India
Contemporary
II
Textbook in Geography
for Class XSocial Science
Rationalised-2023-24

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be unacceptable.ISBN  81-7450-644-61068 – C ONTEMPORARY  INDIA-II
Textbook for Class X

The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that
children’s life at school must be linked to their life outside the school.
This principle marks a departure from the legacy of bookish learning
which continues to shape our system and causes a gap between the
school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on
the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic idea. They
also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp

boundaries between dif ferent subject ar eas. W e hope these measur es
will take us significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system
of education outlined in the National Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals
and teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own
learning and to pursue imaginative activities and questions. W e must
recognise that, given space, time and freedom, children generate new

knowledge by engaging with the information passed on to them by adults.
Treating the pr escribed textbook as the sole basis of examination is one
of the key reasons why other resources and sites of learning are ignored.
Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat
children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of
knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode

of functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour
in implementing the annual  calendar so that the required number of
teaching days are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for
teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook
proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience, rather
than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to
address the problem of curricular burden by restructuring and

reorienting knowledge at different stages with greater consideration for
child psychology and the time available for teaching. The textbook
attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and space
to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small
groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Resear ch and T raining (NCER T)
appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee

responsible for this book. W e wish to thank the Chairperson of the
advisory committee for textbooks in Social Sciences, at the higher
secondary level, Pr ofessor Hari V asudevan and the Chief Advisor for this
book, Professor M.H. Qureshi for guiding the work of this committee.
Several teachers contributed to the development of this textbook; we are
grateful to their principals for making this possible. W e are indebted toForeword ForewordForewordForewordForeword

the institutions and organisations which have generously permitted us to draw
upon their r esour ces, material and personnel. W e are especially grateful to the
members of the National Monitoring Committee, appointed by the Department
of Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development
under the Chairpersonship of Pr ofessor Mrinal Miri and Pr ofessor G.P .
Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution. As an organisation

committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its
products, NCER T welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to
undertake further revision and refinement.
Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 November 2006                      Resear ch and T raining
iv

Rationalisation of Content in the TextbookRationalisation of Content in the TextbookRationalisation of Content in the TextbookRationalisation of Content in the TextbookRationalisation of Content in the Textbook
In view of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative to reduce
content load on students. The National Education Policy 2020,
also emphasises reducing the content load and providing
opportunities for experiential learning with creative mindset. In

this backgr ound, the NCER T has undertaken the exer cise to
rationalise the textbooks across all classes. Learning Outcomes
already developed by the NCER T acr oss classes have been taken
into consideration in this exercise.
Contents of the textbooks have been rationalised in view of
the following:
• Overlapping with similar content included in other subject
areas in the same class
• Similar content included in the lower or higher class in
the same subject
• Difficulty level

• Content, which is easily accessible to students without
much interventions from teachers and can be learned by
childr en thr ough self-lear ning or peer -learning
• Content, which is irrelevant in the present context
This present edition, is a reformatted version after carrying
out the changes given above .

Textbook development committeeTextbook development committeeTextbook development committeeTextbook development committeeTextbook development committee
CHAIRPERSON , ADVISORY  COMMITTEE  FOR TEXTBOOKS  IN SOCIAL SCIENCES  AT
THE SECONDARY  LEVEL
Hari V asudevan,  Professor , Department of History, University of
Calcutta, Kolkata
CHIEF ADVISOR
M. H. Qur eshi, 
Professor , Centr e for the Study of Regional Development,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
ADVISOR

ADVISOR
B. S. Butola, Professor , Centr e for the Study of Regional Development,
MEMBERS
Aparajita De, Lectur er, Department of Geography,
Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, Delhi
Geeta Duggal , Former Principal , Delhi Public School, Rewari
Indu Shar ma, PGT, Demonstration School RIE, Ajmer
K. Jaya, PGT, Convent of Jesus and Mary, Bangla Sahib Road, New Delhi

Punam Behari, Reader , Miranda House, University of Delhi, Delhi
Saroj Sharma, TGT (Retd.) , Mother’s International School,
Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
MEMBER -COORDINATOR
Aparna Pandey,  Lectur er, Department of Education in Social Sciences
and Humanities, NCER T, New Delhi

AcknowledgementsAcknowledgementsAcknowledgementsAcknowledgementsAcknowledgements
The National Council of Educational Resear ch and T raining
acknowledges the support of individuals and organisations as listed
below for providing various photographs and other materials such as
articles used in this textbook — Shveta Uppal , NCER T, New Delhi  for
Fig. 1.11, 2. 2, 4.3, 4.10, 4.11, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5; Kalyan Banerjee , NCER T,
New Delhi  for Fig. 7.9; Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi

for Fig. 2.2 (Endangered : the Nicobar megapode), 3.3, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7,
4.1, 5.14; CCSHAU , Hisar for Fig. 4.4(a), 4.13; Directorate of Extension,
Ministry of Agriculture, I.A.R.I. Campus, New Pusa, New Delhi for Fig.
4.2, 4.4(b), 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9 (Groundnut and Mustard), 4.12 (Apple
and Pomegranate), 4.15, 4.18; Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Govt. of India for Fig. 2. 1, 5.10, 6. 8; Ministry of Coal, Govt. of India for

Fig. 5.11(a) and (b); Ministry of Mines, Govt. of India for  Fig. 5.3, 5.5,
5.8; Department of Road T ransport and Highways, Ministry of Shipping,
Road T ransport and Highways, Govt. of India for Fig. 7.2, 7.10; Ministry
of Heavy Industries and Public Enterprises, Govt. of India for Fig. 5.12,
6.3, 6.6, 6.7; Department of Shipping, Ministry of Shipping, Road
Transport and Highways, Govt. of India for Fig. 7.6, 7.7, 7.8;
Kurukshetra magazine for collage on page 24; The T imes of India for

collage on page 20, 24, 29, 26, 57, 91; The Hindu  for collage on page
20; Hindustan for collage on page 91; NCER T, Social Science , Part-II,
Textbook for Class-VIII for Fig. 1.12, 3.2.
The Council is thankful to the Survey of India for certification of maps
given in the textbook.
Acknowledgements are due to Savita Sinha, Professor and Head ,
Department of Education in Social Sciences and Humanities for her
valuable support at every stage of preparation of this textbook.

Special thanks ar e due to V andana R. Singh, Consultant Editor for
going through the textbook and for giving useful suggestions.
The Council also gratefully acknowledges the contributions of
Ishwar Singh, DTP Operator;   Ajay Singh, Copy Editor; Dinesh Kumar ,
Computer Incharge , who have helped in giving a final shape to this book.
The contribution of the Publication Department, NCER T are also duly
acknowledged.
The following are applicable to all the maps of India used in this textbook

1.© Government of India, Copyright 2006
2.The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the
publisher .
3.The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve
nautical miles measured from the appropriate base line.

4.The administrative headquarters of Chandigarh, Haryana and Punjab are
at Chandigarh.
5.The interstate boundaries amongst Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and
Meghalaya shown on this map are as interpreted from the “North-Eastern
Areas (Reorganisation) Act.1971,” but have yet to be verified.
6.The external boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master
Copy certified by Survey of India.
7.The state boundaries between Uttarakhand & Uttar Pradesh, Bihar &

Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh & Madhya Pradesh have not been verified by
the Governments concerned.
8.The spellings of names in these maps have been taken from various sources.
x
School Bhuvan–NCERT an Online web portal
Web based online e-lear ning Geo spatial portal School Bhuvan–NCER T  has
been launched by NCER T and ISRO in collaboration to enhance geo spatial
skills among students. This online e-learning portal includes thematic maps

given in Geography textbooks. This portal enables students to use Geo-spatial
technology for better understanding of concepts in Geography. Online activities
available on the portal as Level 1, Level 2 and Level 3 encourage lear ners
from Classes VI to XII to develop neighbour hood maps and their attributes on
satellite imageries available on School Bhuvan–NCER T.

Contents ContentsContentsContentsContents
Foreword iii
Rationalisation of Content in the Textbooks v
1. Resources and Development 1
2. Forest and Wildlife Resources 13
3. Water Resour ces 19
4. Agriculture 30
5. Minerals and Energy Resources 42
6. Manufacturing Industries 58
7. Lifelines of National Economy 71
Appendix–I 84
Appendix–II 85
Glossary 86

Constitution of India
Fundamental Duties
It shall be the duty of every citizen of India —
(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the
National Flag and the National Anthem;
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle
for freedom;
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty , unity and integrity of India;
(d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to
do so;

do so;
(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all
the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or
sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of
women;
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes,
rivers, wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures;

(h) to develop the scientific temper , humanism and the spirit of inquiry and
reform;
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective
activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour
and achievement;
*(k) who is a parent or guardian, to provide opportunities for education to
his child or , as the case may be, ward between the age of six and
fourteen years.

Note: The Article 51A  containing Fundamental Duties was inserted by the Constitution
(42nd Amendment) Act, 1976 (with ef fect from 3 January 1977).
*(k) was inserted by the Constitution (86th Amendment) Act, 2002 (with ef fect from
1 April 2010).Part IV A (Article 51 A)

Everything available in our envir onment
which can be used to satisfy our needs,
provided, it is technologically accessible,
economically feasible and culturally
acceptable can be termed as ‘Resource’.
The process of transformation of things
available in our environment involves an
inter active  relationship between nature,
technology and institutions. Human beings
interact with nature through technology and
create institutions to accelerate their
economic development.

Do you think that resources are free
gifts of nature as is assumed by many?
They are not. Resources are a function of
human activities. Human beings themselves
are essential components of resources. They
transform material available in our
environment into resources and use them.
These resources can be classified in the
following way s–
(a)On the basis of origin – biotic and abiotic
(b)On the basis of exhaustibility – renewable
and non-renewable

(c)On the basis of ownership – individual,
community, national and inter national
(d)On the basis of status of development –
potential, developed stock and reserves.Can you identify and name the various items
used in making life comfortable in our villages
and towns. List the items and name the
material used in their making.
Fig. 1.1:  Interdependent relationship between
nature, technology and institutions
Fig. 1.2:  Classification of resources

2
 CONTEMPORARY  INDIA – IIDEVELOPMENT  OF RESOURCES
Resources are vital for human survival as well
as for maintaining the quality of life. It was
believed that resources are free gifts of nature.
As a result, human beings used them
indiscriminately and this has led to the
following major problems.
•Depletion of resources for satisfying the
greed of a few individuals.
•Accumulation of resources in few hands, which,
in turn, divided the society into two segments

i.e. haves  and have nots or rich and poor .
•Indiscriminate exploitation of resources has
led to global ecological crises such as, global
warming, ozone layer depletion, environmental
pollution and land degradation.
An equitable distribution of resources has
become essential for a sustained quality of life
and global peace. If the present trend of resource
depletion by a few individuals and countries

continues, the futur e of our planet is in danger .
Therefore, resource planning is essential for
sustainable existence of all forms of life.
Sustainable existence is a component of
sustainable development.
Sustainable development
Sustainable economic development means
‘development should take place without
damaging the environment, and development
in the present should not compromise with the
needs of the future generations.’

Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992
In June 1992, more than 100 heads of states
met in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, for the first
International Earth Summit. The Summit was
convened for addressing urgent problems of
environmental protection and socio-
economic development at the global level.
The assembled leaders signed the
Declaration on Global Climatic Change and
Biological Diversity . The Rio Convention
endorsed the global Forest Principles and

adopted Agenda 21  for achieving
Sustainable Development in the 21st century .
Agenda 21
It is the declaration signed by world leaders
in 1992 at the United Nations Conference
on Environment and Development (UNCED),
which took place at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It
aims at achieving global sustainable
development. It is an agenda to combat
environmental damage, poverty , disease
through global co-operation on common
interests, mutual needs and shared

responsibilities. One major objective of the
Agenda 21 is that every local government
should draw its own local Agenda 21.
Prepare a list of stock and reserve, resources
that you are familiar with from your local area.
1.Imagine, if the oil supply gets exhausted
one day , how would this affect our life style?
2.Plan a survey in your colony/village to
investigate people’s attitude towards
recycling of the domestic/agricultural
wastes. Ask questions about :

(a)What do they think about resources
they use?
(b)What is their opinion about the
wastes, and its utilisation?
(c)Collage your results.
RESOURCE  PLANNING
Planning is the widely accepted strategy for
judicious use of resources. It has importance
in a country like India, which has enormous
diversity in the availability of resources. There
are regions which are rich in certain types of
resources but are deficient in some other

3
 RESOURCES  AND DEVELOPMENTresources. There are some regions which can
be considered self sufficient in terms of the
availability of resources and there are some
regions which have acute shortage of some vital
resources. For example, the states of
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Madhya
Pradesh are rich in minerals and coal deposits.
Arunachal Pradesh has abundance of water
resources but lacks in infrastructural
development. The state of Rajasthan is very well

endowed with solar and wind energy but lacks
in water resources. The cold desert of Ladakh
is relatively isolated from the rest of the
country. It has very rich cultural heritage but
it is deficient in water , infrastructur e and some
vital minerals. This calls for balanced resource
planning at the national, state, regional and
local levels.technology and institutions may hinder
development. There are many regions in our

country that are rich in resources but these
are included in economically backward
regions. On the contrary there are some regions
which have a poor resource base but they are
economically developed.
Can you name some resource rich but
economically backward regions and some
resource poor but economically developed
regions? Give reasons for such a situation.
The history  of colonisation reveals that
rich resources in colonies were the main

attractions for the foreign invaders. It was
primarily the higher level of technological
development of the colonising countries that
helped them to exploit resources of other
regions and establish their supremacy over
the colonies. Therefore, resources can
contribute to development only when they are
accompanied by appropriate technological
development and institutional changes. India
has experienced all this in different phases of

colonisation. Therefore, in India, development,
in general, and resource development in
particular does not only involve the
availability of resources, but also the
technology, quality of human resources and
the historical experiences of the people.
Conservation of Resources:  Resources are
vital for any developmental activity. But
irrational consumption and over -utilisation
of resources may lead to socio-economic and

environmental problems. To overcome these
problems, resource conservation at various
levels is important. This had been the main
concern of the leaders and thinkers in the
past. For example, Gandhiji was very apt in
voicing his concern about resource
conservation in these words : “There is enoughResource Planning in India
Resource planning is a complex process
which involves : (i) identification and
inventory of resources across the regions of

the country. This involves surveying,
mapping and qualitative and quantitative
estimation and measurement of the
resources. (ii) Evolving a planning structure
endowed with appropriate technology, skill
and institutional set up for implementing
resource development plans. (iii) Matching
the resource development plans with overall
national development plans.
India has made concerted efforts for
achieving the goals of resource planning right

from the First Five Y ear Plan launched after
Independence.
The availability of resources is a necessary
condition for the development of any region,
but mere availability of resources in the
absence of corresponding changes in
What resources are being developed in your
surroundings by the community/village
panchayats/ward level communities with the
help of community participation?
Prepare a list of resources found in your state

and also identify the resources that are
important but deficit in your st ate.

4
 CONTEMPORARY  INDIA – IIavailable land for various purposes with careful
planning.
India has land under a variety of relief
features, namely; mountains, plateaus, plains
and islands. About 43 per cent of the land area
is plain, which provides facilities for agriculture
and industry. Mountains account for 30 per
cent of the total surface area of the country and
ensure perennial flow of some rivers, provide
facilities for tourism and ecological aspects.

About  27 per cent of the area of the country is
the plateau region. It possesses rich reserves
of minerals, fossil fuels and forests.
LAND UTILISATION
Land resources are used for the following
purposes:
1.Forests
2.Land not available for cultivation
(a)Barren and waste land
(b)Land put to non-agricultural uses, e.g.
buildings, roads, factories, etc.
3.Other uncultivated land (excluding
fallow land)
(a)Permanent pastures and grazing land,

(b)Land under miscellaneous tree crops
groves (not included in net  sown area),
(c)Cultruable waste land (left uncultivated
for more than 5 agricultural years).
4.Fallow lands
(a)Current fallow-(left without cultivation
for one or less than one agricultural year),
(b)Other than current fallow-(left
uncultivated for the past 1 to 5
agricultural years).
5.Net sown area the physical extent of land
on which crops are sown harvested is
known as net sown area.

Area sown more than once in an
agricultural year plus net sown area is
known as gross cropped area.
LAND USE PATTERN  IN INDIA
The use of land is determined both by physical
factors such as topography, climate, soil types
as well as human factors such as population
density, technological capability and culture
and traditions etc.for everybody’s need and not for any body’s
greed.” He placed the greedy and selfish
individuals and exploitative nature of modern

technology as the root cause for resource
depletion at the global level. He was against
mass production and wanted to replace it with
the production by the masses.
At the international level, the Club of Rome
advocated resource conservation for the first
time in a more systematic way in 1968.
Subsequently , in 1974, Gandhian philosophy
was once again presented by Schumacher
in his book Small is Beautiful . The seminal

contribution with respect to resource
conservation at the global level was made
by the Brundtland Commission Report, 1987.
This report introduced the concept of
‘Sustainable Development’ and advocated
it as a means for resource conservation,
which was subsequently published in a book
entitled Our Common Future . Another
significant contribution was made at the Earth
Summit at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992.
LAND RESOURCES

We live on land, we per form our economic
activities on land and we use it in different
ways. Thus, land is a natural resource of
utmost importance. It supports natural
vegetation, wild life, human life, economic
activities, transport and communication
systems. However , land is an asset of a finite
magnitude, therefore, it is important to use the
Fig 1.3: India :   Land under important Relief
Features

5
 RESOURCES  AND DEVELOPMENTTotal geographical area of India is 3.28
million sq km. Land use data, however , is
available only for 93 per cent of the total
geographical area because the land use
reporting for most of the north-east states
except Assam has not been done fully.
Moreover , some ar eas of Jammu and Kashmir
occupied by Pakistan and China have also not
been surveyed.of such land is very high. Hence, these lands
are cultivated once or twice in about two to

three years and if these are included in the
net sown area then the percentage of NSA in
India comes to  about 54 per cent of the total
reporting area.
The pattern of net sown area varies greatly
from one state to another .  It is over 80 per
cent of the total area in Punjab and Haryana
and less than 10 per cent in Arunachal
Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur and Andaman

Nicobar Islands.Fig. 1.4Source : Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, 2017
Find out reasons for the low proportion of
net sown area in these states.
Forest area in the country is far lower than
the desired 33 per cent of geographical area,
as it was outlined in the National For est Pol icy
(1952). It was consider ed essential for
maintenance of the ecological balance. The
livelihood of millions of people who live on the

Try to do a comparison between the two pie
charts (Fig. 1.4 ) given for land use and find
out why the net sown area and the land
under forests have changed from 1960-61
to 2014-15 very marginally .
The land under permanent pasture has
also decreased. How are we able to feed our
huge cattle population on this pasture land
and what are the consequences of it? Most of
the other than the current fallow lands are

either of poor quality or the cost of cultivationReporting Are a: 100 Per cent

6
 CONTEMPORARY  INDIA – II
fringes of these forests depends upon it. A part
of the land is termed as waste land and land
put to other non-agricultural uses. W aste land
includes rocky, arid and d esert areas and land
put to other non-agricultural uses includes
settlements, roads, railways, industry etc.
Continuous use of land over a long period of
time without taking appropriate measures to
conserve and manage it, has resulted in land
degradation. This, in turn, has serious

repercussions on society and the
envir onment.
LAND DEGRADA TION AND CONSER VATION
MEASURES
We have shar ed our land with the past
generations and will have to do so with the future
generations too. Ninety-five per cent of our basic
needs for food, shelter and clothing are obtained
from land. Human activities have not only
brought about degradation of land but have
also aggravated the pace of natural forces to
cause damage to land.

