feminism feminism range political movements social movements share common goal define establish achieve political economic personal social rights women equal men includes seeking establish equal opportunities women education employment typically advocate support rights equality women feminist movements campaigned continue campaign women rights including right vote hold public office work earn fair wages equal pay property receive education enter contracts equal rights marriage leave worked promote autonomy integrity protect women girls rape sexual harassment domestic violence feminist campaigns generally considered main forces major historical societal changes women rights particularly west near universally credited having achieved women suffrage gender neutrality english reproductive rights women including access abortion right enter contracts property feminist advocacy mainly focused women rights including bell hooks argue inclusion men liberation aims men harmed traditional gender roles feminist theory emerged feminist movements aims understand nature gender inequality examining women social roles lived experience developed theories variety disciplines order respond issues social construction gender forms feminism criticized taking account white middle class educated perspectives criticism led creation specific forms feminism including black feminism feminism history socialist french philosopher credited having coined word words feminism feminist appeared france netherlands great_britain 1890s united_states oxford english dictionary lists year appearance feminist feminism depending historical moment culture country world different causes goals western feminist historians assert movements working obtain women rights considered feminist movements apply term historians assert term limited modern feminist movement descendants historians use label describe earlier movements history modern western feminist movements divided waves wave dealt different aspects feminist issues wave comprised women suffrage movements nineteenth early twentieth centuries promoting women right vote second wave associated ideas actions women liberation movement beginning 1960s second wave campaigned legal social equality women wave continuation reaction perceived failures second wave feminism beginning 1990s nineteenth early twentieth centuries wave feminism period activity 19th century early twentieth century focused promotion equal contract marriage property rights women end 19th century activism focused primarily gaining political power particularly right women suffrage active campaigning women sexual reproductive economic rights women suffrage began britain colonies close 19th century self governing colonies new_zealand granting women right vote south_australia granting female suffrage right vote stand parliamentary office followed australia granting female suffrage britain campaigned women vote representation people act passed granting vote women age owned property extended women notable activist england time naming important people 20th century stating shaped idea women time shook society new pattern going notable leaders movement included campaigned abolition slavery prior women right vote women influenced theology spiritual equality asserts men women equal god united_states wave feminism considered ended passage nineteenth amendment united_states constitution granting women right vote states term wave coined western movements term second wave feminism began describe newer feminist movement focused fighting social cultural political late period reform movements days reform chinese called women liberation traditional roles gender segregation later created projects aimed integrating women workforce claimed revolution successfully achieved women liberation according arab feminism closely connected arab nationalism considered father arab feminism wrote argued legal social reforms women drew links women position egyptian society nationalism leading development founded president symbol arab women rights movement triggered iranian women movement aimed achieve women equality education marriage careers legal rights iranian revolution rights women gained women movement systematically abolished family protection law france women obtained right vote april proposed march grant eligibility women following amendment given citizenship including right vote proposition adopted following november elections gender gap stating women voted consistent way dividing men according social classes baby boom period feminism waned importance wars world war world war seen provisional emancipation women post war periods signaled return conservative roles mid twentieth century mid 20th century european countries women lacked significant rights countries continued fight voting rights switzerland women gained right vote federal elections women obtained right vote local issues forced switzerland women given right vote women suffrage referendum prior held failed secure women right vote continued campaign reform family laws gave husbands control wives 20th century abolished continental european countries married women rights instance france married women receive right work husband permission worked abolish marital exemption rape laws prosecution husbands rape wives earlier efforts wave marital rape late 19th century failed achieved century later western countries achieved parts world french philosopher provided solution view questions feminism publication second sex book expressed sense injustice second wave feminism feminist movement beginning early 1960s continuing present wave feminism second wave feminism largely concerned issues equality suffrage ending gender discrimination second wave women cultural political linked encourage women understand aspects personal lives deeply reflecting power structures feminist activist author coined slogan personal political synonymous second wave wave feminism china characterized women roles communist revolution reform movements new discussions women equality actually fully achieved president egypt initiated state feminism outlawed discrimination based gender granted women suffrage blocked political activism feminist leaders presidency wife publicly advocated women rights egyptian policy society began away women equality new movement growing