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765	Abortion	{{short description\|Termination of a pregnancy}} {{other uses}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{pp-move}} {{cs1 config\|name-list-style=vanc}} {{use dmy dates\|date=November 2019}} {{use American English\|date=September 2016}} <!-- Note to Editors: This article has a long history of intense terminology debates. Please review the talk page before making changes to lines to see if there is a previous established consensus or compromise. Thank you. --> {{Infobox medical intervention \| name = Induced abortion \| synonyms = Induced miscarriage, termination of pregnancy \| image \| caption \| field = Obstetrics and gynecology \| ICD10 = {{ICD10PCS\|10A0\|1/0/A/0}} \| ICD9 = {{ICD9\|779.6}} \| ICDO \| OMIM \| MedlinePlus = 007382 \| eMedicine = 252560 \| MeshID = D000028 <!-- Infobox medical intervention does not support the following parameters: \| DiseasesDB = 4153 --> }} <!-- The lead sentence has been the topic of much discussion. Please do not edit it without first reviewing the talk page and its archives. --> <!-- Terminology --> Abortion is the termination of a pregnancy by removal or expulsion of an embryo or fetus.{{refn\|For a list of definitions as stated by obstetrics and gynecology (OB/GYN) textbooks, dictionaries, and other sources, see Definitions of abortion. Definitions of abortion vary from source to source, and language used to define abortion often reflects societal and political opinions, not only scientific knowledge.<ref>{{cite web\| urlhttp://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199756797/obo-9780199756797-0090.xml?rskeytygpVh&result1\| titleAbortion\|websiteOxford Bibliographies\|access-date9 April 2014\| vauthors Kulczycki A \|url-statuslive\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140413132203/http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199756797/obo-9780199756797-0090.xml?rskeytygpVh&result1\|archive-date13 April 2014}}</ref>\|groupnb}}<ref>{{cite web \|last1Rao \|first1Radhika \|titleAbortion \|urlhttps://oxcon.ouplaw.com/display/10.1093/law:mpeccol/law-mpeccol-e67 \|websiteOxford Constitutional Law \|date2016 \|publisherOxford University Press \|doi10.1093/law:mpeccol/e67.013.67 \|access-date27 September 2024}}</ref> An abortion that occurs without intervention is known as a miscarriage or "spontaneous abortion"; these occur in approximately 30% to 40% of all pregnancies.<ref nameJohn2012>{{cite book\| titleThe Johns Hopkins Manual of Gynecology and Obstetrics\| date2012\| publisherLippincott Williams & Wilkins\| isbn978-1-4511-4801-5\| pages438–439\| edition4\| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4Sg5sXyiBvkC&pgPA438\| url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170910181311/https://books.google.com/books?id4Sg5sXyiBvkC&pgPA438\|archive-dateSeptember 10, 2017}}</ref><ref nameNIH2013Epi>{{cite web\| titleHow many people are affected by or at risk for pregnancy loss or miscarriage?\|urlhttp://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/pregnancyloss/conditioninfo/Pages/risk.aspx\| websiteNICHD \|access-date14 March 2015\| date2013-07-15\|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150402093633/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/pregnancyloss/conditioninfo/Pages/risk.aspx\| archive-dateApril 2, 2015}}</ref> When deliberate steps are taken to end a pregnancy, it is called an induced abortion, or less frequently "induced miscarriage". The unmodified word abortion generally refers to an induced abortion.<ref>{{cite web \|titleabortion \|url-accesssubscription \|urlhttp://www.oed.com/view/Entry/503?rskeyTpobDi&result1#eid \|websiteOxford English Dictionary \|access-date5 April 2019 \|archive-date19 August 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200819111414/https://www.oed.com/start;jsessionid5BD236F54839DEEFCB6B4A7FEBB47BF4?authRejectiontrue&url%2Fview%2FEntry%2F503%3Frskey%3DTpobDi%26result%3D1#eid \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref nameOED>{{cite web\| urlhttps://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/abortion\|titleAbortion (noun)\| publisherOxford Living Dictionaries\| access-date8 June 2018\| quote[mass noun] The deliberate termination of a human pregnancy, most often performed during the first 28 weeks of pregnancy\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180528131142/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/abortion\|archive-date28 May 2018\| url-statusdead}}</ref> The most common reasons given for having an abortion are for birth-timing and limiting family size.<ref name"bankole98" /><ref nameChae_2017 /><ref name"guttmacher" /> Other reasons reported include maternal health, an inability to afford a child, domestic violence, lack of support, feeling they are too young, wishing to complete education or advance a career, and not being able or willing to raise a child conceived as a result of rape or incest.<ref name"bankole98" /><ref name"guttmacher" /><ref name":5" /> <!-- Methods and safety --> When done legally in industrialized societies, induced abortion is one of the safest procedures in medicine.{{r\|lancet-grimes\|p1\|qUnsafe abortion is a persistent, preventable pandemic.{{nbsp}}[...] By contrast, legal abortion in industrialised nations has emerged as one of the safest procedures in contemporary medical practice, with minimum morbidity and a negligible risk of death.}}{{r\|Ray2014}} Unsafe abortions&mdash;those performed by people lacking the necessary skills, or in inadequately resourced settings&mdash;are responsible for between 5% and 13% of maternal deaths, especially in the developing world.<ref name"WHO-preventing-unsafe">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/preventing-unsafe-abortion \|titlePreventing unsafe abortion \|publisherWorld Health Organization\|access-date6 August 2019 \|archive-date23 August 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190823190843/https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/preventing-unsafe-abortion \|url-statuslive }}</ref> However, medication abortions that are self-managed are highly effective and safe throughout the first trimester.<ref name"WHO-SHR">{{cite web \|date2021-11-19 \|titleSelf-management Recommendation 50: Self-management of medical abortion in whole or in part at gestational ages < 12 weeks (3.6.2) - Abortion care guideline \|urlhttps://srhr.org/abortioncare/chapter-3/service-delivery-options-and-self-management-approaches-3-6/self-management-recommendation-50-self-management-of-medical-abortion-in-whole-or-in-part-at-gestational-ages-12-weeks-3-6-2/ \|access-date2023-09-21 \|websiteWHO Department of Sexual and Reproductive Health and Research \|languageen-US \|archive-date29 June 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220629195513/https://srhr.org/abortioncare/chapter-3/service-delivery-options-and-self-management-approaches-3-6/self-management-recommendation-50-self-management-of-medical-abortion-in-whole-or-in-part-at-gestational-ages-12-weeks-3-6-2/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Moseson H, Jayaweera R, Raifman S, Keefe-Oates B, Filippa S, Motana R, Egwuatu I, Grosso B, Kristianingrum I, Nmezi S, Zurbriggen R, Gerdts C \| display-authors 6 \| title Self-managed medication abortion outcomes: results from a prospective pilot study \| journal Reproductive Health \| volume 17 \| issue 1 \| pages 164 \| date October 2020 \| pmid 33109230 \| pmc 7588945 \| doi 10.1186/s12978-020-01016-4 \|doi-accessfree \|issn1742-4755 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Moseson H, Jayaweera R, Egwuatu I, Grosso B, Kristianingrum IA, Nmezi S, Zurbriggen R, Motana R, Bercu C, Carbone S, Gerdts C \| display-authors 6 \| title Effectiveness of self-managed medication abortion with accompaniment support in Argentina and Nigeria (SAFE): a prospective, observational cohort study and non-inferiority analysis with historical controls \| journal The Lancet. Global Health \| volume 10 \| issue 1 \| pages e105–e113 \| date January 2022 \| pmid 34801131 \| doi 10.1016/S2214-109X(21)00461-7 \| pmc 9359894 }}</ref> Public health data show that making safe abortion legal and accessible reduces maternal deaths.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Faúndes A, Shah IH \| title Evidence supporting broader access to safe legal abortion \| journal International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics \| volume 131 \| issue Suppl 1 \| pages S56–S59 \| date October 2015 \| pmid 26433508 \| doi 10.1016/j.ijgo.2015.03.018 \| series World Report on Women's Health 2015: The unfinished agenda of women's reproductive health \| doi-access free \| quote A strong body of accumulated evidence shows that the simple means to drastically reduce unsafe abortion-related maternal deaths and morbidity is to make abortion legal and institutional termination of pregnancy broadly accessible.{{nbsp}}[...] [C]riminalization of abortion only increases mortality and morbidity without decreasing the incidence of induced abortion, and that decriminalization rapidly reduces abortion-related mortality and does not increase abortion rates. }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| first1Su Mon \|last1 Latt \|first2Allison \|last2 Milner\|author-link2Allison Milner\| last3 Kavanagh \|first3Anne \| title Abortion laws reform may reduce maternal mortality: an ecological study in 162 countries \| journal BMC Women's Health \| volume 19 \| issue 1 \| pages 1 \| date January 2019 \| pmid 30611257 \| pmc 6321671 \| doi 10.1186/s12905-018-0705-y \|doi-access=free }}</ref> Modern methods use medication or surgery for abortions.<ref name":0">{{cite journal \| vauthors Zhang J, Zhou K, Shan D, Luo X \| title Medical methods for first trimester abortion \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| volume 2022 \| pages CD002855 \| date May 2022 \| issue 5 \| pmid 35608608 \| pmc 9128719 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD002855.pub5 }}</ref> The drug mifepristone (aka RU-486) in combination with prostaglandin appears to be as safe and effective as surgery during the first and second trimesters of pregnancy.<ref name":0" /><ref name"Kapp2013" /> The most common surgical technique involves dilating the cervix and using a suction device.<ref>{{cite news \|titleAbortion – Women's Health Issues \|urlhttps://www.merckmanuals.com/home/women-s-health-issues/family-planning/abortion \|websiteMerck Manuals Consumer Version \|access-date12 July 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180713183550/https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/women-s-health-issues/family-planning/abortion \|archive-date13 July 2018 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Birth control, such as the pill or intrauterine devices, can be used immediately following abortion.<ref name"Kapp2013">{{cite journal \| vauthors Kapp N, Whyte P, Tang J, Jackson E, Brahmi D \| title A review of evidence for safe abortion care \| journal Contraception \| volume 88 \| issue 3 \| pages 350–363 \| date September 2013 \| pmid 23261233 \| doi 10.1016/j.contraception.2012.10.027 }}</ref> When performed legally and safely on a woman who desires it, an induced abortion does not increase the risk of long-term mental or physical problems.<ref name"BMJ2014">{{cite journal \|vauthorsLohr PA, Fjerstad M, Desilva U, Lyus R \|year2014 \|titleAbortion \|journalBMJ \|volume348 \|pagef7553 \|doi10.1136/bmj.f7553 \|s2cid220108457}}</ref> In contrast, unsafe abortions performed by unskilled individuals, with hazardous equipment, or in unsanitary facilities cause between 22,000 and 44,000 deaths and 6.9 million hospital admissions each year.<ref>{{cite web \|date2018-03-01 \|titleInduced Abortion Worldwide {{!}} Guttmacher Institute \|urlhttps://www.guttmacher.org/fact-sheet/induced-abortion-worldwide \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180301060904/https://www.guttmacher.org/fact-sheet/induced-abortion-worldwide \|archive-date2018-03-01 \|access-date2023-06-23 \|websiteGuttmacher.org}}</ref> The World Health Organization states that "access to legal, safe and comprehensive abortion care, including post-abortion care, is essential for the attainment of the highest possible level of sexual and reproductive health".<ref>{{cite web\|titleAbortion\| urlhttps://www.who.int/health-topics/abortion#tabtab_1\| access-date2021-04-14\| websitewww.who.int\| languageen\| archive-date6 May 2021\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210506092947/https://www.who.int/health-topics/abortion#tabtab_1}}</ref> Historically, abortions have been attempted using herbal medicines, sharp tools, forceful massage, or other traditional methods.<ref name"Management of Abortion, Chp 1">{{cite book \|titleManagement of Unintended and Abnormal Pregnancy \|vauthorsPaul M, Lichtenberg ES, Borgatta L, Grimes DA, Stubblefield PG, Creinin MD, Joffe C \|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons \|year2009 \|isbn978-1-4443-1293-5 \|edition1st \|locationOxford \|chapter1. Abortion and medicine: A sociopolitical history \|ol15895486W \|chapter-urlhttp://media.wiley.com/product_data/excerpt/62/14051769/1405176962.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120119025652/http://media.wiley.com/product_data/excerpt/62/14051769/1405176962.pdf \|archive-date19 January 2012 \|url-status=live}}</ref> <!-- Epidemiology --> Around 73 million abortions are performed each year in the world,<ref>{{cite web \|titleAbortion \|urlhttps://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/abortion \|access-date2022-09-21 \|websitewww.who.int \|languageen \|archive-date21 September 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220921025025/https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/abortion \|url-statuslive }}</ref> with about 45% done unsafely.<ref>{{cite web\| titleWorldwide, an estimated 25 million unsafe abortions occur each year\| urlhttps://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2017/unsafe-abortions-worldwide/en/\|publisherWorld Health Organization\| access-date29 September 2017\|date28 September 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170929131145/http://who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2017/unsafe-abortions-worldwide/en/\| archive-date29 September 2017\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Abortion rates changed little between 2003 and 2008,<ref name"Sedgh 2012">{{cite journal \| vauthors Sedgh G, Singh S, Shah IH, Ahman E, Henshaw SK, Bankole A \| title Induced abortion: incidence and trends worldwide from 1995 to 2008 \| journal Lancet \| volume 379 \| issue 9816 \| pages 625–632 \| date February 2012 \| pmid 22264435 \| doi 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61786-8 \| url http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/Sedgh-Lancet-2012-01.pdf \| url-status live \| quote Because few of the abortion estimates were based on studies of random samples of women, and because we did not use a model-based approach to estimate abortion incidence, it was not possible to compute confidence intervals based on standard errors around the estimates. Drawing on the information available on the accuracy and precision of abortion estimates that were used to develop the subregional, regional, and worldwide rates, we computed intervals of certainty around these rates (webappendix). We computed wider intervals for unsafe abortion rates than for safe abortion rates. The basis for these intervals included published and unpublished assessments of abortion reporting in countries with liberal laws, recently published studies of national unsafe abortion, and high and low estimates of the numbers of unsafe abortion developed by WHO. \| s2cid 27378192 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20120206043854/http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/Sedgh-Lancet-2012-01.pdf \| archive-date 6 February 2012 }}</ref> before which they decreased for at least two decades as access to family planning and birth control increased.<ref name"worldtrends2007">{{cite journal \| vauthors Sedgh G, Henshaw SK, Singh S, Bankole A, Drescher J \| title Legal abortion worldwide: incidence and recent trends \| journal International Family Planning Perspectives \| volume 33 \| issue 3 \| pages 106–116 \| date September 2007 \| pmid 17938093 \| doi 10.1363/3310607 \| url http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3310607.html \| url-status live \| doi-access free \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20090819122933/http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3310607.html \| archive-date 19 August 2009 }}</ref> {{as of\|2018}}, 37% of the world's women had access to legal abortions without limits as to reason.<ref nameGutt_2018_fact >{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.guttmacher.org/fact-sheet/induced-abortion-worldwide \| titleInduced Abortion Worldwide \| workGuttmacher Institute \| date2018-03-01 \| access-date2020-02-21 \| quoteOf the world's 1.64 billion women of reproductive age, 6% live where abortion is banned outright, and 37% live where it is allowed without restriction as to reason. Most women live in countries with laws that fall between these two extremes. \| archive-date23 February 2020 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200223022612/https://www.guttmacher.org/fact-sheet/induced-abortion-worldwide \| url-statuslive }}</ref> Countries that permit abortions have different limits on how late in pregnancy abortion is allowed.<ref nameIJGO10>{{cite journal \| vauthors Culwell KR, Vekemans M, de Silva U, Hurwitz M, Crane BB \| title Critical gaps in universal access to reproductive health: contraception and prevention of unsafe abortion \| journal International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics \| volume 110 \| issue Suppl \| pages S13–S16 \| date July 2010 \| pmid 20451196 \| doi 10.1016/j.ijgo.2010.04.003 \| s2cid 40586023 }}</ref> Abortion rates are similar between countries that restrict abortion and countries that broadly allow it, though this is partly because countries which restrict abortion tend to have higher unintended pregnancy rates.<ref>{{cite web\|date2020-05-28\| titleUnintended Pregnancy and Abortion Worldwide\| urlhttps://www.guttmacher.org/fact-sheet/induced-abortion-worldwide\|access-date2021-03-09\|websiteGuttmacher Institute\| languageen\| archive-date23 February 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200223022612/https://www.guttmacher.org/fact-sheet/induced-abortion-worldwide\|url-statuslive \| quoteAbortion is sought and needed even in settings where it is restricted—that is, in countries where it is prohibited altogether or is allowed only to save the women’s life or to preserve her physical or mental health. Unintended pregnancy rates are highest in countries that restrict abortion access and lowest in countries where abortion is broadly legal. As a result, abortion rates are similar in countries where abortion is restricted and those where the procedure is broadly legal (i.e., where it is available on request or on socioeconomic grounds).}}</ref> <!-- society, and culture -->Globally, there has been a widespread trend towards greater legal access to abortion since 1973,<ref>{{cite web \|lastStaff \|firstF. P. \|date2022-06-24 \|titleRoe Abolition Makes U.S. a Global Outlier \|urlhttps://foreignpolicy.com/2022/06/24/roe-v-wade-overturned-global-abortion-laws/ \|access-date2023-10-20 \|websiteForeign Policy \|languageen-US \|archive-date24 June 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220624181307/https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/06/24/roe-v-wade-overturned-global-abortion-laws/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> but there remains debate with regard to moral, religious, ethical, and legal issues.<ref>{{cite book\| veditors Nixon F \| vauthors Paola A, Walker R, LaCivita L \|titleMedical ethics and humanities\|date2010\|publisherJones and Bartlett Publishers\|locationSudbury, MA\| isbn978-0-7637-6063-2\|page249\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9pM2pw-2wl4C&pgPA249\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170906191717/https://books.google.com/books?id9pM2pw-2wl4C&pgPA249\|archive-date6 September 2017\| ol13764930W}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\| vauthors Johnstone MJ \|titleBioethics a nursing perspective\| journalConfederation of Australian Critical Care Nurses Journal\| volume3\|issue4\|pages24–30\|date2009\| publisherChurchill Livingstone/Elsevier\|locationSydney, NSW\| isbn978-0-7295-7873-8\|edition5th\| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idEG-Yg1xDYakC&pgPA228\| quoteAlthough abortion has been legal in many countries for several decades now, its moral permissibilities continues to be the subject of heated public debate.\| url-statuslive\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170906191717/https://books.google.com/books?idEG-Yg1xDYakC&pgPA228\|archive-date6 September 2017\| pmid2129925}}</ref> Those who oppose abortion often argue that an embryo or fetus is a person with a right to life, and thus equate abortion with murder.<ref>{{cite news \| vauthors Driscoll M \|author-linkMark Driscoll\| titleWhat do 55 million people have in common? \|publisherFox News \|date18 October 2013 \|access-date2 July 2014 \|urlhttps://www.foxnews.com/opinion/what-do-55-million-people-have-in-common/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140831022138/http://www.foxnews.com/opinion/2013/10/18/what-do-55-million-people-have-in-common/ \|archive-date31 August 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news \| vauthors Hansen D \|titleAbortion: Murder, or Medical Procedure? \|workThe Huffington Post \|date18 March 2014 \|access-date2 July 2014 \|urlhttps://www.huffingtonpost.com/dale-hansen/abortion-murder-or-medica_b_4986637.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140714230359/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/dale-hansen/abortion-murder-or-medica_b_4986637.html \|archive-date14 July 2014 }}</ref> Those who support abortion's legality often argue that it is a woman's reproductive right.<ref>{{cite book\| vauthors Sifris RN \|titleReproductive freedom, torture and international human rights: challenging the masculinisation of torture\|date2013\|publisherTaylor & Francis \|locationHoboken, NJ\|isbn978-1-135-11522-7\|oclc869373168\|page3\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9pVWAgAAQBAJ&pgPA3\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151015195038/https://books.google.com/books?id9pVWAgAAQBAJ&pgPA3\|archive-date15 October 2015}}</ref> Others favor legal and accessible abortion as a public health measure.<ref>{{cite book\| firstElisabeth \|lastÅhman \|titleUnsafe abortion: Global and regional estimates of the incidence of unsafe abortion and associated mortality in 2003\| date2007\| publisherWorld Health Organization\| isbn978-92-4-159612-1\| edition5th\| urlhttps://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/unsafe_abortion/9789241596121/en/\|access-date24 March 2018\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180407131435/http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/unsafe_abortion/9789241596121/en/\| archive-date7 April 2018\| url-statusdead}}</ref> Abortion laws and views of the procedure are different around the world. In some countries abortion is legal and women have the right to make the choice about abortion.<ref>Fabiola Sanchez, Megan Janetsky, [https://apnews.com/article/mexico-abortion-decriminalize-d87f6edbdf68c2e6c8f5700b3afd15de Mexico decriminalizes abortion, extending Latin American trend of widening access to procedure] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230906235527/https://apnews.com/article/mexico-abortion-decriminalize-d87f6edbdf68c2e6c8f5700b3afd15de \|date6 September 2023 }}, Associated Press (AP), September 6, 2023</ref> In some areas, abortion is legal only in specific cases such as rape, incest, fetal defects, poverty, and risk to a woman's health.<ref name"Dev98-07">{{cite journal \|vauthorsBoland R, Katzive L \|dateSeptember 2008 \|titleDevelopments in laws on induced abortion: 1998-2007 \|urlhttp://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3411008.html \|url-statuslive \|journalInternational Family Planning Perspectives \|volume34 \|issue3 \|pages110–120 \|doi10.1363/3411008 \|pmid18957353 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111007221828/http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3411008.html \|archive-date7 October 2011 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Types InducedAn induced abortion is a medical procedure to end a pregnancy.<ref>{{cite web \|vauthorsCheng L \|date1 November 2008 \|titleSurgical versus medical methods for second-trimester induced abortion \|urlhttp://apps.who.int/rhl/fertility/abortion/CD006714_chengl_com/en/index.html \|workThe WHO Reproductive Health Library \|publisherWorld Health Organization \|access-date17 June 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100801023058/http://apps.who.int/rhl/fertility/abortion/CD006714_chengl_com/en/index.html \|archive-date1 August 2010 \|url-statusdead}}</ref> In present-day English, the term abortion, when used without further qualification, generally refers to induced abortion.<ref nameOED/> A pregnancy can be intentionally aborted in several ways. The abortion method depends upon the gestational age of the embryo or fetus, which gains mass as the pregnancy progresses.<ref>{{cite book\| vauthors Stubblefield PG \|chapter10. Family Planning \|titleNovak's Gynecology\| veditorsBerek JS \|editor1-linkJonathan Berek\| publisherLippincott Williams & Wilkins\| year2002\| edition13\| isbn978-0-7817-3262-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\| titleRisk factors for legal induced abortion-related mortality in the United States \|pmid15051566\| journalObstetrics & Gynecology \|year2004 \| vauthors Bartlett LA, Berg CJ, Shulman HB, Zane SB, Green CA, Whitehead S, Atrash HK \|volume103 \|issue4 \|pages729–737 \|doi10.1097/01.AOG.0000116260.81570.60\| s2cid42597014\| doi-accessfree }}</ref> Abortion laws, regional availability, and the personal preference of the women and her doctor may inform the women's choice of a specific abortion procedure. Abortions can be characterized as either therapeutic or elective. When an abortion is performed for medical reasons, the procedure is referred to as a therapeutic abortion. Medical reasons for therapeutic abortion include saving the life of the pregnant woman, preventing harm to the woman's physical or mental health, preventing the birth of a child who will have a significantly increased chance of mortality or morbidity, and reducing the number of fetuses to lessen health risks associated with multiple pregnancy.<ref name"roche1">{{cite web\| vauthors Roche NE \|date28 September 2004 \|titleTherapeutic Abortion \|publishereMedicine \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20041214092044/http://www.emedicine.com/MED/topic3311.htm \|urlhttp://emedicine.medscape.com/article/252560-overview \|archive-date14 December 2004 \|access-date19 June 2011}}</ref><ref name"Williams Gyn, Chp 6" /> An abortion is referred to as elective or voluntary when it is performed at the request of the woman for non-medical reasons.<ref name"Williams Gyn, Chp 6" /> Confusion sometimes arises over the term elective because "elective surgery" generally refers to all scheduled surgery, whether medically necessary or not.