Some human activities such as
deforestation, over grazing, mining and
quarrying too have contributed significantly in
land degradation.
Mining sites are abandoned after
excavation work is complete leaving deep
scars and traces of over -burdening. In states
like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya
Pradesh and Odisha deforestation due to
mining have caused severe land degradation.
In states like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh and Maharashtra overgrazing is one

of the main reasons for land degradation. In
the states of Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar
Pradesh, over irrigation is responsible for land
degradation due to water logging leading to
increase in salinity and alkalinity in the soil.
The mineral processing like grinding of
limestone for cement industry and calcite and
soapstone for ceramic industry generate huge
quantity of dust in the atmosphere. It retards

the process of infiltration of water into the soil
after it settles down on the land. In recent
years, industrial effluents as waste have
become a major source of land and water
pollution in many parts of the country.There are many ways to solve the problems
of land degradation. Afforestation and proper
management of grazing can help to some extent.
Planting of shelter belts of plants, control on
over grazing, stabilisation of sand dunes by

growing thorny bushes are some of the
methods to check land degradation in arid
areas. Proper management of waste lands,
control of mining activities, proper discharge
and disposal of industrial ef fluents and wastes
after treatment can reduce land and water
degradation in industrial and suburban areas.
SOIL AS A RESOURCE
Soil is the most important renewable natural
resour ce. It is the medium of plant gr owth

and supports dif ferent types of living or ganisms
on the earth. The soil is a living system. It
takes  millions of years to form soil upto a few
cm in depth. Relief, parent rock or bed rock,
climate, vegetation and other forms of life and
time are important factors in the formation of
soil. V arious for ces of natur e such as change
in temperatur e, actions of running water , wind
and glaciers, activities of decomposers etc.

contribute to the for mation of soil. Chemical
and organic changes which take place in the
Subsoil weathered
rocks sand and
silt clay
Substratum
weathered parent
rock material
Unweathered
parent bed rockTop soil
the upper soil layer
Fig. 1.5:
  Soil Profile

7
 RESOURCES  AND DEVELOPMENTsoil are equally important. Soil also consists
of organic (humus) and inorganic materials
(Fig. 1. 5).
On the basis of the factors responsible for
soil for mation, colour , thickness, textur e, age,
chemical and physical properties, the soils of
India are classified in dif ferent types.
Classification of Soils
India has varied relief features, landforms,
climatic realms and vegetation types. These
have contributed in the development of various
types of soils.

Alluvial Soils
This is the most widely spread and important
soil. In fact, the entire northern plains are
made of alluvial soil. These have been
deposited by three important Himalayan river
system s– the Indus, the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra. These soils also extend in
Rajasthan and Gujarat thr ough a narr ow
corridor . Alluvial soil is also found in the
eastern coastal plains particularly in the deltas
of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna

and the Kaveri rivers.nodules than the Khadar . It has mor e fine
particles and is mor e fertile than the bangar .
Alluvial soils as a whole are very fertile.
Mostly these soils contain adequate proportion
of potash, phosphoric acid and lime which
are ideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy,
wheat and other cereal and pulse crops. Due
to its high fertility, regions of alluvial soils are
intensively cultivated and densely populated.

Soils in the drier areas are more alkaline and
can be productive after proper treatment and
irrigation.
Black Soil
These soils are black in colour and are also
known as regur  soils. Black soil is ideal for
growing cotton and is also known as 
black
cotton soil . It is believed that climatic condition
along with the parent rock material are the
important factors for the formation of black
soil. This type of soil is typical of the Deccan

trap ( Basalt ) region spread over northwest
Deccan plateau and is made up of lava flows.
They cover the plateaus of Maharashtra,
Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and
Chhattisgar h and extend in the south east
direction along the Godavari and the Krishna
valleys.
Fig. 1.6:   Alluvial Soil
The alluvial soil consists of various
proportions of sand, silt and clay. As we move
inlands towards the river valleys, soil particles

appear some what bigger in size. In the upper
reaches of the river valley i.e. near the place
of the break of slope, the soils are coarse. Such
soils are more common in piedmont plains
such as Duars, Chos  and Terai .
Apart from the size of their grains or
components, soils are also described on the
basis of their age. According to their age
alluvial soils can be classified as old alluvial
(Bangar ) and new alluvial ( Khadar ). The

bangar  soil has higher concentration of kankerThe black soils are made up of extremely
fine i.e. clayey material. They are well-known
for their capacity to hold moisture. In addition,
they are rich in soil nutrients, such as calcium
carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime. TheseFig. 1.7:   Black Soil

8
India:   Major Soil Types

9
 RESOURCES  AND DEVELOPMENTsoils are generally poor in phosphoric contents.
They develop deep cracks during hot weather ,
which helps in the proper aeration of the soil.
These soils are sticky when wet and difficult to
work on unless tilled immediately after the first
shower or during the pre-monsoon period.
Red and Y ellow Soils
Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks
in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and
souther n parts of the Deccan plateau. Y elllow

and red soils are also found in parts of
Odisha, Chhattisgarh, souther n parts of the
middle Ganga plain and along the piedmont
zone of the W estern Ghats. These soils develop
a reddish colour due to dif fusion of ir on in
crystalline and metamorphic rocks. It looks
yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
Laterite Soil
Laterite has been derived fr om the Latin wor d
‘later’ which means brick. The laterite soil

develops under tropical and subtropical
climate with alternate wet and dry season.
This soil is the result of intense leaching due
to heavy rain. Lateritic soils ar e mostly deep
to very deep, acidic (pH<6.0), generally
deficient in pla
nt nutrients and occur mostly
in souther n states, W ester n Ghats region of
Maharashtra, Odisha, some parts of W est
Bengal and North-east regions. Where these
soils support deciduous and evergreen

forests, it is humus rich, but under sparsevegetation and in semi-arid environment, it is
generally humus poor . They are pr one to
erosion and degradation due to their position
on the landscape. After adopting appropriate
soil conservation techniques particularly in
the hilly areas of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil
Nadu, this soil is very useful for growing tea
and coffee. Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable

for crops like cashew nut.
Arid Soils
Arid soils range from r ed to br own in colour .
They are generally sandy in texture and saline
in nature.  In some areas the salt content is
very high and common salt is obtained by
evaporating the water. Due to the dry climate,
high temperature, evaporation is faster and
the soil lacks humus and moisture. The lower
horizons of the soil are occupied by Kankar
because of the increasing calcium content

downwards. The Kankar  layer formations in
the bottom horizons restrict the infiltration of
water . After pr oper irrigation these soils
become cultivable as has been in the case of
western Rajasthan .
Fig. 1.8:  Laterite SoilForest Soils
These soils  are found in the hilly and
mountainous areas where sufficient rain
forests are available.  The soils texture varies
according to the mountain environment
where they are formed.  They are loamy and

silty in valley sides and coarse grained in
the upper slopes. In the snow covered areas
Fig. 1.9:  Arid Soil

10
 CONTEMPORARY  INDIA – IIof Himalayas, these soils experience
denudation and are acidic with low humus
content.  The soils found in the lower parts of
the valleys particularly on the river terraces
and alluvial fans are fertile.
Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation
The denudation of the soil cover and
subsequent washing down is described as soil
erosion. The processes of soil formation and
erosion, go on simultaneously and generally
there is a balance between the two. Sometimes,

this balance is disturbed due to human
activities like defor estation, over -grazing,
construction and mining etc., while natural
forces like wind, glacier and water lead to
soil erosion. The running water cuts through
the clayey soils and makes deep channels as
gullies . The land becomes unfit for cultivation
and is known as bad land . In the Chambal
basin such lands are called ravines.
Sometimes water flows as a sheet over large

areas down a slope. In such cases the top
Fig. 1.11:  Gully Erosion
soil is washed away. This is known as sheet
erosion . Wind blows loose soil of f flat or
sloping land known as wind erosion. Soil
erosion is also caused due to defective methods
of farming. Ploughing in a wrong way i.e. up
and down the slope form channels for the
quick flow of water leading to soil erosion.
Ploughing along the contour lines can

decelerate the flow of water down the slopes.
This is called contour ploughing. Steps can
be cut out on the slopes making terraces.
Terrace cultivation restricts er osion. W ester n
and central Himalayas have well developed
terrace farming. Large fields can be divided into
strips. Strips of grass are left to grow between
the crops. This breaks up the force of the wind.
This method is known as strip cropping.
Planting lines of trees to create shelter also

works in a similar way. Rows of such trees are
called shelter belts. These shelter belts have
contributed significantly to the stabilisation of
sand dunes and in stabilising the desert in
western India.
Fig. 1.10:  Soil Erosion

11
 RESOURCES  AND DEVELOPMENTEXERCISES   EXERCISES   EXERCISES   EXERCISES   EXERCISES
1.Multiple choice questions.
(i)Which one of the following is the main cause of land degradation in Punjab?
(a)Intensive cultivation (c)Over irrigation
(b)Deforestation (d)Overgrazing
(ii)In which one of the following states is terrace cultivation practised?
(a)Punjab (c)Haryana
(b)Plains of Uttar Pradesh (d)Uttarakhand
(iii)In which of the following states black soil is predominantly found?

(a)Uttar Pradesh (c)Rajasthan
(b)Maharashtra (d)Jharkhand
2.Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i)Name three states having black soil and the crop which is mainly grown in it.
(ii)What type of soil is found in the river deltas of the eastern coast? Give three
main features of this type of soil.
(iii)What steps can be taken to control soil erosion in the hilly areas?
3.Answer the following questions in about 120 words.

(i)Explain land use pattern in India and why has the land under forest not
increased much since 1960-61?
(ii)How have technical and economic development led to mor e consumption of
resources?
PROJECT /ACTIVITY
1.Make a pr oject showing consumption and conservation of r esour ces in your locality.
2.Have a discussion in the clas s– how to conserve various resources used in
your school.
3.Imagine if oil supplies get exhausted, how will this af fect our life style?

4.Solve the puzzle by following your search horizontally and vertically to find the
hidden answers.
(i)Natural endowments in the for m of land, water , vegetation and minerals.
(ii)A type of  non-renewable resource.
(iii) Soil with high water retaining capacity.
(iv) Intensively leached soils of the monsoon climate.

12
 CONTEMPORARY  INDIA – IISFGSFOBROM SUAPJ
QGAF F OR E STAT ION
PNRECPRSLDM ILNF
SNATQXUOVA IOLAL
O
DE IDRJUJ L DB N B D
TG H M INE R ALSAXMW
BVJKM EDCRUPFMHR
LATE R ITEMVAZTVL
ABZOENM FT ISDLRC
CGN N SZ IOPAXTYJH
KJGKDTDCSLSEGEW

(v)Plantation  of trees on a large scale to check soil erosion.
(vi) The Great Plains of India are made up of these soils.

We shar e this planet with millions of other
living beings, starting from micro-organisms
and bacteria, lichens to banyan trees,
elephants and blue whales. This entire
habitat that we live in has immense
biodiversity. W e humans along with all living
organisms form a complex web of ecological
system in which we are only a part and
very much dependent on this system for
our own existence. For example, the plants,
animals and micro-organisms re-create the

quality of the air we breathe, the water we
drink and the soil that produces our food
without which we cannot survive. For ests
play a key role in the ecological system as
these are also the primary producers on
which all other living beings depend.Flora and Fauna in India
If you look around, you will be able to find
that there are some animals and plants which
are unique in your area. In fact, India is
one of the world’s richest countries in ter ms

of its vast array of biological diversity . This
is possibly twice or thrice the number yet
to be discover ed. Y ou have alr eady studied
in detail about the extent and variety of
forest and wildlife r esour ces in India. Y ou
may have realised the importance of
these resources in our daily life. These
diverse flora and fauna are so  well
integrated in our daily life that we take
these for granted. But, lately, they ar e

under great stress mainy due to insensitivity
to our environment.Narak! My Lord, you are the creator of music
in the world of Lepchas
Oh Narak! My Lord, let me dedicate
myself to you
Let me gather your music from the
springs, the rivers, the mountains, the forests,
the insects and the animals
Let me gather your music from the sweet
breeze and offer it to you
Source: Lepcha folk song from northern part of
West Bengal

Biodiversity or Biological Diversity  is
immensely rich in wildlife and cultivated
species, diverse in form and function but
closely integrated in a system through
multiple network of interdependencies.Find out stories prevalent in your region
which are about the harmonious relationship
between human beings and nature.
Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in India
Conservation in the background of rapid
decline in wildlife population and forestry has

become essential. But why do we need to
conserve our forests and wildlife?
Conservation preserves the ecological diversity
and our life support systems – water , air and
soil. It also preserves the genetic diversity of
plants and animals for better growth of species
and br eeding. For example, in agricultur e,
we are still dependent on traditional crop
varieties. Fisheries too are heavily dependent
on the maintenance of aquatic biodiversity.

In the 1960s and 1970s, conservationists
demanded a national wildlife protection
programme. The Indian Wildlife (Protection)

14
 CONTEMPORARY  INDIA – IIAct was implemented in 1972, with various
provisions for pr otecting habitats. An all-
India list of protected species was also
published. The thrust of the programme was
towards protecting the remaining population
of certain endangered species by banning
hunting, giving legal protection to their
habitats, and restricting trade in wildlife.
Subsequently, central and many state
governments established national parks and
wildlife sanctuaries about which you have

already studied. The central government also
announced several projects for protecting
specific animals, which were gravely
threatened, including the tiger , the one-
horned r hinocer os, the Kashmir stag or
hangul , three types of crocodiles – fresh
water crocodile, saltwater crocodile and the
Gharial, the Asiatic lion, and others. Most
recently, the Indian elephant, black buck
(chinkara), the great Indian bustard

(godawan ) and the snow leopard, etc. have
been given full or partial legal protection
against hunting and trade throughout India.Fig. 2.1
Tribal girls using bamboo saplings in a
nursery at Mukhali near Silent V alley
Tribal women selling minor for est pr oduce Leaf litter collection by women folk
Project Tiger
Tiger is one of the key wildlife species in
the faunal web. In 1973, the authorities
realised that the tiger population had

dwindled to 1,827 from an estimated
55,000 at the turn of the century . The major
threats to tiger population are numerous,
such as poaching for trade, shrinking
habitat, depletion of prey base species,
growing human population, etc. The trade
of tiger skins and the use of their bones in
traditional medicines, especially in the
Asian countries left the tiger population on
the verge of extinction. Since India and
Nepal provide habitat to about two-thirds

of the surviving tiger population in the
world, these two nations became prime
targets for poaching and illegal trading.
“Project Tiger ”, one of the well-
publicised wildlife campaigns in the world,
was launched in 1973.  Tiger conservation
has been viewed not only as an effort to
save an endangered species, but with

15 FOREST AND WILDLIFE  RESOURCES
much of its forest and wildlife resources are
either owned or managed by the government
through the For est Department or other
government departments. These are classified
under the following categories.
(i)Reserved Forests: More than half of the
total forest land has been declared
reserved forests . Reserved forests are
regarded as the most valuable as far as the
conservation of forest and wildlife resources
are concerned.

(ii)Protected Forests:  Almost one-third of the
total forest area is protected forest, as
declared by the Forest Department. This
forest land are protected from any further
depletion.
(iii)Unclassed Forests:  These are other
forests and wastelands belonging to
both government and private individuals
and communities.
Reserved and protected forests are also
referred to as permanent forest estates
maintained for the purpose of producing
timber and other forest produce, and for

protective reasons. Madhya Pradesh has the
largest area under permanent forests,
constituting 75 per cent of its total forest area.
Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Kerala, T amil Nadu, W est
Bengal, and Maharashtra have large
percentages of reserved forests of its total forest
area whereas Bihar , Haryana, Punjab,
Himachal Pradesh, Odisha and Rajasthan have
a bulk of it under protected forests. All North-

Collect more information on the wildlife
sanctuaries and national parks of India and
cite their locations on the map of India.Fig. 2.2:   Rhino and deer in Kaziranga National Park
equal importance as a means of
preserving biotypes of sizeable magnitude.
Corbett National Park in Uttara khand ,
Sunderbans National P ark in W est Bengal,
Bandhavgarh National Park in Madhya
Pradesh, Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary in

Rajasthan, Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam
and Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala are
some of the tiger reserves of India.
The conservation projects are now focusing
on biodiversity rather than on a few of its
components. There is now a more intensive
search for different conservation measures.
Increasingly, even insects are beginning to find
a place in conservation planning. In the
notification under Wildlife Act of 1980 and

1986, several hundred butterflies, moths,
beetles, and one dragonfly have been added to
the list of protected species. In 1991, for the
first time plants were also added to the list,
starting with six species.
Types and Distribution of Forest and
Wildlife Resources
Even if we want to conserve our vast forest and
wildlife resources, it is rather difficult to
manage, control and regulate them. In India,

16
 CONTEMPORARY  INDIA – IIeastern states and parts of Gujarat have a very
high percentage of their forests as unclassed
forests managed by local communities.
Community and Conservation
Conservation strategies are not new in our
country. W e often ignore that in India, for ests
are also home to some of the traditional
communities. In some areas of India, local
communities are struggling to conserve these
habitats along with gover nment of ficials,
recognising that only this will secure their

own long-term livelihood. In Sariska Tiger
Reserve, Rajasthan, villagers have fought
against mining by citing the Wildlife Protection
Act. In many areas, villagers themselves are
protecting habitats and explicitly rejecting
government involvement. The inhabitants of
five villages in the Alwar district of Rajasthan
have declared 1,200 hectares of forest as the
Bhairodev Dakav ‘Sonchuri’, declaring their
own set of rules and regulations which do not

allow hunting, and are protecting the wildlife
against any outside encroachments.
The famous Chipko  movement in the
Himalayas has not only successfully resisted
deforestation in several areas but has also
shown that community afforestation with
indigenous species can be enormously
successful. Attempts to revive the traditional
conservation methods or developing new
methods of ecological farming are now

widespr ead. Far mers and citizen’s gr oups like
the Beej Bachao Andolan in T ehri and
Navdanya  have shown that adequate levels of
diversified crop production without the use of
synthetic chemicals are possible and
economically viable.
In India joint for est management (JFM)
programme furnishes a good example for
involving local communities in the
management and restoration of degradedCan you find out the reasons for the above mentioned problems?