activists proposed new feminist movement islamic feminism argues women equality islamic framework latin_america revolutions brought changes women status countries nicaragua feminist ideology revolution aided women quality life fell short achieving social ideological change late twentieth early centuries wave early 1990s usa wave feminism began response perceived failures second wave backlash initiatives movements created second wave wave feminism distinguished second wave issues sexuality challenging female celebrating sexuality means female empowerment wave feminism seeks challenge avoid second wave definitions argue emphasize experiences upper middle class white women wave focus micro politics challenge second wave good women tend use post interpretation gender sexuality feminist leaders rooted second wave bell hooks non white sought negotiate space feminist thought consideration race related wave feminism contains internal debates difference believe important differences sexes believe inherent differences sexes contend gender roles social conditioning standpoint standpoint theory feminist theoretical point view believes persons social position influences knowledge perspective argues research theory treats women feminist movement insignificant refuses traditional science 1980s standpoint argued feminist movement address global issues rape prostitution culturally specific issues female parts africa middle_east glass ceiling practices women advancement developed economies order understand gender inequality racism colonization matrix domination post feminism term post feminism describe range viewpoints reacting feminism 1980s anti feminist post believe women achieved second wave goals critical wave feminist goals term describe backlash second wave feminism label wide range theories critical approaches previous feminist includes challenges second wave ideas post feminism longer relevant today society written post feminist texts emerged 1980s 1990s portrayed second wave feminism entity notes blaming narrative post feminist moniker undermined continuing demands gender equality post feminist society gender equality achieved according voiced ways rights equality theory feminist theory extension feminism theoretical philosophical fields encompasses work variety disciplines including economics women studies literary criticism art history philosophy feminist theory aims understand gender inequality focuses gender politics power relations sexuality providing critique social political relations feminist theory focuses promotion women rights interests themes explored feminist theory include discrimination especially sexual oppression field literary criticism describes development feminist theory having phases calls feminist critique feminist reader examines literary phenomena second calls woman producer meaning phase calls gender theory ideological inscription literary effects sex gender system explored paralleled 1970s french developed concept translates female feminine writing argues writing philosophy french emphasize writing body subversive exercise work feminist philosopher artist influenced feminist theory general feminist literary criticism particular scholar points french align feminist movement appeared world recent feminist theory concentrated feminism universal movement movements overlapping feminist movements developed years political movements branches feminism closely track political larger society focus environment liberal feminism seeks equality men women political legal reform altering structure society argued shirt liberal feminism led form feminism detached social inequality argues offer sustained analysis structures male dominance power privilege radical feminism considers male controlled capitalist hierarchy defining feature women oppression total reconstruction society necessary conservative feminism conservative relative society resides feminism people self owners entitled freedom interference feminism support relationships lesbian feminism closely related criticize feminism men control land responsible oppression women destruction natural environment criticised focusing mystical connection women nature forms feminism grew western thought inspired number different overlapping movements involved critique capitalism ideology relationship women feminism argues capitalism root cause women oppression discrimination women domestic life employment effect capitalist socialist feminism distinguishes feminism arguing women liberation achieved working end economic cultural sources women oppression believe class struggle anarchy state require struggling comes hierarchy black argues pose challenge organizing premises western feminist thought history feminist movements theoretical developments led predominantly middle class white women western_europe north_america women races proposed alternative trend accelerated 1960s civil rights movement united_states collapse european africa caribbean parts latin_america southeast_asia time women developing nations colonies colour living poverty proposed additional emerged early feminist movements largely white middle class argue colonial oppression western feminism women turn passive world feminism indigenous feminism closely related feminism ideas correspond ideas african feminism feminism social late twentieth century began argue gender roles socially constructed impossible women experiences cultures histories post structural feminism draws post order argue concept gender created socially culturally discourse emphasize social construction gender nature reality note approach feminism highlights existence multiple truths simply men women cultural movements riot took anti corporate stance self self reliance riot emphasis universal female identity appears closely allied second wave feminism wave movement encouraged adolescent girls central allowing express fully feminism cultural feminist movement attempts respond backlash second wave radical feminism 1960s 1970s symbols feminine identity suggestive clothing having sexual valid empowering personal choices sexuality feminist views sexuality vary differed historical period cultural context feminist attitudes female sexuality taken different directions matters sex industry sexual representation media issues consent sex conditions male dominance