insects classified taxonomic rank order classified separate order recent phylogenetic studies indicate evolved close ancestors possibly emerged species currently described left described insects called white ants ants like ants bees separate order divide labour consisting sterile male female workers soldiers colonies fertile males called kings fertile females called queens feed dead plant material generally form wood leaf litter soil animal major particularly subtropical tropical regions recycling wood plant matter considerable ecological importance successful groups insects earth antarctica colonies range size individuals enormous societies million individuals queens longest lifespan insect world queens living years unlike ants undergo complete individual goes incomplete proceeds egg adult stages colonies described form self regulating entity colony diet human cultures traditional species economically significant cause damage buildings crops plantation forests species west indian regarded invasive species etymology derived greek words equal winged refers nearly equal size fore hind wings derives latin late latin word white altered influence latin wear earlier word nests commonly known early english known wood ants white ants modern term taxonomy evolution dna analysis sequences supported hypothesis originally suggested cleveland colleagues insects closely related wood eating genus earlier conclusion based similarity gut wood eating certain species regarded living fossils 1960s additional evidence supporting hypothesis emerged noted similar morphological characteristics similarities led authors propose reclassified single family order contains researchers advocate conservative measure retaining order preserves classification family level oldest fossils date early cretaceous given diversity cretaceous early fossil records showing insects likely originated earlier evidence origin assumption extinct consumed judging morphological similarity modern eating mammals oldest nest discovered believed upper cretaceous oldest known discovered claims emerged earlier faced controversy example indicated late million years ago fossil wings close resemblance wings primitive living discovered layers kansas possible emerged thought descendants genus folded wings fossil wood arranged convex pattern segments resemble seen living insect pattern krishna consider insects tentatively classified fact unrelated excluded social insects evolve system evolving million years ago long accepted closely related classified strong evidence suggests highly specialised wood eating genus shares strongest similarity considered sister group share similar morphological social features example exhibit social characteristics takes care young exhibits social behaviour primitive giant northern exhibits numerous like characteristics shared laying eggs having anal wings united clade called white ants actually ants ants belong family order similarity social structure attributed evolution living fossil species recognised classified families divided following clade family groups showing respective classification distribution diversity found continents antarctica diversity species low north_america europe species known europe north_america high south_america species known species currently classified found africa extremely abundant certain regions approximately million active found northern national park asia species mainly distributed china china species restricted mild tropical subtropical habitats south australia ecological groups subterranean endemic country classified species soft inhabit cool cold habitats ecological groups subterranean found coniferous forests found hardwood forests subterranean live widely diverse areas species group west indian invasive species australia description usually small measuring millimetres length largest extant queens species measuring centimetres length giant extinct flourished austria wingspan millimetres body length millimetres worker soldier completely blind pair eyes species compound eyes use orientation distinguish sunlight eyes lateral lateral found like insects small tongue shaped divided antennae number functions sensing touch taste including heat vibration basic segments antenna include typically shorter segments mouth parts contain set help sense food handling consistent insects anatomy consists segments segment contains pair legs wings located developed plates smaller plates abdomen plates wide elongated reproductive organs similar simplified example organ present male sperm sperm limited females simplified unlike females feature similar female non reproductive rely exclusively legs fly brief time rely legs appearance legs similar soldiers larger heavier legs structure legs consistent insects parts leg include number spurs individual leg varies species located claws present species climb smooth surfaces absent unlike ants hind wings fore wings equal length time poor technique launch air fly random direction studies comparison larger smaller fly long distances flight wings remain right angle rest wings remain parallel body system worker undertake labour colony responsible foraging food storage brood nest maintenance workers tasked food likely found infested wood process worker feeding known effective tactic convert components parents feeding generation offspring allowing group grow larger ensuring necessary gut transferred generation species true worker instead relying perform work separate soldier sole purpose defend colony soldiers large heads highly modified powerful jaws enlarged feed instead like juveniles fed workers simple holes forehead defensive feature family species readily identified characteristics soldiers larger darker head large certain soldiers use heads block narrow tunnels different sorts soldiers include minor major soldiers horn like frontal projection unique soldiers able spray sticky containing enemies nitrogen plays important role nutrition reproductive mature colony includes fertile female male known queen king queen colony responsible egg production colony unlike ants king mates life species abdomen queen swells dramatically increase characteristic known depending species queen start producing reproductive winged certain time year huge emerge colony flight begins attract wide variety predators life cycle compared social ants species bees differing evolutionary origins result major differences life cycle workers