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Janiak \|first1Elizabeth \|last2Goldberg \|first2Alisa B. \|date2016-02-01 \|titleEliminating the phrase 'elective abortion': why language matters \|urlhttps://www.contraceptionjournal.org/article/S0010-7824(15)00624-1/abstract \|journalContraception \|languageEnglish \|volume93 \|issue2 \|pages89–92 \|doi10.1016/j.contraception.2015.10.008 \|pmid26480889 \|issn0010-7824 \|access-date27 November 2022 \|archive-date24 January 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230124173416/https://www.contraceptionjournal.org/article/S0010-7824%2815%2900624-1/fulltext \|url-statuslive \|url-access=subscription }}</ref> About one in five pregnancies worldwide ends with an induced abortion.<ref name"Sedgh 2012" /> Most abortions result from unintended pregnancies.<ref namebankole98/><ref>{{cite journal \|vauthorsFiner LB, Frohwirth LF, Dauphinee LA, Singh S, Moore AM \|titleReasons U.S. women have abortions: quantitative and qualitative perspectives \|journalPerspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health \|volume37 \|issue3 \|pages110–118 \|dateSeptember 2005 \|pmid16150658 \|doi10.1111/j.1931-2393.2005.tb00045.x \|urlhttp://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3711005.pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060117143856/https://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3711005.pdf \|archive-date17 January 2006}}</ref> In the United Kingdom, 1 to 2% of abortions are done because of genetic problems in the fetus.<ref nameBMJ2014/> Spontaneous {{Main\|Miscarriage}} Miscarriage, also known as spontaneous abortion, is the unintentional expulsion of an embryo or fetus before the 24th week of gestation.<ref>{{cite book \| title Churchill Livingstone medical dictionary \| publisher Churchill Livingstone Elsevier \| location Edinburgh New York \| year 2008 \| isbn 978-0-443-10412-1 \| quote The preferred term for unintentional loss of the product of conception prior to 24 weeks' gestation is miscarriage.}}</ref> A pregnancy that ends before 37 weeks of gestation resulting in a live-born infant is a "premature birth" or a "preterm birth".<ref>{{cite book\|quoteA preterm birth is defined as one that occurs before the completion of 37 menstrual weeks of gestation, regardless of birth weight.\|page669\| veditors Gabbe SG, Niebyl JR, Simpson JL \|editor1-linkSteven Gabbe\|year2007\|titleObstetrics: Normal and Problem Pregnancies\|edition5th \|publisherChurchill Livingstone\|chapter51. Legal and Ethical Issues in Obstetric Practice\|isbn978-0-443-06930-7\|vauthors AnnasGJ, Elias S \|author-link1George Annas }}</ref> When a fetus dies in utero after viability, or during delivery, it is usually termed "stillborn".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia\|quotebirth of a fetus that shows no evidence of life (heartbeat, respiration, or independent movement) at any time later than 24 weeks after conception\|titleStillbirth\|seriesConcise Medical Dictionary\|publisherOxford University Press\|year2010\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZs8ZM4OUurcC&pgPA698\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151015195038/https://books.google.com/books?idZs8ZM4OUurcC&pgPA698\|archive-date15 October 2015\|isbn978-0-19-955714-1}}</ref> Premature births and stillbirths are generally not considered to be miscarriages, although usage of these terms can sometimes overlap.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://fam.state.gov/FAM/07FAM/07FAM1470.html\|title7 FAM 1470 Documenting Stillbirth (Fetal Death)\|publisherUnited States Department of State\|date18 February 2011\|access-date12 January 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160205060246/https://fam.state.gov/FAM/07FAM/07FAM1470.html\|archive-date5 February 2016\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Studies of pregnant women in the US and China have shown that between 40% and 60% of embryos do not progress to birth.<ref name"Gabbe, Chp 24">{{cite book \| veditors Gabbe SG, Niebyl JR, Simpson JL \|editor1-linkSteven Gabbe \|year2007\|titleObstetrics: Normal and Problem Pregnancies\|edition5th \|publisherChurchill Livingstone \|chapter24. Pregnancy loss\|isbn978-0-443-06930-7\| vauthors Annas GJ, Elias S \|author-link1George Annas }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|titleEarly embryo mortality in natural human reproduction: What the data say [version 2; peer review: 2 approved, 1 approved with reservations] \|journalF1000Research \|date7 June 2017 \| vauthors Jarvis GE \|volume5 \|page2765 \|doi10.12688/f1000research.8937.2 \|doi-accessfree \|pmid28580126 \|pmc5443340 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|titleEstimating limits for natural human embryo mortality [version 1; peer review: 2 approved] \|journalF1000Research \|date26 August 2016 \|vauthorsJarvis GE \|volume5 \|page2083 \|doi10.12688/f1000research.9479.1 \|doi-accessfree \|pmid28003878 \|pmc5142718 }}</ref> The vast majority of miscarriages occur before the woman is aware that she is pregnant,<ref name"Williams Gyn, Chp 6" /> and many pregnancies spontaneously abort before medical practitioners can detect an embryo.<ref>{{cite book\| vauthors Katz VL \|publisherMosby\|year2007\|edition5 th\|titleKatz: Comprehensive Gynecology\| veditors Katz VL, Lentz GM, Lobo RA, Gershenson DM \|chapter16. Spontaneous and Recurrent Abortion&nbsp;– Etiology, Diagnosis, Treatment\|isbn978-0-323-02951-3}}</ref> Between 15% and 30% of known pregnancies end in clinically apparent miscarriage, depending upon the age and health of the pregnant woman.<ref>{{cite book\| vauthors Stovall TG \|chapter17. Early Pregnancy Loss and Ectopic Pregnancy\|titleNovak's Gynecology\| veditors Berek JS \|editor1-linkJonathan Berek\|publisherLippincott Williams & Wilkins\|year2002\|edition13\|isbn978-0-7817-3262-8}}</ref> 80% of these spontaneous abortions happen in the first trimester.<ref nameWilliams18>{{cite book \| veditors Cunningham FG, Leveno KJ, Bloom SL, Spong CY, Dashe JS, Hoffman BL, Casey BM, Sheffield JS \|editor-link4Catherine Y. Spong \|title Williams Obstetrics \|edition 24th \|year 2014 \|publisher McGraw Hill Education \|isbn = 978-0-07-179893-8}}</ref> The most common cause of spontaneous abortion during the first trimester is chromosomal abnormalities of the embryo or fetus,<ref name"Williams Gyn, Chp 6">{{cite book\| veditors Schorge JO, Schaffer JI, Halvorson LM, Hoffman BL, Bradshaw KD, Cunningham FG \|year2008\|titleWilliams Gynecology\|edition1\|publisherMcGraw-Hill Medical\|isbn978-0-07-147257-9\|chapter6. First-Trimester Abortion}}</ref><ref name"mednet">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.medicinenet.com/miscarriage/page1.htm \|titleMiscarriage (Spontaneous Abortion) \|access-date7 April 2009 \| vauthors Stöppler MS \| veditors Shiel Jr WC \|workMedicineNet.com \|publisherWebMD \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20040829013142/http://www.medicinenet.com/Miscarriage/page1.htm \|archive-date29 August 2004 }}</ref> accounting for at least 50% of sampled early pregnancy losses.<ref name"fetal med 837">{{cite book \|vauthorsJauniaux E, Kaminopetros P, El-Rafaey H \|chapterEarly pregnancy loss \|veditorsWhittle MJ, Rodeck CH \|titleFetal medicine: basic science and clinical practice \|publisherChurchill Livingstone \|locationEdinburgh \|year1999 \|chapter-urlhttps://archive.org/details/fetalmedicinebas0000unse/page/836/mode/2up \|isbn978-0-443-05357-3 \|oclc42792567 \|page837 }}</ref> Other causes include vascular disease (such as lupus), diabetes, other hormonal problems, infection, and abnormalities of the uterus.<ref name"mednet" /> Advancing maternal age and a woman's history of previous spontaneous abortions are the two leading factors associated with a greater risk of spontaneous abortion.<ref name"fetal med 837" /> A spontaneous abortion can also be caused by accidental trauma; intentional trauma or stress to cause miscarriage is considered induced abortion or feticide.<ref name"Fetal Homicide Laws">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.ncsl.org/programs/health/fethom.htm \|titleFetal Homicide Laws \|access-date7 April 2009 \|publisherNational Conference of State Legislatures \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20120911171355/http://www.ncsl.org/issues-research/health/fetal-homicide-state-laws.aspx \|archive-date11 September 2012}}{{cbignore\|botmedic}}</ref>MethodsMedical {{Main\|Medical abortion}} {{Distinguish\|text= emergency contraception}} {{Image frame\|width300\|innerstylefont-size:88%;\|link:File:Abortionmethods.png\|captionGestational age may determine which abortion methods are practiced.\|content{{#invoke:Block diagram\|main\|width300\|height=190\|<border-color #cccccc><border-width 0px 0px 0px 1px><left 30><right 30>&nbsp;<vcentertext><left 70><right 70>&nbsp;<border-width 0px><top 0><bottom 12><left 0><right 100><background-color #ffbcd8>Practice of Induced Abortion Methods<background-color #bdc9df><top 19><bottom 29><left 7.5><right 20>MVA<left 40><right 65>D&E<top 38><bottom 48><left 15><right 30>EVA<left 50><right 75>Hyst.<left 15><right 37.5><top 56><bottom 66>D&C<left 50><right 75>Intact D&X<left 7.5><right 30><top 74><bottom 84>Mifepr.<left 40><right 75>Induced Miscarr.<left 0><right 30><background-color #b7e690><top 90><bottom 100>0–12&nbsp;wks<left 30><right 70><background-color #dfe988>12–28&nbsp;weeks<left 70><right 100><background-color #e9c788>28–40&nbsp;wks}}}} Medical abortions are those induced by abortifacient pharmaceuticals. Medical abortion became an alternative method of abortion with the availability of prostaglandin analogs in the 1970s and the antiprogestogen mifepristone (also known as RU-486) in the 1980s.<ref nameKapp2013/><ref name":0" /><ref name"Creinin 2009">{{cite book\|vauthorsCreinin MD, Gemzell-Danielsson K \|year2009\| chapterMedical abortion in early pregnancy\|veditorsPaul M, Lichtenberg ES, Borgatta L, Grimes DA, Stubblefield PG, Creinin MD \|titleManagement of unintended and abnormal pregnancy: comprehensive abortion care\| locationOxford\|publisherWiley-Blackwell\|pages111–134\| isbn978-1-4051-7696-5}}</ref><ref name"Kapp 2009">{{cite book\| vauthorsKapp N, von Hertzen H \|year2009\| chapterMedical methods to induce abortion in the second trimester\| veditorsPaul M, Lichtenberg ES, Borgatta L, Grimes DA, Stubblefield PG, Creinin MD \|titleManagement of unintended and abnormal pregnancy: comprehensive abortion care\| locationOxford\|publisherWiley-Blackwell\| pages178–192\| isbn978-1-4051-7696-5}}</ref> The most common early first trimester medical abortion regimens use mifepristone in combination with misoprostol (or sometimes another prostaglandin analog, gemeprost) up to 10 weeks (70 days) gestational age,<ref name":2"/><ref name":1">{{cite web \|authorCenter for Drug Evaluation and Research \|titleMifeprex (mifepristone) Information \|urlhttps://www.fda.gov/drugs/postmarket-drug-safety-information-patients-and-providers/mifeprex-mifepristone-information \|websiteFDA \|access-date2 July 2019 \|date8 February 2019 \|archive-date23 April 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190423032409/https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/ucm111323.htm \|url-statuslive }}</ref> methotrexate in combination with a prostaglandin analog up to 7 weeks gestation, or a prostaglandin analog alone.<ref name":0" /> Mifepristone–misoprostol combination regimens work faster and are more effective at later gestational ages than methotrexate–misoprostol combination regimens, and combination regimens are more effective than misoprostol alone, particularly in the second trimester.<ref name"Creinin 2009"/><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Wildschut H, Both MI, Medema S, Thomee E, Wildhagen MF, Kapp N \| title Medical methods for mid-trimester termination of pregnancy \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| volume 2011 \| issue 1 \| pages CD005216 \| date January 2011 \| pmid 21249669 \| pmc 8557267 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD005216.pub2 }}</ref> Medical abortion regimens involving mifepristone followed by misoprostol in the cheek between 24 and 48 hours later are effective when performed before 70 days' gestation.<ref name":1" /><ref name":2">{{cite journal \| vauthors Chen MJ, Creinin MD \| title Mifepristone With Buccal Misoprostol for Medical Abortion: A Systematic Review \| journal Obstetrics and Gynecology \| volume 126 \| issue 1 \| pages 12–21 \| date July 2015 \| pmid 26241251 \| doi 10.1097/AOG.0000000000000897 \| url http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/2pw521h5 \| access-date 30 July 2019 \| url-status live \| s2cid 20800109 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20200726105924/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2pw521h5 \| archive-date 26 July 2020 }}</ref> and 800&nbsp;μg misoprostol).]] In very early abortions, up to 7 weeks gestation, medical abortion using a mifepristone–misoprostol combination regimen is considered to be more effective than surgical abortion (vacuum aspiration), especially when clinical practice does not include detailed inspection of aspirated tissue.<ref name"WHO FAQs 2006">{{cite book \|authorWHO Department of Reproductive Health and Research \|urlhttp://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2006/9241594845_eng.pdf \|titleFrequently asked clinical questions about medical abortion \|publisherWorld Health Organization \|year2006 \|isbn92-4-159484-5 \|locationGeneva \|access-date22 November 2011 \|url-accesssubscription \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111226115043/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2006/9241594845_eng.pdf \|archive-date26 December 2011 \|url-statusdead}}</ref> Early medical abortion regimens using mifepristone, followed 24–48 hours later by buccal or vaginal misoprostol are 98% effective up to 9 weeks gestational age; from 9 to 10 weeks efficacy decreases modestly to 94%.<ref name":2" /><ref name"Fjerstad 2009b">{{cite journal \| vauthors Fjerstad M, Sivin I, Lichtenberg ES, Trussell J, Cleland K, Cullins V \| title Effectiveness of medical abortion with mifepristone and buccal misoprostol through 59 gestational days \| journal Contraception \| volume 80 \| issue 3 \| pages 282–286 \| date September 2009 \| pmid 19698822 \| pmc 3766037 \| doi 10.1016/j.contraception.2009.03.010 }} The regimen (200&nbsp;mg of mifepristone, followed 24–48 hours later by 800 mcg of vaginal misoprostol) previously used by Planned Parenthood clinics in the United States from 2001 to March 2006 was 98.5% effective through 63 days gestation—with an ongoing pregnancy rate of about 0.5%, and an additional 1% of women having uterine evacuation for various reasons, including problematic bleeding, persistent gestational sac, clinician judgment or a woman's request. The regimen (200&nbsp;mg of mifepristone, followed 24–48 hours later by 800 mcg of buccal misoprostol) currently used by Planned Parenthood clinics in the United States since April 2006 is 98% effective through 59 days gestation.</ref> If medical abortion fails, surgical abortion must be used to complete the procedure.<ref>{{cite book\| vauthorsHolmquist S, Gilliam M \|year2008\| chapterInduced abortion\| veditorsGibbs RS, Karlan BY, Haney AF, Nygaard I \|titleDanforth's obstetrics and gynecology\| edition10th\| locationPhiladelphia\|publisherLippincott Williams & Wilkins\| pages586–603\| isbn=978-0-7817-6937-2}}</ref> Early medical abortions account for the majority of abortions before 9 weeks gestation in Britain,<ref>{{Cite report \|titleAbortion statistics, England and Wales: 2022 \|urlhttps://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/abortion-statistics-for-england-and-wales-2022 \|publisherOffice for Health Improvement and Disparities \|date2023\| access-date2024-07-23 \|languageen\|section Table 5: Legal abortions: gestation weeks by purchaser and method of abortion, residents of England and Wales, numbers, percentages, 2022 \|section-url https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/664dcb9d4f29e1d07fadcc7b/Abortion-statistics-2022-data-tables.ods}}</ref> France,<ref>{{cite web\| vauthorsVilain A, Mouquet MC \|date22 June 2011 \|titleVoluntary terminations of pregnancies in 2008 and 2009 \|locationParis \|publisherDREES, Ministry of Health, France \|urlhttp://www.sante.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/er765.pdf \|access-date22 November 2011 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926235733/http://www.sante.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/er765.pdf \|archive-date26 September 2011 }}</ref> Switzerland,<ref>{{cite web\| date5 July 2011\|titleAbortions in Switzerland 2010\| locationNeuchâtel\| publisherOffice of Federal Statistics, Switzerland\| urlhttp://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/fr/index/themen/14/02/03/key/03.html\|access-date22 November 2011\| url-statusdead\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111003203103/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/fr/index/themen/14/02/03/key/03.html\|archive-date3 October 2011}}</ref> United States,<ref>{{cite report \| vauthors Jones RK, Witwer E, Jerman J \|titleAbortion Incidence and Service Availability in the United States, 2017 \|year2019 \|publisherGuttmacher Institute \|doi10.1363/2019.30760 \|doi-accessfree \|pmc5487028 }}</ref> and the Nordic countries.<ref>{{cite web\| vauthorsGissler M, Heino A\|date21 February 2011\| titleInduced abortions in the Nordic countries 2009\| locationHelsinki\| publisherNational Institute for Health and Welfare, Finland\| urlhttp://www.stakes.fi/tilastot/tilastotiedotteet/2011/Tr09_11.pdf\| access-date22 November 2011\| url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120118094034/http://www.stakes.fi/tilastot/tilastotiedotteet/2011/Tr09_11.pdf\|archive-date18 January 2012}}</ref> Medical abortion regimens using mifepristone in combination with a prostaglandin analog are the most common methods used for second trimester abortions in Canada, most of Europe, China and India,<ref name"Kapp 2009"/> in contrast to the United States where 96% of second trimester abortions are performed surgically by dilation and evacuation.<ref name":3">{{cite book\|titleManagement of unintended and abnormal pregnancy: comprehensive abortion care\| vauthorsMeckstroth K, Paul M\|publisherWiley-Blackwell\| year2009\|isbn978-1-4051-7696-5\|veditorsPaul M, Lichtenberg ES, Borgatta L, Grimes DA, Stubblefield PG, Creinin MD\| locationOxford\|pages135–156\|chapter=First-trimester aspiration abortion}}</ref> A 2020 Cochrane Systematic Review concluded that providing women with medications to take home to complete the second stage of the procedure for an early medical abortion results in an effective abortion.<ref name":4">{{cite journal \| vauthors Gambir K, Kim C, Necastro KA, Ganatra B, Ngo TD \| title Self-administered versus provider-administered medical abortion \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| volume 2020 \| pages CD013181 \| date March 2020 \| issue 3 \| pmid 32150279 \| pmc 7062143 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD013181.pub2 }}</ref> Further research is required to determine if self-administered medical abortion is as safe as provider-administered medical abortion, where a health care professional is present to help manage the medical abortion.<ref name":4" /> Safely permitting women to self-administer abortion medication has the potential to improve access to abortion.<ref name":4" /> The review also noted a research gap concerning methods to support women who take medication at home for a self-administered abortion.<ref name":4" /> Surgical <br />2: Embryo<br />3: Uterine lining<br />4: Speculum<br />5: Vacurette<br />6: Attached to a suction pump]] Up to 15 weeks' gestation, suction-aspiration or vacuum aspiration are the most common surgical methods of induced abortion.<ref>{{cite web\| authorHealthwise \|urlhttp://www.webmd.com/hw/womens_conditions/tw1078.asp#tw1112 \|titleManual and vacuum aspiration for abortion \|year2004 \|websiteWebMD \|access-date5 December 2008\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070211155626/http://www.webmd.com/hw/womens_conditions/tw1078.asp\| archive-date11 February 2007\| url-statuslive}}</ref> Manual vacuum aspiration (MVA) consists of removing the fetus or embryo, placenta, and membranes by suction using a manual syringe, while electric vacuum aspiration (EVA) uses an electric pump. Both techniques can be used very early in pregnancy. MVA can be used up to 14 weeks but is more often used earlier in the U.S. EVA can be used later.<ref name":3" /> MVA, also known as "mini-suction" and "menstrual extraction", or EVA can be used in very early pregnancy when cervical dilation may not be required. Dilation and curettage (D&C) refers to opening the cervix (dilation) and removing tissue (curettage) via suction or sharp instruments. D&C is a standard gynecological procedure performed for a variety of reasons, including examination of the uterine lining for possible malignancy, investigation of abnormal bleeding, and abortion. The World Health Organization recommends sharp curettage only when suction aspiration is unavailable.<ref>{{cite book\|titleManaging Complications in Pregnancy and Childbirth: A Guide for Midwives and Doctors\| authorWorld Health Organization\| publisherWorld Health Organization\| year2017\| isbn978-92-4-154587-7\| locationGeneva\| chapterDilatation and curettage\| oclc181845530\| access-date30 July 2019\|chapter-urlhttps://www.who.int/reproductive-health/impac/Procedures/Dilatetion_P61_P63.html\|archive-date19 May 2009\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090519162903/http://www.who.int/reproductive-health/impac/Procedures/Dilatetion_P61_P63.html\| url-status=live}}</ref> Dilation and evacuation (D&E), used after 12 to 16 weeks, consists of opening the cervix and emptying the uterus using surgical instruments and suction. D&E is performed vaginally and does not require an incision. Intact dilation and extraction (D&X) refers to a variant of D&E sometimes used after 18 to 20 weeks when removal of an intact fetus improves surgical safety or for other reasons.<ref>{{cite book\| titleDilation and evacuation. In Paul M, Lichtenberg ES Borgatta L Grimes DA Stubblefield P Creinin (eds)Management of unintended and abnormal pregnancy: comprehensive abortion care.\| vauthors Hammond C, Chasen S \|publisherOxford: Wiley-Blackwell\|year2009\|isbn978-1-4051-7696-5\|pages178–192}}</ref> Abortion may also be performed surgically by hysterotomy or gravid hysterectomy. Hysterotomy abortion is a procedure similar to a caesarean section and is performed under general anesthesia. It requires a smaller incision than a caesarean section and can be used during later stages of pregnancy. Gravid hysterectomy refers to removal of the whole uterus while still containing the pregnancy. Hysterotomy and hysterectomy are associated with much higher rates of maternal morbidity and mortality than D&E or induction abortion.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors \| title ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 135: Second-trimester abortion \| journal Obstetrics and Gynecology \| volume 121 \| issue 6 \| pages 1394–1406 \| date June 2013 \| pmid 23812485 \| doi 10.1097/01.AOG.0000431056.79334.cc \| s2cid 205384119 }}</ref> First trimester procedures can generally be performed using local anesthesia, while second trimester methods may require deep sedation or general anesthesia.<ref name"NEJMDec2011">{{cite journal \| vauthors Templeton A, Grimes DA \| title Clinical practice. A request for abortion \| journal The New England Journal of Medicine \| volume 365 \| issue 23 \| pages 2198–2204 \| date December 2011 \| pmid 22150038 \| doi 10.1056/NEJMcp1103639 \| doi-access }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Allen RH, Singh R \| title Society of Family Planning clinical guidelines pain control in surgical abortion part 1 - local anesthesia and minimal sedation \| language English \| journal Contraception \| volume 97 \| issue 6 \| pages 471–477 \| date June 2018 \| pmid 29407363 \| doi 10.1016/j.contraception.2018.01.014 \| url https://www.contraceptionjournal.org/article/S0010-7824(18)30036-2/abstract \| access-date 20 January 2022 \| url-status live \| s2cid 3777869 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20220303075142/https://www.contraceptionjournal.org/article/S0010-7824%2818%2930036-2/fulltext \| archive-date 3 March 2022 \| doi-access free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Cansino C, Denny C, Carlisle AS, Stubblefield P \| title Society of Family Planning clinical recommendations: Pain control in surgical abortion part 2 - Moderate sedation, deep sedation, and general anesthesia \| language English \| journal Contraception \| volume 104 \| issue 6 \| pages 583–592 \| date December 2021 \| pmid 34425082 \| doi 10.1016/j.contraception.2021.08.007 \| url https://www.contraceptionjournal.org/article/S0010-7824(21)00351-6/abstract \| access-date 20 January 2022 \| url-status live \| s2cid 237279946 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20220303075141/https://www.contraceptionjournal.org/article/S0010-7824%2821%2900351-6/fulltext \| archive-date 3 March 2022 \| doi-access free }}</ref>Labor induction abortionIn places lacking the necessary medical skill for dilation and extraction, or when preferred by practitioners, an abortion can be induced by first inducing labor and then inducing fetal demise if necessary.<ref nameGLOWM_Late>{{cite journal\| last Borgatta \| first Lynn \|journalGlobal Library of Women's Medicine\| dateDecember 2014 \|volumeGLOWM.10444\| doi10.3843/GLOWM.10444\| urlhttp://www.glowm.com/section_view/heading/Labor%20Induction%20Termination%20of%20Pregnancy/item/443\| access-date25 September 2015\| titleLabor Induction Termination of Pregnancy\| url-statuslive\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150924082507/http://www.glowm.com/section_view/heading/Labor%20Induction%20Termination%20of%20Pregnancy/item/443\| archive-date24 September 2015\| url-accesssubscription}}</ref> This is sometimes called "induced miscarriage". This procedure may be performed from 13 weeks gestation to the third trimester. Although it is very uncommon in the United States, more than 80% of induced abortions throughout the second trimester are labor-induced abortions in Sweden and other nearby countries.<ref nameLabor_Induced_Abortion>{{cite journal \| last1 Borgatta \| first1 Lynn \|first2 Nathalie \|last2Kapp\| title Clinical guidelines. Labor induction abortion in the second trimester \| journal Contraception \| volume 84 \| issue 1 \| pages 4–18 \| date July 2011 \| pmid 21664506 \| doi 10.1016/j.contraception.2011.02.005 \| url http://www.contraceptionjournal.org/article/S0010-7824(11)00057-6/pdf \| access-date 25 September 2015 \| url-status live \| quote 10. What is the effect of feticide on labor induction abortion outcome? Deliberately causing demise of the fetus before labor induction abortion is performed primarily to avoid transient fetal survival after expulsion; this approach may be for the comfort of both the woman and the staff, to avoid futile resuscitation efforts. Some providers allege that feticide also facilitates delivery, although little data support this claim. Transient fetal survival is very unlikely after intraamniotic installation of saline or urea, which are directly feticidal. Transient survival with misoprostol for labor induction abortion at greater than 18 weeks ranges from 0% to 50% and has been observed in up to 13% of abortions performed with high-dose oxytocin. Factors associated with a higher likelihood of transient fetal survival with labor induction abortion include increasing gestational age, decreasing abortion interval and the use of nonfeticidal inductive agents such as the PGE1 analogues. \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20200606205318/https://www.contraceptionjournal.org/article/S0010-7824(11)00057-6/pdf \| archive-date 6 June 2020 \| doi-access = free }}</ref> Only limited data are available comparing labor-induced abortion with the dilation and extraction method.