particularly controversial debate culminated late 1970s 1980s came known feminist sex wars pitted anti pornography feminism sex positive feminism parts feminist movement deeply divided debates taken variety positions different aspects sexual revolution 1960s 70s course 1970s large number influential women accepted lesbian bisexual women feminism sex industry opinions sex industry diverse critical sex industry generally result social structures reinforce sexual cultural attitudes rape sexual harassment alternately support sex industry argue medium feminist expression means women control sexuality feminist views pornography range condemnation pornography form violence women embracing forms pornography medium feminist expression views prostitution vary perspectives loosely arranged overarching standpoint generally critical supportive prostitution sex work female sexual autonomy woman right control sexuality key issue argue women little control bodies female sexuality largely controlled defined men societies argue sexual violence committed men rooted male sexual systems grant women legitimate options refuse sexual advances cultures men believe woman right reject man sexual advances autonomous decision participating sex argue cultures way dominated largely deny women right decide express sexuality men feel entitled define sex terms different forms depending culture parts world especially conservative religious cultures marriage regarded institution requires wife sexually available times virtually limit forcing sex wife considered crime abusive behavior liberal cultures takes form general culture played sexual women pornography forms sexual entertainment creating fantasy women exist solely men sexual pleasure women readily available engage sex time man man terms science says moral political insights women movement inspired social scientists raise critical questions ways traditional researchers explained gender sex relations social natural worlds criticize traditional scientific discourse historically biased male perspective feminist research agenda examination ways power created reinforced scientific academic institutions physicist appointed task force harvard president controversial discussion women science engineering said want bunch women enter field issues don come anymore notes feminist find fundamental differences experiences men women seek obtain knowledge examination experiences women uncover consequences account range human experience feminist research agenda ways power created reinforced society scientific academic institutions furthermore despite calls greater attention paid structures gender academic literature structural analyses gender bias rarely appear highly cited psychological journals especially commonly studied areas psychology personality criticism feminist allows social political values influence findings points feminist traditional stereotypes women thinking intuitive emotional etc fact trap women traditional gender roles help justify biology gender modern feminism challenges biological view gender example book myths gender explores assumptions embodied scientific research support view gender gender disputes scientific evidence suggests innate biological difference men women minds asserting instead cultural societal beliefs reason differences individuals commonly perceived sex differences feminist psychology feminism psychology emerged critique dominant male outlook psychological research male perspectives studied male subjects women earned psychology females issues introduced legitimate topics study feminist psychology emphasizes social context lived experience analysis projects emerged catalogue influence feminist discipline culture architecture gender based inquiries architecture come leading feminism modern architecture coined term claiming architectural planning link defining regulation gender roles responsibilities rights limitations came term explore meaning architecture terms gender explore meaning gender terms architecture visual arts corresponding general developments feminism including self organizing tactics consciousness raising group movement began 1960s flourished 1970s director los_angeles described feminist art movement influential international movement postwar period says brought far reaching art writing past decades feminist artist created set themed plates 1970s said institutional insistence male narrative trying change future girls boys realize women art exception normal art history feminist approach visual arts recently developed turn giving voice ways contemporary female artists dealing gender social media notion embodiment literature feminist movement produced feminist fiction non fiction created new interest women writing prompted general women historical academic contributions response belief women lives contributions areas scholarly interest early period feminist literary scholarship given texts written women studies like mothers novel rise woman novelist ground breaking insistence women writing growth scholarly interest presses began task long print texts began publish large list 19th century novels commercial presses join project 1980s responsible publishing study issued companion line 18th century novels written women recently continues issue 19th century novels hitherto print series early women novels rights woman earliest works feminist philosophy room noted argument literal space women writers literary tradition dominated widespread interest women writing related general expansion literary canon interest post colonial gay lesbian literature writing people colour working people writing cultural productions historically groups resulted scale expansion considered literature genres hitherto regarded literary children writing journals letters travel writing subjects scholarly interest genres undergone similar analysis sees work female gothic women science fiction according science fiction fantasy serve important vehicles feminist thought particularly bridges theory practice feminist science fiction taught university level explore role social understanding gender notable texts kind left hand darkness female man music women music music music music women women women genre emerged musical expression second wave feminist movement labor civil rights peace movements movement started