17 FOREST AND WILDLIFE  RESOURCES
Sacred groves - a wealth of diverse and rare
species
Nature worship is an age old tribal belief based on
the premise that all creations of nature have to be
protected. Such beliefs have preserved several virgin
forests in pristine form called Sacred Groves (the
forests of God and Goddesses). These patches of
forest or parts of large forests have been left
untouched by the local people and any interference
with them is banned.

Certain societies revere a particular tree which
they have preserved from time immemorial. The
Mundas and the Santhal of Chota Nagpur region
worship mahua ( Bassia latifolia ) and kadamba
(Anthocaphalus cadamba ) trees, and the tribals of
Odisha and Bihar worship the tamarind ( Tamarindus
indica ) and mango ( Mangifera indica ) trees during
weddings. T o many of us, peepal and banyan trees
are considered sacred.
Indian society comprises several cultures, each

with its own set of traditional methods of conserving
nature and its creations. Sacred qualities are often
ascribed to springs, mountain peaks, plants and
animals which are closely protected. Y ou will find
troops of macaques and langurs around many
temples. They are fed daily and treated as a part of
temple devotees. In and around Bishnoi villages in
Rajasthan, herds of blackbuck, (chinkara), nilgai and

peacocks can be seen as an integral part of the
community and nobody harms them.forests. The programme has been in formal
existence since 1988 when the state of
Odisha passed the first resolution for joint
forest management. JFM depends on the
formation of local (village) institutions that
undertake protection activities mostly on
degraded forest land managed by the forest
department. In return, the members of
these communities are entitled to
intermediary benefits like non-timber

forest produces and share in the timber
harvested by ‘successful protection’.
The clear lesson from the dynamics of
both environmental destruction and
reconstruction in India is that local
communities everywhere have to be
involved in some kind of natural resource
management. But there is still a long way
to go before local communities are at the
centre-stage in decision-making. Accept
only those economic or developmental

activities, that are people centric,
environment-friendly and economically
rewarding.
“The tree is a peculiar organism of unlimited kindness and benevolence and
makes no demand for its sustenance, and extends generously the products of its
life activity . It affords protection to all beings, offering shade even to the axemen
who destroy it”.
Gautama Buddha (487 B.C.)
Write a short essay on any practices
which you may have observed and

practised in your everyday lives that
conserve and protect the environment
around you.

18
 CONTEMPORARY  INDIA – IIEXERCISES   EXERCISES   EXERCISES   EXERCISES   EXERCISES
1.Multiple choice questions
(i)Which of the following conservation strategies do not directly involve
community participation?
(a)Joint for est management (c)Chipko Movement
(b)Beej Bachao Andolan (d)Demarcation of Wildlife sanctuaries
2.Match the following.
Reserved forests other forests and wastelands belonging to both
government and private individuals and
communities

Protected forests forests are regarded as most valuable as far as the
Unclassed forests forest lands are protected from any further
depletion
3.Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i)What is biodiversity? Why is biodiversity important for human lives?
(ii)How have human activities affected the depletion of flora and fauna? Explain.
4.Answer the following questions in about 120 words.

(i)Describe how communities have conserved and protected forests and wildlife
in India?
(ii)Write a note on good practices towar ds conserving for est and wildlife.

You alr eady know that thr ee-fourth of the
earth’s sur face is covered with water , but only
a small proportion of it accounts for
freshwater that can be put to use. This
freshwater is mainly obtained from surface
run of f and gr ound water that is continually
being renewed and recharged through the
hydrological cycle. All water moves within the
hydrological cycle ensuring that water is a
renewable resource.
You might wonder that if thr ee-fourth of
the world is covered with water and water is

a renewable resource, then how is it that
countries and r egions ar ound the globe suf fer
from water scarcity? Why is it predicted that
by 2025, nearly two billion people will live in
absolute water scarcity?
WATER  SCARCITY  AND THE NEED FOR WATER
CONSERVATION  AND MANAGEMENT
Given the abundance and r enewability of
water , it is dif ficult to imagine that we may
suffer fr om water scar city. The moment we
speak of water shortages, we immediately

associate it with regions having low rainfall
or those that ar e dr ought pr
one. W e
instantaneously visualise the deserts of
Rajasthan and women balancing many
‘matkas ’ (earthen pots) used for collecting
and storing water and travelling long
distances to get water . True, the availability
of water resources varies over space and time,
mainly due to the variations in seasonal and
annual precipitation, but water scarcity in

20
consequent greater demands for water , and
unequal access to it. A large population
requires more water not only for domestic
use but also to produce mor e food. Hence, to
facilitate higher food-grain production, water
resour ces ar e being over -exploited to expand
irrigated areas for dry-season agriculture.
Irrigated agriculture is the largest consumer
of water . Now it is needed to r evolutionise the
agriculture through developing drought

resistant crops and dry farming techniques.
You may have seen in many television
advertisements that most farmers have their
Fig. 3.1:   Water Scar citymost cases is caused by over -exploitation,
excessive use and unequal access to water
among dif ferent social gr oups.
Where is then water scarcity likely to
occur? As you have r ead in the hydr ological
cycle, freshwater can be obtained directly
from pr ecipitation, sur face run of f and
groundwater .

Is it possible that an area or region may
have ample water resources but is still facing
water scarcity? Many of our cities are such
examples. Thus, water scarcity may be an
outcome of large and growing population and
Water, Water Everywhere, Not a Drop to Drink
:
After a heavy downpour , a boy collects drinking
water in Kolkata. Life in the city and its adjacent
districts was paralysed as incessant overnight rain,
meaning a record 180 mm, flooded vast area and
disruted traf fic.

A Kashmiri earthquake survivor carries water in
the snow in a devastated village .

21
 WATER RESOURCESYou may have alr eady r ealised that the need
of the hour is to conserve and manage our
water resources, to safeguard ourselves from
health hazards, to ensure food security,
continuation of our livelihoods and productive
activities and also to prevent degradation of our
natural ecosystems. Over exploitation and
mismanagement of water resources will
impoverish this resource and cause ecological
crisis that may have profound impact on

our lives.own wells and tube-wells in their farms for
irrigation to increase their produce. But have
you ever wondered what this could result in?
That it may lead to falling groundwater levels,
adversely affecting water availability and food
security of the people.
Post-independent India witnessed
intensive industrialisation and urbanisation,
creating vast opportunities for us. Today, large
industrial houses are as commonplace as the

industrial units of many MNCs (Multinational
Corporations). The ever -increasing number of
industries has made matters worse by exerting
pressure on existing freshwater resources.
Industries, apart from being heavy users of
water , also r equir e power to run them. Much
of this ener gy comes fr om hydr oelectric power .
Today, in India hydroeclectric power
contributes approximately 22 per cent of the
total electricity pr oduced. Mor eover ,

multiplying urban centres with large and
dense populations and urban lifestyles have
not only added to water and energy
requirements but have further aggravated the
problem. If you look into the housing societies
or colonies in the cities, you would find that
most of these have their own groundwater
pumping devices to meet their water needs.
Not surprisingly, we find that fragile water
resour ces ar e being over -exploited and have

caused their depletion in several of these cities.
So far we have focused on the quantitative
aspects of water scarcity. Now, let us consider
another situation where water is sufficiently
available to meet the needs of the people, but,
the area still suffers from water scarcity. This
scarcity may be due to bad quality of water
.
Lately, there has been a growing concern that
even if there is ample water to meet the needs

of the people, much of it may be polluted by
domestic and industrial wastes, chemicals,
pesticides and fertilisers used in agriculture,
thus, making it hazardous for human use.
Government of India has accorded highest
priority to improve the quality of life and
enhance ease of living of people especially those
living in rual areas by announcing the Jal
Jeevan Mission (JJM). The Goal of JJM is to
enable every rural household get assured

supply of potable piped water at a service level
of 55 litres per capita per day regularly onMULTI-PURPOSE  RIVER PROJECTS  AND
INTEGRATED  WATER RESOURCES  MANAGEMENT
But, how do we conserve and manage water?
Archaeological and historical records show
that from ancient times we have been
constructing sophisticated hydraulic
structures like dams built of stone rubble,
reservoirs or lakes, embankments and canals
for irrigation. Not surprisingly, we have

continued this tradition in modern India by
building dams in most of our river basins.
Hydraulic Structures in Ancient India
•In the first century B.C., Sringaverapura
near Allahabad had sophisticated water
harvesting system channelling the flood
water of the river Ganga.
•During the time of Chandragupta Maurya,
dams, lakes and irrigation systems were
extensively built.
India’s rivers, especially the smaller ones,

have all turned into toxic streams. And even
the big ones like the Ganga and Y amuna
are far from being pure. The assault on
India’s rivers – from population growth,
agricultural modernisation, urbanisation and
industrialisation – is enormous and growing
by the day….. This entire life stands
threatened.
Source:  The Citizens’ Fifth Report, CSE, 1999.long-term basis by ensuring functionality of
the tap water connections. (Source: Economic

Survey 2020–21, p.357)
From your everyday experiences, write a short
proposal on how you can conserve water .

22
What are dams and how do they help us
in conserving and managing water? Dams
were traditionally built to impound rivers and
rainwater that could be used later to irrigate
agricultural fields. Today, dams are built not
just for irrigation but for electricity generation,
water supply for domestic and industrial
uses, flood control, recreation, inland
navigation and fish breeding. Hence, dams are
now referred to as multi-purpose projects

where the many uses of the impounded water
are integrated with one another . For example,
in the Sutluj-Beas river basin, the Bhakra –
Nangal project water is being used both for
hydel power production and irrigation.
Similarly, the Hirakud project in the
Mahanadi basin integrates conservation of
water with flood control.
Multi-purpose projects, launched after
Independence with their integrated water
resources management approach, were thought

of as the vehicle that would lead the nation to
development and progress, overcoming thehandicap of its colonial past. Jawaharlal Nehru
proudly proclaimed the dams as the ‘temples of
modern India’; the reason being that it would
integrate development of agriculture and the
village economy with rapid industrialisation and
growth of the urban economy.
Fig. 3.2:  Hirakud Dam
We have sown the crops in Asar
We will bring Bhadu in Bhadra

Floods have swollen the Damodar
The sailing boats cannot sail
Oh! Damodar , we fall at your feet
Reduce the floods a little
Bhadu will come a year later
Let the boats sail on your surface
(This popular Bhadu song in the Damodar
valley region narrates the troubles faced by
people owing to the flooding of Damodar river
known as the river of sorr ow.)•Evidences of sophisticated irrigation works
have also been found in Kalinga,
(Odisha), Nagarjunakonda (Andhra

Pradesh), Bennur (Karnataka), Kolhapur
(Maharashtra), etc.
•In the 11th Century , Bhopal Lake, one of the
largest artificial lakes of its time was built.
•In the 14th Century , the tank in Hauz Khas,
Delhi was constructed by Iltutmish for
supplying water to Siri Fort area.
Source:  Dying Wisdom, CSE, 1997 .A dam is a barrier across flowing water that
obstructs, directs or retards the flow , often
creating a reservoir , lake or impoundment.

“Dam ” refers to the reservoir rather than the
structure. Most dams have a section called a
spillway or weir  over which or through which
it is intended that water will flow either
intermittently or continuously . Dams are
classified according to structure, intended
purpose or height. Based on structure and
the materials used, dams are classified as
timber dams, embankment dams or masonry
dams, with several subtypes. According to

the height, dams can be categorised as large
dams and major dams or alternatively as low
dams, medium height dams and high dams.
Find out more about any one traditional
method of building dams and irrigation works.
In recent years, multi-purpose projects
and large dams have come under great
scrutiny and opposition for a variety of
reasons. Regulating and damming of rivers
affect their natural flow causing poor sediment

flow and excessive sedimentation at the bottom
of the r eservoir , resulting in r ockier str eam

23
 WATER RESOURCES
beds and poorer habitats for the rivers’ aquatic
life. Dams also fragment rivers making it
difficult for aquatic fauna to migrate, especially
for spawning. The reservoirs that are created
on the floodplains also submerge the existing
vegetation and soil leading to its
decomposition over a period of time.
Multi-purpose projects and large dams
have also been the cause of many new
environmental movements like the ‘Narmada
Bachao Andolan’ and the ‘T ehri Dam Andolan’

etc. Resistance to these projects has primarily
been due to the large-scale displacement of
local communities. Local people often had to
give up their land, livelihood and their meagre
access and control over resources for the
greater good of the nation. So, if the local
people are not benefiting from such projects
then who is benefited? Perhaps, the
landowners and large farmers, industrialists
and few urban centres. Take the case of the

landless in a village – does he really gain from
such a project?Irrigation has also changed the cropping
pattern of many regions with farmers shifting
to water intensive and commercial crops. This
has great ecological consequences like
salinisation of the soil. At the same time, it
has transformed the social landscape i.e.
increasing the social gap between the richer
landowners and the landless poor . As we can

see, the dams did create conflicts between
people wanting dif ferent uses and benefits
from the same water r esources. In Gujarat,
the Sabarmati-basin farmers were agitated
and almost caused a riot over the higher
priority given to water supply in urban areas,
particularly during dr oughts. Inter -state water
disputes are also becoming common with
regard to sharing the costs and benefits of the
multi-purpose project.Narmada Bachao Andolan  or Save

Narmada Movement is a Non Governmental
Organisation (NGO) that mobilised tribal
people, farmers, environmentalists and
human rights activists against the Sardar
Sarovar Dam being built across the
Narmada river in Gujarat. It originally
focused on the environmental issues related
to trees that would be submerged under the
dam water . Recently it has re
-focused the
aim to enable poor citizens, especially
the oustees (displaced people) to get
full rehabilitation facilities from
the government.

People felt that their suffering would not
be in vain… accepted the trauma of
displacement believing in the promise of
irrigated fields and plentiful harvests. So,
often the survivors of Rihand told us that they
accepted their sufferings as sacrifice for the
sake of their nation. But now , after thirty bitter
years of being adrift, their livelihood having
even being more precarious, they keep
asking: “ Are we the only ones chosen to

make sacrifices for the nation?”Source:  S. Sharma, quoted in In the Belly of
the River . Tribal conflicts over development in
Narmada valley, A. Baviskar , 1995.
Make a list of inter-state water disputes.
Do you know that the Krishna-Godavari
dispute is due to the objections raised by
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
gover nments? It is r egarding the diversion
of more water at Koyna by the Maharashtra
government for a multipurpose project. This

would reduce downstream flow in their
states with adverse consequences for
agricultur e and industry.
Sardar Sarovar Dam has been built over
the Nar mada River in Gujarat. This is one
of the largest water resource projects of
India covering four states—Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan.
The Sardar Sarovar project would meet the
requirement of water in drought-prone and
desert ar eas of Gujarat (9,490 villages and

173 towns) and Rajasthan (124 villages).
Source:  http: //www. sardarsarovardam.org/
project.aspx

24
India:   Major Rivers and Dams

25
 WATER RESOURCESMost of the objections to the projects arose
due to their failure to achieve the purposes
for which they wer e built. Ir onically, the dams
that were constructed to control floods have
triggered floods due to sedimentation in the
reservoir . Mor eover , the big dams have mostly
been unsuccessful in controlling floods at the
time of excessive rainfall. Y ou may have seen
or read how the release of water from dams
during heavy rains aggravated the flood

situation in Maharashtra and Gujarat in 2006 .
The floods have not only devastated life and
property but also caused extensive soil
erosion. Sedimentation also meant that the
flood plains were deprived of silt, a natural
fertiliser , further adding on to the problem of
land degradation. It was also observed that
the multi-purpose projects induced
earthquakes, caused water -borne diseases and
pests and pollution resulting from excessive

use of water .RAINWATER  HARVESTING
Many thought that given the disadvantages
and rising resistance against the multi-
purpose projects, water harvesting system was
a viable alternative, both socio-economically
and envir onmentally. In ancient India, along
with the sophisticated hydraulic structures,
there existed an extraordinary tradition of
water -harvesting system. People had in-depth
knowledge of rainfall regimes and soil types

and developed wide ranging techniques to
harvest rainwater , groundwater , river water
and flood water in keeping with the local
ecological conditions and their water needs.
In hill and mountainous regions, people built
diversion channels like the ‘guls’ or ‘kuls’ of
the W ester n Himalayas for agricultur e.
‘Rooftop rainwater harvesting’ was commonly
practised to stor e drinking water , particularly
in Rajasthan. In the flood plains of Bengal,

people developed inundation channels to
Collect information about flood prone areas of the country

26
 CONTEMPORARY  INDIA – II•Rooftop rainwater is collected using a PVC pipe
•Filtered using sand and bricks
•Underground pipe takes water to sump for
immediate usage
•Excess water from the sump is taken to the well
•Water fr om the well r echarges the under ground
•Take water fr om the well (later)
(b) Recharge through Abandoned Dugwell
Fig 3.3:   Rooftop Rainwater HarvestingIn the semi-arid and arid regions of
Rajasthan, particularly in Bikaner , Phalodi
and Bar mer, almost all the houses

traditionally had underground tanks or
tankas  for storing drinking water . The tanks
could be as large as a big room; one
household in Phalodi had a tank that was
6.1 metres deep, 4.27 metres long and 2.44
metres wide. The tankas were part of the
well-developed rooftop rainwater harvesting
system and were built inside the main house
or the courtyard. They were connected to
the sloping roofs of the houses through a
pipe. Rain falling on the rooftops would

travel down the pipe and was stored in these
underground ‘tankas’. The first spell of rain
was usually not collected as this would
clean the roofs and the pipes. The rainwater
from the subsequent showers was then
collected.
The rainwater can be stored in the
tankas  till the next rainfall making it an
extremely reliable source of drinking water
when all other sources are dried up,
(a) Recharge through Hand Pumpirrigate their fields. In arid and semi-arid

regions, agricultural fields were converted into
rain fed storage structures that allowed the
water to stand and moisten the soil like the
‘khadins’ in Jaisalmer and ‘Johads’ in other
parts of Rajasthan.
Fig. 3.4

27
Fig 3.5:  Traditional method of rainwater
harvestingA kul leads to a circular village tank, as the above
in the Kaza village, fr om which water is r eleased
as and when required.
Today, in wester n Rajasthan, sadly the
practice of rooftop rainwater harvesting is on
the decline as plenty of water is available due
to the per ennial Indira Gandhi  Canal, though
some houses still maintain the tankas since

they do not like the taste of tap water .Fortunately, in many parts of rural and urban
India, rooftop rainwater harvesting is being
successfully adapted to store and conserve
water . In Gendathur , a remote backwar d village
in Mys uru, Karnataka, villagers have installed,
in their household’s r ooftop, rainwater harvesting
system to meet their water needs. Nearly 200
households have installed this system and the

village has earned the rare distinction of being
rich in rainwater . See Fig . 3.6 for a better
understanding of the rooftop rainwater
harvesting system which is adapted here.
Gendathur receives an annual precipitation of
1,000 mm, and with 80 per cent of collection
efficiency and of about 10 fillings, every house
can collect and use about 50,000 litr es of water
annually. Fr om the 20 0 houses, the net amount

of rainwater harvested annually amounts to
1,00,000 litr es.
Fig. 3.6Rooftop harvesting was common across the towns
and villages of the Thar . Rainwater that falls on the
sloping roofs of houses is taken through a pipe into
an underground tanka  (circular holes in the ground).
built in the main house or in the courtyard. The
picture above shows water being taken from a
neighbour’s r oof thr ough a long pipe. Her e the

neighbour’s r ooftop has been used for collection of
rainwater . The pictur e shows a hole thr ough which
rainwater flows down into an underground tanka .
Tamil Nadu is the first state in India
which has made rooftop rainwater
harvesting structure compulsory to all
the houses across the state. There are
legal provisions to punish the defaulters.
Rooftop rainwater harvesting is the most
common practice in Shillong, Meghalaya.