<ref nameLabor_Induced_Abortion/> Unlike D&E, labor-induced abortions after 18 weeks may be complicated by the occurrence of brief fetal survival, which may be legally characterized as live birth. For this reason, labor-induced abortion is legally risky in the United States.<ref nameLabor_Induced_Abortion/><ref nameNAF_2015_Policy>{{cite book\| title2015 Clinical Policy Guidelines\| publisherNational Abortion Federation\| date2015\| urlhttp://prochoice.org/wp-content/uploads/2015_NAF_CPGs.pdf\| access-date30 October 2015\| quotePolicy Statement: Medical induction abortion is a safe and effective method for termination of pregnancies beyond the first trimester when performed by trained clinicians in medical offices, freestanding clinics, ambulatory surgery centers, and hospitals. Feticidal agents may be particularly important when issues of viability arise.\| url-statuslive\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150812220053/http://prochoice.org/wp-content/uploads/2015_NAF_CPGs.pdf\| archive-date12 August 2015}}</ref> Other methods Historically, a number of herbs reputed to possess abortifacient properties have been used in folk medicine. Such herbs include tansy, pennyroyal, black cohosh, and the now-extinct silphium.<ref name"riddle2">{{cite book \|lastRiddle \|firstJohn M \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/evesherbshistory0000ridd \|titleEve's herbs: a history of contraception and abortion in the West \|publisherHarvard University Press \|year1997 \|isbn978-0-674-27024-4 \|locationCambridge, MA \|oclc36126503 \|author-linkJohn M. Riddle \|url-accessregistration}}</ref>{{rp\|44–47, 62–63, 154–155, 230–231}} In 1978, one woman in Colorado died and another developed organ damage when they attempted to terminate their pregnancies by taking pennyroyal oil.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Sullivan JB, Rumack BH, Thomas H, Peterson RG, Bryson P \| title Pennyroyal oil poisoning and hepatotoxicity \| journal JAMA \| volume 242 \| issue 26 \| pages 2873–2874 \| date December 1979 \| pmid 513258 \| doi 10.1001/jama.1979.03300260043027 \| s2cid 26198529 }}</ref> Because the indiscriminant use of herbs as abortifacients can cause serious—even lethal—side effects, such as multiple organ failure,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Ciganda C, Laborde A \| title Herbal infusions used for induced abortion \| journal Journal of Toxicology. Clinical Toxicology \| volume 41 \| issue 3 \| pages 235–239 \| year 2003 \| pmid 12807304 \| doi 10.1081/CLT-120021104 \| s2cid 44851492 }}</ref> such use is not recommended by physicians. Abortion is sometimes attempted by causing trauma to the abdomen. The degree of force, if severe, can cause serious internal injuries without necessarily succeeding in inducing miscarriage.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Smith JP \| title Risky choices: the dangers of teens using self-induced abortion attempts \| journal Journal of Pediatric Health Care \| volume 12 \| issue 3 \| pages 147–151 \| year 1998 \| pmid 9652283 \| doi 10.1016/S0891-5245(98)90245-0 }}</ref> In Southeast Asia, there is an ancient tradition of attempting abortion through forceful abdominal massage.<ref name"potts">{{cite journal \| vauthors Potts M, Graff M, Taing J \| title Thousand-year-old depictions of massage abortion \| journal The Journal of Family Planning and Reproductive Health Care \| volume 33 \| issue 4 \| pages 233–234 \| date October 2007 \| pmid 17925100 \| doi 10.1783/147118907782101904 \| doi-access free \| author-link1 Malcolm Potts }}</ref> One of the bas reliefs decorating the temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia depicts a demon performing such an abortion upon a woman who has been sent to the underworld.<ref name"potts" /> Reported methods of unsafe, self-induced abortion include misuse of misoprostol and insertion of non-surgical implements such as knitting needles and clothes hangers into the uterus. These and other methods to terminate pregnancy may be called "induced miscarriage". Such methods are rarely used in countries where surgical abortion is legal and available.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Thapa SR, Rimal D, Preston J \| title Self induction of abortion with instrumentation \| journal Australian Family Physician \| volume 35 \| issue 9 \| pages 697–698 \| date September 2006 \| pmid 16969439 \| url http://www.racgp.org.au/afp/200609/11015 \| url-status live \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20090108181951/http://www.racgp.org.au/afp/200609/11015 \| archive-date 8 January 2009 }}</ref> {{clear}}<!-- The clr tag prevents the picture from running into the next section. Please keep it at the bottom of this section. --> Safety The health risks of abortion depend principally on how, and under what conditions, the procedure is performed. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines unsafe abortions as those performed by unskilled individuals, with hazardous equipment, or in unsanitary facilities.<ref name"who-unsafe-1992">{{cite web\| publisherWorld Health Organization \|titleThe Prevention and Management of Unsafe Abortion \|dateApril 1992\| access-date18 October 2017 \|urlhttp://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1992/WHO_MSM_92.5.pdf \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100530072310/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1992/WHO_MSM_92.5.pdf\| archive-date 30 May 2010 \| url-statuslive}}</ref> Legal abortions performed in the developed world are among the safest procedures in medicine.<ref name"lancet-grimes" >{{cite journal \| vauthors Grimes DA, Benson J, Singh S, Romero M, Ganatra B, Okonofua FE, Shah IH \| title Unsafe abortion: the preventable pandemic \| journal Lancet \| volume 368 \| issue 9550 \| pages 1908–1919 \| date November 25, 2006 \| pmid 17126724 \| doi 10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69481-6 \| url https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(06)69481-6/fulltext \| s2cid 6188636 \| url-access subscription \| access-date 8 June 2023 \| archive-date 3 April 2023 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20230403232414/https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(06)69481-6/fulltext \| url-status live }}</ref><ref name"grimes-overview">{{cite journal \| vauthors Grimes DA, Creinin MD \| title Induced abortion: an overview for internists \| journal Annals of Internal Medicine \| volume 140 \| issue 8 \| pages 620–626 \| date April 2004 \| pmid 15096333 \| doi 10.7326/0003-4819-140-8-200404200-00009 \| doi-access free \| citeseerx 10.1.1.694.3531 }}</ref> According to a 2012 study in Obstetrics & Gynecology, in the United States the risk of maternal mortality is 14 times lower after induced abortion than after childbirth.<ref nameGrimes2012>{{cite journal \| first1 Elizabeth G\| last1 Raymond\| last2 Grimes \|first2David A \| author-link2David Grimes (physician)\| title The comparative safety of legal induced abortion and childbirth in the United States \| journal Obstetrics & Gynecology \| volume 119 \| issue 2 Pt 1 \| pages 215–219 \| date February 2012 \| pmid 22270271 \| doi 10.1097/AOG.0b013e31823fe923 \| quote Conclusion: Legal induced abortion is markedly safer than childbirth. The risk of death associated with childbirth is approximately 14 times higher than that with abortion. Similarly, the overall morbidity associated with childbirth exceeds that with abortion. \| s2cid 25534071 }}</ref> The CDC estimated in 2019 that US pregnancy-related mortality was 17.2 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Petersen EE, Davis NL, Goodman D, Cox S, Mayes N, Johnston E, Syverson C, Seed K, Shapiro-Mendoza CK, Callaghan WM, Barfield W \| display-authors 6 \| title Vital Signs: Pregnancy-Related Deaths, United States, 2011–2015, and Strategies for Prevention, 13 States, 2013-2017 \| journal MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report \| volume 68 \| issue 18 \| pages 423–429 \| date May 2019 \| pmid 31071074 \| pmc 6542194 \| doi 10.15585/mmwr.mm6818e1 }}</ref> while the US abortion mortality rate was 0.43 maternal deaths per 100,000 procedures.<ref name"Ray2014">{{cite journal \| vauthors Raymond EG, Grossman D, Weaver MA, Toti S, Winikoff B \| title Mortality of induced abortion, other outpatient surgical procedures and common activities in the United States \| journal Contraception \| volume 90 \| issue 5 \| pages 476–479 \| date November 2014 \| pmid 25152259 \| doi 10.1016/j.contraception.2014.07.012 \| quote Results: The abortion-related mortality rate in 2000–2009 in the United States was 0.7 per 100,000 abortions. Studies in approximately the same years found mortality rates of 0.8-1.7 deaths per 100,000 plastic surgery procedures, 0-1.7 deaths per 100,000 dental procedures, 0.6-1.2 deaths per 100,000 marathons run and at least 4 deaths among 100,000 cyclists in a large annual bicycling event. The traffic fatality rate per 758 vehicle miles traveled by passenger cars in the United States in 2007-2011 was about equal to the abortion-related mortality rate. Conclusions: The safety of induced abortion as practiced in the United States for the past decade met or exceeded expectations for outpatient surgical procedures and compared favorably to that of two common nonmedical voluntary activities. }}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://www.nap.edu/read/24950/chapter/4\|titleRead "The Safety and Quality of Abortion Care in the United States" at NAP.edu\|doi10.17226/24950\|pmid29897702\|year2018\|isbn978-0-309-46818-3 \| author2 Health Medicine Division\| author1 National Academies of Sciences Engineering \|author3Board on Health Care Services\|author4Board on Population Health Public Health Practice\|author5Committee on Reproductive Health Services: Assessing the Safety Quality of Abortion Care in the U.S\|access-date26 May 2019\|archive-date24 July 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200724204509/https://www.nap.edu/read/24950/chapter/4\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref nameCDC_2022_AS>{{cite journal \|lastKortsmit \|firstKatherine \|date2022 \|titleAbortion Surveillance — United States, 2020 \|urlhttps://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/71/ss/ss7110a1.htm \|journalMMWR. Surveillance Summaries \|languageen-us \|volume71 \|issue10 \|pages1–27 \|doi10.15585/mmwr.ss7110a1 \|issn1546-0738 \|pmc9707346 \|pmid36417304 \|quoteThe national case-fatality rate for legal induced abortion for 2013–2019 was 0.43 deaths related to legal induced abortions per 100,000 reported legal abortions. This case-fatality rate was lower than the rates for the previous 5-year periods. \|access-date14 November 2023 \|archive-date15 November 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231115033902/https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/71/ss/ss7110a1.htm \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In the UK, guidelines of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists state that "Women should be advised that abortion is generally safer than continuing a pregnancy to term."<ref>{{cite journal\| vauthors Donnelly L \|titleAbortion is Safer than Having a Baby, Doctors Say\|journalThe Telegraph\|date26 February 2011}}</ref> Worldwide, on average, abortion is safer than carrying a pregnancy to term. A 2007 study reported that "26% of all pregnancies worldwide are terminated by induced abortion," whereas "deaths from improperly performed [abortion] procedures constitute 13% of maternal mortality globally."<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Dixon-Mueller R, Germain A \| title Fertility regulation and reproductive health in the Millennium Development Goals: the search for a perfect indicator \| journal American Journal of Public Health \| volume 97 \| issue 1 \| pages 45–51 \| date January 2007 \| pmid 16571693 \| pmc 1716248 \| doi 10.2105/AJPH.2005.068056 }}</ref> In Indonesia in 2000 it was estimated that 2 million pregnancies ended in abortion, 4.5 million pregnancies were carried to term, and 14–16 percent of maternal deaths resulted from abortion.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.guttmacher.org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/ib_abortion_indonesia_0.pdf \|titleAbortion in Indonesia \|publisherGuttmacher Institute \|year2008 \|access-date13 October 2019 \|archive-date7 June 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200607212421/https://www.guttmacher.org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/ib_abortion_indonesia_0.pdf \|url-status=live }}</ref> In the US from 2000 to 2009, abortion had a mortality rate lower than plastic surgery, lower or similar to running a marathon, and about equivalent to traveling {{convert\|760\|miles}} in a passenger car.{{ r \| Ray2014 }} Five years after seeking abortion services, women who gave birth after being denied an abortion reported worse health than women who had either first or second trimester abortions.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Ralph LJ, Schwarz EB, Grossman D, Foster DG \| title Self-reported Physical Health of Women Who Did and Did Not Terminate Pregnancy After Seeking Abortion Services: A Cohort Study \| journal Annals of Internal Medicine \| volume 171 \| issue 4 \| pages 238–247 \| date August 2019 \| pmid 31181576 \| doi 10.7326/M18-1666 \| s2cid 184482546 }}</ref> The risk of abortion-related mortality increases with gestational age, but remains lower than that of childbirth.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Raymond EG, Grimes DA \| title The comparative safety of legal induced abortion and childbirth in the United States \| journal Obstetrics and Gynecology \| volume 119 \| issue 2 Pt 1 \| pages 215–219 \| date February 2012 \| pmid 22270271 \| doi 10.1097/AOG.0b013e31823fe923 \| s2cid 25534071 }}</ref> Outpatient abortion is as safe from 64 to 70 days' gestation as it before 63 days.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Abbas D, Chong E, Raymond EG \| title Outpatient medical abortion is safe and effective through 70 days gestation \| journal Contraception \| volume 92 \| issue 3 \| pages 197–199 \| date September 2015 \| pmid 26118638 \| doi 10.1016/j.contraception.2015.06.018 }}</ref> Safety of abortion methods There is little difference in terms of safety and efficacy between medical abortion using a combined regimen of mifepristone and misoprostol and surgical abortion (vacuum aspiration) in early first trimester abortions up to 10 weeks gestation.<ref name"WHO FAQs 2006"/> Medical abortion using the prostaglandin analog misoprostol alone is less effective and more painful than medical abortion using a combined regimen of mifepristone and misoprostol or surgical abortion.<ref>{{cite web\| vauthors Grossman D\|date3 September 2004\|titleMedical methods for first trimester abortion: RHL commentary\|workReproductive Health Library\|locationGeneva\|publisherWorld Health Organization\|urlhttp://apps.who.int/rhl/fertility/abortion/dgcom/en/index.html\|access-date22 November 2011\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111028054620/http://apps.who.int/rhl/fertility/abortion/dgcom/en/index.html\|archive-date28 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|vauthorsChien P, Thomson M \|date15 December 2006\|titleMedical versus surgical methods for first trimester termination of pregnancy: RHL commentary\|workReproductive Health Library\|locationGeneva\|publisherWorld Health Organization\|urlhttp://apps.who.int/rhl/fertility/abortion/pccom/en/index.html \|access-date1 June 2010\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20100517201143/http://apps.who.int/rhl/fertility/abortion/pccom/en/index.html\| archive-date17 May 2010 \| url-status dead}}</ref> Safety and gestational age Vacuum aspiration in the first trimester is the safest method of surgical abortion, and can be performed in a primary care office, abortion clinic, or hospital. Complications, which are rare, can include uterine perforation, pelvic infection, and retained products of conception requiring a second procedure to evacuate.<ref name"arch-fam-practice">{{cite journal \| vauthors Westfall JM, Sophocles A, Burggraf H, Ellis S \| title Manual vacuum aspiration for first-trimester abortion \| journal Archives of Family Medicine \| volume 7 \| issue 6 \| pages 559–562 \| year 1998 \| pmid 9821831 \| doi 10.1001/archfami.7.6.559 \| url http://archfami.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/7/6/559 \| url-status dead \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20050405202853/http://archfami.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/7/6/559 \| archive-date 5 April 2005 \| url-access subscription }}</ref> Infections account for one-third of abortion-related deaths in the United States.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Dempsey A \| title Serious infection associated with induced abortion in the United States \| journal Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology \| volume 55 \| issue 4 \| pages 888–892 \| date December 2012 \| pmid 23090457 \| doi 10.1097/GRF.0b013e31826fd8f8 }}</ref> The rate of complications of vacuum aspiration abortion in the first trimester is similar regardless of whether the procedure is performed in a hospital, surgical center, or office.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors White K, Carroll E, Grossman D \| title Complications from first-trimester aspiration abortion: a systematic review of the literature \| journal Contraception \| volume 92 \| issue 5 \| pages 422–438 \| date November 2015 \| pmid 26238336 \| doi 10.1016/j.contraception.2015.07.013 }}</ref> Preventive antibiotics (such as doxycycline or metronidazole) are typically given before abortion procedures,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors \| title ACOG practice bulletin No. 104: antibiotic prophylaxis for gynecologic procedures \| journal Obstetrics and Gynecology \| volume 113 \| issue 5 \| pages 1180–1189 \| date May 2009 \| pmid 19384149 \| doi 10.1097/AOG.0b013e3181a6d011 \| doi-access }}</ref> as they are believed to substantially reduce the risk of postoperative uterine infection;<ref name"NEJMDec2011" /><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Sawaya GF, Grady D, Kerlikowske K, Grimes DA \| title Antibiotics at the time of induced abortion: the case for universal prophylaxis based on a meta-analysis \| journal Obstetrics and Gynecology \| volume 87 \| issue 5 Pt 2 \| pages 884–890 \| date May 1996 \| pmid 8677129 }}</ref> however, antibiotics are not routinely given with abortion pills.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Achilles SL, Reeves MF \| title Prevention of infection after induced abortion: release date October 2010: SFP guideline 20102 \| journal Contraception \| volume 83 \| issue 4 \| pages 295–309 \| date April 2011 \| pmid 21397086 \| doi 10.1016/j.contraception.2010.11.006 \| doi-access free }}</ref> The rate of failed procedures does not appear to vary significantly depending on whether the abortion is performed by a doctor or a mid-level practitioner.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Barnard S, Kim C, Park MH, Ngo TD \| title Doctors or mid-level providers for abortion \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| volume 2015 \| issue 7 \| pages CD011242 \| date July 2015 \| pmid 26214844 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD011242.pub2 \| pmc 9188302 \| url https://researchonline.lshtm.ac.uk/2274695/1/Doctors%20or%20mid-level%20providers%20for%20abortion_GREEN%20VoR.pdf \| access-date 24 November 2019 \| archive-date 27 August 2021 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210827202229/https://researchonline.lshtm.ac.uk/id/eprint/2274695/1/Doctors \| url-status = live }}</ref> Complications after second trimester abortion are similar to those after first trimester abortion, and depend somewhat on the method chosen.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Lerma K, Shaw KA \| title Update on second trimester medical abortion \| journal Current Opinion in Obstetrics & Gynecology \| volume 29 \| issue 6 \| pages 413–418 \| date December 2017 \| pmid 28922193 \| doi 10.1097/GCO.0000000000000409 \| quote Second trimester surgical abortion is well tolerated and increasingly expeditious \| s2cid 12459747 }}</ref> The risk of death from abortion approaches roughly half the risk of death from childbirth the farther along a woman is in pregnancy; from one in a million before 9 weeks gestation to nearly one in ten thousand at 21 weeks or more (as measured from the last menstrual period).<ref>{{cite journal \| collaboration Committee on Practice Bulletins-Gynecology \| vauthors Steinauer J, Jackson A, Grossman D \|titleSecond-trimester abortion. Practice Bulletin No. 135. \|journalAmerican College of Obstetrics & Gynecology - Practice Bulletins \|dateJune 2013 \|urlhttps://www.acog.org/Clinical-Guidance-and-Publications/Practice-Bulletins/Committee-on-Practice-Bulletins-Gynecology/Second-Trimester-Abortion \|access-date4 December 2019 \|quoteThe mortality rate associated with abortion is low (0.6 per 100,000 legal, induced abortions), and the risk of death associated with childbirth is approximately 14 times higher than that with abortion. Abortion-related mortality increases with each week of gestation, with a rate of 0.1 per 100,000 procedures at 8 weeks of gestation or less, and 8.9 per 100,000 procedures at 21 weeks of gestation or greater. \|archive-date24 December 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191224111109/https://www.acog.org/Clinical-Guidance-and-Publications/Practice-Bulletins/Committee-on-Practice-Bulletins-Gynecology/Second-Trimester-Abortion \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref nameBartlett2004>{{cite journal \| vauthors Bartlett LA, Berg CJ, Shulman HB, Zane SB, Green CA, Whitehead S, Atrash HK \| title Risk factors for legal induced abortion-related mortality in the United States \| journal Obstetrics and Gynecology \| volume 103 \| issue 4 \| pages 729–737 \| date April 2004 \| pmid 15051566 \| doi 10.1097/01.AOG.0000116260.81570.60 \| quote The risk factor that continues to be most strongly associated with mortality from legal abortion is gestational age at the time of the abortion \| s2cid 42597014 \| doi-access free }}</ref> It appears that having had a prior surgical uterine evacuation (whether because of induced abortion or treatment of miscarriage) correlates with a small increase in the risk of preterm birth in future pregnancies. The studies supporting this did not control for factors not related to abortion or miscarriage, and hence the causes of this correlation have not been determined, although multiple possibilities have been suggested.<ref nameSaccone2016>{{cite journal \| vauthors Saccone G, Perriera L, Berghella V \| title Prior uterine evacuation of pregnancy as independent risk factor for preterm birth: a systematic review and metaanalysis \| journal American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology \| volume 214 \| issue 5 \| pages 572–591 \| date May 2016 \| pmid 26743506 \| doi 10.1016/j.ajog.2015.12.044 \| url https://www.iris.unina.it/retrieve/handle/11588/697884/158333/25%20Abortion%20PTB%20-%20AJOG%20-%20SACCONE.pdf \| access-date 27 June 2020 \| url-status live \| quote Prior surgical uterine evacuation for either I-TOP[induced termination of pregnancy] or SAB[spontaneous abortion, - also known as miscarriage] is an independent risk factor for PTB[pre-term birth]. These data warrant caution in the use of surgical uterine evacuation and should encourage safer surgical techniques as well as medical methods. \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210827202228/https://www.iris.unina.it/retrieve/handle/11588/697884/158333/25%20Abortion%20PTB%20-%20AJOG%20-%20SACCONE.pdf \| archive-date 27 August 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Averbach SH, Seidman D, Steinauer J, Darney P \| title Re: Prior uterine evacuation of pregnancy as independent risk factor for preterm birth: a systematic review and metaanalysis \| journal American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology \| volume 216 \| issue 1 \| page 87 \| date January 2017 \| pmid 27596618 \| doi 10.1016/j.ajog.2016.08.038 \| url https://www.ajog.org/article/S0002-9378(16)30650-0/fulltext \| access-date 28 June 2020 \| url-status live \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210827202230/https://www.ajog.org/article/S0002-9378%2816%2930650-0/fulltext \| archive-date 27 August 2021 \| doi-access \| url-access subscription }}</ref>Mental health {{Main\|Abortion and mental health}} Current evidence finds no relationship between most induced abortions and mental health problems<ref nameBMJ2014/><ref nameHor2017>{{cite journal \| vauthors Horvath S, Schreiber CA \| title Unintended Pregnancy, Induced Abortion, and Mental Health \| journal Current Psychiatry Reports \| volume 19 \| issue 11 \| page 77 \| date September 2017 \| pmid 28905259 \| doi 10.1007/s11920-017-0832-4 \| s2cid 4769393 }}</ref> other than those expected for any unwanted pregnancy.<ref name"apa-press"/> A report by the American Psychological Association concluded that a woman's first abortion is not a threat to mental health when carried out in the first trimester, with such women no more likely to have mental-health problems than those carrying an unwanted pregnancy to term; the mental-health outcome of a woman's second or greater abortion is less certain.<ref name"apa-press">{{cite press release \|publisherAmerican Psychological Association \|titleAPA Task Force Finds Single Abortion Not a Threat to Women's Mental Health \|date12 August 2008 \|access-date7 September 2011 \|urlhttp://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2008/08/single-abortion.aspx \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110906022824/http://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2008/08/single-abortion.aspx \|archive-date6 September 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.apa.org/pi/women/programs/abortion/mental-health.pdf \|titleReport of the APA Task Force on Mental Health and Abortion \|publisherAmerican Psychological Association\|locationWashington, DC \|date13 August 2008 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100615020211/http://apa.org/pi/women/programs/abortion/mental-health.pdf \|archive-date15 June 2010 }}</ref> Some older reviews concluded that abortion was associated with an increased risk of psychological problems;<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Coleman PK \| title Abortion and mental health: quantitative synthesis and analysis of research published 1995-2009 \| journal The British Journal of Psychiatry \| volume 199 \| issue 3 \| pages 180–186 \| date September 2011 \| pmid 21881096 \| doi 10.1192/bjp.bp.110.077230 \| doi-access free }}</ref> however, later reviews of the medical literature found that previous reviews did not use an appropriate control group.<ref nameHor2017/> When a control group is utilized, receiving abortion is not associated with adverse psychological outcomes.<ref nameHor2017/> However, women seeking abortion who are denied access to abortion have an increase in anxiety after the denial.<ref name=Hor2017/> Although some studies show negative mental-health outcomes in women who choose abortions after the first trimester because of fetal abnormalities,<ref name"apa-2008">{{cite web \|titleMental Health and Abortion \|urlhttp://www.apa.org/pi/women/programs/abortion/index.aspx \|publisherAmerican Psychological Association \|year2008 \|access-date18 April 2012 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120419174044/http://www.apa.org/pi/women/programs/abortion/index.aspx \|archive-date19 April 2012}}</ref> more rigorous research would be needed to show this conclusively.