african american women activists group rock peace activist women music refers wider industry women music goes performing artists include studio musicians producers sound engineers technicians cover artists distributors promoters festival organizers women riot underground feminist hardcore punk movement described cultural movements section article feminism principal concern 1980s prior 1970s beginning discover women composers performers begun review concepts canon genius genre feminist perspective words question women musicians fit traditional music history asked 1980s 1990s trend continued like began consider cultural reasons women received body work concepts music discourse reception women music examination sites music production relative wealth education women popular music studies relation women identity ideas music analysis notions gender difference themes examined time music industry long open having women performance entertainment roles women likely positions authority leader orchestra popular music women singers recording songs women audio console acting music producers individuals direct manage recording process cinema feminist cinema advocating illustrating feminist perspectives arose largely development feminist film theory late 60s early 70s women 1960s political debate sexual liberation failure produce substantive change women form consciousness raising groups set different perspectives dominant cinema construction women differences particularly marked atlantic saw feminist film festivals feminist film journal women film period included organised edinburgh film festival making powerful impact feminist film include approaches philosophy feminist independent film feminist distribution argued distinct approaches independent theoretically inspired feminist filmmaking concerns breaking codes mainstream cinema aiming create different relationship spectator dominant cinema second approach feminist embodies feminine writing investigate specifically feminine cinematic language recent criticism feminist film approaches centered swedish rating system called test big hollywood studios status women industry improved argue art films action movies women stronger voice aware lingering gender gap politics feminism complex interactions major political movements twentieth century socialism late nineteenth century allied socialism criticized socialist ideology concerned women rights august early activist published work die und der struggle equal rights sexes social equality general suffrage described tool class struggle called women suffrage build socialist order allows radical solution women question britain women movement allied labour party emerged radical background leadership oldest socialist feminist organization active spanish civil war led supported equal rights women opposed women fighting clashed feminist prescribed dubious feminism practitioners women groups demands concerning social reform presented fascist manifesto expanding suffrage italian citizens age including women accomplished defeat eligibility stand office age demand particularly championed special fascist women auxiliary groups partly realized pressure prime minister conservative coalition partners states opposed rise adolf_hitler feminism complicated relationship nazi movement nazis traditional notions society role women claimed recognize women equality employment hitler declared opposed feminism rise germany rapid dissolution political rights economic opportunities fought pre war period extent 1920s note practice fascist society emphasized male women maintaining largely subordinate position notes 1960s hostile feminism advocates women accept traditional roles civil rights movement anti racism civil rights movement influenced informed feminist movement vice versa western adapted language theories black equality activism drew parallels women rights rights non white people despite connections women civil rights movements tension arose late 1960s early 1970s non white women argued feminism predominantly white middle class understand concerned race issues similarly women argued civil rights movement elements adequately address minority women concerns criticisms created new feminist social theories intersections racism new black feminism feminism neo criticized feminist theory having negative effect female workforce population globe global south assumptions objectives continue dominate economic thinking women experiences non countries reveal effects modernization policies orthodox claims development benefits proponents increasing women participation workforce heightened economic progress feminist critics noted participation equality gender relations failed address significant problems labour structural men women family workplace employment refers conceptual characterization deteriorated labour conditions desirable meaningful safe secure employers global south perceptions feminine labour seek workers perceived willing accept low wages social labour played big instance employers ideas women secondary income justify lower rates pay training promotion societal impact feminist movement effected change western society including women suffrage greater access education nearly pay men right initiate divorce proceedings right women individual decisions pregnancy including access abortion right property civil rights 1960s campaign women rights met mixed results countries agreed ensure laws phased feminist campaigning helped reform attitudes child sexual abuse view young girls cause men sexual intercourse replaced men responsibility conduct men adults began seek women equality including equal rights amendment era pass states enacted reproductive rights centered court decision wade woman right choose carry pregnancy term western women gained reliable birth control allowing family planning careers movement started 1910s final decades 20th century western women knew new freedom birth control enabled women plan adult lives making way career family division labor households affected increased entry women 20th century found career couples men women average spend equal amounts time working women spend time responded arguing women prevent equal participation men writes women likely substantial contribution activities following characteristics participant obliged far home tasks