exclusively female males develop eggs females workers queen develop eggs contrast worker constitute majority colony individuals sexes develop eggs depending species male female workers different roles colony life cycle begins egg different bee goes developmental process called incomplete egg adult stages eggs hatch series adults species eggs stages workers workers soldiers workers development adults months time period depends food availability temperature general population colony unable feed workers feed workers social life colony certain tasks accomplish foraging building maintaining nest tending queen regulate system colonies preventing fertile queens reproduction leave colony flight takes place males females pair land search suitable place colony king queen mate find spot chamber big close entrance proceed mate mating pair outside spend rest lives nest flight time varies species example certain species emerge day summer emerge winter flight begin dusk areas lots lights time flight begins depends environmental conditions time day moisture wind speed precipitation number colony varies larger species typically having individuals colonies including large individuals number millions queen lay eggs early stages colony lay day colony years old maturity primary queen great capacity lay eggs species mature queen greatly abdomen produce eggs day mature abdomen increases queen body length times mating reduces ability freely attendant workers provide assistance king grows slightly larger initial mating continues mate queen life queen live years different colonies queen mates male stores life male ants die shortly mating queen absent king produce encourage development replacement queens queen king sperm competition occur going incomplete path form certain species functioning potential mature primary death king queen primary separated colony ability replace dead primary reproductive single colony queens ability switch sexual reproduction reproduction studies queens mate king produce colony workers queens reproduce replacements queens behaviour ecology diet consuming dead plants level play vital role ecosystem recycling waste material dead wood plants species eat having specialised breaks considered major source atmospheric prime greenhouse gases produced breakdown rely primarily digest allowing absorb end products use gut turn rely bacteria embedded surfaces produce necessary digestive higher especially family produce rely primarily bacteria lost scientists understanding relationship digestive tract rudimentary true species workers feed members colony substances derived plant material mouth judging closely related species strongly presumed gut derives ancestors certain species seasonal food habits example consume red summer august blue spring summer autumn colonies consume food spring autumn feeding activity high woods differ attack differences attributed factors moisture content content study strongly preferred maple woods woods generally rejected colony preferences represented learned behaviour species practice maintain garden specialised fungi genus insects fungi eaten spores pass undamaged complete cycle fresh depending feeding habits placed groups lower higher lower feed wood wood difficult digest prefer consume fungus infected wood easier digest fungi high protein higher consume wide variety materials including grass leaves roots gut lower contains species bacteria higher species bacteria predators consumed wide variety predators species found stomach contents birds mammals reptiles bees frogs spiders consume insects spiders family specialist predators predators include bats bears birds mice primarily feeds food sound detecting scent soldiers single capable consuming thousands single night long sticky tongue bears break open consume developed tools fish nest wear pattern analysis bone tools early suggests tools dig predators ants greatest enemy genera specialist predators example strictly eating genus perform raiding activities lasting hours raiding species individual possible returning home recruiting additional raiding site chemical trails malaysian uses different strategy hunting pressing tight spaces hunt rotting wood housing colonies inside ants seize prey short sharp specialised predator species feeds small scout recruit workers area present killing colonies nest preyed ants evidence kind relationship predatory known ants including prey contrast species despite enormous diversity prey ants rarely consume ants invertebrates perform raids species including known raid flight parasites likely attacked parasites bees ants usually protected infected variety parasites include flies large number parasites parasites order genus imminent threat attack parasites colony migrate new location fungi major threats colony host specific large portions colony transmission usually occurs direct physical contact known weaken immune system infection occurs colony great stress species occur world infected including foraging worker soldier lack wings fly use wings brief time predominantly rely legs foraging behaviour depends type example certain species feed wood structures inhabit harvest food near nest workers rarely found open forage unprotected rely protect predators subterranean construct tunnels galleries look food workers manage find food sources recruit additional attracts workers foraging workers use communicate workers begin forage outside nest release trail species phases foraging expedition soldiers scout area find food source communicate soldiers small force workers starts emerge second phase workers appear large numbers site phase marked decrease number soldiers present increase number workers isolated workers engage flight behaviour strategy finding foraging food competition competition colonies results behaviour resulting fights fights cause mortality sides cases gain loss territory cemetery pits present bodies dead buried studies encounter foraging areas deliberately block passages prevent entering dead colonies found tunnels leads isolation area need construct new tunnels conflict competitors occur example block passages colonies aggressive suicide known colonies physical conflict tightly squeeze foraging tunnels die successfully blocking tunnel ending activities reproductive queens compete dominant queen primary struggle queens leads elimination single queen king colony ants compete nesting space particular ants prey usually negative