<ref name"Steinberg2011">{{cite journal \|vauthorsSteinberg JR \|titleLater abortions and mental health: psychological experiences of women having later abortions--a critical review of research \| journal Women's Health Issues \|volume21 \|issue3 Suppl \|pagesS44–S48 \|year2011 \|pmid21530839 \|doi10.1016/j.whi.2011.02.002}}</ref> Some proposed negative psychological effects of abortion have been referred to by anti-abortion advocates as a separate condition called "post-abortion syndrome", but this is not recognized by medical or psychological professionals in the United States.<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthorsKelly K \|titleThe spread of 'Post Abortion Syndrome' as social diagnosis \|journalSocial Science & Medicine \|volume102 \|pages18–25 \|dateFebruary 2014 \|pmid24565137 \|doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.11.030}}</ref> A 2020 long term-study among US women found that about 99% of women felt that they made the right decision five years after they had an abortion. Relief was the primary emotion with few women feeling sadness or guilt. Social stigma was a main factor predicting negative emotions and regret years later. The researchers also stated: "These results add to the scientific evidence that emotions about an abortion are associated with personal and social context, and are not a product of the abortion procedure itself."<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Rocca CH, Samari G, Foster DG, Gould H, Kimport K \| title Emotions and decision rightness over five years following an abortion: An examination of decision difficulty and abortion stigma \| journal Social Science & Medicine \| volume 248 \| page 112704 \| date March 2020 \| pmid 31941577 \| doi 10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112704 \| doi-access free \| quoteWe found no evidence of emerging negative emotions or abortion decision regret; both positive and negative emotions declined over the first two years and plateaued thereafter, and decision rightness remained high and steady (predicted percent: 97.5% at baseline, 99.0% at five years). At five years postabortion, relief remained the most commonly felt emotion among all women (predicted mean on 0-4 scale: 1.0; 0.6 for sadness and guilt; 0.4 for regret, anger and happiness). Despite converging levels of emotions by decision difficulty and stigma level over time, these two factors remained most important for predicting negative emotions and decision non-rightness years later. }}</ref> Safety in the abortion debate Some purported risks of abortion are promoted primarily by anti-abortion groups,<ref name"JASEN"/><ref nameCancer_Linacre>{{cite journal \| vauthors Schneider AP, Zainer CM, Kubat CK, Mullen NK, Windisch AK \| title The breast cancer epidemic: 10 facts \| journal The Linacre Quarterly \| volume 81 \| issue 3 \| pages 244–277 \| date August 2014 \| pmid 25249706 \| pmc 4135458 \| doi 10.1179/2050854914Y.0000000027 \| publisher Catholic Medical Association \| quote an association between [induced abortion] and breast cancer has been found by numerous Western and non-Western researchers from around the world. This is especially true in more recent reports that allow for a sufficient breast cancer latency period since an adoption of a Western life style in sexual and reproductive behavior. \| doi-access = free }}</ref> but lack scientific support.<ref name"JASEN">{{cite journal \| vauthors Jasen P \| title Breast cancer and the politics of abortion in the United States \| journal Medical History \| volume 49 \| issue 4 \| pages 423–444 \| date October 2005 \| pmid 16562329 \| pmc 1251638 \| doi = 10.1017/S0025727300009145 }}</ref> For example, the question of a link between induced abortion and breast cancer has been investigated extensively. Major medical and scientific bodies (including the WHO, National Cancer Institute, American Cancer Society, Royal College of OBGYN and American Congress of OBGYN) have concluded that abortion does not cause breast cancer.<ref>Position statements of major medical bodies on abortion and breast cancer include: * World Health Organization: {{cite web\|urlhttps://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs240/en/ \|titleInduced abortion does not increase breast cancer risk (Fact sheet N°240) \|publisherWorld Health Organization \|access-date6 January 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110213141046/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs240/en/ \|archive-date13 February 2011 }} * National Cancer Institute: {{cite web\|urlhttp://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/risk/abortion-miscarriage \|titleAbortion, Miscarriage, and Breast Cancer Risk \|publisherNational Cancer Institute \|access-date11 January 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101221084337/http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/abortion-miscarriage \|archive-date21 December 2010 \|url-statuslive \|date20 February 2003 }} * American Cancer Society: {{cite web\|urlhttp://www.cancer.org/Cancer/BreastCancer/MoreInformation/is-abortion-linked-to-breast-cancer \|publisherAmerican Cancer Society\|date23 September 2010 \|access-date20 June 2011 \|titleIs Abortion Linked to Breast Cancer? \|quoteAt this time, the scientific evidence does not support the notion that abortion of any kind raises the risk of breast cancer. \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110605204701/http://www.cancer.org/Cancer/BreastCancer/MoreInformation/is-abortion-linked-to-breast-cancer \|archive-date5 June 2011 \|url-status=live }} * Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists: {{cite web\|urlhttp://www.rcog.org.uk/files/rcog-corp/uploaded-files/NEBAbortionSummary.pdf \|titleThe Care of Women Requesting Induced Abortion \|page9 \|publisherRoyal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists \|access-date29 June 2008 \|quoteInduced abortion is not associated with an increase in breast cancer risk. \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130727105037/http://www.rcog.org.uk/files/rcog-corp/uploaded-files/NEBAbortionSummary.pdf \|archive-date=27 July 2013 }} * American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists: {{cite web\|urlhttp://www.acog.org/from_home/publications/press_releases/nr07-31-03-2.cfm \|titleACOG Finds No Link Between Abortion and Breast Cancer Risk \|date31 July 2003 \|publisherAmerican Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists \|access-date11 January 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110102030744/http://www.acog.org/from_home/publications/press_releases/nr07-31-03-2.cfm \|archive-date2 January 2011 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> In the past even illegality has not automatically meant that the abortions were unsafe. Referring to the U.S., historian Linda Gordon states: "In fact, illegal abortions in this country have an impressive safety record."<ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Gordon L \| title The Moral Property of Women \| publisher University of Illinois Press \| year 2002 \| isbn = 0-252-02764-7 }}</ref>{{rp\|25\|}} According to Rickie Solinger, {{Blockquote\| A related myth, promulgated by a broad spectrum of people concerned about abortion and public policy, is that before legalization abortionists were dirty and dangerous back-alley butchers.... [T]he historical evidence does not support such claims.<ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Solinger R \| chapter Introduction \| veditors Solinger R \| title Abortion Wars: A Half Century of Struggle, 1950–2000 \| pages [https://archive.org/details/abortionwarshalf0000soli/page/1 1–9] \| publisher University of California Press \| year 1998 \| isbn 978-0-520-20952-7 \| url = https://archive.org/details/abortionwarshalf0000soli/page/1 }}</ref>{{rp\|4}} }} A 1940s American physician spoke of his pride in having performed 13,844 illegal abortions without any fatalities.<ref>{{cite book \| last1 Bates \| first1 Jerome E \| last2 Zawadzki \| first2 Edward S \| title Criminal Abortion: A Study in Medical Sociology \| publisher Charles C. Thomas \| year 1964 \| isbn 978-0-398-00109-4 \|oclc 299149\| page 59\| quote = In my practice I average three operations a day. By working a six day week, I complete approximately eighteen operations in this time. This amounts to seventy-two operations a month. In my sixteen years of specializing, I have successfully performed about 13,844 abortions.<br/> This was without the loss of the life of a single one of my patients. I feel those figures are something of which to be proud. I feel—I’m sure—that the work I have been engaged in these past years has been a contribution to Society and has helped to straighten out the messed up lives of many people.}}</ref> In 1870s New York City, the abortionist/midwife Madame Restell (Anna Trow Lohman) is said to have lost very few women among her more than 100,000 patients<ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Keller A \| title Scandalous Lady: The Life and Times of Madame Restell \| publisher Atheneum \| year 1981 \| isbn = 978-0-689-11213-3 }}</ref>—a lower mortality rate than the childbirth mortality rate at the time. In 1936, obstetrics and gynecology professor Frederick J. Taussig wrote that a cause of increasing mortality during the years of illegality in the U.S. was that {{Blockquote\|With each decade of the past fifty years the actual and proportionate frequency of this accident [perforation of the uterus] has increased, due, first, to the increase in the number of instrumentally induced abortions; second, to the proportionate increase in abortions handled by doctors as against those handled by midwives; and, third, to the prevailing tendency to use instruments instead of the finger in emptying the uterus.<ref>{{cite book \| last Taussig \| first Frederick J. \| author-link Frederick J. Taussig \| title Abortion Spontaneous and Induced: Medical and Social Aspects \| publisher C.V. Mosby \| year 1936 \|location St. Louis \| page 223 \|url https://archive.org/details/b29818394/page/223/mode/1up \| oclc 1041029321 }}</ref> }} Unsafe abortion {{Main\|Unsafe abortion}} Women seeking an abortion may use unsafe methods, especially when abortion is legally restricted. They may attempt self-induced abortion or seek the help of a person without proper medical training or facilities. This can lead to severe complications, such as incomplete abortion, sepsis, hemorrhage, and damage to internal organs.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Okonofua F \| title Abortion and maternal mortality in the developing world \| journal Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada \| volume 28 \| issue 11 \| pages 974–979 \| date November 2006 \| pmid 17169222 \| doi 10.1016/S1701-2163(16)32307-6 \| url http://www.jogc.org/abstracts/full/200611_WomensHealth_1.pdf \| url-status dead \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20120111121431/http://www.jogc.org/abstracts/full/200611_WomensHealth_1.pdf \| archive-date = 11 January 2012 }}</ref> Unsafe abortions are a major cause of injury and death among women worldwide. Although data are imprecise, it is estimated that approximately 20 million unsafe abortions are performed annually, with 97% taking place in developing countries.<ref name"lancet-grimes"/> Unsafe abortions are believed to result in millions of injuries.<ref name"lancet-grimes"/><ref name"Haddad-2009">{{cite journal \| vauthors Haddad LB, Nour NM \| title Unsafe abortion: unnecessary maternal mortality \| journal Reviews in Obstetrics & Gynecology \| volume 2 \| issue 2 \| pages 122–126 \| year 2009 \| pmid 19609407 \| pmc 2709326 }}</ref> Estimates of deaths vary according to methodology, and have ranged from 37,000 to 70,000 in the past decade;<ref name"lancet-grimes"/><ref name"OBGY09">{{cite journal \|vauthorsShah I, Ahman E \|dateDecember 2009 \|titleUnsafe abortion: global and regional incidence, trends, consequences, and challenges \|urlhttp://www.sogc.org/jogc/abstracts/full/200912_WomensHealth_1.pdf \|url-statusdead \|journalJournal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada \|volume31 \|issue12 \|pages1149–1158 \|doi10.1016/s1701-2163(16)34376-6 \|pmid20085681 \|s2cid35742951 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110716212405/http://www.sogc.org/jogc/abstracts/full/200912_WomensHealth_1.pdf \|archive-date16 July 2011}}</ref><ref nameLoz2012>{{cite journal \| vauthors Lozano R, Naghavi M, Foreman K, Lim S, Shibuya K, Aboyans V, Abraham J, Adair T, Aggarwal R, Ahn SY, Alvarado M, Anderson HR, Anderson LM, Andrews KG, Atkinson C, Baddour LM, Barker-Collo S, Bartels DH, Bell ML, Benjamin EJ, Bennett D, Bhalla K, Bikbov B, Bin Abdulhak A, Birbeck G, Blyth F, Bolliger I, Boufous S, Bucello C, Burch M, Burney P, Carapetis J, Chen H, Chou D, Chugh SS, Coffeng LE, Colan SD, Colquhoun S, Colson KE, Condon J, Connor MD, Cooper LT, Corriere M, Cortinovis M, de Vaccaro KC, Couser W, Cowie BC, Criqui MH, Cross M, Dabhadkar KC, Dahodwala N, De Leo D, Degenhardt L, Delossantos A, Denenberg J, Des Jarlais DC, Dharmaratne SD, Dorsey ER, Driscoll T, Duber H, Ebel B, Erwin PJ, Espindola P, Ezzati M, Feigin V, Flaxman AD, Forouzanfar MH, Fowkes FG, Franklin R, Fransen M, Freeman MK, Gabriel SE, Gakidou E, Gaspari F, Gillum RF, Gonzalez-Medina D, Halasa YA, Haring D, Harrison JE, Havmoeller R, Hay RJ, Hoen B, Hotez PJ, Hoy D, Jacobsen KH, James SL, Jasrasaria R, Jayaraman S, Johns N, Karthikeyan G, Kassebaum N, Keren A, Khoo JP, Knowlton LM, Kobusingye O, Koranteng A, Krishnamurthi R, Lipnick M, Lipshultz SE, Ohno SL, Mabweijano J, MacIntyre MF, Mallinger L, March L, Marks GB, Marks R, Matsumori A, Matzopoulos R, Mayosi BM, McAnulty JH, McDermott MM, McGrath J, Mensah GA, Merriman TR, Michaud C, Miller M, Miller TR, Mock C, Mocumbi AO, Mokdad AA, Moran A, Mulholland K, Nair MN, Naldi L, Narayan KM, Nasseri K, Norman P, O'Donnell M, Omer SB, Ortblad K, Osborne R, Ozgediz D, Pahari B, Pandian JD, Rivero AP, Padilla RP, Perez-Ruiz F, Perico N, Phillips D, Pierce K, Pope CA, Porrini E, Pourmalek F, Raju M, Ranganathan D, Rehm JT, Rein DB, Remuzzi G, Rivara FP, Roberts T, De León FR, Rosenfeld LC, Rushton L, Sacco RL, Salomon JA, Sampson U, Sanman E, Schwebel DC, Segui-Gomez M, Shepard DS, Singh D, Singleton J, Sliwa K, Smith E, Steer A, Taylor JA, Thomas B, Tleyjeh IM, Towbin JA, Truelsen T, Undurraga EA, Venketasubramanian N, Vijayakumar L, Vos T, Wagner GR, Wang M, Wang W, Watt K, Weinstock MA, Weintraub R, Wilkinson JD, Woolf AD, Wulf S, Yeh PH, Yip P, Zabetian A, Zheng ZJ, Lopez AD, Murray CJ, AlMazroa MA, Memish ZA \| display-authors 6 \| title Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 \| journal Lancet \| volume 380 \| issue 9859 \| pages 2095–2128 \| date December 2012 \| pmid 23245604 \| doi 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61728-0 \| pmc 10790329 \| url https://zenodo.org/record/2557786 \| access-date 14 March 2020 \| url-status live \| hdl-access free \| s2cid 1541253 \| archive-date 19 May 2020 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20200519152712/https://zenodo.org/record/2557786 \| hdl 10536/DRO/DU:30050819 }}</ref> deaths from unsafe abortion account for around 13% of all maternal deaths.<ref>{{cite book\| vauthors Speroff L, Darney PD \|titleA clinical guide for contraception\|year2010\|publisherLippincott Williams & Wilkins\|locationPhiladelphia\|isbn978-1-60831-610-6\|page406\|edition5th }}</ref> The World Health Organization believes that mortality has fallen since the 1990s.<ref name"WHO2011">{{cite book \|lastWorld Health Organisation \|titleUnsafe abortion: global and regional estimates of the incidence of unsafe abortion and associated mortality in 2008 \|publisherWorld Health Organisation \|year2011 \|edition6th \|page27 \|isbn978-92-4-150111-8 \|urlhttp://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2011/9789241501118_eng.pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140328093307/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2011/9789241501118_eng.pdf \|archive-date28 March 2014}}</ref> To reduce the number of unsafe abortions, public health organizations have generally advocated emphasizing the legalization of abortion, training of medical personnel, and ensuring access to reproductive-health services.<ref name"berer-who">{{cite journal \|vauthorsBerer M \| titleMaking abortions safe: a matter of good public health policy and practice \|journalBulletin of the World Health Organization \|volume78 \|issue5 \|pages580–592 \|year2000 \|pmid10859852 \|pmc2560758}}</ref> A major factor in whether abortions are performed safely or not is the legal standing of abortion. Countries with restrictive abortion laws have higher rates of unsafe abortion and similar overall abortion rates compared to countries where abortion is legal and available.<ref name"OBGY09"/><ref name"Sedgh 2012"/> For example, the 1996 legalization of abortion in South Africa led to an immediate reduction in abortion-related complications,<ref name"jewkes">{{cite journal \|vauthorsJewkes R, Rees H, Dickson K, Brown H, Levin J \|titleThe impact of age on the epidemiology of incomplete abortions in South Africa after legislative change \|journalBJOG \|volume112 \|issue3 \|pages355–359 \|dateMarch 2005 \|pmid15713153 \|doi10.1111/j.1471-0528.2004.00422.x \|s2cid41663939 \|doi-access}}</ref> with abortion-related deaths dropping by more than 90%.<ref name"bateman-samj">{{cite journal \|vauthorsBateman C \|titleMaternal mortalities 90% down as legal TOPs more than triple \|journalSouth African Medical Journal Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Geneeskunde \|volume97 \|issue12 \|pages1238–1242 \|dateDecember 2007 \|pmid18264602 \|urlhttp://samj.org.za/index.php/samj/article/view/642 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170830200316/http://samj.org.za/index.php/samj/article/view/642 \|archive-date30 August 2017}}</ref> Similar reductions in maternal mortality have been observed after other countries have liberalized their abortion laws, such as Romania and Nepal.<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthorsConti JA, Brant AR, Shumaker HD, Reeves MF \|titleUpdate on abortion policy \|journalCurrent Opinion in Obstetrics & Gynecology \|volume28 \|issue6 \|pages517–521 \|dateDecember 2016 \|pmid27805969 \|doi10.1097/GCO.0000000000000324 \|s2cid26052790}}</ref> A 2011 study concluded that in the United States, some state-level anti-abortion laws are correlated with lower rates of abortion in that state.<ref>{{cite journal\| vauthorsNew MJ \|s2cid53314166\|titleAnalyzing the Effect of Anti-Abortion U.S. State Legislation in the Post-Casey Era \|journalState Politics & Policy Quarterly\|date15 February 2011\|volume11\|issue1\|pages28–47\|doi10.1177/1532440010387397}}</ref> The analysis, however, did not take into account travel to other states without such laws to obtain an abortion.<ref>{{cite journal\| vauthors Medoff MH, Dennis C \|titleAnother Critical Review of New's Reanalysis of the Impact of Antiabortion Legislation\|journalState Politics & Policy Quarterly\|date21 July 2014 \|volume14\|issue3\|pages269–76\|doi10.1177/1532440014535476\|s2cid155464018}}</ref> In addition, a lack of access to effective contraception contributes to unsafe abortion. It has been estimated that the incidence of unsafe abortion could be reduced by up to 75% (from 20 million to 5 million annually) if modern family planning and maternal health services were readily available globally.<ref name"Singh">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/FB-AIU-summary.pdf \|titleFacts on Investing in Family Planning and Maternal and Newborn Health \|publisherGuttmacher Institute\|year2010 \|access-date24 May 2012 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120324101905/http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/FB-AIU-summary.pdf \|archive-date24 March 2012 }}</ref> Rates of such abortions may be difficult to measure because they can be reported variously as miscarriage, "induced miscarriage", "menstrual regulation", "mini-abortion", and "regulation of a delayed/suspended menstruation".<ref name"lancet-grimes"/><ref nameBrazil_Unsafe>{{cite journal \|vauthorsNations MK, Misago C, Fonseca W, Correia LL, Campbell OM \|titleWomen's hidden transcripts about abortion in Brazil \|journalSocial Science & Medicine \|volume44 \|issue12 \|pages1833–1845 \|dateJune 1997 \|pmid9194245 \|doi10.1016/s0277-9536(96)00293-6}}</ref> Forty percent of the world's women are able to access therapeutic and elective abortions within gestational limits,<ref name"IJGO10"/> while an additional 35 percent have access to legal abortion if they meet certain physical, mental, or socioeconomic criteria.<ref name"Dev98-07"/> While maternal mortality seldom results from safe abortions, unsafe abortions result in 70,000 deaths and 5 million disabilities per year.<ref nameOBGY09/> Complications of unsafe abortion account for approximately an eighth of maternal mortalities worldwide,<ref name"Maclean">{{cite book\| vauthorsMaclean G \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idu4Aeiu2eDMAC&pgPA299\|chapterXI. Dimension, Dynamics and Diversity: A 3D Approach to Appraising Global Maternal and Neonatal Health Initiatives \|pages299–300\|titleTrends in Midwifery Research\| veditorsBalin RE \|publisherNova Publishers\|year2005\|isbn978-1-59454-477-4\|url-statuslive\|archive-date15 March 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150315113348/http://books.google.com/books?idu4Aeiu2eDMAC&pgPA299}}</ref> though this varies by region.<ref>{{cite journal\| vauthorsSalter C, Johnson HB, Hengen N \|year1997 \|urlhttp://info.k4health.org/pr/l10edsum.shtml \|titleCare for Postabortion Complications: Saving Women's Lives \|journalPopulation Reports \|volume25 \|issue1 \|publisherJohns Hopkins School of Public Health \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091207070103/http://info.k4health.org/pr/l10edsum.shtml \|archive-date7 December 2009}}</ref> Secondary infertility caused by an unsafe abortion affects an estimated 24 million women.<ref name"WHO-unsafe-2007">{{cite web \|year2007 \|titleUnsafe abortion: Global and regional estimates of the incidence of unsafe abortion and associated mortality in 2003 \|urlhttp://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2007/9789241596121_eng.pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110216141018/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2007/9789241596121_eng.pdf \|archive-date16 February 2011 \|access-date7 March 2011 \|publisherWorld Health Organization}}</ref> The rate of unsafe abortions has increased from 44% to 49% between 1995 and 2008.<ref name"Sedgh 2012" /> Health education, access to family planning, and improvements in health care during and after abortion have been proposed to address consequences of unsafe abortion.<ref>{{cite web\|titlePackages of interventions: Family planning, safe abortion care, maternal, newborn and child health\|author1UNICEF \|author2UNFPA \|author3WHO \|author4World Bank\|year2010\|access-date31 December 2010\|url-statusdead\|url https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/maternal_perinatal_health/fch_10_06/en/index.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101109224916/http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/maternal_perinatal_health/fch_10_06/en/index.html\|archive-date9 November 2010}}</ref> Incidence There are two commonly used methods of measuring the incidence of abortion: * Abortion rate&nbsp;– number of abortions annually per 1,000 women between 15 and 44 years of age;<ref>{{cite web\| title Facts on Induced Abortion Worldwide\| date January 2012\| publisher World Health Organization\| url https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/unsafe_abortion/induced_abortion_2012.pdf\| access-date 9 May 2021\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210309200507/http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/unsafe_abortion/induced_abortion_2012.pdf\| archive-date 9 March 2021\| url-status live}}</ref> some sources use a range of 15–49. * Abortion percentage&nbsp;– number of abortions out of 100 known pregnancies; pregnancies include live births, abortions, and miscarriages. In many places, where abortion is illegal or carries a heavy social stigma, medical reporting of abortion is not reliable.<ref name"Sedgh 2007">{{cite journal \|vauthorsSedgh G, Henshaw S, Singh S, Ahman E, Shah IH \|dateOctober 2007 \|titleInduced abortion: estimated rates and trends worldwide \|journalLancet \|volume370 \|issue9595 \|pages1338–1345 \|citeseerx10.1.1.454.4197 \|doi10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61575-X \|pmid17933648 \|s2cid28458527}}</ref> For this reason, estimates of the incidence of abortion must be made without determining certainty related to standard error.<ref name"Sedgh 2012" /> The number of abortions performed worldwide was characterized as stable in the early 2000s, with 41.6&nbsp;million having been performed in 2003 and 43.8&nbsp;million having been performed in 2008.<ref name"Sedgh 2012" /> The abortion rate worldwide was 28 per 1000 women per year, though it was 24 per 1000 women per year for developed countries and 29 per 1000 women per year for developing countries.<ref name"Sedgh 2012" /> The same 2012 study indicated that in 2008, the estimated abortion percentage of known pregnancies was at 21% worldwide, with 26% in developed countries and 20% in developing countries.<ref name"Sedgh 2012" /> On average, the incidence of abortion is similar in countries with restrictive abortion laws and those with more liberal access to abortion.<ref name"nytimes-abortion-rates"/> Restrictive abortion laws are associated with increases in the percentage of abortions performed unsafely.<ref nameIJGO10/><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Shah I, Ahman E \| title Unsafe abortion: global and regional incidence, trends, consequences, and challenges \| journal Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada \| volume 31 \| issue 12 \| pages 1149–1158 \| date December 2009 \| pmid 20085681 \| doi 10.1016/s1701-2163(16)34376-6 \| s2cid 35742951 \| quote However, a woman's chance of having an abortion is similar whether she lives in a developed or a developing region: in 2003 the rates were 26 abortions per 1,000 women aged 15 to 44 in developed areas and 29 per 1,000 in developing areas. The main difference is in safety, with abortion being safe and easily accessible in developed countries and generally restricted and unsafe in most developing countries. }}</ref><ref name"nytimes-abortion-rates">{{cite news\| vauthors Rosenthal E \|url https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/12/world/12abortion.html \|titleLegal or Not, Abortion Rates Compare\|newspaperThe New York Times\|date12 October 2007\|access-date18 July 2011\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110828173628/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/12/world/12abortion.html\|archive-date28 August 2011}}</ref> The unsafe abortion rate in developing countries is partly attributable to lack of access to modern contraceptives; according to the Guttmacher Institute, providing access to contraceptives would result in about 14.5 million fewer unsafe abortions and 38,000 fewer deaths from unsafe abortion annually worldwide.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/FB-AIU-summary.pdf \|titleFacts on Investing in Family Planning and Maternal and Newborn Health \|publisherGuttmacher Institute \|dateNovember 2010 \|access-date24 October 2011 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111020135329/http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/FB-AIU-summary.pdf \|archive-date=20 October 2011 }}</ref> The rate of legal, induced abortion varies extensively worldwide. According to the report of employees of Guttmacher Institute it ranged from 7 per 1000 women per year (Germany and Switzerland) to 30 per 1000 women per year (Estonia) in countries with complete statistics in 2008. The proportion of pregnancies that ended in induced abortion ranged from about 10% (Israel, the Netherlands and Switzerland) to 30% (Estonia) in the same group, though it might be as high as 36% in Hungary and Romania, whose statistics were deemed incomplete.