It is inter esting because Cherapunjee and
Mawsynram  situated at a distance of
55 km. from Shillong receive the highest
rainfall in the world, yet the state capital
Shillong faces acute shortage of water .
Nearly every household in the city has a
rooftop rainwater harvesting structure.
Nearly 15-25 per cent of the total water
requirement of the household comes from
rooftop water harvesting.
Find out other rainwater harvesting systems

existing in and around your locality .particularly in the summers. Rainwater , or
palar pani , as commonly referred to in
these parts, is considered the purest form
of natural water . Many houses constructed
underground rooms adjoining the ‘tanka’
to beat the summer heat  as it would keep
the room cool.

28
 CONTEMPORARY  INDIA – IIFig 3.7
BAMBOO  DRIP IRRIGATION  SYSTEM
In Meghalaya, a 200-year -old system of tapping str eam
and spring water by using bamboo pipes, is prevalent.
About 18-20 litr es of water enters the bamboo pipe system,
gets transported over hundreds of metres, and finally
reduces to 20-80 drops per minute at the site of the plant.
Picture 2 and 3: The channel sections, made of bamboo, divert
wate r to the plant site where it is distributed into branches, again

made and laid out with different forms of bamboo pipes. The flow of
water into the pipes is controlled by manipulating the pipe positions.Picture 1:  Bamboo pipes are used to divert perennial springs
on the hilltops to the lower reaches by gravity.
Picture 5 and 6
Reduced channel sections
and diversion units are
used at the last stage of
water application. The last
channel section enables
water to be dropped near
the roots of the plant.Picture 4:  If the pipes pass a road,

they are taken high above the land.
1.Collect information on how industries are polluting our water resources.
2.Enact with your classmates a scene of water dispute in your locality .

29
 WATER RESOURCESEXERCISES   EXERCISES   EXERCISES   EXERCISES   EXERCISES
(i)Based on the information given below classify each of the situations as
‘suffering fr om water scar city’ or ‘not suf fering fr om water scar city’.
(a)Region with high annual rainfall.
(b)Region having high annual rainfall and large population.
(c)Region having high annual rainfall but water is highly polluted.
(d)Region having low rainfall and low population.

(ii)Which one of the following statements is not an argument in favour of multi-
purpose river projects?
(a)Multi-purpose pr ojects bring water to those ar eas which suf fer fr om
water scar city.
(b)Multi-purpose projects by regulating water flow helps to control floods.
(c)Multi-purpose projects lead to large scale displacements and loss of
livelihood.
(d)Multi-purpose projects generate electricity for our industries and our
homes.

homes.
(iii)Here are some false statements. Identify the mistakes and r ewrite them
correctly.
(a)Multiplying urban centres with large and dense populations and urban
lifestyles have helped in proper utilisation of water resources.
(b)Regulating and damming of rivers does not af fect the river’s natural
flow and its sediment flow.
(c)In Gujarat, the Sabar mati basin far mers wer e not agitated when higher
priority was given to water supply in urban areas, particularly during
droughts.

droughts.
(d)Today in Rajasthan, the practice of r ooftop rainwater water harvesting
has gained popularity despite high water availability due to the Indira
Gandhi Canal.
2.Answer the following questions in about 30 wor ds.
(i)Explain how water becomes a renewable resource.
(ii)What is water scarcity and what are its main causes?
(iii)Compare the advantages and disadvantages of multi-purpose river projects.
3.Answer the following questions in about 120 wor ds.

(i)Discuss how rainwater harvesting in semi-arid regions of Rajasthan is
carried out.
(ii)Describe how modern adaptations of traditional rainwater harvesting
methods ar e being carried out to conserve and stor e water .

India is an agriculturally important country.
Two-thir ds of its population is engaged in
agricultural activities. Agricultur e is a primary
activity, which pr oduces most of the food that
we consume. Besides food grains, it also
produces raw material for various industries.
Can you name some industries based on
agricultural raw material?
Moreover , some agricultural pr oducts like
tea, cof fee, spices, etc. ar e also exported.
TYPES OF FARMING
Agricultur e is an age-old economic activity in

our country. Over these years, cultivation
methods have changed significantly depending
upon the characteristics of physical
environment, technological know-how and
socio-cultural practices. Far ming varies fr om
subsistence to commercial type. At present,
in dif ferent parts of India, the following
farming systems are practised.
Primitive Subsistence Farming
This type of farming is still practised in few
pockets of India. Primitive subsistence

agriculture is practised on small patches of
land with the help of primitive tools like hoe,
dao and digging sticks, and family/
community labour . This type of far ming
depends upon monsoon, natural fertility of
the soil and suitability of other environmental
conditions to the crops grown.
It is a ‘slash and bur n’ agricultur e.
Farmers clear a patch of land and pr oduce
cereals and other food crops to sustain their

family. When the soil fertility decr eases, the
farmers shift and clear a fresh patch of land
for cultivation. This type of shifting allows
Nature to replenish the fertility of the soilthrough natural processes; land productivity
in this type of agriculture is low as the farmer
does not use fertilisers or other modern
inputs. It is known by dif ferent names in
different parts of the country.
Can you name  some such types of farmings?
It is jhumming

It is jhumming 
in north-easter n states like
Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland;
Pamlou in Manipur , Dipa in Bastar district
of Chhattishgar h, and in Andaman and
Nicobar Islands.
Jhumming:  The ‘slash and burn ’ agriculture
is known as ‘Milpa’ in Mexico and Central
America, ‘Conuco’ in V enzuela, ‘R oca’ in
Brazil, ‘Masole’ in Central Africa, ‘Ladang’
in Indonesia, ‘Ray ’ in Vietnam.
In India, this primitive form of cultivation
is called ‘Bewar ’ or ‘Dahiya ’ in Madhya

Pradesh, ‘Podu’ or ‘Penda’ in Andhra Pradesh,
‘Pama Dabi’ or ‘K oman ’ or Bringa ’ in Odisha,
‘Kumari’ in W estern Ghats, ‘ Valre’ or ‘ Waltre’
in South-eastern Rajasthan, ‘Khil’ in the
Himalayan belt, ‘Kuruwa’ in Jharkhand, and
‘Jhumming’ in the North- eastern region.
Fig. 4.1

Can you name the type of farming Rinjha’s
family is engaged in?
Can you enlist some crops which are grown
in such farming?
Intensive Subsistence Farming
This type of farming is practised in areas of
high population pr essur e on land. It is labour -
intensive farming, where high doses of
biochemical inputs and irrigation are used
for obtaining higher production.
Can you name some of the states of India
where such farming is practised?
Though the ‘right of inheritance’ leading

to the division of land among successive
generations has rendered land-holding size
uneconomical, the farmers continue to take
maximum output from the limited land in
the absence of alternative source of livelihood.
Thus, there is enormous pressure on
agricultural land.
Commercial Farming
The main characteristic of this type of farming
is the use of higher doses of modern inputs,
e.g. high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical

fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides in order
to obtain higher productivity. The degr ee of
commercialisation of agriculture varies from
one r egion to another . For example, rice is a
commercial crop in Haryana and Punjab, but
in Odisha, it is a subsistence crop.
Can you give some more examples of crops
which may be commercial in one region and
may provide subsistence in another region?Plantation is also a type of commercial

farming. In this type of farming, a single crop
is grown on a large area. The plantation has
an inter face of agricultur e and industry.
Plantations cover large tracts of land, using
capital intensive inputs, with the help of
migrant labour ers. All the pr oduce is used
as raw material in respective industries.
In India, tea, cof fee, rubber , sugar cane,
banana, etc., are important plantation crops.
Tea in Assam and North Bengal cof fee in
Karnataka ar e some of the important

plantation crops grown in these states. Since
the production is mainly for market, a well-
developed network of transport and
communication connecting the plantation
areas, processing industries and markets
plays an important role in the development
of plantations.Rinjha lived with her family in a small village
at the outskirts of Diphu in Assam. She enjoys
watching her family members clearing,
slashing and burning a patch of land for

cultivation. She often helps them in irrigating
the fields with water running through a
bamboo canal from the nearby spring. She
loves the surroundings and wants to stay
here as long as she can, but this little girl
has no idea about the declining fertility of
the soil and her family ’s search for fresh a
patch of land in the next season.
31 AGRICULTURE
Fig. 4.2:   Banana plantation in Southern
part of India
Fig. 4.3:  Bamboo plantation in North-east

32
 CONTEMPORARY  INDIA – IICROPPING  PATTERN
You have studied the physical diversities and
plurality of cultures in India. These are also
reflected in agricultural practices and
cropping patter ns in the country. V arious
types of food and fibre crops, vegetables and
fruits, spices and condiments, etc. constitute
some of the important crops grown in the
country. India has thr ee cr opping seasons
— rabi, kharif  and zaid.
Rabi crops are sown in winter from October

to December and harvested in summer from
April to June. Some of the important rabi
crops ar e wheat, barley, peas, gram and
mustard. Though, these crops are grown in
large parts of India, states from the north
and north-western parts such as Punjab,
Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and
Kashmir , Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh ar e
important for the production of wheat and
other rabi cr ops. A vailability of precipitation

during winter months due to the western
temperate cyclones helps in the success of
these cr ops. However , the success of the gr een
revolution in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar
Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan has also been
an important factor in the growth of the above-
mentioned rabi crops.
Kharif cr ops ar e grown with the onset of
monsoon in dif ferent parts of the country and
these ar e harvested in September -October .

Important crops grown during this season
are paddy, maize, jowar , bajra, tur (ar har),
moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and
soyabean. Some of the most important rice-
growing r egions ar e Assam, W est Bengal,
coastal r egions of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, T amil Nadu, Kerala and
Maharashtra,  particularly the (Konkan coast)
along with Uttar Pradesh and Bihar . Recently,
paddy has also become an important crop of

Punjab and Haryana. In states like Assam,
West Bengal and Odisha, thr ee crops of paddy
are grown in a year . These ar e Aus, Aman
and Boro.
In between the rabi and the kharif seasons,
there is a short season during the summer
months known as the Zaid season. Some of
the crops produced during ‘zaid’ arewater melon, muskmelon, cucumber ,
vegetables and fodder crops. Sugarcane takes
almost a year to gr
ow.
Major Crops

ow.
A variety of food and non food crops are
grown in dif ferent parts of the country
depending upon the variations in soil, climate
and cultivation practices. Major crops grown
in India are rice, wheat, millets, pulses, tea,
coffee, sugar cane, oil seeds, cotton and jute,
etc.
Rice:  It is the staple food cr op of a majority of
the people in India. Our country is the second
largest producer of rice in the world after

China. It is a kharif cr op which r equir es high
temperatur e, (above 25°C) and high humidity
with annual rainfall above 100 cm. In the areas
of less rainfall, it grows with the help of
Fig. 4.4 (b):   Rice is ready to be harvested in the
fieldFig. 4.4 (a):  Rice Cultivation

33 AGRICULTURE
India:   Distribution of Rice

34
 CONTEMPORARY  INDIA – IIRice is grown in the plains of north and
north-eastern India, coastal areas and the
deltaic regions. Development of dense network
of canal irrigation and tubewells have made
it possible to grow rice in areas of less rainfall
such as Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar
Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan.
Wheat:  This is the second most important
cereal cr op. It is the main food cr op, in north
and north-wester n part of the country. This

rabi crop requires a cool growing season and
a bright sunshine at the time of ripening. It
requires 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall evenly-
distributed over the growing season. There
are two important wheat-growing zones in the
country – the Ganga-Satluj plains in the
north-west and black soil region of the Deccan.
The major wheat-producing states are
Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan.

Millets:  Jowar , bajra and ragi ar e the
important millets grown in India. Though,
these are known as coarse grains, they have
very high nutritional value. For example, ragi
is very rich in iron, calcium, other micro
nutrients and roughage. Jowar is the thir d
most important food crop with respect to area
and pr oduction. It is a rain-fed cr op mostly
grown in the moist areas which hardly needs
irrigation. Major Jowar pr oducing States ar e

Maharashtra, Kar nataka, Andhra Pradesh
and Madhya Pradesh.
Fig. 4.6:   Bajra Cultivation
Bajra grows well on sandy soils and
shallow black soil. Major Bajra producing
States are Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana. Ragi is
a crop of dry regions and grows well on red,
black, sandy, loamy and shallow black soils.
Major ragi pr oducing states ar e: Kar nataka,
Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,

Sikkim, Jharkhand and Arunachal Pradesh.
Maize:  It is a cr op which is used both as
food and fodder . It is a kharif cr op which
requires temperature between 21°C to 27°C
and grows well in old alluvial soil. In some
states like Bihar maize is grown in rabi season
also. Use of moder n inputs such as HYV
seeds, fertilisers and irrigation have
contributed to the increasing production of
maize. Major maize-producing states are

Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar , Andhra Pradesh and T elangana.
Fig. 4.5:   Wheat Cultivation
Fig. 4.7:   Maize Cultivation

35 AGRICULTURE
India:   Distribution of Wheat

36
 CONTEMPORARY  INDIA – IIsowing to harvesting. India is the second
largest producer of sugarcane only after
Brazil. It is the main sou rce of sugar , gur
(jaggary), khandsari and molasses. The major
sugarcane-producing states are Uttar
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, T elangana, Bihar ,
Punjab  and Haryana.
Oil Seeds:  In 2018 India was the second
largest producer of groundnut in the world
after China. In rapeseed production India was

third largest producer in the world after
Canada and China in 2018. Different oil seeds
are grown covering approximately 12 per cent
of the total cr opped ar ea of the country. Main
oil-seeds produced in India are groundnut,
mustard, coconut, sesamum (til), soyabean,
castor seeds, cotton seeds, linseed and
sunflower . Most of these are edible and used
as cooking mediums. However , some of these
are also used as raw material in the

production of soap, cosmetics and ointments.
Groundnut is a kharif crop and accounts
for about half of the major oilseeds produced in
the country. Gujarat was the largest producer
of groundnut followed by Rajasthan and Tamil
Nadu  in 201 9–20. Linseed and mustard are rabi
crops. Sesamum is a kharif crop in north and
rabi crop in south India. Castor seed is grown
both as rabi and kharif crop.
Tea:  Tea cultivation is an example of

plantation agriculture. It is also an important
beverage crop introduced in India initially by
the British. Today, most of the tea plantations
are owned by Indians. The tea plant grows
well in tropical and sub-tropical climates
endowed with deep and fertile well-drained
soil, rich in humus and or ganic matter . Tea
bushes require warm and moist frost-free

Fig. 4.9:   Groundnut, sunflower and mustard are ready to be harvested in the fieldPulses:  India is the largest producer as well
as the consumer of pulses in the world. These
are the major source of protein in a vegetarian
diet. Major pulses that are grown in India are
tur (ar har), urad, moong, masur , peas and
gram. Can you distinguish which of these
pulses are grown in the kharif season and
which are grown in the rabi season? Pulses

need less moisture and survive even in dry
conditions. Being leguminous crops, all these
crops except arhar help in restoring soil
fertility by fixing nitr ogen fr om the air .
Therefore, these are mostly grown in rotation
with other crops. Major pulse producing states
in India  are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Kar nataka.
Food Crops other than Grains
Sugarcane:  It is a tropical as well as a

subtropical crop. It grows well in hot and
humid climate with a temperature of 21 °C to
27°C and an annual rainfall between 75cm.
and 100cm. Irrigation is required in the
regions of low rainfall. It can be grown on a
variety of soils and needs manual labour from
Fig. 4.8:   Sugarcane Cultivation

37 AGRICULTURE
climate all through the
year. Frequent showers
evenly distributed over the
year ensure continuous
growth of tender leaves.
Tea is a labour -intensive
industry. It requires
abundant, cheap and
skilled labour . Tea is
processed within
the tea garden to restore
its freshness. Major tea-
producing states are Assam, hills of Darjeeling
and Jalpaiguri districts, W est Bengal, T amil
Nadu and Kerala. Apart from these, Himachal
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Meghalaya, Andhra

Pradesh and T ripura ar e also tea-pr oducing
states in the country. In 2018 India was the
second largest producer of tea after China.
Coffee:  Indian coffee is known in the world for
its good quality. The Arabica variety initially
brought fr om Y emen is pr oduced in the
country. This variety is in great demand all over
the world. Initially its cultivation was
introduced on the Baba Budan Hills and even
today its cultivation is confined to the Nilgiri in

Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.Horticulture Crops:  In 2018, India was the
second largest producer of fruits and
vegetables in the world after China. India is a
producer of tropical as well as temperate fruits.
Mangoes of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and W est Bengal,
oranges of Nagpur and Cherrapunjee
(Meghalaya), bananas of Kerala, Mizoram,
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, lichi and guava
of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar , pineapples of
Meghalaya, grapes of Andhra Pradesh,

Telangana and Maharashtra, apples, pears,
apricots and walnuts of Jammu and Kashmir
and Himachal Pradesh are in great demand
the world over .Fig. 4.10:   Tea Cultivation
 Fig. 4.11:   Tea-leaves Harvesting
Source:  Pocket book of agricultural statistics, 2020, Govt. of India. Directorate of Economics and Statistics.Fig. 4.12:   Apricots, apple and pomegranate
Fig. 4.13:   Cultivation of vegetable s– peas, cauliflower , tomato and brinjal

38
 CONTEMPORARY  INDIA – II India is an important producer of pea ,
cauliflower , onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal
and potato.
Non-Food Crops
Rubber:  It is an equatorial crop, but under
special conditions, it is also grown in tropical
and sub-tropical areas. It requires moist and
humid climate with rainfall of more than 200
cm. and temperature above 25°C.
Rubber is an important industrial raw
material. It is mainly grown in Kerala, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka and Andaman and Nic obar

islands and  Garo hills of Meghalaya.Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil
Nadu, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
Jute:  It is known as the golden fibre. Jute grows
well on well-drained fertile soils in the flood
plains wher e soils ar e renewed every year . High
temperature is required during the time of
growth. W est Bengal, Bihar , Assam, O disha and
Meghalaya are the major jute producing states.
It is used in making gunny bag
s, mats, ropes,

yarn, carpets and other artefacts. Due to its
high cost, it is losing market to synthetic fibres
and packing materials, particularly the nylon.
Technological and Institutional Reforms
It was mentioned in the previous pages that
agriculture has been practised in India for
thousands of years. Sustained uses of land
without compatible techno-institutional
changes have hindered the pace of agricultural
development. Inspite of development of sources

of irrigation most of the farmers in large parts
of the country still depend upon monsoon and
natural fertility in order to carry on their
agriculture. For a growing population, this
poses a serious challenge. Agriculture which
provides livelihood for more than 60 per cent
of its population, needs some serious technical
and institutional reforms. Thus, collectivisation,
consolidation of holdings, cooperation and

abolition of zamindari, etc. were given priority
to bring about institutional reforms in the
country after Independence. ‘Land reform’ was
the main focus of our First Five Y ear Plan. The
right of inheritance had already lead to
fragmentation of land holdings necessitating
consolidation of holdings.
The laws of land reforms were enacted but
the implementation was lacking or lukewarm.
The Government of India embarked upon

introducing agricultural reforms to improve
Indian agriculture in the 1960s and 1970s.
The Green Revolution based on the use of
package technology and the White Revolution
(Operation Flood) were some of the strategies
initiated to improve the lot of Indian agriculture.
But, this too led to the concentration of
development in few selected areas. Therefore,
in the 1980s and 1990s, a comprehensive land
development programme was initiated, which

included both institutional and technical
Fig. 4.14:   Cotton CultivationFibre Crops:  Cotton, jute, hemp and natural
silk are the four major fibre crops grown in India.
The first three are derived from the crops grown
in the soil, the latter is obtained from cocoons of
the silkworms fed on green leaves specially
mulberry. Rearing of silk worms for the
production of silk fibre is known as sericulture .
Cotton:  India is believed to be the original home

of the cotton plant. Cotton is one of the main
raw materials for cotton textile industry. In
2017, India was second largest producer of
cotton after China.  Cotton grows well in drier
parts of the black cotton soil of the Deccan
plateau. It requires high temperature, light
rainfall or irrigation, 210 frost-free days and
bright sun-shine for its growth. It is a kharif
crop and requires 6 to 8 months to mature.
Major cotton-producing states are–
Maharashtra,  Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,

List the items which are made of rubber and
are used by us.