relatively require concentration work dangerous performed spite easily resumed interrupted international law convention elimination forms discrimination women international convention adopted described international bill rights women came force nations feminist branch examines relationship women law addresses questions history legal social women legal rights feminist signifies reaction philosophical approach modern legal scholars typically law process interpreting society universal gender neutral ideals feminist legal scholars claim fails acknowledge women values legal interests experience language proponents gender neutral language argue use gender specific language implies male superiority reflects unequal state society according handbook english generic masculine gender specific job titles instances english linguistic convention historically treated men human species theology feminist theology movement traditions practices scriptures religions feminist perspective goals feminist theology include increasing role women clergy religious authorities male dominated imagery language god determining women place relation career studying images women religion sacred texts christian feminism branch feminist theology seeks interpret understand christianity light equality women men interpretation necessary complete understanding christianity standard set beliefs christian agree god basis sex involved issues women male dominance balance christian marriage claims moral women compared men overall treatment women church refers women positions authority judges kings islamic advocate women rights gender equality social justice grounded islamic framework advocates seek highlight deeply rooted teachings equality encourage questioning interpretation islamic teaching muhammad law creation equal society rooted islam movement pioneers utilized secular western feminist recognize role islamic feminism integrated global feminist movement buddhist feminism movement seeks improve religious legal social status women buddhism aspect feminist theology seeks advance understand equality men women morally socially leadership buddhist perspective buddhist feminist describes buddhist feminism radical practice humanity women men jewish feminism movement seeks improve religious legal social status women judaism open new opportunities religious experience leadership jewish women main issues early jewish movements exclusion male prayer group exemption positive time bound women inability function witnesses initiate divorce jewish women leaders feminist movements history feminist centered secular engaged feminist criticism religion arguing religions oppressive rules women themes elements religious texts social system society organized male authority figures system fathers authority women children property implies institutions male rule privilege dependent female forms feminism characterize social system oppressive women argues distinction political difference freedom feminist theory concept includes social mechanisms reproduce exert male dominance women feminist theory typically characterizes social construction overcome revealing critically analyzing radical proposed deeply rooted society viable solution criticized views anti men men feminist theory explored social construction implications goal gender equality social construct seen feminism problematic associates males aggression competition unequal gender relations cultures criticized limiting forms available men life choices engaged men issues activism bringing attention male rape battery addressing negative social expectations men male participation feminism encouraged seen important strategy achieving societal commitment gender equality male pro active women rights activism feminist theory studies argue male engagement feminism necessary problematic social influences gender relations consensus today feminist theories cooperate achieve larger goals feminism proposed large achieved considerations women agency reactions different groups people responded feminism men women supporters critics american university students men women support feminist ideas common self identification feminist media tends portray feminism negatively associated day day work leisure activities regular women recent research demonstrated people exposed self identified discussions relating forms feminism self identification feminism increases criticized look society draw conclusions society yes men look find men pro feminism pro feminism support feminism implying supporter member feminist movement term reference men actively supportive feminism activities pro feminist men groups include anti violence work boys young men schools offering sexual harassment workshops running community education campaigns counseling male perpetrators violence pro feminist men involved men health activism pornography including anti pornography legislation men studies development gender equity schools work collaboration women services domestic violence rape crisis centers anti feminism criticism feminism anti feminism opposition feminism forms nineteenth century anti feminism mainly focused opposition women suffrage later opponents women entry institutions higher learning argued education great physical burden women anti opposed women entry labor force right join unions sit obtain birth control control sexuality people opposed feminism grounds believe contrary traditional values religious beliefs anti argue example social acceptance divorce non married women wrong harmful men women fundamentally different different traditional roles society maintained anti oppose women entry workforce political office voting process male authority families writers oppose forms feminism identify argue example feminism promotes elevation women interests men criticize radical feminist positions harmful men women argue term anti feminist silence academic debate feminism argues certain rights extended exclusively women relieve women exercising crucial aspect moral agency articles feminism new encyclopedia feminism encyclopedia listings psychology feminist voices topics feminism tools feminist brien mccarthy documents feminism time bbc listen early video documentary filmed includes footage 1890s documents special collections library
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