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Sedgh G, Singh S, Henshaw SK, Bankole A \| title Legal abortion worldwide in 2008: levels and recent trends \| journal Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health \| volume 43 \| issue 3 \| pages 188–198 \| date September 2011 \| pmid 21884387 \| doi 10.1363/4318811 \| url http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3708411.html \| url-status live \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20120107111306/http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3708411.html \| archive-date 7 January 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|date2011-05-15\|chapterPopulație\|urlhttp://www.insse.ro/cms/files/Anuar%2520statistic/02/02%2520Populatie_ro.pdf\|access-date2023-02-16\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110515195102/http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/Anuar%2520statistic/02/02%2520Populatie_ro.pdf \|archive-date15 May 2011 \|titleRomanian Statistical Yearbook \|page62 \|publisherNational Institute of Statistics}}</ref> An American study in 2002 concluded that about half of women having abortions were using a form of contraception at the time of becoming pregnant. Inconsistent use was reported by half of those using condoms and three-quarters of those using the birth control pill; 42% of those using condoms reported failure through slipping or breakage.<ref name":8">{{cite journal \| vauthors Jones RK, Darroch JE, Henshaw SK \| title Contraceptive use among U.S. women having abortions in 2000-2001 \| journal Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health \| volume 34 \| issue 6 \| pages 294–303 \| year 2002 \| pmid 12558092 \| doi 10.2307/3097748 \| url http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3429402.pdf \| url-status live \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20060615011127/http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3429402.pdf \| archive-date 15 June 2006 \| jstor 3097748 }}</ref> Of the other half of women, who were not using contraception at the time of becoming pregnant, the vast majority had used contraception at some point in the past, indicating some level of dissatisfaction with the contraceptive options available to them. Indeed, 32% of these contraceptive nonusers cited concerns about contraceptive methods as their reason for nonuse,<ref name":8" /> and a more recent study found similar results.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Mosher \|first1William \|last2Jones \|first2Jo \|last3Abma \|first3Joyce \|date2015 \|titleNonuse of contraception among women at risk of unintended pregnancy in the United States \|journalContraception \|volume92 \|issue2 \|pages170–176 \|doi10.1016/j.contraception.2015.05.004 \|issn0010-7824 \|pmc6413311 \|pmid25998937}}</ref> Taken together, these statistics suggest that new contraceptive methods, such as non-hormonal contraceptives or male contraceptives, could reduce unintended pregnancy and abortion rates.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Dorman \|first1Emily \|last2Perry \|first2Brian \|last3Polis \|first3Chelsea B. \|last4Campo-Engelstein \|first4Lisa \|last5Shattuck \|first5Dominick \|last6Hamlin \|first6Aaron \|last7Aiken \|first7Abigail \|last8Trussell \|first8James \|last9Sokal \|first9David \|date2018 \|titleModeling the impact of novel male contraceptive methods on reductions in unintended pregnancies in Nigeria, South Africa, and the United States \|url\|journalContraception \|volume97 \|issue1 \|pages62–69 \|doi10.1016/j.contraception.2017.08.015 \|issn0010-7824 \|pmc5732079 \|pmid=28887053}}</ref> The Guttmacher Institute has found that "most abortions in the United States are obtained by minority women" because minority women "have much higher rates of unintended pregnancy".<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Cohen SA \|url http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/gpr/11/3/gpr110302.html \|titleAbortion and Women of Color: The Bigger Picture \|journalGuttmacher Policy Review \|year2008 \|volume11 \|issue3 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080915094346/http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/gpr/11/3/gpr110302.html \|archive-date15 September 2008 }}</ref> In a 2022 analysis by the Kaiser Family Foundation, while people of color comprise 44% of the population in Mississippi, 59% of the population in Texas, 42% of the population in Louisiana, and 35% of the population in Alabama, they comprise 80%, 74%, 72%, and 70%, respectively, of those receiving abortions.<ref>{{cite news \| vauthors Pettus EW, Willingham L \|titleMinority women most affected if abortion is banned, limited \|urlhttps://apnews.com/article/abortion-us-supreme-court-business-health-race-and-ethnicity-3fff455cce7ef0d8694f5371f805ea18 \|access-date1 February 2022 \|workAssociated Press \|date1 February 2022 \|archive-date1 February 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220201144918/https://apnews.com/article/abortion-us-supreme-court-business-health-race-and-ethnicity-3fff455cce7ef0d8694f5371f805ea18 \|url-statuslive }}</ref>Gestational age and method {{multiple image \| align = right \| image1 = UK abortion by gestational age 2019 histogram.svg \| width1 = 200 \| alt1 \| caption1 \| image2 = US abortion by gestational age 2016 histogram.svg \| width2 = 200 \| alt2 \| caption2 \| footer = Histogram of abortions by gestational age in England and Wales during 2019 (left). Abortion in the United States by gestational age, 2016 (right). }} Abortion rates vary depending on the stage of pregnancy and the method practiced. In 2003, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported that 26% of reported legal induced abortions in the United States were known to have been obtained at the end of 6 weeks of gestation or less, 18% at 7 weeks, 15% at 8 weeks, 18% at 9 through 10 weeks, 10% at 11 through 12 weeks, 6% at 13 through 15 weeks, 4% at 16 through 20 weeks and 1% at more than 21 weeks. 91% of these were classified as having been done by "curettage" (suction-aspiration, dilation and curettage, dilation and evacuation), 8% by "medical" means (mifepristone), >1% by "intrauterine instillation" (saline or prostaglandin), and 1% by "other" (including hysterotomy and hysterectomy).<ref name"cdc2003">{{cite journal \| vauthors Strauss LT, Gamble SB, Parker WY, Cook DA, Zane SB, Hamdan S \| title Abortion surveillance--United States, 2003 \| journal Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Surveillance Summaries \| volume 55 \| issue 11 \| pages 1–32 \| date November 2006 \| pmid 17119534 \| url https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss5511a1.htm \| url-status live \| author7 Centers for Disease Control Prevention \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20170602171423/https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss5511a1.htm \| archive-date 2 June 2017 }}</ref> According to the CDC, due to data collection difficulties the data must be viewed as tentative and some fetal deaths reported beyond 20 weeks may be natural deaths erroneously classified as abortions if the removal of the dead fetus is accomplished by the same procedure as an induced abortion.<ref name"guttmacher">{{cite web \|publisherThe Guttmacher Institute \|titleThe limitations of U.S. statistics on abortion \|workIssues in Brief \|locationNew York \|year1997 \|urlhttp://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/ib14.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120404080239/http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/ib14.html \|archive-date4 April 2012 \|url-statusdead}}</ref> The Guttmacher Institute estimated there were 2,200 intact dilation and extraction procedures in the US during 2000; this accounts for <0.2% of the total number of abortions performed that year.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Finer LB, Henshaw SK \| title Abortion incidence and services in the United States in 2000 \| journal Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health \| volume 35 \| issue 1 \| pages 6–15 \| year 2003 \| pmid 12602752 \| doi 10.1363/3500603 \| url http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3500603.html \| url-status live \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160122204324/http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3500603.html \| archive-date 22 January 2016 \| url-access subscription }}</ref> Similarly, in England and Wales in 2006, 89% of terminations occurred at or under 12 weeks, 9% between 13 and 19 weeks, and 2% at or over 20 weeks. 64% of those reported were by vacuum aspiration, 6% by D&E, and 30% were medical.<ref>{{cite web\|authorDepartment of Health \|year2007 \|titleAbortion statistics, England and Wales: 2006 \|access-date12 October 2007 \|urlhttp://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/PublicationsStatistics/DH_075697 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101206002417/http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/PublicationsStatistics/DH_075697 \|archive-date6 December 2010 }}</ref> There are more second trimester abortions in developing countries such as China, India and Vietnam than in developed countries.<ref>{{cite web\| vauthors Cheng L \|date1 November 2008\|titleSurgical versus medical methods for second-trimester induced abortion: RHL commentary\|workThe WHO Reproductive Health Library\|locationGeneva\|publisherWorld Health Organization\|urlhttps://www.who.int/rhl/fertility/abortion/CD006714_chengl_com/en/index.html\|access-date10 February 2009\|url-statusdead\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20090215134007/http://www.who.int/rhl/fertility/abortion/CD006714_chengl_com/en/index.html\|archive-date15 February 2009}} commentary on:<br />{{cite journal \| vauthors Lohr PA, Hayes JL, Gemzell-Danielsson K \| title Surgical versus medical methods for second trimester induced abortion \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| issue 1 \| pages CD006714 \| date January 2008 \| pmid 18254113 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD006714.pub2 \| s2cid 205184764 }}</ref> There are both medical and non-medical reasons to have an abortion later in pregnancy (after 20 weeks). A study was conducted from 2008 to 2010 at the University of California San Francisco where more than 440 women were asked about why they experienced delays in obtaining abortion care, if there were any. This study found that almost half of individuals who obtained an abortion after 20 weeks did not suspect that they were pregnant until later in their pregnancy.<ref name":7">{{cite web \|dateDecember 5, 2019 \|titleAbortions Later in Pregnancy \|urlhttps://www.kff.org/womens-health-policy/fact-sheet/abortions-later-in-pregnancy/ \|websiteKFF (Kaiser Family Foundation) \|access-date10 November 2023 \|archive-date10 November 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231110191733/https://www.kff.org/womens-health-policy/fact-sheet/abortions-later-in-pregnancy/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Other barriers to abortion care found in the study included lack of information about where to access an abortion, difficulties with transportation, lack of insurance coverage, and inability to pay for the abortion procedure.<ref name":7" /> Medical reasons for seeking an abortion later in pregnancy include fetal anomalies and health risk to the pregnant person.<ref name":6">{{cite book \|lastVaughn \|firstLewis \|titleBioethics: Principles, Issues, and Cases \|publisherOxford University Press \|year2023 \|isbn978-0-19-760902-6 \|edition5th \|pages328}}</ref> There are prenatal tests that can diagnose Down Syndrome or cystic fibrosis as early as 10 weeks into gestation, but structural fetal anomalies are often detected much later in pregnancy.<ref name":7" /> A proportion of structural fetal anomalies are lethal, which means that the fetus will almost certainly die before or shortly after birth.<ref name":7" /> Life-threatening conditions may also develop later in pregnancy, such as early severe preeclampsia, newly diagnosed cancer in need of urgent treatment, and intrauterine infection (chorioamnionitis), which often occurs along with premature rupture of the amniotic sac (PPROM).<ref name":7" /> If serious medical conditions such as these arise before the fetus is viable, the person carrying the pregnancy may pursue an abortion to preserve their own health.<ref name":7" />MotivationPersonal meta-study on the reasons women stated for having an abortion]] The reasons why women have abortions are diverse and vary across the world.<ref name"guttmacher" /><ref name"bankole98"/><ref nameChae_2017>{{ cite journal \| last1Chae \| first1Sophia \| last2Desai \| first2Sheila \| last3Crowell \| first3Marjorie \| last4Sedgh \| first4Gilda \| date2017-10-01 \| titleReasons why women have induced abortions: a synthesis of findings from 14 countries \| journalContraception \| volume96 \| issue4 \| pages233–241 \| doi10.1016/j.contraception.2017.06.014 \| pmid28694165 \| pmc5957082 \| quoteIn most countries, the most frequently cited reasons for having an abortion were socioeconomic concerns or limiting childbearing. With some exceptions, little variation existed in the reasons given by women's sociodemographic characteristics. Data from three countries where multiple reasons could be reported in the survey showed that women often have more than one reason for having an abortion. \| doi-accessfree }}</ref> Some of the reasons may include an inability to afford a child, domestic violence, lack of support, feeling they are too young, and the wish to complete education or advance a career.<ref name":5">{{cite journal \| last Stotland \| first Nada L \|author-link Nada Stotland\| title Update on Reproductive Rights and Women's Mental Health \| journal The Medical Clinics of North America \| volume 103 \| issue 4 \| pages 751–766 \| date July 2019 \| pmid 31078205 \| doi 10.1016/j.mcna.2019.02.006 \| s2cid 153307516 }}</ref> Additional reasons include not being able or willing to raise a child conceived as a result of rape or incest.<ref name"bankole98">{{cite journal \| vauthors Bankole A, Singh S, Haas T \|date September 1998 \|urlhttp://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/2411798.html \|titleReasons Why Women Have Induced Abortions: Evidence from 27 Countries \|journalInternational Family Planning Perspectives \|volume24 \|issue3 \|pages117–127, 152 \|doi10.2307/3038208 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060117191716/http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/2411798.html \|archive-date17 January 2006 \|jstor3038208 \| quote Worldwide, the most commonly reported reason women cite for having an abortion is to postpone or stop childbearing. The second most common reason—socioeconomic concerns—includes disruption of education or employment; lack of support from the father; desire to provide schooling for existing children; and poverty, unemployment or inability to afford additional children. In addition, relationship problems with a husband or partner and a woman's perception that she is too young constitute other important categories of reasons. Women's characteristics are associated with their reasons for having an abortion: With few exceptions, older women and married women are the most likely to identify limiting childbearing as their main reason for abortion. - Conclusions - Reasons women give for why they seek abortion are often far more complex than simply not intending to become pregnant; the decision to have an abortion is usually motivated by more than one factor. }}</ref><ref name"finer2005">{{cite journal \|vauthorsFiner LB, Frohwirth LF, Dauphinee LA, Singh S, Moore AM \|titleReasons U.S. women have abortions: quantitative and qualitative perspectives \|journalPerspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health \|volume37 \|issue3 \|pages110–118 \|dateSeptember 2005 \|pmid16150658 \|doi10.1111/j.1931-2393.2005.tb00045.x \|urlhttp://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3711005.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120107092446/http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3711005.html \|archive-date7 January 2012\|url-accesssubscription }}</ref>SocietalSome abortions are undergone as the result of societal pressures.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia \| veditors Fried MG \|titleFrom Privacy to Autonomy: The Conditions for Reproductive and Sexual Freedom \| vauthors Copelon R \|author-linkRhonda Copelon \|encyclopediaFrom Abortion to Reproductive Freedom: Transforming a Movement \|date1990 \|publisherSouth End Press \|isbn978-0-89608-387-5 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkeE5EmSKYr0C&qabortion%20poverty%20autonomy&pgPA38 \|pages27–43 \|quoteThe prevalence of economically influenced abortions and the sterilization campaigns against poor, minority, and disabled women show us that autonomy is impossible without eradication of discrimination and poverty. Racism, sexism, and poverty can make the difference between abortions that reflect choice and those reflecting bitter necessity. \|access-date29 October 2020 \|archive-date26 January 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210126082936/https://books.google.com/books?idkeE5EmSKYr0C&qabortion%20poverty%20autonomy&pgPA38 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> These might include the preference for children of a specific sex or race, disapproval of single or early motherhood, stigmatization of people with disabilities, insufficient economic support for families, lack of access to or rejection of contraceptive methods, or efforts toward population control (such as China's one-child policy). These factors can sometimes result in compulsory abortion or sex-selective abortion.<ref name"MissingWomen">{{cite journal \| vauthors Oster E \|author-linkEmily Oster \|titleExplaining Asia's "Missing Women": A New Look at the Data \|journalPopulation and Development Review \|dateSeptember 2005 \|volume31 \|issue3 \|pages529–535 \|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/4994961 \|access-date5 February 2019 \|doi10.1111/j.1728-4457.2005.00082.x \|quoteHouseholds have variously resorted to female infanticide and postnatal withholding of health care; and since the mid-1980s, when technology permitting fairly low-cost determination of the sex of fetuses became available, there has been a shift toward prenatal sex selection by means of induced abortion. \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190207131815/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/4994961_Explaining_Asia%27s_Missing_Women_A_New_Look_at_the_Data \|archive-date7 February 2019 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In cultures where there is a preference for male children, some women have sex selective abortions, which have partially replaced the earlier practice of female infanticide.<ref name"MissingWomen" /> Maternal health Some abortions are performed due to concerns over maternal health. In 1990s, women cited maternal health as their main motivating factor in about a third of abortions in three of 27 countries analyzed. In seven additional countries, about 7% of abortions were maternal health related.<ref name"guttmacher" /><ref name"bankole98"/><!-- Quote Risk to maternal health. This reason was somewhat important overall, having been cited as the main reason by 5-10% in seven countries and by 20-38% in three (Kenya, Bangladesh and India). --> In the U.S., the Supreme Court decisions in Roe v. Wade and Doe v. Bolton: "ruled that the state's interest in the life of the fetus became compelling only at the point of viability, defined as the point at which the fetus can survive independently of its mother. Even after the point of viability, the state cannot favor the life of the fetus over the life or health of the pregnant woman. Under the right of privacy, physicians must be free to use their "medical judgment for the preservation of the life or health of the mother." On the same day that the Court decided Roe, it also decided Doe v. Bolton, in which the Court defined health very broadly: "The medical judgment may be exercised in the light of all factors—physical, emotional, psychological, familial, and the woman's age—relevant to the well-being of the patient. All these factors may relate to health. This allows the attending physician the room he needs to make his best medical judgment."<ref>George J. Annas and Sherman Elias. "Legal and Ethical Issues in Obstetrical Practice". Chapter 54 in Obstetrics: Normal and Problem Pregnancies, 6th edition. Eds. Steven G. Gabbe, et al. 2012 Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier. {{ISBN\|978-1-4377-1935-2}}</ref>{{rp\|1200–1201}} Cancer {{Update section\|date=September 2022}}<!-- Sources here are >10 years old, and should be updated with new ones --> The rate of cancer during pregnancy is 0.02–1%, and in many cases, cancer of the mother leads to consideration of abortion to protect the life of the mother, or in response to the potential damage that may occur to the fetus during treatment. This is particularly true for cervical cancer, the most common type of which occurs in 1 of every 2,000–13,000 pregnancies, for which initiation of treatment "cannot co-exist with preservation of fetal life (unless neoadjuvant chemotherapy is chosen)". Very early stage cervical cancers (I and IIa) may be treated by radical hysterectomy and pelvic lymph node dissection, radiation therapy, or both, while later stages are treated by radiotherapy. Chemotherapy may be used simultaneously. Treatment of breast cancer during pregnancy also involves fetal considerations, because lumpectomy is discouraged in favor of modified radical mastectomy unless late-term pregnancy allows follow-up radiation therapy to be administered after the birth.<ref nameWeisz>{{cite journal \| vauthors Weisz B, Schiff E, Lishner M \| title Cancer in pregnancy: maternal and fetal implications \| journal Human Reproduction Update \| volume 7 \| issue 4 \| pages 384–393 \| year 2001 \| pmid 11476351 \| doi 10.1093/humupd/7.4.384 \| doi-access = free }}</ref> Exposure to a single chemotherapy drug is estimated to cause a 7.5–17% risk of teratogenic effects on the fetus, with higher risks for multiple drug treatments. Treatment with more than 40&nbsp;Gy of radiation usually causes spontaneous abortion. Exposure to much lower doses during the first trimester, especially 8 to 15 weeks of development, can cause intellectual disability or microcephaly, and exposure at this or subsequent stages can cause reduced intrauterine growth and birth weight. Exposures above 0.005–0.025&nbsp;Gy cause a dose-dependent reduction in IQ.<ref nameWeisz /> It is possible to greatly reduce exposure to radiation with abdominal shielding, depending on how far the area to be irradiated is from the fetus.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Mayr NA, Wen BC, Saw CB \| title Radiation therapy during pregnancy \| journal Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinics of North America \| volume 25 \| issue 2 \| pages 301–321 \| date June 1998 \| pmid 9629572 \| doi 10.1016/s0889-8545(05)70006-1 }}</ref><ref name"pmid11237773">{{cite journal \| vauthors Fenig E, Mishaeli M, Kalish Y, Lishner M \| title Pregnancy and radiation \| journal Cancer Treatment Reviews \| volume 27 \| issue 1 \| pages 1–7 \| date February 2001 \| pmid 11237773 \| doi 10.1053/ctrv.2000.0193 }}</ref> The process of birth itself may also put the mother at risk. According to Li et al., "[v]aginal delivery may result in dissemination of neoplastic cells into lymphovascular channels, haemorrhage, cervical laceration and implantation of malignant cells in the episiotomy site, while abdominal delivery may delay the initiation of non-surgical treatment."<ref name"pmid19197101">{{cite journal \| vauthors Li WW, Yau TN, Leung CW, Pong WM, Chan MY \| title Large-cell neuroendocrine carcinoma of the uterine cervix complicating pregnancy \| journal Hong Kong Medical Journal Xianggang Yi Xue Za Zhi \| volume 15 \| issue 1 \| pages 69–72 \| date February 2009 \| pmid 19197101 }}</ref> Fetal health Congenital disorders, revealed by prenatal screening, motivate some women to seek abortions.<ref name"bankole98"/> Health outcomes of preterm births include a significant probability of long-term neurodevelopmental impairment before gestational age of 29 weeks, with a higher probability with decreasing gestational age.<ref name"z309">{{cite journal \| last1Sarda \| first1Sujata P. \| last2Sarri \| first2Grammati \| last3Siffel \| first3Csaba \| titleGlobal prevalence of long-term neurodevelopmental impairment following extremely preterm birth: a systematic literature review \| journalJournal of International Medical Research \| volume49 \| issue7 \| date2021 \| issn0300-0605 \| pmid34284680 \| pmc8299900 \| doi10.1177/03000605211028026 \| page030006052110280}}</ref> In the United States, public opinion shifted after television personality Sherri Finkbine's was exposed to thalidomide, a teratogen, in her fifth month of pregnancy. Unable to obtain a legal abortion in the United States, Finkbine traveled to Sweden. From 1962 to 1965, an outbreak of German measles left 15,000 babies with severe birth defects. In 1967, the American Medical Association publicly supported liberalization of abortion laws. A National Opinion Research Center poll in 1965 showed 73% supported abortion when the mother's life was at risk, 57% when birth defects were present and 59% for pregnancies resulting from rape or incest.{{sfn\|Doan\|2007\|p57}}History and religion {{Main\|History of abortion\|Religion and abortion}} at Angkor Wat, Cambodia, c. 1150, depicting a demon inducing an abortion by pounding the abdomen of a pregnant woman with a pestle<ref name"potts"/><ref>{{cite book \|vauthorsMould RF \|titleMould's Medical Anecdotes \|page406 \|publisherCRC Press \|year1996 \|isbn978-0-85274-119-1\| urlhttps://archive.org/details/moreofmouldsmedi00moulrich/page/406}}</ref>]] Since ancient times, abortions have been done using a number of methods, including herbal medicines acting as abortifacients, sharp tools through the use of force, or through other traditional medicine methods.<ref name"Management of Abortion, Chp 1"/> Induced abortion has a long history and can be traced back to civilizations as varied as ancient China (abortifacient knowledge is often attributed to the mythological ruler Shennong),<ref>{{cite book\| titleMedical History of Contraception\| vauthors Himes NE \|publisherGamut Press\|year1963\|pages109–110}}</ref> ancient India since its Vedic age,<ref name"Misra2006">{{cite book\| vauthors Misra P \|titleDomestic Violence Against Women: Legal Control and Judicial Response\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iddp6-_NMfsIsC&pgPA79\| year2006\| publisherDeep & Deep Publications\|isbn978-81-7629-896-4\|pages79–80\|quoteReferences in Atharva Veda show that abortion was known in the Vedic age.\|access-date5 July 2021\|archive-date9 July 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210709185150/https://books.google.com/books?iddp6-_NMfsIsC&pgPA79\|url-statuslive}}</ref> ancient Egypt with its Ebers Papyrus ({{circa\|1550 BCE}}), and the Roman Empire in the time of Juvenal ({{circa\|200 CE}}).