39 AGRICULTURE
Fig. 4.15:   Modern technological equipments used in agriculture
reforms. Provision for crop insurance against
drought, flood, cyclone, fire and disease,
establishment of Grameen banks, cooperative
societies and banks for providing loan facilities
to the farmers at lower rates of interest were
some important steps in this direction.
Kissan Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident
Insurance Scheme (PAIS) are some other
schemes introduced by the Government of  India

for the benefit of the far mers. Mor eover , special
weather bulletins and agricultural programmes
for farmers were introduced on the radio and
television. The government also announces
minimum support price, remunerative and
procurement prices for important crops to check
the exploitation of farmers by speculators and
middlemen.
Bhoodan – Gramdan
Mahatma Gandhi declared Vinoba Bhave as

his spiritual heir . He also participated inSatyagraha as one of the foremost
satyagrahis. He was one of the votaries of
Gandhi’s concept of gram swarajya . After
Gandhiji’s martyrdom, Vinoba Bhave
undertook padyatra  to spread Gandhiji’s
message covered almost the entire country .
Once, when he was delivering a lecture at
Pochampalli in Andhra Pradesh, some poor
landless villagers demanded some land for
their economic well-being. Vinoba Bhave

could not promise it to them immediately but
assured them to talk to the Government of
India regarding provision of land for them if
they undertook cooperative farming.
Suddenly , Shri R am Chandra R eddy stood
up and offered 80 acres of land to be
distributed among 80 land-less villagers.
This act was known as ‘Bhoodan ’. Later he
travelled and introduced his ideas widely all
over India. Some zamindars, owners of
many villages offered to distribute some

villages among the landless. It was known
as Gramdan
. However , many land- owners
chose to provide some part of their land to
the poor farmers due to the fear of land
ceiling act. This Bhoodan- Gramdan
movement initiated by Vinoba Bhave is also
known as the Blood-less Revolution .
Collect information about agriculture,
horticulture, agricultural schemes, etc. from
Farmers’ P ortal website https://farmer .
gov.in/FarmerHome.aspx. Discuss about the

benefits of the information available on
the portal.

40
(i)Which one of the following describes a system of agriculture where a single
crop is grown on a large area?
(a)Shifting Agricultur e
(b)Plantation Agricultur e
(c)Horticultur e
(d)Intensive Agriculture
(ii)Which one of the following is a rabi crop?
(a)Rice
(b)Gram
(c)Millets
(d)Cotton
(iii)Which one of the following is a leguminous crop?
(a)Pulses
(b)Jawar
(d)Sesamum

(a)Pulses
(b)Jawar
2.Answer the following questions in 30 words.
(i)Name one important beverage crop and specify the geographical conditions
required for its growth.
(ii)Name one staple crop of India and the regions where it is produced.
(iii)Enlist the various institutional reform programmes introduced by the
government in the interest of farmers.

(i)Suggest the initiative taken by the government to ensure the increase in
agricultural production.
(ii)Describe the geographical conditions required for the growth of rice.
PROJECT  WORK
1.Group discussion on the necessity of literacy among farmers.
2.On an outline map of India show wheat producing areas.

41 AGRICULTURE
ACTIVITY
Solve the puzzle by following your search horizontally and vertically to find the
1.The two staple food crops of India.
2.This is the summer cropping season of India.
3.Pulses like ar har, moong, gram, urad contain…
4.It is a coarse grain.
5.The two important beverages in India are…
6.One of the four major fibers grown on black soils.AZM XN C BVNXAHDQ
SD
E W SRJDQ JZVR E
D K H AR IFG W FMRFW
FNLR G CH H R SBSV T
GB C W H E ATYACHBR
H R TKAS S E PH X ANW

JIESJO W AR JZH D T
KCL A E G ACO F F E E Y
LTE F Y MTATS S R G I
PD E JOUYVE JGFAU
OUMHQ SUD ITSW SP
UO ACO T T ONEAH FO
YO LFLUSRQ Q DTW I
TM UAH R G YK TRAB F
EAK D G D QHSUOIW H
WQ ZCXVB N M KJ A SL

We use dif ferent things in our daily life made
from metal. Can you list a number of items
used in your house made of metals. Where do
these metals come from?
You have studied that the earth’s crust is
made up of different minerals embedded in the
rocks. V arious metals ar e extracted fr om these
minerals after proper refinement.
Minerals are an indispensable part of our
lives. Almost everything we use, from a tiny pin
to a towering building or a big ship, all are

made from minerals. The railway lines and the
tarmac (paving) of the roads, our implements
and machinery too are made from minerals.
Cars, buses, trains, aeroplanes are
manufactured from minerals and run on
power resources derived from the earth. Even
the food that we eat contains minerals. In all
stages of development, human beings have
used minerals for their livelihood, decoration,
festivities, religious and ceremonial rites.

Haban comes to Guwahati with his father
from a remote village.
He sees people getting into strange
house like objects which move along the
road. He also sees a “ kitchen ” dragging a
number of house along with it. He is amazed
and asked his father “ Why don ’t our houses
move like the one we saw in Guwahati, Ba?”
Ba replies, “These are not houses, they
are buses and trains. Unlike our houses these
are not made of bricks and stones, metal like

iron and alluminium are used in making
these. They do not move on their own. They
are driven by an engine which needs energy
to work.”A bright smile from toothpaste
and minerals
Toothpaste cleans your teeth. Abrasive
minerals like silica, limestone, aluminium
oxide and various phosphate minerals do the
cleaning. Fluoride which is used to reduce
cavities, comes from a mineral fluorite. Most
toothpaste are made white with titanium

oxide, which comes from minerals called
rutile, ilmenite and anatase. The sparkle in
some  toothpastes comes from mica. The
toothbrush and tube containing the paste are
made of plastics from petroleum.  Find out
where these minerals are found?
Dig a little deeper  and find out how many
minerals are used to make a light bulb?
All living things need minerals
Life processes cannot occur without minerals.
Although our mineral intake represents only

about 0.3 per cent of our total intake of
nutrients, they are so potent and so important
that without them we would not be able to
utilise the other 99.7 per cent of foodstuffs.
Dig a little deeper  and collect “Nutritional
Facts” printed on food labels.
What is a mineral?
Geologists define mineral as a
“homogenous,  natura lly occurring substance
with a definable inter nal structur e.” Minerals
are found in varied forms in nature, ranging

from the hardest diamond to the softest talc.
Why are they so varied?

You have alr eady lear nt about r ocks.
Rocks are combinations of homogenous
substances called minerals . Some rocks, for
instance limestone, consist of a single mineral
only, but majority of the r ock consist of several
minerals in varying pr oportions. Although,
over 2000 minerals have been identified, only
a few are abundantly found in most of the
rocks.
A particular mineral that will be formed
from a certain combination of elements
depends upon the physical and chemical

conditions under which the material forms.
This, in turn, results in a wide range of colours,
hardness, crystal forms, lustre and density that
a particular mineral possesses. Geologists use
these properties to classify the minerals.
Study of Minerals by Geographers
and Geologists
Geographers study minerals as part of the
earth ’s crust for a better understanding of
landforms. The distribution of mineral
resources and associated  economic activities

are of interest to geographers. A geologist,
however , is interested in the formation of
minerals, their age and physical and
chemical composition.
 However , for general and commer cial
purposes minerals can be classified as under .
M
ODE OF OCCURRENCE  OF MINERALS
Where are these minerals found?
Minerals ar e usually found in “ores”. The
term ore is used to describe an accumulation
of any mineral mixed with other elements.

The mineral content of the ore must be insufficient concentration to make its extraction
commercially viable. The type of formation or
structure in which they are found determines
the relative ease with which mineral ores may
be mined. This also determines the cost of
extraction. It is, ther efore, important for us
to understand the main types of formations
in which minerals occur .
Minerals generally occur in these for ms:

(i)In igneous and metamorphic rocks
minerals may occur in the cracks,
crevices, faults or joints. The smaller
occurrences are called veins  and the
larger are called  lodes . In most cases,
they are formed when minerals in liquid/
molten and gaseous forms are forced
upward through cavities towards the
earth’s surface. They cool and solidify as
they rise. Major metallic minerals like tin,
copper , zinc and lead etc. ar e obtained
from veins and lodes.

(ii)In sedimentary rocks a number of minerals
occur in beds  or layers . They have been
formed as a result of deposition,
accumulation and concentration in
horizontal strata. Coal and some forms of
iron ore have been concentrated as a result
of long periods under great heat and
pressur e. Another group of sedimentary
minerals include gypsum, potash salt and
sodium salt. These are formed as a result
of evaporation  especially in arid regions.

(iii)Another mode of for mation involves the
decomposition of surface rocks, and the
removal of soluble constituents, leaving
a residual mass of weathered
material  containing ores. Bauxite is
formed this way.
43 MINERALS  AND ENERGY  RESOURCES
Fig. 5.1

44
Dig a little deeper:  What is the difference
between an open pit mine, a quarry and an
underground mine with shafts?Rat-Hole Mining. Do you know that most
of the minerals in India are nationalised
and their extraction is possible only after
obtaining due permission from the
government? But in most of the tribal
areas of the north-east India, minerals are
owned by individuals or communities. In
Meghalaya, there are large deposits of coal,

iron ore, limestone and dolomite etc. Coal
mining in Jowai and Cherapunjee is done
by family member in the form of a long
narrow tunnel, known as ‘Rat hole’
mining. The National Gr een T ribunal has
declared such activities illegal and
recommended that these  should be
stopped forthwith.(iv)Certain minerals may occur as alluvial
deposits in sands of valley floors and the
base of hills. These deposits are called
‘placer deposits’ and generally contain

minerals, which ar e not corr oded by water .
Gold, silver , tin and platinum ar e most
important among such minerals.
(v)The ocean waters contain vast quantities
of minerals, but most of these are too widely
diffused to be of economic significance.
However , common salt, magnesium and
bromine are largely derived from ocean
waters. The ocean beds, too, are rich in
manganese nodules.non-ferrous minerals. The vast alluvial plains

of north India are almost devoid of economic
minerals. These variations exist largely because
of the differences in the geological structure,
processes and time involved in the formation
of minerals.
Let us now study the distribution of a few
major minerals in India. Always remember that
the concentration of mineral in the ore, the ease
of extraction and closeness to the market play
an important role in affecting the economic
viability of a reserve. Thus, to meet the demand,

a choice has to be made between a number of
possible options. When this is done a mineral
‘deposit’ or ‘reserve’ turns into a mine .
Ferrous Minerals
Ferrous minerals account for about three-
fourths of the total value of the production of
metallic minerals. They provide a strong base
for the development of metallurgical industries.
India exports substantial quantities of ferrous
minerals after meeting her internal demands.
Iron Ore

Iron Ore
Iron ore is the basic mineral and the backbone
of industrial development. India is endowed
with fairly abundant resources of iron ore. India
is rich in good quality iron ores. Magnetite is
the finest iron ore with a very high content of
iron up to 70 per cent. It has excellent magnetic
qualities, especially valuable in the electrical
industry. Hematite ore is the most important
industrial iron ore in terms of the quantity
used, but has a slightly lower iron content than

magnetite. (50-60 per cent). In 2018–19 almost
entire production of iron ore (97%) accrued
from Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka and
Jharkhand. The remaining production (3%)
was from other states.India is fortunate to have fairly rich and
varied mineral r esour
ces. However , these ar e
unevenly distributed. Broadly speaking,
peninsular rocks contain most of the reserves
of coal, metallic minerals, mica and many other

non-metallic minerals. Sedimentary rocks on
the western and eastern flanks of the peninsula,
in Gujarat and Assam have most of the
petroleum deposits. Rajasthan with the rock
systems of the peninsula, has reserves of many
Kudre in Kannada means horse. The
highest peak in the western ghats of
Karnataka resembles the face of a horse.
The Bailadila hills look like the hump of
an ox, and hence its name.

45 MINERALS  AND ENERGY  RESOURCES
The major iron ore belts in India are:
•Odisha-Jharkhand belt : In Odisha high
grade hematite ore is found in Badampahar
mines in the Mayurbhanj and Kendujhar
districts. In the adjoining Singbhum
district of Jharkhand haematite iron ore is
mined in Gua and Noamundi.
•Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt lies in
Chhattisgar h and Maharashtra. V ery high
grade hematites are found in the famous
Bailadila range of hills in the Bastar district

of Chhattisgarh. The range of hills
comprise of 14 deposits of super high
grade hematite iron ore. It has the best
physical properties needed for steel
making. Iron ore from these mines is
exported to Japan and South Korea via
Vishakhapatnam port.
•Ballari-Chitradurga -Chikkamagaluru-
Tumakuru belt in Karnataka has large
reserves of iron ore. The Kud remukh mines
located in the W estern Ghats of Kar nataka
are a 100 per cent export unit. Kudremukh

deposits are known to be one of the largest
in the world. The ore is transported as
slurry through a pipeline to a port near
Mangal u
ru.
•Maharashtra-Goa belt includes the state
of Goa and Ratnagiri district ofMaharashtra. Though, the ores are not of
very high quality, yet they are efficiently
exploited. Iron ore is exported through
Marmagao port.
Manganese
Manganese is mainly used in the
manufacturing of steel and ferro-manganese

alloy. Nearly 10 kg of manganese is required
to manufactur e one tonne of steel. It is also
used in manufacturing bleaching powder ,
insecticides and paints.
Fig. 5.2:   Iron ore mine
Dig a little deeper: Superimpose the maps
showing distribution of iron ore, manganese,
coal and iron and steel industry . Do you see
any correlation. Why?
Non-Ferrous Minerals
India’s reserves and production of non-
ferrous minerals is not very satisfactory.

However , these minerals, which include
copper , bauxite, lead, zinc and gold play a
vital role in a number of metallurgical,
engineering and electrical industries. Let us
study the distribution of copper and
bauxite.Fig. 5.3:  Production of Manganese showing
state-wise share in per cent, 2018–19Odisha
16%KarnatakaAndhra
Pradesh
10%
Madhya
Pradesh
33%Others
2%
Maharashtra
27%12%

46
India:   Distribution of Iron Ore, Manganese, Bauxite and Mica

47 MINERALS  AND ENERGY  RESOURCES
Copper
India is critically deficient in the reserve and
production of copper . Being malleable, ductile
and a good conductor , copper is mainly used
in electrical cables, electronics  and chemical
Fig. 5.4:   Copper mines at MalanjkhandFig. 5.5:   Production of Bauxite showing state-wise
share in per cent, 2018–19
industries. The Balaghat mines in Madhya
Pradesh, Khetri mines in Rajasthan and
Singhbhum district of Jharkhand are leading
producers of copper .

