pronounced wind win historical legacy indian english tends ideal ideal realised individual speech reflects class indian english speakers indian english accents marked pronunciation pronounced replacement indian english speakers use spelling based silent found words ghost pronounced indian voiced stop
English language