<ref name"Management of Abortion, Chp 1"/> One of the earliest known artistic representations of abortion is in a bas relief at Angkor Wat ({{circa\|1150}}). Found in a series of friezes that represent judgment after death in Hindu and Buddhist culture, it depicts the technique of abdominal abortion.<ref name="potts"/> In Judaism, the fetus is not considered to have a human soul until it is safely outside of the woman, is viable, and has taken its first breath.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthorsSchenker JG \|titleThe beginning of human life: status of embryo. Perspectives in Halakha (Jewish Religious Law) \|journalJournal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics \|volume25 \|issue6 \|pages271–276 \|dateJune 2008 \|pmid18551364 \|pmc2582082 \|doi10.1007/s10815-008-9221-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|vauthorsRosner F\|year2001\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idT7w2oAmohpEC\|titleBiomedical Ethics and Jewish Law\|publisherKTAV Publishing House\|isbn978-0-88125-701-4\|access-date27 July 2022\| viaGoogle Books\|archive-date24 January 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230124173418/https://books.google.com/books?idT7w2oAmohpEC\|url-statuslive}} Reprinted as {{cite web\|vauthorsRosner F\|date7 June 2015\|urlhttps://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/the-beginning-of-life-in-judaism/\|url-statuslive\|titleThe Beginning of Life in Judaism\|websiteMy Jewish Learning\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150607041405/https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/the-beginning-of-life-in-judaism/\| archive-date7 June 2015\| access-date27 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|vauthorsMilgram G\| urlhttp://www.reclaimingjudaism.org/teachings/when-does-life-begin-jewish-view\|titleWhen Does Life Begin? A Jewish View\| websiteReclaiming Judaism\|date23 January 2022\|access-date30 June 2022\|archive-date3 August 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220803233439/http://www.reclaimingjudaism.org/teachings/when-does-life-begin-jewish-view\| url-statuslive}}</ref> The fetus is considered valuable property of the woman and not a human life while in the womb (Exodus 21:22-23). While Judaism encourages people to be fruitful and multiply by having children, abortion is allowed and is deemed necessary when a pregnant woman's life is in danger.<ref>{{cite web\| urlhttps://www.ncjw.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Judaism-and-Abortion-FINAL.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.ncjw.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Judaism-and-Abortion-FINAL.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|titleJudaism and Abortion\|publisherNational Council of Jewish Women\| dateMay 2019\|access-date27 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|vauthorsKestler-D'Amours J\|date17 June 2022\| urlhttps://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/6/17/religious-freedom-the-next-battleground-for-us-abortion-rights\| titleReligious freedom: The next battleground for US abortion rights?\|publisherAl Jazeera\|access-date27 July 2022\| archive-date1 August 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220801020805/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/6/17/religious-freedom-the-next-battleground-for-us-abortion-rights\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Several religions, including Judaism, which disagree that human life begins at conception, support the legality of abortion on religious freedom grounds.<ref name"Georgian 2022">{{cite web\|vauthorsGeorgian E\|date1 July 2022\|urlhttps://clioandthecontemporary.com/2022/07/01/the-end-of-roe-in-historical-perspective/\|titleThe End of Roe in Historical Perspective\|websiteClio and the Contemporary\|access-date27 July 2022\| archive-date27 July 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220727180424/https://clioandthecontemporary.com/2022/07/01/the-end-of-roe-in-historical-perspective/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In Islam, abortion is traditionally permitted until a point in time when Muslims believe the soul enters the fetus,<ref name"Management of Abortion, Chp 1" /> considered by various theologians to be at conception, 40 days after conception, 120 days after conception, or at quickening.<ref name"BBC and Islam / Abortion">{{cite news\|date9 July 2009\| urlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/abortion_1.shtml\|titleReligions – Islam: Abortion\| publisherBBC\| access-date10 December 2011\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111009065222/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/abortion_1.shtml\|archive-date9 October 2011}}</ref> Abortion is largely heavily restricted or forbidden in areas of high Islamic faith such as the Middle East and North Africa.<ref>{{cite web\|titleAbortion in the Middle East and North Africa\| urlhttp://www.prb.org/pdf08/MENAabortion.pdf\|url-statuslive\| vauthors Dabash R, Farzaneh RF \|publisherPopulation Research Bureau\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20111006171600/http://www.prb.org/pdf08/MENAabortion.pdf \|archive-date6 October 2011\|year2008}}</ref> Some medical scholars and abortion opponents have suggested that the Hippocratic Oath forbade physicians in Ancient Greece from performing abortions;<ref name"Management of Abortion, Chp 1"/> other scholars disagree with this interpretation,<ref name"Management of Abortion, Chp 1"/> and state that the medical texts of Hippocratic Corpus contain descriptions of abortive techniques right alongside the Oath.<ref>{{cite book\| vauthors Miles SH \|titleThe Hippocratic Oath and the Ethics of Medicine\|year2005\|publisherOxford University Press\|isbn978-0-19-518820-2}}</ref> The physician Scribonius Largus wrote in 43&nbsp;CE that the Hippocratic Oath prohibits abortion, as did Soranus of Ephesus, although apparently not all doctors strictly adhered to the oath at the time. According to Soranus' 1st or 2nd century CE work Gynaecology, one party of medical practitioners banished all abortives as required by the Hippocratic Oath; the other party to which he belonged was willing to prescribe abortions only for the sake of the mother's health.<ref nameSoranus>{{cite book \|authorSoranus\|translatorTemkin O \|translator2Eastman NJ \|translator3Edelstein L \|translator4Guttmacher AF \|titleSoranus' Gynecology\| year1991\|publisherJohns Hopkins University Press\|pageI, 19, 60 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYsKWfh31gxwC\| access-date6 October 2015\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151015195038/https://books.google.com/books?idYsKWfh31gxwC\|archive-date15 October 2015 \|isbn978-0-8018-4320-4}}</ref><ref nameLargus>{{cite encyclopedia \|urlhttp://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/aconite/largus.html\|titleScribonius Largus and the Oath of Hippocrates \|encyclopediaEncyclopaedia Romana\|publisherUniversity of Chicago\|access-date27 July 2022}}</ref> In Politics (350&nbsp;BCE), Aristotle condemned infanticide as a means of population control. He preferred abortion in such cases,<ref>{{cite book\| vauthorsCarrick P \|titleMedical Ethics in the Ancient World\| year2001 \|publisherGeorgetown University Press\|isbn978-0-87840-849-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\| vauthorsMeyer HS \|date17 April 2002\|titleAncient Ethics: Medical Ethics in the Ancient World\|journalJAMA \|publisherAmerican Medical Association\|volume287\|issue15\|pages2005–2006\|doi10.1001/jama.287.15.2005-JBK0417-3-1 \|s2cid240484236 }}</ref> with the restriction that it "must be practised on it before it has developed sensation and life; for the line between lawful and unlawful abortion will be marked by the fact of having sensation and being alive."<ref>{{cite book\| authorAristotele\| titleAristotle, Politics\|translatorRackham H\|year1944\|urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0058%3Abook%3D7%3Asection%3D1335b \|publisherHarvard University Press \|access-date21 June 2011\| viaPerseus\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110622094459/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0058%3Abook%3D7%3Asection%3D1335b\|archive-date=22 June 2011}}</ref> In the Catholic Church, opinion was divided on how serious abortion was in comparison with such acts as contraception and oral or anal sex.<ref name"Noonan"/>{{rp\|155–167}} The Catholic Church did not begin vigorously opposing abortion until the 19th century.<ref name"Management of Abortion, Chp 1"/><ref name"Georgian 2022"/> As early as ~100&nbsp;CE, the Didache taught that abortion was sinful.<ref>{{cite web\|date9 September 2016\|titleDidache\|websiteLegacy Icons\| urlhttps://legacyicons.com/content/didache.pdf\|access-date16 May 2022\|url-statuslive\|archive-date8 November 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201108201133/https://legacyicons.com/content/didache.pdf}}</ref> Several historians argue that prior to the 19th century most Catholic authors did not regard termination of pregnancy before quickening or ensoulment as an abortion.<ref>Joan Cadden, "Western medicine and natural philosophy", in Vern L. Bullough and James A. Brundage, eds., Handbook of Medieval Sexuality, Garland, 1996, pp. 51–80.</ref><ref>Cyril C. Means Jr., "A historian's view", in Robert E. Hall, ed., Abortion in a Changing World, vol. 1, Columbia University Press, 1970, pp. 16–24.</ref><ref>John M. Riddle, "Contraception and early abortion in the Middle Ages", in Vern L. Bullough and James A. Brundage, eds., Handbook of Medieval Sexuality, Garland, 1996, pp. 261–277, {{ISBN\|978-0-8153-1287-1}}.</ref> Among these authors were the Doctors of the Church, such as St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas, and St. Alphonsus Liguori. In 1588, Pope Sixtus V ({{reign}} 1585–1590) was the only Pope before Pope Pius IX (in his 1869 bull, Apostolicae Sedis) to institute a Church policy labeling all abortion as homicide and condemning abortion regardless of the stage of pregnancy.<ref>{{cite web\|authorPope Sixtus V\| year1588\| titleEffraenatam\| viaThe Embryo Project Encyclopedia\|urlhttps://embryo.asu.edu/pages/effraenatam-1588-pope-sixtus-v\| url-statuslive\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210526144925/https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/effraenatam-1588-pope-sixtus-v\|archive-date26 May 2021\|access-date26 May 2021}}</ref><ref name"Noonan">{{cite book\| vauthors Noonan JT \|titleContraception: A History of Its Treatment by the Catholic Theologians and Canonists \|edition2nd \|publisherHarvard University Press\|year1986}}</ref>{{rp\|362–364}}<ref name"riddle2"/>{{rp\|157–158}} Sixtus V's pronouncement was reversed in 1591 by Pope Gregory XIV.<ref>{{cite web\| vauthors Gershon L \|date13 February 2018\|titleWhat a 16th-Century Abortion Ban Revealed\|urlhttps://daily.jstor.org/what-a-16th-century-abortion-ban-revealed/\|url-statuslive\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210526144922/https://daily.jstor.org/what-a-16th-century-abortion-ban-revealed/\| archive-date26 May 2021\|access-date26 May 2021\|websiteJSTOR Daily}}</ref> In the recodification of 1917 Code of Canon Law, Apostolicae Sedis was strengthened, in part to remove a possible reading that excluded excommunication of the mother.<ref>{{cite web\|titleApostolicae Sedis Moderationi\|websiteNew Advent \|urlhttps://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01645a.htm\|access-date16 May 2022\|url-statuslive\|archive-date16 May 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220516174009/https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01645a.htm}}</ref> Statements made in the Catechism of the Catholic Church, the codified summary of the Church's teachings, considers abortion from the moment of conception as homicide and called for the end of legal abortion.<ref>{{cite web\|date1992\|titleCatechism of the Catholic Church, chapter 2, article 5 \|urlhttps://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p3s2c2a5.htm\| websiteVatican\| access-date4 December 2019\| archive-date14 May 2011\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110514012545/https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p3s2c2a5.htm\|url-status=live }}</ref> Denominations that support abortion rights with some limits include the United Methodist Church, Episcopal Church, Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and Presbyterian Church USA.<ref name"Masci 2020">{{cite web \| lastMasci \| firstDavid \| titleWhere major religious groups stand on abortion \| websitePew Research Center \| date2020-05-30 \| urlhttps://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/06/21/where-major-religious-groups-stand-on-abortion/ \| access-date2023-01-22 \| archive-date22 January 2023 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230122160816/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/06/21/where-major-religious-groups-stand-on-abortion/ \| url-statuslive }}</ref> A 2014 Guttmacher survey of abortion patients in the United States found that many reported a religious affiliation: 24% were Catholic while 30% were Protestant.<ref>{{cite report\| urlhttps://www.guttmacher.org/report/characteristics-us-abortion-patients-2014\|titleCharacteristics of U.S. Abortion Patients in 2014 and Changes Since 2008\| vauthors Jerman J, Jones RK, Onda T \|date10 May 2016\| publisherGuttmacher\| access-date25 February 2021\|archive-date24 February 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210224085344/https://www.guttmacher.org/report/characteristics-us-abortion-patients-2014\| url-statuslive}}</ref> A 1995 survey reported that Catholic women are as likely as the general population to terminate a pregnancy, Protestants are less likely to do so, and evangelical Christians are the least likely to do so.<ref name"guttmacher"/><ref name"bankole98"/> A 2019 Pew Research Center study found that most Christian denominations were against overturning Roe v. Wade, which in the United States legalized abortion, at around 70%, except White Evangelicals at 35%.<ref name"PewReseach2019">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/10/20/8-key-findings-about-catholics-and-abortion/\|title8 key findings about Catholics and abortion\|date20 October 2020 \| publisherPew Research Center\|access-date15 May 2022\|archive-date15 May 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220515173202/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/10/20/8-key-findings-about-catholics-and-abortion/\|url-status=live}}</ref> ''.<ref>{{cite book \|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/53993049 \|titleThe abortion rights controversy in America: a legal reader \|date2004 \|publisherUniversity of North Carolina Press \|editor-firstN. E. H. \|editor-lastHull \|editor-first2Williamjames \|editor-last2Hoffer \|editor-first3Peter Charles \|editor-last3Hoffer \|isbn0-8078-2873-4 \|locationChapel Hill \|oclc53993049 \|page17 \|access-date21 April 2023 \|archive-date1 July 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240701041348/https://search.worldcat.org/title/53993049 \|url-statuslive }}</ref>]] Abortion has been a fairly common practice,<ref>{{cite book\| vauthors Reagan LJ \|year2022\|orig-year1997\|titleWhen Abortion Was a Crime: Women, Medicine and the Law in the United States, 1867–1973\|edition1st \|locationBerkeley\| publisherUniversity of California Press\|isbn978-0-520-38741-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|vauthorsBlakemore E\|date22 May 2022 \|urlhttps://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/the-complex-early-history-of-abortion-in-the-united-states \|titleThe complex early history of abortion in the United States\|websiteNational Geographic\|access-date26 July 2022\| quoteBut that view of history is the subject of great dispute. Though interpretations differ, most scholars who have investigated the history of abortion argue that terminating a pregnancy wasn't always illegal—or even controversial.\| archive-date26 July 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220726201522/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/the-complex-early-history-of-abortion-in-the-united-states\|url-statusdead}}</ref> and was not always illegal or controversial until the 19th century.<ref name"Hardin 1978">{{cite journal\| vauthors Hardin G \|dateDecember 1978\|titleAbortion in America. The Origins and Evolution of National Policy, 1800–1900. James C. Mohr\|journalThe Quarterly Review of Biology\| volume53\| issue4\| page499\|doi10.1086/410954\|quoteThe long silence had led us to assume that opposition to abortion had existed from time immemorial. Not so: most of the opposition to, and all of the laws against, abortion arose in the 19th century. Historian Mohr amply documents the earlier acceptance of abortion. ... In the 19th century even many of the feminists expressed horror at abortion, urging abstinence instead. Not so in the 20th century. In the 19th century the medical profession was fairly united against abortion; Mohr argues that this arose from the commercial competition between the 'regulars' (men with M.D.'s) and the irregulars (women without M.D.'s). ... A key role in generating prohibition laws was played by the press, ... . By 1900 the abortion-prohibition laws were immune to questioning, as they remained until the 1960's when feminists and a new breed of physicians combined to arouse the public to the injustice of the law. ... the Roe v. Wade decision of the Supreme Court ... essentially returned the practice of abortion to the permissive state ante 1820.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\| vauthors Acevedo ZP \|dateSummer 1979\|titleAbortion in early America\| journalWomen Health\|volume4\|issue2\|pages159–167\|doi10.1300/J013v04n02_05\|pmid10297561 \|quoteThis piece describes abortion practices in use from the 1600s to the 19th century among the inhabitants of North America. The abortive techniques of women from different ethnic and racial groups as found in historical literature are revealed. Thus, the point is made that abortion is not simply a 'now issue' that effects select women. Instead, it is demonstrated that it is a widespread practice as solidly rooted in our past as it is in the present.}}</ref> Under common law, including early English common law dating back to Edward Coke in 1648,<ref name"Alford 2003">{{cite journal\| vauthors Alford S \|titleIs Self-Abortion a Fundamental Right?\|volume52\|journalDuke Law Journal\|pages1011–1029\| issue5\| year2003\| jstor1373127\|pmid12964572}}</ref> abortion was generally permitted before quickening (14–26 weeks after conception, or between the fourth and sixth month),<ref>{{cite web\|vauthorsDine R\|date8 August 2013\| urlhttps://www.americanprogress.org/article/scarlet-letters-getting-the-history-of-abortion-and-contraception-right/\| titleScarlet Letters: Getting the History of Abortion and Contraception Right\|publisherCenter for American Progress\| access-date26 July 2022\|archive-date28 July 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220728035809/https://www.americanprogress.org/article/scarlet-letters-getting-the-history-of-abortion-and-contraception-right/\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|vauthorsReagan LJ\|date2 June 2022 \|urlhttps://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2022/06/02/alitos-anti-roe-argument-wrong-00036174\|titleWhat Alito Gets Wrong About the History of Abortion in America\|websitePolitico\|access-date26 July 2022\|archive-date23 June 2022\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220623133238/https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2022/06/02/alitos-anti-roe-argument-wrong-00036174\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|vauthorsRoot D\|date23 June 2022\| urlhttps://reason.com/2022/06/23/unenumerated-rights-and-roe-v-wade/\|titleAlito's Leaked Abortion Opinion Misunderstands Unenumerated Rights\| workReason\|access-date27 July 2022\|archive-date27 July 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220727180438/https://reason.com/2022/06/23/unenumerated-rights-and-roe-v-wade/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> and at women's discretion;<ref name"Georgian 2022"/> it was whether abortion was performed after quickening that determined if it was a crime.<ref name"Alford 2003"/> In Europe and North America, abortion techniques advanced starting in the 17th century; the conservatism of most in the medical profession with regards to sexual matters prevented the wide expansion of abortion techniques.<ref name"Management of Abortion, Chp 1"/><ref>{{cite book\| titleAbortion in America: The Origins and Evolution of National Policy\| vauthors Mohr JC \|year1978\|pages[https://archive.org/details/abortioninameric00mohr/page/35 35–36]\|publisherOxford University Press\|isbn978-0-19-502616-0\| urlhttps://archive.org/details/abortioninameric00mohr/page/35}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|vauthorsPaul M, Lichtenberg ES, Borgatta L, Grimes DA, Stubblefield PG, Creinin MD, Joffe C\|year2009\|chapter-urlhttp://media.wiley.com/product_data/excerpt/62/14051769/1405176962.pdf\|url-statuslive\|chapterAbortion and Medicine: A Sociopolitical History\|titleManagement of Unintended and Abnormal Pregnancy\|edition1st\|locationOxford\|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons\| isbn978-1-4443-1293-5\|ol15895486W\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120119025652/http://media.wiley.com/product_data/excerpt/62/14051769/1405176962.pdf\|archive-date19 January 2012}}</ref> Other medical practitioners in addition to some physicians advertised their services, and they were not widely regulated until the 19th century when the practice, sometimes called restellism,<ref>{{cite news\| vauthors Dannenfelser M \|titleThe Suffragettes Would Not Agree With Feminists Today on Abortion\| urlhttps://time.com/4093214/suffragettes-abortion/\|access-date4 November 2015\|magazineTime\|date4 November 2015\|url-statuslive\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151106015742/http://time.com/4093214/suffragettes-abortion/\| archive-date6 November 2015}}</ref> was banned in both the United States and the United Kingdom.<ref name"Management of Abortion, Chp 1"/>{{refn\|In the United States, the first laws related to abortion beginning in the 1820s were made to protect women from real or perceived risks, and those more restrictive penalized only the provider. By 1859, abortion was not a crime in 21 out of 33 states, and was prohibited only post-quickening, while penalties for pre-quickening abortions were lower. This changed starting in the 1860s under the influence of anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic sentiment.<ref name"Georgian 2022"/>\|groupnb}} Some 19th-century physicians, one of the most famous and consequential being the American Horatio Storer,<ref name"Samuels & Potts 2022"/> argued for anti-abortion laws on racist and misogynist as well as moral grounds.<ref name"NPR 2022"/><ref>{{cite book \|lastPoole \|firstW. Scott \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/sataninamericade0000pool \|titleSatan in America: The Devil We Know \|publisherRowman & Littlefield \|year2009 \|isbn978-0-7425-6171-7 \|page86 \|access-date2023-03-20 \|url-accessregistration }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\| vauthors Wilson C \|date2 November 2020\|titleNostalgia, Entitlement and Victimhood: The Synergy of White Genocide and Misogyny\|journalTerrorism and Political Violence\|volume34 \|issue8 \|publisherRoutledge\|pages1810–1825\|doi10.1080/09546553.2020.1839428 \|s2cid228837398 }} Storer is cited at p. 4.</ref> Church groups were also highly influential in anti-abortion movements,<ref name"Management of Abortion, Chp 1"/><ref name"Hardin 1978"/><ref name"NPR 2022">{{cite news \|vauthorsAbdeltath R, Arablouei R, Caine J, Kaplan-Levenson L, Wu L, Yvellez V, Miner C, Sangweni Y, Steinberg A, George D \|display-authors6 \|titleBefore Roe: The Physicians' Crusade \|urlhttps://www.npr.org/2022/05/18/1099795225/before-roe-the-physicians-crusade \|workThroughline \|publisherNPR \|access-date26 July 2022 \|archive-date26 July 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220726150545/https://www.npr.org/2022/05/18/1099795225/before-roe-the-physicians-crusade \|url-statuslive }}</ref> and religious groups more so since the 20th century.<ref name"Samuels & Potts 2022">{{cite web\| vauthorsSamuels A, Potts M\|date25 July 2022\|urlhttps://fivethirtyeight.com/features/how-the-fight-to-ban-abortion-is-rooted-in-the-great-replacement-theory/\|titleHow The Fight To Ban Abortion Is Rooted In The 'Great Replacement' Theory\| websiteFiveThirtyEight\|access-date26 July 2022\|archive-date25 July 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220725234312/https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/how-the-fight-to-ban-abortion-is-rooted-in-the-great-replacement-theory/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Some of the early anti-abortion laws punished only the doctor or abortionist,<ref name"Georgian 2022"/> and while women could be criminally tried for a self-induced abortion,<ref name"Alford 2003"/> they were rarely prosecuted in general.<ref name"Hardin 1978"/> In the United States, some argued that abortion was more dangerous than childbirth until about 1930 when incremental improvements in abortion procedures relative to childbirth made abortion safer.{{refn\|By 1930, medical procedures in the United States had improved for both childbirth and abortion but not equally, and induced abortion in the first trimester had become safer than childbirth. In 1973, Roe v. Wade acknowledged that abortion in the first trimester was safer than childbirth. For sources, see: * {{cite book\|titleTime Communication 1940–1989: Retrospective\|publisherTime\|year1989\|chapterThe 1970s\|quote=Blackmun was also swayed by the fact that most abortion prohibitions were enacted in the 19th century when the procedure was more dangerous than now.}} * {{cite book\| vauthors Will GF \|titleSuddenly: The American Idea Abroad and at Home, 1986–1990\|publisherFree Press\|year1990\|page[https://archive.org/details/suddenlyamericangwill00will/page/312 312]\|isbn0-02-934435-2\|url=https://archive.org/details/suddenlyamericangwill00will/page/312}} * {{cite web\|vauthorsLewis J, Shimabukuro JO \|url http://www.policyalmanac.org/culture/archive/crs_abortion_overview.shtml\|titleAbortion Law Development: A Brief Overview\|publisherCongressional Research Service\|date28 January 2001\|access-date1 May 2011\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110514133610/http://www.policyalmanac.org/culture/archive/crs_abortion_overview.shtml\|archive-date14 May 2011\|url-status=dead}} * {{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idEHj_0R2rbxAC&pgPA1\|page1\|titleEncyclopedia of American Law\| vauthors Schultz DA \|publisherInfobase Publishing\|year2002\|isbn0-8160-4329-9\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151209000856/https://books.google.com/books?idEHj_0R2rbxAC&pgPA1\|archive-date9 December 2015}} * {{cite web \| vauthors Lahey JN \|titleBirthing a Nation: Fertility Control Access and the 19th Century Demographic Transition\|publisherPomona College\|date24 September 2009\|urlhttp://economics-files.pomona.edu/colloquium/joannalahey.pdf\|formatPDF; preliminary version\|workColloquium\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120107162744/http://economics-files.pomona.edu/colloquium/joannalahey.pdf\|archive-date7 January 2012}}\|groupnb}} Others maintain that in the 19th century early abortions under the hygienic conditions in which midwives usually worked were relatively safe.<ref>{{cite journal\| vauthors Lee CA \|year1838\|titleReport of a Trial for Murder\|journalAmerican Journal of the Medical Sciences\|volumeXXII\|pages=351–353}}</ref><ref>Benjamin Bailey, "Induction of abortion and premature labor", North American Journal of Homeopathy, vol. XI, no. 3 (1896), pp. 144–150.