Bauxite
Though, several ores
contain aluminium, it
is from bauxite, a
clay-like substance
that alumina and
later aluminium is
obtained. Bauxite
deposits are formed
by the decomposition
of a wide variety of
rocks rich in
aluminium silicates.
Aluminium is an
important metal
because it combines
the strength of metals
such as iron, with
extreme lightness
and also with good
conductivity and
great malleability.
India’s bauxite
deposits are mainly
found in the

Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills and the
plateau r egion of Bilaspur -Katni.Odisha was the largest bauxite producing
state in India in 2016-17. Panchpatmali
deposits in Koraput district are the most
important bauxite deposits in the state.
Dig a little deeper : Locate the mines of
Bauxite on the physical map of India.
Fig.5.6:   Bauxite MineOthers
1%
Odisha
65%
Jharkhand
10%Gujarat
9%Chhattisgarh
6%Maharashtra
6%Madhya
Pradesh
3%

6%Madhya
Pradesh
3%

48
Non-Metallic Minerals
Mica  is a mineral made up of a series of plates
or leaves. It splits easily into thin sheets. These
sheets can be so thin that a thousand can be
layered into a mica sheet of a few centimeters
high. Mica can be clear , black, gr een, r ed yellow
or brown. Due to its excellent di-electric
strength, low power loss factor , insulating
properties and resistance to high voltage, mica
is one of the most indispensable minerals used

in electric and electronic industries.
Mica deposits are found in the northern
edge of the Chota Nagpur plateau. Koder ma
Gaya – Hazaribagh belt of Jharkhand is the
leading pr oducer .
In Rajasthan, the major mica producing
area is ar ound Ajmer . Nellor e mica belt of
Andhra Pradesh is also an important pr oducer
in the country.Rock Minerals
Limestone  is found in association with rocks
composed of calcium carbonates or calcium

and magnesium carbonates. It is found in
sedimentary rocks of most geological
formations. Limestone is the basic raw
material for the cement industry and
essential for smelting iron ore in the blast
furnace.
Dig a little deeper : Study the maps to explain
why Chota Nagpur is a storehouse of minerals.
Hazards of Mining
Have you ever wondered about the efforts the miners make in making life comfortable
for you? What are the impacts of mining on

the health of the miners and the environment?
The dust and noxious fumes inhaled by
miners make them vulnerable to pulmonary
diseases. The risk of collapsing mine roofs,
inundation and fires in coalmines are a
constant threat to miners.
The water sources in the region get
contaminated due to mining. Dumping of waste
and slurry leads to degradation of land, soil,
and increase in stream and river pollution.Fig. 5. 8:  Air pollution due to

generation  of dust in mining areas
After the discovery of aluminium
Emperor Napoleon III wore buttons and
hooks on his clothes made of aluminium
and served food to his more illustrious
guests in aluminium utensils and the
less honourable ones were served in gold
and silver utensils. Thirty years after this
incident aluminium bowls were most
common with the beggars in Paris.
Fig. 5.7:   Production of Limestone showing
state-wise share in per cent, 2018–19Others
% 8
Karnataka
9%Telangana

% 8
Karnataka
8%Rajasthan
20%
Gujarat
% 7Tamil Nadu
6%
Chhattisgarh
% 11Maharashtra
% 4
Madhya
Pradesh
13%
Andhra
Pradesh
13%

49 MINERALS  AND ENERGY  RESOURCES
Stricter safety regulations and
implementation of environmental laws are
essential to prevent mining from becoming a
“killer industry”.
CONSER VATION OF MINERALS
We all appr eciate the str ong dependence of
industry and agriculture upon mineral
deposits and the substances manufactured
from them. The total volume of workable
mineral deposits is an insignificant fraction
i.e. one per cent of the earth’s crust. W e are

rapidly consuming mineral resources thatrequired millions of years to be created and
concentrated. The geological processes of
mineral formation are so slow that the rates
of replenishment are infinitely small in
comparison to the present rates of
consumption. Mineral resources are,
therefore, finite and non-renewable. Rich
mineral deposits are our country’s extremely
valuable but short-lived possessions.
Continued extraction of ores leads to

increasing costs as mineral extraction comes
from greater depths along with decrease
in quality.

50
 CONTEMPORARY  INDIA – IIA concerted effort has to be made in order
to use our mineral resources in a planned
and sustainable manner . Impr oved
technologies need to be constantly evolved to
allow use of low grade ores at low costs.
Recycling of metals, using scrap metals and
other substitutes are steps in conserving our
mineral resources for the future.
Dig a little deeper: Make a list of items where
substitutes  are being used instead of minerals.
Where are these substitutes obtained from?

Energy Resources
Energy is r equir ed for all activities. It is needed
to cook, to provide light and heat, to propel
vehicles and to drive machinery in industries.
Energy can be generated from fuel
minerals like coal, petroleum, natural gas,
uranium and fr om electricity. Ener gy
resources can be classified as conventional
and non-conventional sources. Conventional
sources include: firewood, cattle dung cake,

coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity
(both hydel and thermal). Non-conventional
sources include solar , wind, tidal, geother mal,
biogas and atomic ener gy. Fir ewood and cattle
dung cake are most common in rural India.
According to one estimate more than 70 per
cent energy requirement in rural households
is met by these two ; continuation of these is
increasingly becoming dif ficult due to
decreasing for est ar ea. Mor eover , using dung

cake too is being discouraged because it
consumes most valuable manure which could
be used in agriculture.
Conventional Sources of Energy
Coal:  In India, coal is the most abundantly
available fossil fuel. It pr
ovides a substantial
part of the nation’s energy needs. It is used
for power generation, to supply energy to
industry as well as for domestic needs. India
is highly dependent on coal for meeting its
commercial energy requirements.

As you ar e alr eady aware that coal is
formed due the compression of plant material
over millions of years. Coal, therefore, is
found in a variety of forms depending on the
degrees of compression and the depth andtime of burial. Decaying  plants in swamps
produce peat.  Which has a low carbon and
high moisture contents and low heating
capacity. Lignite is a low grade brown coal,
which is soft with high moisture content. The

principal lignite r eserves ar e in Neyveli in T amil
Nadu and are used for generation of
electricity. Coal that has been buried deep
and subjected to increased temperatures is
bituminous coal. It is the most popular coal
in commer cial use. Metallur gical coal is high
grade bituminous coal which has a special
value for smelting iron in blast furnaces.
Anthracite  is the highest quality hard coal.
In India coal occurs in rock series of two

main geological ages, namely Gondwana, a
little over 200 million years in age and in
tertiary deposits which are only about 55
million years old. The major resources of
Gondwana coal, which are metallurgical coal,
are located in Damodar valley (W est Bengal-
Fig. 5.9 (a):   A view from inside of a coal mine
Fig. 5.9 (b):  A view from outside of a coal mine

51 MINERALS  AND ENERGY  RESOURCES
India:  Distribution of Coal, Oil and Natural Gas
Collect information about cross country natural gas pipelines laid by GAIL
(India) under “ One Nation One Grid”.

52
 CONTEMPORARY  INDIA – IIJharkhand). Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro are
important coalfields. The Godavari,
Mahanadi, Son and W ardha valleys also
contain coal deposits.
Tertiary coals occur in the north easter n
states of Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal
Pradesh and Nagaland.
Remember coal is a bulky material, which
loses weight on use as it is reduced to ash.
Hence, heavy industries and thermal power
stations are located on or near the coalfields.
Petroleum
Petroleum or mineral oil is the next major

energy source in India after coal. It provides
fuel for heat and lighting, lubricants for
machinery and raw materials for a number of
manufacturing industries. Petroleum refineries
act as a “nodal industry” for synthetic textile,
fertiliser and numerous chemical industries.
Most of the petroleum occurrences in India
are associated with anticlines and fault traps
in the rock formations of the tertiary age. In
regions of folding, anticlines or domes, it

occurs where oil is trapped in the crest of the
upfold. The oil bearing layer is a porous
limestone or sandstone through which oil may
flow. The oil is pr evented fr om rising or
sinking by intervening non-porous layers.
Petroleum is also found in fault traps
between por ous and non-por ous r ocks. Gas,
being lighter  usually occurs above the oil.
 Mumbai High, Gujarat and Assam ar e
major petroleum production areas in India.

From the map locate the 3 major of f shor e
fields of wester n India. Ankeleshwar is the
most important field of Gujarat. Assam is the
oldest oil producing state of India. Digboi,
Naharkatiya and Moran-Hugrijan ar e the
important oil fields in the state.
Natural Gas
Natural Gas is found with petroleum deposits
and is released when crude oil is brought to
the surface. It can be used as a domestic and
industrial fuel. It is used as fuel in power sector

to generate electricity, for heating purpose in
industries, as raw material in chemical,
petrochemical and fertilizer industries, as
transport fuel and as cooking fuel. With the
expansion of gas infrastructure and local citygas distribution (COD) networks, natural gas
is also emerging as a preferred transport fuel
(CNG) and cooking fuel (PNG) at homes. India’s
major gas reserves are found in the Mumbai
High and allied fields along the west coast
which are supplemented by finds in the

Cambay basin. Along the East Coast, new
reserves of natural gas have been discovered
in the Krishna-Godavari basin.
The first 1,700 km long Hazira-V ijaipur -
Jagdishpur (HVJ) cross country gas pipeline,
constructed by GAIL (India), linked Mumbai
High and Bassein gas fields with various
fertilizer , power and industrial complexes in
western and northen India. This artery
provided impetus to Indian gas market
development. Overall, India’s gas infrastructure

has expanded over ten times from 1,700 km
to 18,500 km of cross-country pipelines and
is expected to soon reach over 34, 000 km as
Gas Grid by linking all gas sources and
consuming markets across the country
including North Eastern states.
Electricity
Electricity has such a wide range of
applications in today’s world that, its percapita
consumption is considered as an index of
development. Electricity is generated mainly in

two  ways: by running water which drives hydro
turbines to generate hydro electricity; and by
burning other fuels such as coal, petroleum
and natural gas to drive turbines to produce
thermal power . Once generated the electricity
is exactly the same.
Hydro electricity is generated by fast
flowing water , which is a r enewable r esour
ce.
India has a number of multi-purpose projects
like the Bhakra Nangal, Damodar V alley

corporation, the Kopili Hydel Project etc.
producing hydroelectric power .
Thermal electricity is generated by using
coal, petroleum and natural gas. The thermal
power stations use non-renewable fossil fuels
for generating electricity.
Name some river valley projects and write
the names of the dams built on these rivers.

53 MINERALS  AND ENERGY  RESOURCES
India:  Distribution of Nuclear and Thermal Power PlantsRawat Bhata

54
 CONTEMPORARY  INDIA – IICollect infor mation about ther mal/hydel
power plants located in your state. Show
them on the map of India.
Non-Conventional Sources of Energy
The growing consumption of energy has
resulted in the country becoming increasingly
dependent on fossil fuels such as coal, oil and
gas.  Rising prices of oil and gas and their
potential shortages have raised uncertainties
about the security of energy supply in future,
which in turn has serious repercussions on the

growth of the national economy. Mor eover ,
increasing use of fossil fuels also causes
serious environmental problems. Hence, there
is a pressing need to use renewable energy
sources like solar energy, wind, tide, biomass
and energy from waste material. These are
called non-conventional energy sources.
India is blessed with an abundance of
sunlight, water , wind and biomass. It has the
largest programmes for the development of

these renewable energy resources.
Nuclear or Atomic Energy
It is obtained by altering the structure of
atoms. When such an alteration is made, much
energy is released in the form of heat and this
is used to generate electric power. Uranium and
Thorium, which are available in Jharkhand and
the Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan are used for
generating atomic or nuclear power . The
Monazite sands of Kerala is also rich in
Thorium.

Thorium.
Locate the 6 nuclear power stations and find
out the state in which they are located.
Solar Energy
India is a tr opical country. It has enor mous
possibilities of tapping solar ener gy.
Photovoltaic technology converts sunlight
directly into electricity. Solar energy is fast
becoming popular in rural and remote areas.
Some big solar power plants are being
established in dif ferent parts of India which
will minimise the dependence of rural

households on firewood and dung cakes,
which in turn will contribute to environmental
conservation and adequate supply of manure
in agriculture.Fig. 5.10:
  Solar operated electronic milk
testing equipment
Fig. 5.11:   Wind mills – NagarcoilWind power
India has great potential of wind power . The
largest wind far m cluster is located in T amil
Nadu from Nagarcoil to Madurai. Apart from
these, Andhra Pradesh, Kar nataka, Gujarat,

Kerala, Maharashtra and Lakshadweep have
important wind farms. Nagarcoil and
Jaisalmer ar e well known for ef
fective use of
wind ener gy in the country.
Biogas
Shrubs, farm waste, animal and human waste
are used to produce biogas for domestic
consumption in rural areas. Decomposition
of organic matter yields gas, which has higher
thermal ef ficiency in comparison to ker osene,
dung cake and charcoal. Biogas plants are

set up at municipal, cooperative and
individual levels. The plants using cattle dung
are known as ‘Gobar gas plants’  in rural India.
These provide twin benefits to the farmer in
the form of energy and improved quality of
Collect information about newly established
solar power plants in India.

55 MINERALS  AND ENERGY  RESOURCES
geothermal gradient is high, high temperatures
are found at shallow depths. Gr oundwater in
such areas absorbs heat from the rocks and
becomes hot. It is so hot that when it rises to
the earth’s sur face, it tur ns into steam. This
steam is used to drive turbines and generate
electricity.
There are several hundred hot springs in
India, which could be used to generate
electricity. T wo experimental pr ojects have been

set up in India to har ness geother mal ener gy.
One is located in the Parvati valley near
Manikarn in Himachal Pradesh and the other
is located in the Puga V alley, Ladakh.
Conservation of Energy Resources
Energy is a basic requirement for economic
development.  Every sector of the national
economy – agriculture, industry, transport,
commercial and domestic – needs inputs of
energy. The economic development plans
implemented since Independence necessarily

required increasing amounts of energy to
remain operational.  As a r esult, consumption
of energy in all forms has been steadily rising
all over the country.
In this background, there is an urgent need
to develop a sustainable path of energy
development. Promotion of energy conservation
and increased use of renewable energy sources
are the twin planks of sustainable ener gy.
India is presently one of the least energy

efficient countries in the world. W e have to
adopt a cautious approach for the judicious
use of our limited ener gy resour ces. For
example, as concerned citizens we can do our
bit by using public transport systems instead
of individual vehicles; switching of f electricity
when not in use, using power -saving devices
and using non-conventional sour ces of ener gy.

After all, “ener gy saved is ener gy pr oduced”.manur e. Biogas is by far the most ef ficient
use of cattle dung. It impr oves the quality of
manure and also prevents the loss of trees
and manure due to burning of fuel wood
and cow dung cakes.
EXERCISES   EXERCISES   E
XERCISES   EXERCISES   EXERCISES
(i)Which one of the following minerals is formed by decomposition of rocks,

leaving a residual mass of weathered material?
(a)coal (b)bauxite (c)gold (d)zinc
(ii)Koderma, in Jharkhand is the leading producer of which one of the following
minerals?
(a)bauxite (b)mica (c)iron ore (d)copperTidal Energy
Oceanic tides can be used to generate
electricity. Floodgate dams ar e built across
inlets. During high tide water flows into the
inlet and gets trapped when the gate is closed.
After the tide falls outside the flood gate, the
water retained by the floodgate flows back to

the sea via a pipe that carries it through a
power -generating turbine.
In India the Gulf of Khambhat, the Gulf
of Kuchchh in Gujarat on the wester n coast
and Gangetic delta in Sunderban regions of
West Bengal pr ovide ideal conditions for
utilising tidal ener gy.
Geo Thermal Energy
Geo thermal energy refers to the heat and
electricity produced by using the heat from
the interior of the Earth. Geothermal energy

exists because, the Earth grows progressively
hotter with increasing depth. Where theFig. 5.12:  Biogas Plant

56
 CONTEMPORARY  INDIA – II(iii)Minerals are deposited and accumulated in the stratas of which of the
following rocks?
(a)sedimentary rocks (c)igneous rocks
(b)metamorphic rocks (d)none of the above
(iv)Which one of the following minerals is contained in the Monazite sand?
(a)oil (b)uranium (c)thorium (d)coal
(i)Distinguish between the following in not more than 30 words.
(a)ferrous and non-ferrous minerals

(b)conventional and non-conventional sources of energy
(ii)What is a mineral?
(iii)How are minerals formed in igneous and metamorphic rocks?
(iv)Why do we need to conserve mineral resources ?
(i)Describe the distribution of coal in India.
(ii)Why do you think that solar energy has a bright future in India?
ACTIVITY
Fill the name of the correct mineral in the crossword below:
2 1M
3M4M2
4
T
61
o
7y5 5T

57 MINERALS  AND ENERGY  RESOURCES
DOWN
1.Found in placer deposit (4)
2.Iron ore mined in Bailadila (8)
3.Indispensable for electrical industry (4)
4.Geological Age of coal found in north east
India (8)
5.Formed in veins and lodes (3)ACROSS
1.A ferrous mineral (9)
2.Raw material for cement industry (9)
3.Finest iron ore with magnetic properties (9)
4.Highest quality hard coal (10)
5.Aluminium is obtained from this ore (7)
6.Khetri mines are famous for this mineral (6)

7.Formed due to evaporation (6)

58
Production of goods in large quantities after
processing from raw materials to more
valuable products is called manufacturing. Do
you know that paper is manufactured from
wood, sugar from sugarcane, iron and steel
from iron ore and aluminium from bauxite?
Do you also know that some types of clothes
are manufactured from yarn which itself is an
industrial product?
People employed in the secondary activities
manufacture the primary materials into

finished goods. The workers employed in steel
factories, car , breweries, textile industries,
bakeries etc. fall into this category. Some people
are employed in providing services. In this
chapter , we ar e mainly concer ned with
manufacturing industries which fall in the
secondary sector .
The economic strength of a country is
measured by the development of
manufacturing industries.IMPOR TANCE OF MANUF ACTURING

Manufacturing sector is considered the backbone
of development in general and economic
development in particular mainly because –
•Manufacturing industries not only help in
modernising agriculture, which forms the
backbone of our economy, they also reduce
the heavy dependence of people on
agricultural income by providing them jobs
in secondary and tertiary sectors.
•Industrial development is a precondition for
eradication of unemployment and poverty
from our country. This was the main

philosophy behind public sector industries
and joint sector ventures in India. It was also
aimed at bringing down regional disparities
by establishing industries in tribal and
backward areas.
•Export of manufactured goods expands
trade and commerce, and brings in much
needed foreign exchange.
•Countries that transform their raw
materials into a wide variety of f inished
goods of higher value are prosperous.
India’s prosperity lies in increasing and

diversifying its manufacturing industries as
quickly as possible.
Agriculture and industry are not exclusive
of each other . They move hand in hand.  For
instance, the agro-industries in India have
given a major boost to agriculture by raising
its productivity. They depend on the latter for
raw materials and sell their products such as
irrigation pumps, fertilisers, insecticides,
pesticides, plastic and PVC pipes, machines

and tools, etc. to the farmers. Thus,
development and competitiveness ofOn the occassion of Diwali, Harish went to
a market with his parents. They purchased
shoes and clothes for him. His mother
purchased utensils, sugar , tea and diyas
(earthen lamps). Harish observed that the
shops in the market were flooded with
items for sale. He wondered how so many
items could be made in such large
quantities. His father explained that shoes,

clothes, sugar etc. are manufactured by
machines in large industries, some utensils
are manufactured in small industries, while
items like diyas  are made by individual
artisans in household industry .
Do you have some ideas about these
industries?

59 MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES
Classification of Industries
List the various manufactured products you
use in your daily life such as – transistors,
electric bulbs, vegetable oil, cement,
glassware, petrol, matches, scooters,
automobiles, medicines and so on. If we
classify the various industries based on a
particular criterion then we would be
able to understand their manufacturing
better .  Industries may be classified as
follows:
On the basis of source of raw materials
used:

used:
•Agro based: cotton, woollen, jute, silk
textile, rubber and sugar , tea, coffee,
edible oil.
•Mineral based: iron and steel, cement,
aluminium, machine tools,
petrochemicals.
According to their main role:
•Basic or key industries are those which
supply their products as raw materials to
manufacture other goods e.g. iron and
steel and copper smelting, aluminum
smelting.
•Consumer industries that produce goods
for direct use by consumers – sugar ,

toothpaste, paper , sewing machines,
fans etc.
On the basis of capital investment:
•A small scale industry is defined with
reference to the maximum investmentallowed on the assets of a unit. This limit
has changed over a period of time. At
present the maximum investment allowed
is rupees one crore.
On the basis of ownership:
•Public sector , owned and operated by
government agencies – BHEL, SAIL etc.
•Private sector industries owned and

operated by individuals or a group of
individuals –TISCO , Bajaj Auto Ltd.,
Dabur Industries.
•Joint sector industries which are jointly run
by the state and individuals or a group of
individuals. Oil India Ltd. (OIL) is jointly
owned by public and private sector .
•Cooperative sector industries are owned
and operated by the producers or
suppliers of raw materials, workers or
both.  They pool in the resources and share

the profits or losses proportionately . Such
examples are the sugar industry in
Maharashtra, the coir industry in Kerala.
Based on the bulk and weight of raw material
and finished goods:
•Heavy industries such as iron and steel
•Light industries that use light raw
materials and produce light goods such
as electrical goods industries.
Classify the following into two groups on the
basis of bulk and weight of raw material and
finished goods .