impact nesting species communication blind communication primarily occurs chemical mechanical cues methods communication variety activities including foraging locating construction nests recognition flight locating fighting enemies defending nests common way communicating number known including contact transmitted workers engaged alarm trail sex alarm defensive chemicals frontal trail sex derive sources look food forage columns ground vegetation trail identified deposits covered objects workers leave trails detected communicate mechanical cues vibrations physical contact signals frequently alarm communication evaluating food source construct nests use predominantly indirect communication single charge particular construction project individual react think group level exhibit sort collective specific structures objects soil pillars cause start building adds objects existing structures behaviour encourages building behaviour workers result self organised process information directs activity results changes environment direct contact individuals distinguish non chemical communication gut chemicals consisting released cuticle allow recognition alien species colony distinct result genetic environmental factors diet composition bacteria defence insect defences rely alarm communication defend colony alarm released nest breached attacked enemies potential avoid infected spores signals released infected methods defence include intense frontal containing alarm species soldiers block tunnels prevent enemies entering nest deliberately act defence cases intrusion coming breach larger soldier head defence requires special formations soldiers form like formation breach bite invasion carried successful entire colony destroyed scenario rare breach tunnels nests cause alarm detect potential breach soldiers usually bang heads apparently attract soldiers defence recruit additional workers repair breach additionally alarmed bump causes alarmed leave trails disturbed area way recruit extra workers subfamily specialised soldiers known ability horn like frontal projection use defence lost course evolution fed workers wide variety identified soldiers species commit suicide large beneath surface thick yellow fluid sticky contact air ants insects trying invade nest engages defence workers physically unable use fight form chemicals deliberately releasing toxic chemicals kill enemies soldiers family defence strategy involves body head abdomen soldiers guarding nest entrances attacked engage creating block denies entry attacker workers use different strategies deal dead including burying avoiding corpse altogether avoid occasionally engage carry away corpse colony dispose strategy depends nature corpse worker dealing age relationship organisms species fungus known mimic eggs successfully avoiding natural predators small brown balls known balls rarely kill eggs cases workers tend fungus eggs producing known unique mimicking behaviour exists species beetles certain species beetles share cuticle chemical allows beetles integrate colonies developed abdomen allows beetle mimic worker species known capture use fresh food source later killing example captures try escape immediately seized driven underground certain species ants subfamily conduct raids species steal eggs ants attack outside ants attack underground despite ants peacefully species including form associations certain species away predatory species earliest known association ants date period species ants known inhabit occupied abandoned ones reason ants live frequent occurrence geographical range protect floods inhabits evidence kind relationship predatory known rare cases certain species live inside active colonies organisms beetles flies inside colonies unable survive independently result certain beetles flies evolved hosts developed substance attracts workers provide shelter warmth birds snakes known carry regularly visit flowers regarded potential number flowering plants flower particular regularly foraging workers flower world plants developed effective defences vulnerable attacks need additional protection defence mechanisms develop passed stage defence typically achieved chemicals woody cell walls reduces ability efficiently digest commercial product developed australia uses range plant extracts create paint barrier buildings extract species australian shown repel tests shown strongly repelled toxic material extent consume food kept close extract eventually die nests nest considered composed parts living inside colony structure constructed nests broadly separated main categories subterranean completely ground protruding soil surface built ground connected ground shelter tubes nests earth ground contact earth mud nest functions providing protected living space providing shelter predators construct underground colonies nests primitive today nest wooden structures logs stumps dead parts trees millions years ago build nests primarily use desirable properties construction material building materials include partly plant material nests nests built elements wood soil subterranean nest mound construction nests visible nests tropical forests located underground species subfamily good examples subterranean nest builders inside tunnels live wood tunnels constructed feed wood nests protect soft bodies light parasites providing fortification predators nests particularly weak inhabitants use counter attack strategies invading predators species build complex nests called nests habitat called species form multiple nests connected subterranean chambers genera known species nests appear frequent mound building species nests observed species nests considered earth surface mound provides protection nest stronger located areas torrential continuous rainfall risk mound erosion clay rich construction provide protection rain fact withstand high precipitation certain areas strong points case breach example colonies build narrow tunnels strong points diameter tunnels small soldiers block highly protected chamber known queens cell houses queen king line defence species genus arguably build complex structures insect world constructing enormous largest world reaching height metres feet consist chimneys ridges species build nests metres feet high metres feet wide elaborate distinctive forms compass builds tall wedge shaped long axis oriented approximately north south gives common orientation shown assist north south orientation