</ref><ref>Keith Simpson, Forensic Medicine, Edward Arnold Publishers, 1969 [first published 1947], pp. 173–174.</ref> Several scholars argue that, despite improved medical procedures, the period from the 1930s until the 1970s saw more zealous enforcement of anti-abortion laws, alongside an increasing control of abortion providers by organized crime.{{refn\|For sources, see: * James Donner, Women in Trouble: The Truth about Abortion in America, Monarch Books, 1959. * Ann Oakley, The Captured Womb, Basil Blackwell, 1984, p. 91. * Rickie Solinger, The Abortionist: A Woman Against the Law, The Free Press, 1994, pp. xi, 5, 16–17, 157–175. * Leslie J. Reagan, When Abortion Was a Crime: Women, Medicine, and Law in the United States, 1867–1973, University of California Press, 1997. * Max Evans, Madam Millie: Bordellos from Silver City to Ketchikan, University of New Mexico Press, 2002, pp. 209–218, 230, 267–286, 305.\|group=nb}} In 1920, Soviet Russia became the first country to legalize abortion after Lenin insisted that no woman be forced to give birth.<ref name"Bullough 2001 p. 5">{{cite book \| lastBullough \| firstV.L. \| titleEncyclopedia of Birth Control \| publisherABC-CLIO \| seriesABC-CLIO E-Books \| year2001 \| isbn978-1-57607-181-6 \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXuX-MGTZnJoC&pgPA5 \| access-date2022-10-19 \| page5 \| archive-date24 January 2023 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230124173418/https://books.google.com/books?idXuX-MGTZnJoC&pgPA5 \| url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"Raphael 2011 p. 30">{{cite book \| lastRaphael \| firstD. \| titleBeing Female: Reproduction, Power, and Change \| publisherDe Gruyter \| seriesWorld Anthropology \| year2011 \| isbn978-3-11-081312-8 \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id84hyfRRHeakC&pgPA30 \| access-date2022-10-19 \| page30 \| archive-date24 January 2023 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230124173418/https://books.google.com/books?id84hyfRRHeakC&pgPA30 \| url-statuslive }}</ref> Iceland (1935) and Sweden (1938) would follow suit to legalize certain or all forms of abortion.<ref name"cbctrust">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.cbctrust.com/history_law_religion.php\|titleAbortion Law, History & Religion\|access-date23 March 2008\|publisherChildbirth By Choice Trust\|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20080208053146/http://www.cbctrust.com/history_law_religion.php\|archive-date=8 February 2008}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In Nazi Germany (1935), a law permitted abortions for those deemed "hereditarily ill", while women considered of German stock were specifically prohibited from having abortions.<ref>For sources describing abortion policy in Nazi Germany, see: * {{cite book\| vauthors Friedlander H \|titleThe origins of Nazi genocide: from euthanasia to the final solution\|publisherUniversity of North Carolina Press\|locationChapel Hill\|year1995\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgqLDEKVk2nMC\|page30\|isbn978-0-8078-4675-9\|oclc60191622\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160729051956/https://books.google.com/books?idgqLDEKVk2nMC\|archive-date29 July 2016}} * {{cite book\| vauthors Proctor RN \|titleRacial Hygiene: Medicine Under the Nazis\|publisherHarvard University Press\|year1988\|pages[https://archive.org/details/racialhygiene00robe/page/122 122–123, 366]\|isbn978-0-674-74578-0\|oclc20760638\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/racialhygiene00robe/page/122}} * {{cite book \| vauthors Arnot ML, Usborne C\|titleGender and Crime in Modern Europe\|publisherRoutledge\|locationNew York\|year1999\|page231\|isbn978-1-85728-745-5\|oclc186748539}} * {{cite encyclopedia\|vauthorsDiMeglio PM\|veditorsTierney H\|encyclopediaWomen's Studies Encyclopedia\|titleGermany 1933–1945 (National Socialism)\|year1999\|publisherGreenwood Press\|locationWestport, Connecticut\|isbn978-0-313-31072-0\|oclc38504469\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgQLqRd7hJq0C\|page589\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151015195038/https://books.google.com/books?idgQLqRd7hJq0C\|archive-date15 October 2015}}</ref> Beginning in the second half of the 20th century, abortion was legalized in a greater number of countries.<ref name"Management of Abortion, Chp 1"/> In Japan, abortion was first legalized by the 1948 "Eugenics Protection Law" meant to prevent the births of "inferior" humans. {{As of\| 2022}}, due to Japan's continuing strongly patriarchal culture and traditional views on women's societal roles, women who want an abortion must normally get written permission from their partner.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Ye Hee Lee \|first1Michelle \|titleIn Japan, Abortion is Legal — But Most Women Need Their Husband's Consent \|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/06/14/japan-abortion-pill-women-reproductive-rights/ \|access-dateMarch 16, 2023 \|dateJune 14, 2022}}</ref><ref name"Wingfield-Hayes_8/31/2022">{{cite web \| lastWingfield-Hayes \| firstRupert \| titleAbortion pill: Why Japanese women will need their partner's consent to get a tablet \| websiteBBC News \| dateAugust 31, 2022 \| urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-62515356 \| access-dateMarch 15, 2023 \| quoteIt was actually one of the first countries in the world to pass an abortion law, back in 1948. But it was part of the Eugenics Protection Law – yes, it really was called that. It had nothing to do with giving women more control over their reproductive health. Rather, it was about preventing 'inferior' births. ... So, to this day, women who want an abortion must get written permission from their husband, partner, or in some cases their boyfriend. ... Unlike the US, Japanese views on abortion are not driven by religious belief. Instead, they derive from a long history of patriarchy and deeply traditional views on the role of women and motherhood. \| archive-date5 March 2023 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230305214443/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-62515356 \| url-statuslive }}</ref>Society and culture{{Further\|Societal attitudes towards abortion}}Abortion debate {{Main\|Abortion debate}} Induced abortion has long been the source of considerable debate. Ethical, moral, philosophical, biological, religious and legal issues surrounding abortion are related to value systems. Opinions of abortion may be about fetal rights, governmental authority, and women's rights. In both public and private debate, arguments presented in favor of or against abortion access focus on either the moral permissibility of an induced abortion, or the justification of laws permitting or restricting abortion.<ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Farrell C \| titleAbortion Debate\| publisher ABDO Publishing Company\| year2010\| pages 6–7\| isbn978-1-61785-264-0}}</ref> The World Medical Association Declaration on Therapeutic Abortion notes, "circumstances bringing the interests of a mother into conflict with the interests of her unborn child create a dilemma and raise the question as to whether or not the pregnancy should be deliberately terminated."<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.wma.net/en/30publications/10policies/a1/ \|titleWMA Declaration on Therapeutic Abortion \|publisherWorld Medical Association \|access-date28 October 2015 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151028182953/http://www.wma.net/en/30publications/10policies/a1/ \|archive-date28 October 2015 }}</ref> Abortion debates, especially pertaining to abortion laws, are often spearheaded by groups advocating one of these two positions. Groups who favor greater legal restrictions on abortion, including complete prohibition, most often describe themselves as "pro-life" while groups who are against such legal restrictions describe themselves as "pro-choice".<ref>Farrell, p. 8</ref>Modern abortion law {{Main\|Abortion law}} {{See also\|History of abortion law debate}} {{AbortionLawsMap\|size=330px}} Current laws pertaining to abortion are diverse. Religious, moral, and cultural factors continue to influence abortion laws throughout the world. The right to life, the right to liberty, the right to security of person, and the right to reproductive health are major issues of human rights that sometimes constitute the basis for the existence or absence of abortion laws. In jurisdictions where abortion is legal, certain requirements must often be met before a woman may obtain a legal abortion (an abortion performed without the woman's consent is considered feticide and is generally illegal). These requirements usually depend on the age of the fetus, often using a trimester-based system to regulate the window of legality, or as in the U.S., on a doctor's evaluation of the fetus' viability. Some jurisdictions require a waiting period before the procedure, prescribe the distribution of information on fetal development, or require that parents be contacted if their minor daughter requests an abortion.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://internationalfamilyplanningperspectives.org/pubs/MandatoryCounseling.pdf \|titleThe Impact of State Mandatory Counseling and Waiting Period Laws on Abortion: A Literature Review \|publisherGuttmacher Institute\| vauthors Joyce TJ, Henshaw SK, Dennis A, Finer LB, Blanchard K \|dateApril 2009 \|access-date31 December 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120316155239/http://internationalfamilyplanningperspectives.org/pubs/MandatoryCounseling.pdf \|archive-date16 March 2012 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Other jurisdictions may require that a woman obtain the consent of the fetus' father before aborting the fetus, that abortion providers inform women of health risks of the procedure—sometimes including "risks" not supported by the medical literature—and that multiple medical authorities certify that the abortion is either medically or socially necessary. Many restrictions are waived in emergency situations. China, which has ended their<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/oct/29/china-abandons-one-child-policy\|titleChina ends one-child policy after 35 years\| vauthors Phillips T \|date29 October 2015\|newspaperThe Guardian\|issn0261-3077\|access-date30 November 2016\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161201021629/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/oct/29/china-abandons-one-child-policy\|archive-date1 December 2016}}</ref> one-child policy, and now has a three-child policy,<ref>{{cite news \|titleChina NPC: Three-child policy formally passed into law \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-58277473 \|access-date6 April 2024 \|date20 August 2021 \|archive-date29 June 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220629190816/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-58277473 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> has at times incorporated mandatory abortions as part of their population control strategy.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia \|titleScience, Technology, and Society: An Encyclopedia \|page2 \| veditors Restivo SP \|year2005 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-19-514193-1 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idA8C3m8rRba4C \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150315111926/http://books.google.com/books?idA8C3m8rRba4C \|archive-date15 March 2015 }}</ref> Other jurisdictions ban abortion almost entirely. Many, but not all, of these allow legal abortions in a variety of circumstances. These circumstances vary based on jurisdiction, but may include whether the pregnancy is a result of rape or incest, the fetus' development is impaired, the woman's physical or mental well-being is endangered, or socioeconomic considerations make childbirth a hardship.<ref name"Dev98-07" /> In countries where abortion is banned entirely, such as Nicaragua, medical authorities have recorded rises in maternal death directly and indirectly due to pregnancy as well as deaths due to doctors' fears of prosecution if they treat other gynecological emergencies.<ref>{{cite web\|titleEuropean delegation visits Nicaragua to examine effects of abortion ban \|date26 November 2007 \|publisherIpas \|access-date15 June 2009 \|urlhttp://www.ipas.org/Library/News/News_Items/European_delegation_visits_Nicaragua_to_examine_effects_of_abortion_ban.aspx \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080417033829/http://www.ipas.org/Library/News/News_Items/European_delegation_visits_Nicaragua_to_examine_effects_of_abortion_ban.aspx \|archive-date17 April 2008 \|quoteMore than 82 maternal deaths had been registered in Nicaragua since the change. During this same period, indirect obstetric deaths, or deaths caused by illnesses aggravated by the normal effects of pregnancy and not due to direct obstetric causes, have doubled.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://insidecostarica.com/special_reports/2008-06/nicaragua_womens_movement.htm \|titleNicaragua: 'The Women's Movement Is in Opposition' \|date28 June 2008 \|locationMontevideo \|agencyIPS \|publisherInside Costa Rica \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110606102151/http://insidecostarica.com/special_reports/2008-06/nicaragua_womens_movement.htm \|archive-date6 June 2011 }}</ref> Some countries, such as Bangladesh, that nominally ban abortion, may also support clinics that perform abortions under the guise of menstrual hygiene.<ref>{{cite web\|titleSurgical Abortion: History and Overview \|publisherNational Abortion Federation \|access-date4 September 2006 \|urlhttp://www.prochoice.org/education/resources/surg_history_overview.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060922152349/http://www.prochoice.org/education/resources/surg_history_overview.html \|archive-date22 September 2006 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> This is also a terminology in traditional medicine.<ref name nations1977>{{cite journal \| vauthors Nations MK, Misago C, Fonseca W, Correia LL, Campbell OM \| title Women's hidden transcripts about abortion in Brazil \| journal Social Science & Medicine \| volume 44 \| issue 12 \| pages 1833–1845 \| date June 1997 \| pmid 9194245 \| doi 10.1016/s0277-9536(96)00293-6 \| quote Two folk medical conditions, "delayed" (atrasada) and "suspended" (suspendida) menstruation, are described as perceived by poor Brazilian women in Northeast Brazil. Culturally prescribed methods to "regulate" these conditions and provoke menstrual bleeding are also described&nbsp;... }}</ref> In places where abortion is illegal or carries heavy social stigma, pregnant women may engage in medical tourism and travel to countries where they can terminate their pregnancies.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Henshaw SK \| title The accessibility of abortion services in the United States \| journal Family Planning Perspectives \| volume 23 \| issue 6 \| pages 246–52, 263 \| year 1991 \| pmid 1786805 \| doi 10.2307/2135775 \| url http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3501603.pdf \| access-date 25 October 2017 \| url-status live \| citeseerx 10.1.1.360.6115 \| jstor 2135775 \| archive-date 24 March 2016 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160324041912/http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3501603.pdf }}</ref> Women without the means to travel can resort to providers of illegal abortions or attempt to perform an abortion by themselves.<ref>{{cite web \|titleNeed Abortion, Will Travel \| vauthors Bloom M \|date25 February 2008 \|publisherRH Reality Check \|access-date15 June 2009 \|urlhttp://www.rhrealitycheck.org/blog/2008/02/25/need-abortion-will-travel \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081130010309/http://www.rhrealitycheck.org/blog/2008/02/25/need-abortion-will-travel \|archive-date=30 November 2008 }}</ref> The organization Women on Waves has been providing education about medical abortions since 1999. The NGO created a mobile medical clinic inside a shipping container, which then travels on rented ships to countries with restrictive abortion laws. Because the ships are registered in the Netherlands, Dutch law prevails when the ship is in international waters. While in port, the organization provides free workshops and education; while in international waters, medical personnel are legally able to prescribe medical abortion drugs and counseling.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Gomperts R \| title Women on waves: where next for the abortion boat? \| journal Reproductive Health Matters \| volume 10 \| issue 19 \| pages 180–183 \| date May 2002 \| pmid 12369324 \| doi 10.1016/S0968-8080(02)00004-6 \| doi-access free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\| vauthors Best A \|date2005\|titleAbortion Rights along the Irish-English Border and the Liminality of Women's Experiences\|journalDialectical Anthropology\|volume29\|issue3–4\|pages423–37\|doi10.1007/s10624-005-3863-x\|s2cid145318165\|issn0304-4092}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\| vauthors Lambert-Beatty C \|date2008\|titleTwelve miles: Boundaries of the new art/activism\|journalSigns: Journal of Women in Culture and Society\|volume33\|issue2\|pages309–27\|doi10.1086/521179\|s2cid147307705}}</ref>Sex-selective abortion {{Main\|Sex-selective abortion}} Sonography and amniocentesis allow parents to determine sex before childbirth. The development of this technology has led to sex-selective abortion, or the termination of a fetus based on its sex. The selective termination of a female fetus is most common. Sex-selective abortion is partially responsible for the noticeable disparities between the birth rates of male and female children in some countries. The preference for male children is reported in many areas of Asia, and abortion used to limit female births has been reported in Taiwan, South Korea, India, and China.<ref>Banister, Judith. (16 March 1999). [https://www.census.gov/ipc/www/ebspr96a.html Son Preference in Asia&nbsp;– Report of a Symposium] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060216134324/http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/ebspr96a.html \|date16 February 2006 }}. Retrieved 12 January 2006.</ref> This deviation from the standard birth rates of males and females occurs despite the fact that the country in question may have officially banned sex-selective abortion or even sex-screening.<ref>{{cite news\| vauthors Reaney P \|agencyReuters \|urlhttp://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L06779563.htm \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060220072756/http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L06779563.htm \|archive-date20 February 2006 \|titleSelective abortion blamed for India's missing girls \|access-date3 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Sudha S, Irudaya RS \| title Female demographic disadvantage in India 1981-1991: sex selective abortions and female infanticide \| journal Development and Change \| volume 30 \| issue 3 \| pages 585–618 \| date July 1999 \| pmid 20162850 \| doi 10.1111/1467-7660.00130 \| s2cid 33446683 \| url http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/organizations/healthnet/gender/docs/sudha.html \| access-date 3 December 2008 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20030101210623/http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/organizations/healthnet/gender/docs/sudha.html \| archive-date 1 January 2003 \| url-access subscription }}</ref><ref name"LOC India">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.loc.gov/law/help/sex-selection/india.php\|publisherLibrary of Congress\|titleSex Selection & Abortion: India\|date4 April 2011\|access-date18 July 2011\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110927234151/http://www.loc.gov/law/help/sex-selection/india.php\|archive-date27 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|agencyXinhua News Agency\|titleChina Bans Sex-selection Abortion\|urlhttp://www.china.org.cn/english/2003/Mar/59194.htm\|access-date2023-02-16\|workwww.china.org.cn\|dateMarch 22, 2003\|archive-date12 February 2006\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060212204114/http://www.china.org.cn/english/2003/Mar/59194.htm\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In China, a historical preference for a male child has been exacerbated by the one-child policy, which was enacted in 1979.<ref>{{cite journal\| vauthors Graham MJ, Larsen U, Xu X \|dateJune 1998 \|titleSon Preference in Anhui Province, China \|journalInternational Family Planning Perspectives \|volume24 \|issue2 \|urlhttp://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/2407298.html \|doi10.2307/2991929 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120106165446/http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/2407298.html \|archive-date6 January 2012 \|url-statuslive \|pages72–77 \|jstor2991929 \|url-accesssubscription }}</ref> Many countries have taken legislative steps to reduce the incidence of sex-selective abortion. At the International Conference on Population and Development in 1994 over 180 states agreed to eliminate "all forms of discrimination against the girl child and the root causes of son preference",<ref name"UNFPA">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.unfpa.org/webdav/site/global/shared/documents/publications/2011/Preventing_gender-biased_sex_selection.pdf\|titlePreventing gender-biased sex selection\|publisherUNFPA\|access-date1 November 2011\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111011095023/https://www.unfpa.org/webdav/site/global/shared/documents/publications/2011/Preventing_gender-biased_sex_selection.pdf\|archive-date11 October 2011\|url-statuslive}}</ref> conditions also condemned by a PACE resolution in 2011.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://assembly.coe.int/Documents/WorkingDocs/Doc11/EDOC12715.pdf \|titlePrenatal sex selection \|publisherParliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111003133834/http://assembly.coe.int/Documents/WorkingDocs/Doc11/EDOC12715.pdf \|archive-date3 October 2011 \|access-date17 November 2015 }}</ref> The World Health Organization and UNICEF, along with other United Nations agencies, have found that measures to restrict access to abortion in an effort to reduce sex-selective abortions have unintended negative consequences, largely stemming from the fact that women may seek or be coerced into seeking unsafe, extralegal abortions.<ref name"UNFPA" /> On the other hand, measures to reduce gender inequality can reduce the prevalence of such abortions without attendant negative consequences.<ref name"UNFPA" /><ref>{{cite journal \|lastDas Gupta \|firstMonica \|date2019 \|titleIs banning sex-selection the best approach for reducing prenatal discrimination? \|journalAsian Population Studies \|volume15 \|issue3 \|pages319–336\|doi10.1080/17441730.2019.1671015 \|pmid34046078 \|pmc8153244 }}</ref> Anti-abortion violence {{Main\|Anti-abortion violence}} Abortion providers and facilities have been subjected to violence, including murder, assault, arson, and bombing. Some scholars consider anti-abortion violence to be within the definition of terrorism,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Wilson M, Lynxwiler J \| title Abortion clinic violence as terrorism \| journal Terrorism \| volume 11 \| issue 4 \| pages 263–273 \| year 1988 \| pmid 11618209 \| doi 10.1080/10576108808435717 }}</ref> a view shared by some governments.<ref name"csis">{{cite web \| vauthors Smith GD \|publisherCanadian Security Intelligence Service \|year1998 \|urlhttp://www.csis-scrs.gc.ca/en/publications/commentary/com74.asp \|titleSingle Issue Terrorism Commentary \|access-date 1 September 2011\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071015065711/http://csis-scrs.gc.ca/en/publications/commentary/com74.asp\| archive-date15 October 2007\|url-statusdead}}</ref> In the U.S. and Canada, over 8,000 incidents of violence, trespassing, and death threats have been recorded by providers since 1977, including over 200 bombings/arsons and hundreds of assaults.<ref>{{cite web\| urlhttps://prochoice.org/wp-content/uploads/2017-NAF-Violence-and-Disruption-Statistics.pdf\| title2017 violence and disruption statistics \|lastNational Abortion Federation\| date2017\|access-date26 May 2019\| archive-date28 July 2020\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200728204107/https://prochoice.org/wp-content/uploads/2017-NAF-Violence-and-Disruption-Statistics.pdf\| url-statuslive}}</ref> Abortion clinics have also been targeted by acid attacks, invasions, and vandalism<ref name"naf">{{cite web \|publisherNational Abortion Federation\| year2009 \|urlhttp://www.prochoice.org/pubs_research/publications/downloads/about_abortion/violence_stats.pdf \|titleIncidence of Violence & Disruption Against Abortion Providers in the U.S. & Canada \|access-date9 February 2010 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100613042214/http://prochoice.org/pubs_research/publications/downloads/about_abortion/violence_stats.pdf \|archive-date13 June 2010 }}</ref> The majority of abortion opponents have not been involved in violent acts. Physicians and other abortion clinic staff have been murdered by abortion opponents. In the United States, at least four physicians have been murdered in connection with their work at abortion clinics, including David Gunn (1993), John Britton (1994), Barnett Slepian (1998), and George Tiller (2009). In Canada, gynecologist Garson Romalis survived murder attempts in both 1994 and 2000. Besides physicians, killings have targeted other clinic staff, such as John Salvi's 1994 murder of two receptionists in Massachusetts clinic and Peter Knight's 2001 murder of a security guard in a Melbourne clinic. Notable perpetrators of anti-abortion violence include Eric Rudolph, Scott Roeder, Shelley Shannon, and Paul Hill, the first person to be executed in the United States for murdering an abortion provider.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/1999/feb/03/features11.g26 \|newspaperThe Guardian \|date3 February 1999 \|titleThe bomber under siege \| vauthors Borger J \|locationLondon \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170222105914/https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/1999/feb/03/features11.g26 \|archive-date=22 February 2017 }}</ref> Some countries have laws to protecting access to abortion. Such laws prevent abortion opponents from interfering with access to legal abortion services. For example, the American Freedom of Access to Clinic Entrances Act bars the use of threats or violence to interfere with abortion access. Abortion access laws may also establish safe access zones around abortion clinics, with limits on protests and enhanced penalties for anti-abortion violence.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Pridemore \|first1William Alex \|author1-linkWilliam Alex Pridemore \|last2Freilich \|first2Joshua D. \|date2007-12-01 \|titleThe Impact of State Laws Protecting Abortion Clinics and Reproductive Rights on Crimes Against Abortion Providers: Deterrence, Backlash, or Neither? \|urlhttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9078-0 \|journalLaw and Human Behavior \|languageen \|volume31 \|issue6 \|pages611–627 \|doi10.1007/s10979-006-9078-0 \|pmid17268826 \|issn1573-661X}}</ref> Psychological pressure may also be used to limit abortion access. In 2003, Chris Danze organized anti-abortion organizations throughout Texas to prevent the construction of a Planned Parenthood facility in Austin. The organizations released the personal information online of those involved with construction, sent them up to 1200 phone calls a day and contacted their churches.