(i)Oil (vi)Sewing Machines
(ii)Knitting needles (vii)Shipbuilding
(iii)Brassware (viii)Electric Bulbs
(iv)Fuse wires (ix)Paint brushes
(v)Watches (x)Automobiles
Agro-based Industries
Cotton, jute, silk, woollen textiles, sugar and
edible oil, etc. industries are  based on
agricultural raw materials.manufacturing industry has not only
assisted agriculturists in increasing their
production but also made the production
processes very efficient.

In the present day world of globalisation,
our industry needs to be more efficient and
competitive. Self-sufficiency alone is not
enough. Our manufactured goods must be
at par in quality with those in the
international market. Only then, will we be
able to compete in the international market.

60
 CONTEMPORARY  INDIA – IITextile Industry:  The textile industry
occupies unique position in the Indian
economy, because it contributes significantly
to industrial production , employment
generation and foreign exchange earnings. It
is the only industry in the country, which is
self-reliant and complete in the value chain
i.e., from raw material to the highest value
added products.
Cotton Textiles:  In ancient India, cotton
textiles were produced with hand spinning

and handloom weaving techniques. After
the 18th century, power -looms came into
use.  Our traditional industries suffered a
setback during the colonial period because
they could not compete with the mill-made
cloth from England.
Fig. 6.1:   Value addition in the textile industry
In the early years, the cotton textile
industry was concentrated in the cotton
growing belt of Maharashtra and Gujarat.
Availability of raw cotton, market, transport

including accessible port facilities, labour ,
moist climate, etc. contributed towards its
localisation.  This industry has close links
with agriculture and provides a living to
farmers, cotton boll pluckers and workers
engaged in ginning, spinning, weaving,dyeing, designing, packaging, tailoring and
sewing. The industry by creating demands
supports many other industries, such as,
chemicals and dyes , packaging materials
and engineering works.

While spinning continues to be centralised
in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu,
weaving is highly decentralised to provide
scope for incorporating traditional skills and
designs of weaving in cotton, silk, zari,
embroidery, etc. India has world class
production in spinning, but weaving supplies
low quality of fabric as it cannot use much of
the high quality yarn produced in the country.
Weaving is done by handloom, powerloom and
in mills.

in mills.
The handspun khadi provides large scale
employment to weavers in their homes as a
cottage industry.
Why did Mahatma Gandhi lay emphasis on
spinning yarn and weaving khadi?
Why is it important for our country to
keep the mill sector loomage lower than
power loom and handloom?
Jute Textiles
India is the largest producer of raw jute and
jute goods and stands at second place as an
exporter after Bangladesh. Most of the mills are
located in W est Bengal, mainly along the banks

of the Hugli river , in a narr ow belt.
•The first successful textile mill was
established in Mumbai in 1854.
•The two world wars were fought in Europe,
India was a British colony . There was a
demand for cloth in U .K. hence, they gave
a boost to the development of the cotton
textile industry .
The first jute mill was set up near Kolkata in
1855 at Rishra.  After Partition in 1947, the
jute mills remained in India but three-fourth

of the jute producing area went to
Bangladesh (erstwhile East Pakistan).

61 MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES
India:   Distribution of cotton, woollen and silk industries

62
 CONTEMPORARY  INDIA – IIMineral-based Industries
Industries that use minerals and metals as raw
materials are called mineral-based industries.
Can you name some industries that would fall
in this category?
Iron and Steel Industry
The iron and steel industry is the basic industry
since all the other industries — heavy, medium
and light, depend on it for their machinery.
Steel is needed to manufacture a variety of
engineering goods, construction material,

defence, medical, telephonic, scientific
equipment and a variety of  consumer goods.Factors responsible for their location in the
Hugli basin are: proximity of the jute producing
areas, inexpensive water transport, supported
by a good network of railways, roadways and
waterways to facilitate movement of raw
material to the mills, abundant water for
processing raw jute, cheap labour fr om W est
Bengal and adjoining states of Bihar , Odisha

and Uttar Pradesh. Kolkata as a large urban
centre provides banking, insurance and port
facilities for export of jute goods .
Sugar Industry
India stands second as a world producer of
sugar but occupies the first place in the
production of gur and khandsari. The raw
material used in this industry is bulky, and in
haulage its sucrose content reduces. The mills
are located in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar ,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra

Pradesh, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana and
Madhya Pradesh. Sixty per cent mills are in
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar . This industry is
seasonal in nature so, it is ideally suited to the
cooperative sector . Can you explain why this
is so?
In recent years, there is a tendency for the
mills to shift and concentrate in the southern
and western states, especially in Maharashtra,
This is because the cane produced here has a

higher sucrose content. The cooler climate also
ensur es a longer crushing season. Moreover,
the cooperatives are more successful in these
states.
Make a list of all such goods made of steel
that you can think of.
Fig. 6.2Processes of Manufacture of SteelProduction and consumption of steel is
often regarded as the index of a country’s
development. Iron and steel is a heavy industry
because all the raw materials as well as

finished goods are heavy and bulky entailing
heavy transportation costs. Iron ore, coking
coal and lime stone are required in the ratio of
approximately 4 : 2 : 1. Some quantities of
manganese, are also required to harden the
steel. Where should the steel plants be ideally
located?  Remember that the finished products
also need an efficient transport network for
their distribution to the markets and
consumers.

63 MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES
India:   Iron and Steel Plants

64
 CONTEMPORARY  INDIA – IIChhotanagpur plateau region has the
maximum concentration of iron and steel
industries. It is largely, because of the relative
advantages this region has for the development
of this industry. These include, low cost of iron
ore, high grade raw materials in proximity,
cheap labour and vast growth potential in the
home market.
Aluminium Smelting
Aluminium smelting is the second most
important metallurgical industry in India.  It is

light, resistant to corrosion, a good conductor of
heat, malleable and becomes strong when it is
mixed with other metals. It is used to
manufacture aircraft, utensils and wires. It has
gained popularity as a substitute of steel, copper ,
zinc and lead in a number of industries.Aluminium smelting plants in the country
are located in Odisha, W est Bengal, Kerala,
Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,  Maharashtra and
Tamil Nadu.

Bauxite, the raw material used in the
smelters is a very bulky, dark reddish coloured
rock. The flow chart given below shows the
process of manufacturing aluminium.  Regular
supply of electricity and an assured source of
raw material at minimum cost are the two
prime factors for location of the industry.
Chemical Industries
The Chemical industry in India is fast growing
and diversifying. It comprises both large and
small scale manufacturing units. Rapid growth

has been recorded in both inorganic and
organic sectors.  Inorganic chemicals include
sulphuric acid (used to manufact ure fertilizers,
synthetic fibres, plastics, adhesives, paints,
dyes stuffs), nitric acid, alkalies, soda ash (used
to make glass, soaps and detergents, paper)
and caustic soda.  These industries are widely
spread over the country.
Why do you think it is so?
Organic chemicals include petrochemicals,

which are used for manufacturing of synthetic
fibers, synthetic rubber , plastics, dye-stuf fs,
drugs and pharmaceuticals. Organic chemical
 Fig. 6.3:  Strip coasting mill at smelter of NALCO
Fig. 6.5
Fig. 6.4

65 MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES
plants are located near oil refineries or
petrochemical plants.
The chemical industry is its own largest
consumer . Basic chemicals under go processing
to further produce other chemicals that are
used for industrial application, agriculture or
directly for consumer markets.  Make a list of
the products you are aware of.
Fertilizer Industry
The fertilizer industry is centred around the
production of nitrogenous fertilizers  (mainly

urea), phosphatic fertilizers and ammonium
phosphate (DAP) and complex fertilizers which
have a combination of nitrogen (N), phosphate
(P), and potash (K). The third, i.e. potash is
entirely imported as the country does not have
any reserves of commercially usable potash or
potassium compounds in any form.
After the Green Revolution the industry
expanded to several other parts of the country.
Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab

and Kerala contribute towards half of the
fertilizer production.  Other significant
producers are Andhra Pradesh, Odisha,
Rajasthan, Bihar , Maharashtra, Assam, W est
Bengal, Goa, Delhi, Madhya Pradesh and
Karnataka.
Cement Industry
Cement is essential for construction activity
such as building houses, factories, bridges,
roads, airports, dams and for other commercial
establishments. This industry requires bulky

and heavy raw materials like limestone, silica
and gypsum. Coal and electric power are
needed apart from rail transportation .Automobile Industry
Automobiles provide vehicle for quick
transport of good services and passengers.
Trucks, buses, cars, motor cycles, scooters,
three-wheelers and multi-utility vehicles are
manufactured in India at various centres. After
the liberalisation, the coming in of new and
contemporary models stimulated the demand

for vehicles in the market, which led to the
healthy growth of the industry including
passenger cars, two and three-wheelers. The
industry is located around Delhi, Gurugram ,
Mumbai, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow,
Indore, Hyderabad, Jamshedpur and
Bengaluru.
Infor mation T echnology and
Electronics Industry
The electronics industry covers a wide range
of products from transistor sets to television,
telephones, cellular telecom, telephone

exchange, radars, computers and many
other equipments required by the
telecommunication industry. Bengaluru has
emerged as the electronic capital of India. Other
important centres for electronic goods are
Mumbai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Pune, Chennai,
Kolkata, Lucknow and Coimbatore.   The major
industry concentration is at Bengaluru, Noida,
Mumbai, Chennai, Hyderabad and Pune.  A
major impact of this industry has been on
employment generation. The continuing

growth in the hardware and software is the key
to the success of IT industry in India.
Where would it be economically viable to
set up the cement manufacturing units?
Find out where the plants are located in other
States of India. Find their names.The industry has strategically located
plants in Gujarat that have suitable access to
the market in the Gulf countries.
Fig. 6.6:   Cable manufacturing facilities at HCL,
Rupnarainpur (W est Bengal)

66
 CONTEMPORARY  INDIA – IIIndustrial Pollution and Environmental
Degradation
Although industries contribute significantly to
India’s economic growth and development, the
increase in pollution of land, water , air, noise
and resulting degradation of environment that
they have caused, cannot be overlooked.
Industries are responsible for four types of
pollution: (a) Air  (b) W ater (c) Land (d) Noise.
The polluting industries also include thermal
power plants.

Air pollution  is caused by the presence of high
proportion of undesirable gases, such as
sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide. Air -
borne particulate materials contain both solid
and liquid particles like dust, sprays mist and
smoke. Smoke is emitted by chemical and
paper factories, brick kilns, refineries and
smelting plants, and burning of fossil fuels in
big and small factories that ignore pollution
norms. Toxic gas leaks can be very hazardous

with long-term effects. Are you aware of the
Bhopal Gas tragedy that occurred? Air
pollution adversely affects human health,
animals, plants, buildings and the atmosphere
as a whole.
Water pollution  is caused by or ganic and
inorganic industrial wastes and affluents
discharged into rivers. The main culprits in this
r
egard ar e paper , pulp, chemical, textile and
dyeing, petroleum refineries, tanneries and

electroplating industries that let out dyes,
detergents, acids, salts and heavy metals like
lead and mercury pesticides, fertilisers,
synthetic chemicals with carbon, plastics and
rubber , etc. into the water bodies. Fly ash,
phospo- gypsum and iron and steel slags are
the major solid wastes in India.
Thermal pollution  of water occurs when hot
water from factories and thermal plants is
drained into rivers and ponds before cooling.

What would be the effect on aquatic life?
Wastes fr om nuclear power plants, nuclear
and weapon production facilities cause
cancers, birth defects and miscarriages. Soil
and water pollution are closely related.Dumping of wastes specially glass, harmful
chemicals, industrial effluents, packaging, salts
and garbage renders the soil useless. Rain
water percolates to the soil carrying the
pollutants to the ground and the ground water

also gets contaminated.
Noise pollution not only results in irritation
and anger , it can also cause hearing
impairment, increased heart rate and blood
pressure among other physiological effects.
Unwanted sound is an irritant and a source of
stress.  Industrial and construction activities,
machinery, factory equipment, generators,
saws and pneumatic and electric drills also
make a lot of noise.
Control of Environmental Degradation

Every litre of waste water discharged by our
industry pollutes eight times the quantity of
freshwater . How can the industrial pollution of
fresh water be reduced? Some suggestions  are-
(i)minimising use water for processing by
reusing and recycling it in two or more
successive stages
(ii)harvesting of rainwater to meet water
requirements
(iii)treating hot water and  effluents before
releasing them in rivers and ponds.
T

T
reatment of industrial ef fluents can be
done in three phases
(a)Primary treatment by mechanical means.
This involves screening, grinding,
flocculation and sedimentation.
(b)Secondary treatment by biological process
(c)Tertiary treatment by biological,
chemical and physical processes. This
involves r ecycling of wastewater .
Overdrawing of ground water reserves by
industry where there is a threat to ground
water resources also needs to be regulated

legally. Particulate matter in the air can be
reduced by fitting smoke stacks to factories
with electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters,
scrubbers and inertial separators. Smoke
can be reduced by using oil or gas instead

67 MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES
India:   Some Software Technology Parks

68
 CONTEMPORARY  INDIA – IIof coal in factories. Machinery and
equipment can be used and generators
should be fitted with silencers. Almost all
machinery can be redesigned to increase
energy efficiency and reduce noise. Noise
absorbing material may be used apart from
personal use of earplugs and earphones.
The challenge of sustainable development
requires integration of economic development
with environmental concerns.
(a)Optimum utilisation of equipment
adopting latest techniques and

upgrading existing equipment.
(b)Minimising waste generation by
maximising ash utilisation.
(c)Providing green belts for nurturing ecological
balance and addressing the question of
special purpose vehicles for afforestation.
(d)Reducing environmental pollution through
ash pond management, ash water recycling
system and liquid waste management.
(e)Ecological monitoring, reviews and on-
line database management for all its
power stations.

Fig. 6.8:   Ramagundam plant
Fig. 6.7:   Sewage T reatment plant under Y amuna
action plan at Faridabad
NTPC shows the way
NTPC is a major power providing corporation
in India. It has ISO certification for EMS
(Environment Management System) 14001.
The corporation has a proactive approach
for preserving the natural environment and
resources like water , oil and gas and fuels
in places where it is setting up power plants.
This has been possible through-

EXERCISES   EXERCISES   EXERCISES   EXERCISES   EXERCISES
(i)Which one of the following industries uses bauxite as a raw material?
(a)Aluminium Smelting (b)Cement  (c)Paper     (d) Steel
(ii)Which one of the following industries manufactur es telephones, computer , etc.
(a)Steel (c)Aluminium Smelting
(b)Electronic (d)Information Technology
2.Answer the following briefly in not more than 30 words.
(i)What is manufacturing?

(ii)What are basic industries? Give an example.

69 MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES
3.Write the answers of the following questions in 120 wor ds.
(i)How do industries pollute the environment?
(ii)Discuss the steps to be taken to minimise environmental degradation
by industry?
ACTIVITY
Give one word for each of the following with regard to industry.  The number of
letters in each word are hinted in brackets.
(i)Used to drive machinery (5)P...........................
(ii)People who work in a factory (6)W..........................

(iii)Where the product is sold (6)M..........................
(iv)A person who sells goods (8)R...........................
(v)Thing produced (7)P...........................
(vi)To make or produce (11) M..........................
(vii)Land, W ater and Air degraded (9)P...........................
Select one agro-based and one mineral-based industry in your area.
(i)What are the raw materials they use?
(ii)What are the other inputs in the process of manufacturing that involve

transportation cost?
(iii)Are these factories following environmental norms?
ACTIVITY
Solve the puzzle by following your search horizontally and vertically to find the hidden
answers.
1.Textiles, sugar, vegetable oil and plantation industries deriving raw materials
from agriculture are called…
2.The basic raw material for sugar industry.
3.This fibre is also known  as the ‘Golden Fibre’.
4.Iron-ore, coking coal, and limestone are the chief raw materials of this industry.

5.A public sector steel plant located in Chhattisgarh.

70
 CONTEMPORARY  INDIA – IIG G G P V A R A N A S I
UO J IP G X
K M Q W V
KS U G A R C A N E E N
OT T O N O Z V O P T R
AU E L U B H IL A IU
TK O C R A Q N T R L N
EIR O N S T E E L S J
EN A N O E P IT L R Y
GA N U J D R A G D T A
NT A R P O A P U E P Y
AS N A E N J D IY S K
SM H V L IA J H S K GACTIVITY
answers.

6.Railway diesel engines are manufactured in Uttar Pradesh at this place.