causes internal temperature mound increase rapidly morning avoiding midday sun temperature remains plateau rest day evening nests nests swamp dwelling enriched depleted change caused decay gut use building material nests account ground carbon storage swamps nests mainly composed partially wood material stems branches trees red black white shelter tubes construct shelter tubes known tubes mud tubes start ground shelter tubes found walls structures constructed night time higher humidity tubes provide protection potential predators especially ants shelter tubes provide high humidity darkness allow workers collect food sources accessed way soil normally brown colour size shelter tubes depends food sources available range width extend dozens metres length relationship humans owing wood eating habits species great damage unprotected buildings wooden structures habit remaining concealed results presence severely damaged leaving thin layer wall protects environment species known species cause damage species cause significant damage wooden structures north_america subterranean species australia species economic impact indian species considered tropical africa central_america west_indies pest species genera highest number pest species genus species known cause damage wooden structures furniture tropical subtropical regions attack lumber material exposed rainfall soil thrive warm climates human activities enable invade homes transported contaminated goods containers ships colonies seen thriving warm buildings located cold regions considered invasive species widely introduced invasive species world introduced islands west_indies australia addition causing damage buildings damage food crops attack trees resistance damage low generally ignore fast growing plants attacks occur harvest time crops trees attacked dry season damage caused costs southwestern united_states approximately billion year wood structure damage true cost damage worldwide determined responsible large proportion damage caused better control population methods developed track movements early method involved distributing bait laced marker proteins rabbits chickens collected field tested rabbit markers rabbit specific recently developed expensive alternatives include tracking egg white cow milk milk proteins sprayed field bearing proteins traced protein specific test food species food humans fed livestock insects particularly important developed countries common protein help improve human diet consumed regions globally practice popular developed nations recent years consumed people different cultures world africa important factor native populations tribes different ways collecting insects tribes collect soldiers species harder acquire queens regarded high nutrition adequate levels fat protein regarded pleasant taste having like flavour cooked collected rainy season begins flight typically seen lights attracted nets set lamps captured later collected wings removed technique similar best result comes lightly hot plate fried crisp oil required bodies usually contain sufficient amounts oil typically eaten livestock lean tribal crops developed produced food food stocks previous growing season limited addition africa consumed local tribal areas asia australia indigenous australians aware edible consume times explanations main sources soil consumption countries including kenya south_africa researchers suggested suitable candidates human consumption space agriculture high protein convert waste products humans agriculture major agricultural particularly crop losses severe crop loss africa greatly improved water tunnels soil allow deeply helps reduce runoff consequent soil erosion south_america cultivated plants rice severely damaged attacks leaves roots woody tissue attack plants including coffee cotton fruit trees vegetables disrupt farming activities making difficult farmers operate farming machinery despite farmers dislike case net loss production occurs beneficial agriculture crop yields soil ants land contains crop colonies use establish nests presence nests fields enables larger amounts ground increases nitrogen soil essential growth crops science technology gut inspired research efforts aimed replacing fossil cleaner energy sources efficient capable producing litres hydrogen single sheet paper approximately species live inside releasing hydrogen trapped inside wood plants digest action unidentified gut broken transformed hydrogen bacteria gut turns sugar hydrogen rely energy community dna employed provide better understanding genetic engineering enable hydrogen generated woody development autonomous robots capable constructing intricate structures human assistance inspired complex build robots work independently tracked grid capable climbing lifting bricks robots useful future projects mars building prevent flooding use sophisticated means control temperatures discussed shape orientation australian compass internal temperatures day towers heat solar chimney effect stack effect creates air mound wind blowing tops towers circulation air include construction solar chimney effect use centuries middle_east passive cooling europe romans relatively recently climate responsive construction techniques incorporated modern architecture especially africa stack effect popular means achieve natural ventilation passive cooling modern buildings culture shopping centre office block central architect passive cooling inspired local major building exploiting inspired cooling techniques attract international attention buildings include building melbourne australia hold difficulty keeping captive reluctance authorities permit potential switzerland thriving populations resulting event rare captivity mass young flying happened september thousands male left mound night died covered floors water pits house holding exhibit african tribes countries reason tribe members forbidden eat reproductive widely traditional popular medicine treatments diseases conditions nigeria spiritual protection treat wounds sick pregnant women southeast_asia ritual practices malaysia singapore thailand commonly populace abandoned viewed structures created spirits believing local guardian mound known urban areas local residents construct red painted abandoned pray good health protection luck cited literature biology modern synthesis 1st isbn parasites social insects new_jersey isbn
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