We use dif ferent material s and services in our
daily life. Some of these are available in our
immediate surroundings, while other
requirements are met by bringing things from
other places. Goods and services do not move
from supply locales to demand locales on their
own. The movement of these goods and services
from their supply locations to demand locations
necessitates the need for transport. Some people
are engaged in facilitating these movements.
These are known to be traders who make the

products come to the consumers by
transportation. Thus, the pace of development
of a country depends upon the production of
goods and services as well as their movement
over space. Therefore, efficient means of transport
are prerequisites for fast development.
Movement of these goods and services can be
over three important domains of our earth i.e. land,
water and air . Based on these, transport can also

be classified into land, water and air transport.
the help of equally developed communication
system. Therefore, transport, communication
and trade ar e complementary to each other .
Today, India is well-linked with the rest of
the world despite its vast size, diversity and
linguistic and socio-cultural plurality.
Railways, airways, waterways, newspapers,
radio, television, cinema and internet, etc. have
been contributing to its socio-economic
progress in many ways. The trades from local

to international levels have added to the vitality
of its economy. It has enriched our life and
added substantially to growing amenities and
facilities for the comforts of life.
In this chapter , you will see how moder n
means of transport and communication serve
as lifelines of our nation and its modern
economy. It is thus, evident that a dense and
efficient network of transport and
communication is a prerequisite for local,

national and global trade of today.
Fig. 7.1
For a long time, trade and transport were
restricted to a limited space. With the
development in science and technology, the
area of influence of trade and transport
expanded far and wide. Today, the world has
been converted into a large village with the help
of efficient and fast moving transport.
Transport has been able to achieve this withTRANSPORT
Roadways
India has second largest road networks in the

world, aggregating to about 62.16 lakh km
(2020–21). In India, roadways have preceded
railways. They still have an edge over railways
in view of the ease with which they can be built

72
and maintained. The growing importance of
road transport vis-à-vis rail transport is
rooted in the following reasons; (a)
construction cost of roads is much lower
than that of railway lines, (b) roads can
traverse comparatively more dissected and
undulating topography, (c) roads can
negotiate higher gradients of slopes and as
such can traverse mountains such as the
Himalayas, (d) road transport is economical
in transportation o f few persons and

relatively smaller amount of goods over
short distances, (e) it also pr ovides door -
to-door service, thus the cost of loading
and unloading is much lower , (f) r oad
transport is also used as a feeder to other
modes of transport such as they provide a
link between railway stations, air and
sea ports.
In India, roads are classified in the
following six classes a ccording to their
capacity. Look at the map of the National

Highways and find out about the significant
role played by these roads.
•Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways:
The government has launched a major
road development project linking Delhi-
Kolkata-Chennai-Mumbai and Delhi by
six-lane Super Highways. The North-
South corridors linking Srinagar (Jammu
& Kashmir) and Kanniyakumari (T amil
Nadu), and East-W est Corridor
connecting Silchar (Assam) and Porbander
(Gujarat) ar e part of this pr oject. The

major objective of these Super Highways
is to reduce the time and distance
between the mega cities of India. These
highway projects are being implemented
by the National Highway Authority of
India (NHAI).
•National Highways:  National Highways
link extr eme parts of the country. These
are the primary road systems. A number
of major National Highways run in North-
South and East-W est dir ections.
•State Highways:  Roads linking a state

capital with different district headquarters
are known as State Highways.
•District Roads:  These roads connect the
district headquarters with other places of
the district.
•Other Roads:  Rural roads, which link rural
areas and villages with towns, are classified
under this category. These r oads r eceived
special impetus under the Pradhan Mantri
Grameen Sadak Y ojana . Under this scheme
special provisions are made so that every

village in the country is linked to a major
town in the country by an all season
motorable road.
•Border Roads:  Apart from these, Border
Roads Organisation a Government of India
undertaking constructs and maintains
roads in the bordering areas of the
country. This organisation was established
in 1960 for the development of the roads
of strategic importance in the northern and
north-eastern border areas. These roads

have improved accessibility in areas of
difficult terrain and have helped in the
economic development of these area.Fig.7.2:   Ahmedabad- V adodara Expr essway
Collect information of National Highway
numbers (old and new) from the website
morth.nic.in/national-highway-details. The
historical Sher -Shah Suri Mar g between
Delhi and Amritsar is known by which
National Highway ?

73 LIFELINES  OF NATIONAL  ECONOMY
India:   National Highways

74
The Indian Railways is the largest public
sector undertaking in the country . The first
train steamed off from Mumbai to Thane in
1853, covering a distance of 34 km.
Find out the current Railway zones and their
headquarters. Also locate the headquarters
of Railway zones on the map of India.
The distribution pattern of the Railway
network in the country has been largely
influenced by physiographic, economic and
administrative factors.  The northern plains with

their vast level land, high population density
and rich agricultural resources provided the most
favourable condition for their gr owth.  However ,
a large number of rivers requiring construction
of bridges across their wide beds posed some
obstacles.  In the hilly terrains of the peninsular
region, railway tracts are laid through low hills,
gaps or tunnels. The Himalayan mountainous
regions too are unfavourable for the construction

of railway lines due to high relief, sparse
population and lack of economic opportunities.
Likewise, it was difficult to lay railway lines onRoads can also be classified on the basis of
the type of material used for their construction
such as metalled and unmetalled roads.
Metalled roads may be made of cement,
concrete or even bitumen of coal, therefore,and narr ow. However , in r ecent years fast
development of road network has taken place

in different parts of the country
Railways
Railways are the principal mode of
transportation for freight and passengers
in India. Railways also make it possible for
people to conduct multifarious activities
like business, sightseeing, pilgrimage
along with transportation of goods over
longer distances. Apart from an important
means of transport the Indian Railways
have been a great integrating force for more
than 150 years. Railways in India bind the

economic life of the country as well as
accelerate the development of the industry
and agriculture.
The Indian Railway is now reorganised into
16 zones.
The W orld’s longest Highway tunnel-Atal
Tunnel (9.02 Km) has been built by Border
Road Organisation. This tunnel connects
Manali to Lahul-Spiti valley throughout the
year. Earlier the valley was cut of f for about
6 months each year owing to heavy snowfall.
The tunnel is buit with ultra-modern

specifications in the Pir Panjal range of
Himalayas at an altitude of 3000 metres
from the Mean Sea Level (MSL).
Source:  http://www.bro.gov.in/pagefimg.
asp?imid=144,And PIBdelhi03October2020
Fig. 7.3:   Hilly T racts
Fig. 7.4:   Traffic on north-easter n bor der road
(Arunachal Pradesh )

75 LIFELINES  OF NATIONAL  ECONOMY
Source: Railway Y earbook 2019–20, Ministry of Railways, Gover nment of India.
Website: www.indianrailways.gov.in
subsequent running costs are minimal.  It rules
out trans-shipment losses or delays.
There are three important networks of
pipeline transportation in the country.
•From oil field in upper Assam to Kanpur
(Uttar Pradesh), via Guwahati, Barauni and
Allahabad. It has branches from Barauni to
Haldia, via Rajbandh, Rajbandh to

Maurigram and Guwahati to Siliguri.
•From Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar in
Punjab, via Viramgam, Mathura, Delhi and
Sonipat. It has branches to connect Koyali
(near V adodara, Gujarat) Chakshu and
other places.
•The first 1,700 km long Hazira-V ijaipur -
Jagdishpur (HVJ) cross country gas
pipeline, linked Mumbai High and Bassein
gas fields with various ferilizer , power and
industrial complexes in western and
northern India. Overall, India’s gas pipeline

infrastructure has expanded from 1,700 km
to 18,500 km of cross-country pipelines.
Waterways
Since the ancient period, India was one of the
seafaring countries.  Its seamen sailed far and
near, thus, carrying and spr eading Indian
commer ce and cultur e. Waterways ar e the
cheapest means of transport. They are most
suitable for carrying heavy and bulky goods.
It is a fuel-efficient and environment friendly

mode of transport. India has inland navigation
waterways of 14,500 km in length. Out of these
only 5685 km are navigable by mechanised
vessels. The following waterways have been
declar ed as the National W aterways by the
Government.Table 7.1: India: Railway Track
The Indian Railway network runs on multiple gauge operations
extending over 67,956 km.
the sandy plain of western Rajasthan, swamps
of Gujarat, forested tracks of Madhya Pradesh,

Chhattisgarh, O disha  and Jharkhand.  The
contiguous stretch of Sahyadri could be crossed
only through gaps or passes (Ghats). In recent
times, the development of the Konkan railway
along the west coast has facilitated the movement
of passengers and goods in this most important
economic region of India. It has also faced a
number of problem such as sinking of track in
some stretches and landslides.
Today, the railwa ys have become more

important in our national economy than all
other means of transport put together . However ,
rail transport suffers from certain problems as
well. Many passengers travel without tickets.
Thefts and damaging of railway property has
not yet stopped completely.  People stop the
trains, pull the chain unnecessarily and this
causes heavy damage to the railway. Think over
it, how we can help our railway in running as
per the scheduled time?
Pipelines

Pipelines
Pipeline transport network is a new arrival on
the transportation map of India.  In the past,
these were used to transport water to cities and
industries. Now, these are used for transporting
crude oil, petroleum products and natural gas
from oil and natural gas fields to refineries,
fertilizer factories and big thermal power plants.
Solids can also be transported through a
pipeline when converted into slurry. The far

inland locations of refineries like Barauni,
Mathura, Panipat and gas based fertilizer plants
could be thought of only because of pipelines.
Initial cost of laying pipelines is high butGauge in metres       Route (Km)
Broad Gauge (1.676) 63950
Metre Gauge (1.000) 2,402
Narrow Gauge (0.762  and 0.610) 1,604
Total 67,956

76
Activity
Railway line has been extended from Banihal to Baramula in the K ashmir V alley. Locate these
two towns on the map of India.

77 LIFELINES  OF NATIONAL  ECONOMY
Fig. 7.5:  Inland waterways widely used in
north-eastern states
•The Ganga river between Allahabad and
Haldia (1620 km)-N.W . No.1
•The Brahmaputra river between Sadiya and
Dhubri (891 km)-N.W . No.2
•The W est-Coast Canal in Kerala
(Kottapurma-Kollam, Udyogamandal and
Champakkara canals-205 km) – N.W . No.3
•Specified stretches of Godavari and Krishna
rivers along with Kakinada Puducherry
stretch of canals (1078 km) – N.W . No.4

•Specified stretches of river Brahmani along
with Matai river , delta  channels of Mahanadi
and Brahmani rivers and East Coast Canal
(588 km) – N.W. No.5
There are some other inland water ways
on which substantial transportation takes
place. These are Mandavi, Zuari and
Cumberjua, Sunderbans, Barak and
backwaters of Kerala.
Apart fr om these, India’s trade with for eign
countries is carried from the ports located

along the coast. 95 per cent of the country’s
trade volume (68 per cent in terms of value) is
moved by sea.Deendayal Port, is a tidal port. It caters to the
convenient handling of exports and imports of
highly productive granary and industrial belt
stretching acr oss UT of Jammu and Kashmir ,
and the states of Himachal Pradesh, Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Major Sea Ports
With a long coastline of 7,516.6 km, India is

dotted with 12 major and 200 notified non-
majors (minor/intermediate) ports. These
major ports handle 95 per cent of India’s
foreign trade .
Kandla in Kuchchh was the first port
developed soon after Independence to ease
the volume of trade on the Mumbai port, in
the wake of loss of Karachi port to Pakistan
after the Partition. Kandla also known as the
Moving along the east coast, you would see
the extreme south-eastern port of Tuticorin,

in Tamil Nadu. This port has a natural harbour
and rich hinterland. Thus, it has a flourishing
trade handling of a large variety of cargoes toFig. 7.6:   Trucks being driven into the vessel at
Mumbai port
Mumbai is the biggest port with a spacious
natural and well-shelter ed harbour . The
Jawaharlal Nehru port was planned with a view
to decongest the Mumbai port and serve as a
hub port for this region. Marmagao  port (Goa)

is the premier iron ore exporting port of the
country. This port accounts for about fifty per
cent of India’s iron ore export. New Mangalore
port, located in Karnataka caters to the export
of iron ore concentrates from Kudremukh
mines. Kochchi is the extreme south-western
port, located at the entrance of a lagoon with a
natural harbour .
Fig. 7.7:   Tanker discharging crude oil at New
Mangalore port

78
 CONTEMPORARY  INDIA – IIterrains like high mountains, dreary
deserts, dense forests and also long
oceanic stretches with great ease. Think of
the north-eastern part of the country,
marked with the presence of big rivers,
dissected relief, dense forests and frequent
floods and international frontiers, etc. in
the absence of air transport. Air travel has
made access easier .
Pawanhans Helicopters Ltd. provides
helicopter services to Oil and Natural Gas

Corporation in its off-shore operations, to
inaccessible areas and difficult terrains like the
north-eastern states and the interior parts of
Jammu and Kashmir , Himachal Pradesh and
Uttarakhand.
Air travel is not within the reach of the
common people. It is only in the north-
eastern states that special provisions are
made to extend the services to the
common people.
Communication
Ever since humans appeared on the earth,

they have used different means of
communication. But, the pace of change,
has been rapid in modern times. Long
distance communication is far easier
without physical movement of the
communicator or r eceiver . Personal
communication and mass communication
including television, radio, press, films, etc.
are the major means of communication in
the country. The Indian postal network is
the largest in the world. It handles
parcels as well as personal written

communications. Cards and envelopes are
considered first-class mail and are airlifted
between stations covering both land and
air. The second-class mail includes book
packets, registered newspapers and
periodicals. They are carried by surface
mail, covering land and water transport. To
facilitate quick delivery of mails in large
towns and cities, six mail channels have
been introduced recently. They are called
Rajdhani Channel, Metro Channel, Green

Channel, Business Channel, Bulk Mail
Channel and Periodical Channel.even our neighbouring countries like Sri
Lanka, Maldives, etc. and the coastal regions
of India. Chennai is one of the oldest artificial
ports of the country. It is ranked next to
Mumbai in terms of the volume of trade and
cargo. Vishakhapatnam is the deepest
landlocked and well-protected port. This port
was, originally, conceived as an outlet for iron

ore exports. Parad wip port located in O disha ,
specialises in the export of iron ore. Kolkata is
an inland riverine port. This port serves a very
large and rich hinterland of Ganga-
Brahmaputra basin. Being a tidal port, it
requires constant dredging of Hoogly. Haldia
port was developed as a subsidiary port, in
order to relieve growing pressure on the
Kolkata port.
Fig. 7.9Airways
The air travel, today, is the fastest, most

comfortable and prestigious mode of
transport. It can cover very difficult
Why is air travel preferred in the north-
eastern states?
Fig. 7.8:   Hand ling of oversize cargo at Tuticorin port

79 LIFELINES  OF NATIONAL  ECONOMY
India:   Major Ports and Some International Airports

80
 CONTEMPORARY  INDIA – IIof India, is one of the largest terrestrial
networks in the world. It broadcasts a variety
of programmes from entertainment,
educational to sports, etc. for people of different
age groups.
India publishes a large number of
newspapers and periodicals annually. They
are of dif ferent types depending upon their
periodicity. Newspapers ar e published in
about 100 languages and dialects. Did you
know that the largest number of newspapers

published in the country are in Hindi, followed
by English and Urdu? India is the largest
producer of featur e films in the world. It
produces short films; video feature films and
video short films. The Central Board of Film
Certification is the authority to certify both
Indian and foreign films.
International Trade
The exchange of goods among people, states
and countries is referred to as trade. The
market is the place where such exchanges

take place. T rade between two countries is
called inter national trade. It may take place
through sea, air or land routes. While local
trade is carried in cities, towns and villages,
state level trade is carried between two or more
states. Advancement of international trade of
a country is an index to its economic
prosperity. It is, ther efore, consider ed the
economic bar ometer for a country.
As the r esour ces ar e space bound, no

country can survive without international
trade. Export and import are the components
of trade. The balance of trade of a country is
the dif ference between its export and import.
When the value of export exceeds the value
of imports, it is called a favourable balance
of trade. On the contrary, if the value of
imports exceeds the value of exports, it is
termed as unfavourable balance of trade.
India has trade relations with all the major

trading blocks and all geographical regions
of the world. The commodities exported from
India to other countries include gems and
jewellery, chemicals and r elated pr oducts,
agriculture and allied products, etc.India has one of the largest telecom
networks in Asia. Excluding urban places more
than two-thirds of the villages in India have
already been cover ed with Subscriber T runk
Dialling (STD) telephone facility. In order to

strengthen the flow of information from the
grassroot to the higher level, the government
has made special provision to extend twenty-
four hours STD facility to every village in the
country. There is a uniform rate of STD
facilities all over India. It has
been made possible by integrating the
development in space technology with
communication technology.
Mass communication provides
entertainment and creates awareness among

people about various national programmes
and policies. It includes radio, television,
newspapers, magazines, books and films. All
India Radio (Akashwani) broadcasts a variety
of programmes in national, regional and local
languages for various categories of people,
spread over dif ferent parts of the country.
Doordarshan, the national television channel
Digital India is an umbrella programme
to prepare India for a knowledge based

transformation. The focus of Digital India
Programme is on being transformative to
realise – IT (Indian Talent) + IT (Information
Technology)=IT (India Tomorrow) and is
on making technology central to enabling
change.
Fig.7.10 : Emergency call box on NH-8

81 LIFELINES  OF NATIONAL  ECONOMY
The commodities imported to India
include petroleum crude and products,
gems and jewellery, chemicals and related
products, base metals, electronic items,
machinery, agriculture and allied products.
India has emerged as a software giant at the
international level and it is earning large
foreign exchange through the export of
information technology.
Tourism as a Trade
Tourism in India has grown substantially over
the last three decades.

More than 15 million people ar e directly
engaged in the tourism industry. T ourism also
promotes national integration, provides
support to local handicrafts and cultural
pursuits. It also helps in the development of
international understanding about our
cultur e and heritage. For eign tourists visit
India for heritage tourism, eco tou rism,adventure tourism, cultural tourism, medical
tourism and business tourism.
There is a vast potential for development of

tourism in all parts of the country. Efforts are
being made to promote different types of
tourism for this upcoming industry.
Prepare a project on the heritage tourism in India.
*Source: Annual Report 2016–17, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India.
On the map of India show important tourist
places of your State/UT and its connectivity
with other parts of the country by railways/
roadways/airways.
Discuss in the class:

•What type of tourism may be developed in
your state/UT and why?
•Which areas in your state/UT you find more
attractive for development of tourism and  why?
•How tourism may be helpful for the economic
development of a region adopting sustainable
development approach?

82
(i)Which two of the following extreme locations are connected by the east-
west corridor?
(a)Mumbai and Nagpur (c)Mumbai and Kolkata
(b)Silchar and Porbandar (d)Nagpur and Siligudi
(ii)Which mode of transportation reduces trans-shipment losses and delays?
(a)Railways (c)Pipeline
(b)Roadways (d)Waterways

(iii)Which one of the following states is not connected with the H.V .J. pipeline?
(a)Madhya Pradesh (c)Gujarat
(b)Maharashtra (d)Uttar Pradesh
(iv)Which one of the following ports is the deepest land-locked and well-
protected port along the east coast?
(a)Chennai (c)Tuticorin
(b)Paradwip (d)Vishakhapatnam
(v)Which one of the following is the most important modes of transportation
in India?
(a)Pipeline (c)Roadways
(b)Railways (d)Airways

(vi)Which one of the following terms is used to describe trade between two or
more countries?
(a)Internal trade (c)External trade
(b)International trade (d)Local trade
(i)State any three merits of roadways.
(ii)Where and why is rail transport the most convenient means of
transportation?
(iii)What is the significance of the border roads?

(iv)What is meant by trade? What is the difference between international
and local trade?
(i)Why are the means of transportation and communication called the
lifelines of a nation and its economy?
(ii)Write a note on the changing natur e of the inter national trade in the last
fifteen years.
QUIZ DRIVE
1.Norther n ter minal of the North-south corridor .
2.The name of National Highway No.2.
3.The headquarter of the southern railway zone.

4.The rail gauge with a track width of 1.676 m.
5.The southern terminal of the National Highway No.7.
6.A Riverine Port.
7.Busiest railway junction in Northern India.

83 LIFELINES  OF NATIONAL  ECONOMY
ACTIVITY
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