{{sfn\|Doan\|2007\|p2}} Some protestors record women entering clinics on camera.{{sfn\|Doan\|2007\|p2}} {{anchor\|Other animals}}Non-human examples <!-- This Anchor tag serves to provide a permanent target for incoming section links. Please do not move it out of the section heading, even though it disrupts edit summary generation (you can manually fix the edit summary before saving your changes). Please do not modify it, even if you modify the section title. It is always best to anchor an old section header that has been changed so that links to it won't be broken. See Template:Anchor for details. (This text: Template:Anchor comment) --> <!-- linked from redirects Abortion in animals and Pine needle abortion --> {{Further\|Miscarriage}} Spontaneous abortion occurs in various animals. For example, in sheep it may be caused by stress or physical exertion, such as crowding through doors or being chased by dogs.<ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Spencer JB \|titleSheep Husbandry in Canada \|year1908 \|page114 \|oclc798508694 }}</ref> In cows, abortion may be caused by contagious disease, such as brucellosis or Campylobacter, but can often be controlled by vaccination.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia \|urlhttp://www.teara.govt.nz/1966/B/BeefCattleAndBeefProduction/ManagementAndHusbandryOfBeefCattle/en \|titleBeef cattle and Beef production: Management and Husbandry of Beef Cattle \|encyclopediaEncyclopaedia of New Zealand \|year1966 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090101142401/http://www.teara.govt.nz/1966/B/BeefCattleAndBeefProduction/ManagementAndHusbandryOfBeefCattle/en \|archive-date1 January 2009 }}</ref> Eating pine needles can also induce abortions in cows.<ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Myers B, Beckett J \|titleAnimal Health Care and Maintenance \|chapterPine needle abortion \|chapter-urlhttp://ag.arizona.edu/arec/pubs/rmg/4%20animalcare&healthmaintenance/31%20pineneedleabortion01.pdf \|access-date10 April 2013 \|year2001 \|publisherArizona Cooperative Extension, University of Arizona \|locationTucson \|pages47–50 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150728003136/http://ag.arizona.edu/AREC/pubs/rmg/4%20animalcare%26healthmaintenance/31%20pineneedleabortion01.pdf \|archive-date28 July 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Kim IH, Choi KC, An BS, Choi IG, Kim BK, Oh YK, Jeung EB \| title Effect on abortion of feeding Korean pine needles to pregnant Korean native cows \| journal Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research \| volume 67 \| issue 3 \| pages 194–197 \| date July 2003 \| pmid 12889725 \| pmc 227052 \| publisher Canadian Veterinary Medical Association }}</ref> Several plants, including broomweed, skunk cabbage, poison hemlock, and tree tobacco, are known to cause fetal deformities and abortion in cattle<ref name"Kirkbride">{{cite book\| veditors Njaa BL \|titleKirkbride's Diagnosis of Abortion and Neonatal Loss in Animals\| year2011\| publisherJohn Wiley & Sons\|isbn978-0-470-95852-0}}</ref>{{rp\|45–46}} and in sheep and goats.<ref name"Kirkbride"/>{{rp\|77–80}} In horses, a fetus may be aborted or reabsorbed if it has lethal white syndrome. Foal embryos that are homozygous for the dominant white gene (WW) are theorized to also be aborted or resorbed before birth.<ref namephj>{{cite web\| urlhttp://www.painthorsejournal.com/pastissues/pdfs/byahair-mar04.pdf \|titleBy a Hair \| vauthors Overton R \| workPaint Horse Journal \|dateMarch 2003 \|access-date19 December 2012 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130218233122/http://www.painthorsejournal.com/pastissues/pdfs/byahair-mar04.pdf \|archive-date18 February 2013}}</ref> In many species of sharks and rays, stress-induced abortions occur frequently on capture.<ref>{{cite journal\| vauthors Adams KR, Fetterplace LC, Davis AR, Taylor MD, Knott NA \|titleSharks, rays and abortion: The prevalence of capture-induced parturition in elasmobranchs\| journalBiological Conservation\|dateJanuary 2018\|volume217\|pages11–27\| doi10.1016/j.biocon.2017.10.010\|bibcode2018BCons.217...11A \| s2cid90834034 \|urlhttp://marxiv.org/k2qvy/\|access-date30 July 2019\| archive-date23 February 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190223020619/https://marxiv.org/k2qvy/\|url-status=dead}}</ref> Viral infection can cause abortion in dogs.<ref namedogabort1>{{cite web \|url http://www.petmd.com/dog/conditions/infectious-parasitic/c_dg_canine_herpesvirus_infection \|title Herpesvirus in dog pups \|publisher petMD \|access-date 18 December 2012 \|url-status live \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131109165216/http://www.petmd.com/dog/conditions/infectious-parasitic/c_dg_canine_herpesvirus_infection \|archive-date 9 November 2013}}</ref> Cats can experience spontaneous abortion for many reasons, including hormonal imbalance. A combined abortion and spaying is performed on pregnant cats, especially in trap–neuter–return programs, to prevent unwanted kittens from being born.<ref namespay1>{{cite web \|url http://www.carolsferals.org/spaying-pregnant-females/ \|title Spaying Pregnant Females \|publisher Carol's Ferals \|access-date 17 December 2012 \|url-status usurped \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20121118110647/http://www.carolsferals.org/spaying-pregnant-females/ \|archive-date 18 November 2012}} </ref><ref namespay2>{{cite web \|url http://www.petmd.com/blogs/fullyvetted/2007/may/feline-abortion-often-unnerving-necessity \|title Feline abortion: often an unnerving necessity \| vauthors Coates J \|date 7 May 2007 \|publisher petMD \|access-date 18 December 2012 \|url-status live \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20120121085850/http://www.petmd.com/blogs/fullyvetted/2007/may/feline-abortion-often-unnerving-necessity \|archive-date 21 January 2012}}</ref><ref namespay3>{{cite web \|url http://www.carolsferals.org/spaying-pregnant-females/ \|title Feline abortion: often an unnerving necessity (Part 2) \| vauthors Khuly P \|date 1 April 2011 \|publisher petMD \|access-date 18 December 2012 \|url-status usurped \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20121118110647/http://www.carolsferals.org/spaying-pregnant-females/ \|archive-date 18 November 2012}} </ref> Female rodents may terminate a pregnancy when exposed to the smell of a male not responsible for the pregnancy, known as the Bruce effect.<ref nameSchwagmeyer>{{cite journal \|jstor2460564 \|pages932–938 \| vauthors Schwagmeyer PL \|titleThe Bruce Effect: An Evaluation of Male/Female Advantages \|volume114 \|issue6 \|journalThe American Naturalist \|year1979 \|doi10.1086/283541\|bibcode1979ANat..114..932S \|s2cid85097151 }}</ref> Abortion may also be induced in animals, in the context of animal husbandry. For example, abortion may be induced in mares that have been mated improperly, or that have been purchased by owners who did not realize the mares were pregnant, or that are pregnant with twin foals.<ref>{{cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjlZAT-9VwUIC \|titleEquine Reproduction \|page563 \| vauthors McKinnon AO, Voss JL \|publisherWiley-Blackwell \|isbn0-8121-1427-2 \|year1993 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150315091737/http://books.google.com/books?idjlZAT-9VwUIC \|archive-date15 March 2015 }}</ref> Feticide can occur in horses and zebras due to male harassment of pregnant mares or forced copulation,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Berger J \| title Induced abortion and social factors in wild horses \| journal Nature \| volume 303 \| issue 5912 \| pages 59–61 \| date 5 May 1983 \| pmid 6682487 \| doi 10.1038/303059a0 \| s2cid 4259800 \| bibcode 1983Natur.303...59B }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Pluhácek J, Bartos L \| title Male infanticide in captive plains zebra, Equus burchelli \| journal Animal Behaviour \| volume 59 \| issue 4 \| pages 689–694 \| date April 2000 \| pmid 10792924 \| doi 10.1006/anbe.1999.1371 \| url http://af.czu.cz/~bartos/publications/pdf/Pluhacek_Bartos_2000_AB.pdf \| url-status dead \| s2cid 10961845 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110718170925/http://af.czu.cz/~bartos/publications/pdf/Pluhacek_Bartos_2000_AB.pdf \| archive-date 18 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\| first1 Jan \|last1 Pluhacek \| first2 Luděk \|last2 Bartoš \|year2005\| titleFurther evidence for male infanticide and feticide in captive plains zebra, Equus burchelli\| journalFolia Zoologica\|volume54\| issue3\|pages258–262\| urlhttp://www.ivb.cz/folia/54/3/258-262.pdf\| url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120222174717/http://www.ivb.cz/folia/54/3/258-262.pdf\| archive-date22 February 2012\| access-date12 April 2009}}</ref> although the frequency in the wild has been questioned.<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthors Kirkpatrick JF, Turner JW \|titleChanges in Herd Stallions among Feral Horse Bands and the Absence of Forced Copulation and Induced Abortion \|journalBehavioral Ecology and Sociobiology \|volume29 \|issue3 \|pages217–19 \|doi10.1007/BF00166404 \|year1991 \|jstor4600608\|bibcode1991BEcoS..29..217K \| s2cid32756929}}</ref> Male gray langur monkeys may attack females following male takeover, causing miscarriage.<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthors Agoramoorthy G, Mohnot SM, Sommer V, Srivastava A \|titleAbortions in free ranging Hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus)&nbsp;– a male induced strategy? \|journalHuman Evolution \|volume3\| issue4\| pages297–308\| year1988 \|doi10.1007/BF02435859\| s2cid84849590}}</ref> See also Abortion doula Forced abortion My body, my choice Indirect abortion Notes {{reflist\|groupnb}} References {{reflist\|colwidth30em}} Bibliography {{Refbegin\|30em}} {{Further\|United States anti-abortion movement#Further reading}} {{cite Catholic Encyclopedia \|wstitleAbortion \|volume1 \| vauthors = Coppens C }} {{cite book \|vauthorsDevereux G \|author-linkGeorge Devereux \|titleA Study of Abortion in Primitive Societies \|publisherInternational Universities Press \|year1976 \|isbn978-0-8236-6245-6 \|url=https://archive.org/details/studyofabortioni00deve}} * {{cite book \|vauthorsDoan AE \|titleOpposition and Intimidation: The abortion wars and strategies of political harassment \|year2007 \|publisherUniversity of Michigan}} * {{cite journal \|vauthorsGanatra B, Tunçalp Ö, Johnston HB, Johnson BR, Gülmezoglu AM, Temmerman M \|titleFrom concept to measurement: operationalizing WHO's definition of unsafe abortion \|journalBulletin of the World Health Organization \|volume92 \|issue3 \|page155 \|dateMarch 2014 \|pmid24700971 \|pmc3949603 \|doi10.2471/BLT.14.136333}} * {{cite book \|vauthorsHartmann B \|titleReproductive Rights and Wrongs: The Global Politics of Population Control \|publisherSouth End Press \|year1995 \|isbn=978-0-89608-491-9}} * {{cite book \|vauthorsKoblitz AH \|author-linkAnn Hibner Koblitz \|titleSex and Herbs and Birth Control: Women and Fertility Regulation Through the Ages \|publisherKovalevskaia Fund \|year2014 \|isbn978-0-9896655-0-6}} * {{cite book \|vauthorsRiddle JM \|author-linkJohn M. Riddle \|titleEve's Herbs: A History of Contraception and Abortion in the West \|year1997 \|publisher=Harvard University Press}} * {{cite journal \|vauthorsSedgh G, Bearak J, Singh S, Bankole A, Popinchalk A, Ganatra B, Rossier C, Gerdts C, Tunçalp Ö, Johnson BR, Johnston HB, Alkema L \|display-authors6 \|titleAbortion incidence between 1990 and 2014: global, regional, and subregional levels and trends \|journalLancet \|volume388 \|issue10041 \|pages258–267 \|dateJuly 2016 \|pmid27179755 \|pmc5498988 \|doi10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30380-4 \|ref{{harvid\|Sedgh et al\|2016}}}} * {{Cite Q\|Q124418995}} {{cite book \|lastUN \|author-linkUnited Nations \|titleAbortion Policies: A Global Review 3 vols. \|date2002 \|publisherPopulation Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations \|urlhttps://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/abortion/ \|access-date28 June 2017 \|archive-date11 January 2005 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050111012745/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/abortion/doc/macedonia.doc \|url-statuslive}} {{cite book \|last1WHO \|author-linkWorld Health Organization \|titleThe World Health Report 2005: Make every mother and child count \|urlhttps://www.who.int/whr/2005/en/ \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050413194036/http://www.who.int/whr/2005/en/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-date13 April 2005 \|date2005 \|publisherWorld Health Organization \|locationGeneva \|isbn=92-4-156290-0}} * {{cite book \|last1WHO \|author-linkWorld Health Organization \|titleSafe abortion: technical and policy guidance for health systems \|date2012 \|publisherWorld Health Organization \|locationGeneva \|isbn978-92-4-154843-4 \|edition2nd \|urlhttp://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/70914/1/9789241548434_eng.pdf?ua1 \|access-date2 November 2014 \|archive-date16 January 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150116223512/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/70914/1/9789241548434_eng.pdf?ua1 \|url-status=live}} * {{cite web \|last1WHO \|author-linkWorld Health Organization \|titleHealth worker roles in providing safe abortion care and post-abortion contraception \|urlhttp://srhr.org/safeabortion/ \|access-date8 January 2017 \|date2016 \|ref{{harvid\|WHO\|2016a}} \|archive-date29 March 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190329150415/http://srhr.org/safeabortion/ \|url-statuslive}} {{Refend}} External links {{Library resources box \|byno \|onlinebooksno \|othersyes lcheadingAbortion}} {{Scholia\|topic}} <!-- HELP KEEP THIS ARTICLE SHORT AND SIMPLE: ADD LINKS TO WHICHEVER SUB-ARTICLE WOULD BE APPROPRIATE INSTEAD OF HERE. ALSO, PLEASE UNDERSTAND THAT SITES CONTAINING SHOCK MATERIAL SHALL IN NO CASE BE ACCEPTED. THANKS!!--> * [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/abortion WHO fact sheet on abortion] * [https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/173586/WHO_RHR_15.04_eng.pdf;jsessionidA45A2A52E41EF59E9E71A08430BF4DA0?sequence1 Safe abortion: Technical & policy guidance for health systems], World Health Organization (2015) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171018012623/https://www.guideline.gov/summaries/summary/47346/firsttrimester-abortion-in-women-with-medical-conditions?q=Women First-trimester abortion in women with medical conditions.] US Department of Health and Human Services {{Abortion}} {{Women's health\|state=collapsed}} {{Pregnancy}} {{Particular human rights}} {{Reproductive health}} {{Birth control methods}} {{Population}} {{Subject bar\|Medicine \|Religion \|auto1\|wikty\|b=y}} {{Authority control}} Category:Human reproduction Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate Category:Wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abortion	2025-04-05T18:25:21.666675
766	Abstract (law)	In law, an abstract is a brief statement that contains the most important points of a long legal document or of several related legal papers. Types of legislation The abstract of title, used in real estate transactions, is the more common form of abstract. An abstract of title lists all the owners of a piece of land, a house, or a building before it came into possession of the present owner. The abstract also records all deeds, wills, mortgages, and other documents that affect ownership of the property. An abstract describes a chain of transfers from owner to owner and any agreements by former owners that are binding on later owners. References External links , defining the requirements regarding the abstract in an international application filed under Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) and (previously ), defining the abstract-related requirements in a European patent application Category:Legal research	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_(law)	2025-04-05T18:25:21.671236
771	American Revolutionary War	{{Short description\|1775–1783 American war of independence from Great Britain}} {{About\|military actions primarily\|origins and aftermath\|American Revolution}} {{Pp-vandalism\|expiryindefinite\|smallyes}} <!-- Please do not make any major edits to the lead, as it was agreed upon by consensus on the talk page. Please discuss if you wish to change it. --> {{Use American English\|date=June 2019}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=March 2020}} {{Infobox military conflict \| conflict = American Revolutionary War \| partof = the American Revolution \| image = {{Multiple image \| perrow = 1/2/2 \| total_width = 300 \| border=infobox \| image1= Surrender of Lord Cornwallis.jpg \| image2= Battle of Guilford Courthouse 15 March 1781.jpg \| image3= Battle of Trenton by Charles McBarron.jpg \| image4= BattleofLongisland.jpg \| image5= The Battle of Bunker's Hill Bridgeman Images.jpg \| footer_align = left \| footer = Clockwise from top left: Surrender of Lord Cornwallis after the siege of Yorktown, Battle of Trenton, The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker Hill, Battle of Long Island, and the Battle of Guilford Court House }} \| image_size \| date April 19, 1775{{snds}}September 3, 1783{{Efn\|A cease-fire in North America was proclaimed by Congress<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttp://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/proc1783.asp \| titleAvalon Project - British-American Diplomcay : Proclamation Declaring the Cesssation of Arms; April 11, 1783 }}</ref> on April 11, 1783, under a cease-fire agreement between Great Britain and France on January 20, 1783. The final peace treaty was signed on September 3, 1783, and ratified on January 14, 1784, in the U.S., with final ratification exchanged in Europe on May 12, 1784. Hostilities in India continued until July 1783.}}<br />({{Age in years, months and days\|1775\|04\|19\|1783\|09\|03}})<br />Ratification effective: May 12, 1784 \| place = Eastern North America, North Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean \| result = <!--DO NOT ALTER WITHOUT CONSENSUS --> American and allied victory * Signing of the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776. * Great Britain would not recognize American independence until signing the Treaty of Paris. * End of the First British Empire<ref name="4I7tG">Simms 2009, pp. 615–618</ref> \| territory = Great Britain cedes generally, all mainland territories east of the Mississippi River, south of the Great Lakes, and north of the Floridas to the United States. * Great Britain cedes Tobago and Senegal to France. * Great Britain cedes Menorca, West Florida and East Florida to Spain. <!--PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE WITHOUT CONSENSUS-->\| combatant1 = Patriots:<br>{{flagcountry\|Thirteen Colonies}} (1775)<br>{{Flagdeco\|Thirteen Colonies}}{{Flagdeco\|United States\|1776}} United Colonies (1775–1776)<br>{{Unbulleted list \|{{Flagdeco\|United States\|1776}}{{Flagdeco\|United States\|1777}} United States (from 1776){{efn\|Including the United Colonies period from 1776 to 1781 and the Confederation period from 1781 to 1783.}} {{Collapsible list\|bullets=on \|New Hampshire\|Massachusetts\|Rhode Island\|Connecticut\|New York\|New Jersey\|Pennsylvania\|Delaware\|Maryland\|Virginia\|North Carolina\|South Carolina\|Georgia}}<br>{{Flagcountry\|Kingdom of France}} <br>{{flagdeco\|Kingdom of Spain\|1760}} Spain<br>{{Flagcountry\|Dutch Republic}} }} \| combatant1a = Combatants {{Unbulleted list \| Br. Canadien, Cong. rgts.{{Efn\|Two independent "COR" Regiments, the Congress's Own Regiments, were recruited among British Canadiens. The 1st Canadian Regiment formed by James Livingston of Chambly, Quebec;<ref name"h5WNR">Smith 1907, p. 86</ref> and the 2nd Canadian Regiment formed by Moses Hazen of Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Quebec.<ref name"kRctn">Everest 1977, p. 38</ref>}} \| Br. Canadien mil., Fr. led{{Efn\|Augustin de La Balme independently marched on Detroit under a French flag with British Canadien militia recruited from western Quebec (Illinois County, Virginia) at the county seat of Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Vincennes.<ref name="kbqqr">Seineke 1981, p. 36, fn</ref>}}}} {{Collapsible list<!-- removed for consistency, until this works correctly when nested: \|bullets=on --> \|titlestyle=background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;font-size:100%; \|framestyle=border:none; padding:0; <!--Hides borders and improves row spacing--> \|titleNative Americans<ref name"bell">Bell 2015, Essay</ref> \|Oneida\|Tuscarora\|Catawba\|Lenape\|Chickasaw\|Choctaw\|Mohican\|Mi'kmaq{{Efn\|(until 1779)}}\|Abenaki\|Cheraw\|Pedee\|Lumbee<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://allthingsliberty.com/2015/02/indian-patriots-from-eastern-massachusetts-six-perspectives/\|titleIndian Patriots from Eastern Massachusetts: Six Perspectives\|firstDaniel J.\|lastTortora\|dateFebruary 4, 2015\|websiteJournal of the American Revolution}}</ref>}} <!--DO NOT CHANGE WITHOUT CONSENSUS-->\| combatant2 = {{Flagcountry\|Kingdom of Great Britain}} Loyalists<!--Agreed by consensus, do not revert--> Quebec Nova Scotia West Florida East Florida \| combatant2a = Combatants<br>{{Unbulleted list \|{{Collapsible list\|bullets=on \|titlestyle=background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;font-size:100%; \|title{{flagicon\|Hesse}}{{Efn\|Sixty-five percent of Britain's German auxiliaries employed in North America were from Hesse-Kassel (16,000) and Hesse-Hanau (2,422), flying this same flag.<ref>Axelrod 2014, p. 66</ref>}} {{flagicon\|Brunswick\|pre1814}}{{Efn\|Twenty percent of Britain's German auxiliaries employed in North America were from Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (5,723),<ref>Eelking 1893, p. 66</ref> flying this flag.<ref>{{cite web \|titleDuchy of Brunswick until 1918 (Germany) \|urlhttps://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/de-bs814.html \|websitewww.crwflags.com \|publisherFlags of the World \|access-date5 February 2024}}</ref>}} German mercenaries/auxiliaries<ref name"atwood1,23">Atwood 2002, pp. 1, 23</ref>{{Efn\|The British hired over 30,000 professional soldiers from various German states who served in North America from 1775 to 1782.<ref>Lowell 1884, pp. 14–15</ref> Commentators and historians often refer to them as mercenaries or auxiliaries, terms that are sometimes used interchangeably.<ref name"atwood1,23" />}}<!--There was a consensus to use both terms, per neutrality.--> \| Hesse-Kassel\| Hesse-Hanau\| Waldeck<!--black, yellow and red colors not officially used by the military until 1814: see https://www.fotw.info/flags/de-wp_hi.html-->\| Brunswick\| Ansbach\| Anhalt-Zerbst \|{{Flagcountry\|Electorate of Hanover}} }} {{Collapsible list\|bullets=on \|titlestyle=background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;font-size:100%; \|titleNative Americans<ref name"bell" /> \|Onondaga\|Mohawk \|Cayuga\|Seneca\|Mi'kmaq{{Efn\|(from 1779)}}\|Cherokee\|Odawa\|Muscogee\|Susquehannock\|Shawnee}} }} \| commander1 = <!--MAJOR LEADERS ONLY. DO NOT ADD/REMOVE WITHOUT CONSENSUS -->{{Unbulleted list \|{{Flagdeco\|United States\|1777}} Peyton Randolph \|{{Flagdeco\|United States\|1777}} John Hancock\|{{Flagdeco\|United States\|1777}} Benjamin Franklin}} ---- {{Unbulleted list\|{{Flagdeco\|United States\|1777}} George Washington\|{{Flagdeco\|United States\|1777}} Horatio Gates\|{{Flagdeco\|United States\|1777}} Nathanael Greene\|{{Flagdeco\|United States\|1777}} Henry Knox\|{{Flagdeco\|United States\|1777}} John Sullivan\|{{Flagdeco\|United States\|1777}} Benedict Arnold{{Turncoat}}{{Efn\|name=Arnold\|Arnold served on the American side from 1775 to 1780; after defecting, he served on the British side from 1780 to 1783.}}\|{{flagicon image \|George Rogers Clark Flag.svg}} George Rogers Clark\| {{Flagdeco\|Kingdom of France}} {{Flagdeco\|United States\|1777}} Lafayette\|{{Flagdeco\|Kingdom of France}} Rochambeau\|{{Flagdeco\|Spain\|1748}} Bernardo de Gálvez\|full list...}} \| commander2 = <!--MAJOR LEADERS ONLY. DO NOT ADD/REMOVE WITHOUT CONSENSUS-->{{Unbulleted list \|{{flagdeco\|Kingdom of Great Britain}} George III\|{{Flagicon\|Kingdom of Great Britain}} Lord North\|{{Flagicon\|Kingdom of Great Britain}} Lord Shelburne}} ---- {{Unbulleted list\|{{Flagicon\|Kingdom of Great Britain}} Lord George Germain\|{{Flagdeco\|Kingdom of Great Britain}} Thomas Gage\|{{Flagdeco\|Kingdom of Great Britain}} William Howe\|{{Flagdeco\|Kingdom of Great Britain}} Henry Clinton\|{{Flagdeco\|Kingdom of Great Britain}} John Burgoyne\|{{Flagdeco\|Kingdom of Great Britain}} Charles Cornwallis\|{{Flagdeco\|Kingdom of Great Britain}} Benedict Arnold{{Efn\|name=Arnold}}\|{{Flagdeco\|Kingdom of Great Britain}} Henry Hamilton\|{{Flagdeco\|Kingdom of Great Britain}} Banastre Tarleton\|full list...}} \| strength1 = {{Unbulleted list \|United States:{{Bulleted list \|Army and militia:{{Bulleted list\|40,000 (average)<ref name"duncan371">Duncan, L. 1931, p. 371</ref>{{Efn\|The total in active duty service for the American Cause during the American Revolutionary War numbered 200,000.<ref name"6bqxv">Lanning 2009, pp. 195–196</ref>}}}} \|Navy:{{Bulleted list\|53 frigates and sloops<ref name"Greene" />{{Efn\|5,000 sailors (peak),<ref name"Greene">Greene & Pole 2008, p. 328</ref> manning privateers, an additional 55,000 total sailors<ref name="usmm">U.S. Merchant Marine 2012, "Privateers and Mariners"</ref>}}}} \|Marines: 2,131 (peak)<ref>Simmons 2003</ref> \|State navies:{{Bulleted list\|106 ships (total)<ref>Paullin 1906, pp. 315–316</ref>}}}} \|France:{{Bulleted list \|Army: 10,800{{Efn\|In 1780, General Rochambeau landed in Rhode Island with an independent command of about 6000 troops,<ref>Keiley 1912, "Rochambeau"</ref> and in 1781 Admiral de Grasse landed nearly 4000 troops who were detached to Lafayette's Continental Army surrounding British General Cornwallis in Virginia at Yorktown.<ref>"Rochambeau", Dictionary of American Biography</ref> An additional 750 French troops participated with the Spanish assault on Pensacola.<ref name="beerman181">Beerman 1979, p. 181</ref>}} \|Navy: 2 fleets;{{efn\|For five months in 1778 from July to November, the French deployed a fleet to assist American operations off of New York, Rhode Island and Savannah commanded by Admiral d'Estaing, with little result.<ref>Britannica 1911, "C. H. Estaing"</ref> In September 1781, Admiral de Grasse left the West Indies to defeat the British fleet off Virginia at the Battle of the Chesapeake, then offloaded 3,000 troops and siege cannon to support Washington's siege of Yorktown.<ref name"miTsf">"F. J. P. de Grasse", Encyclopædia Britannica</ref>}} escorts<ref name"dull110">Dull 1987, p. 110</ref>}} \| Spain: \|Army: 12,000{{efn\|Governor Bernardo de Gálvez deployed 500 Spanish regulars in his New Orleans-based attacks on British-held locations west of the Mississippi River in Spanish Luisiana.<ref>Gayarré 1867, pp. 125–126</ref> In later engagements, Galvez had 800 regulars from New Orleans to assault Mobile, reinforced by infantry from regiments of Jose de Ezpeleta from Havana. In the assault on Pensacola, the Spanish Army contingents from Havana exceeded 9,000.<ref>Beerman 1979, pp. 177–179</ref> For the final days of the siege at Pensacola siege, Admiral Jose Solano's fleet landed 1,600 crack infantry veterans from that of Gibraltar.<ref name="beerman181" />}} \|Navy: 1 fleet;{{efn\|Admiral Jose Solano's fleet arrived from the Mediterranean Sea to support the Spanish conquest of English Pensacola, West Florida.<ref name="beerman181" />}} escorts \|Native Americans: Unknown }} \| strength2 = {{Unbulleted list \|Great Britain:{{Bulleted list \|Army:{{Bulleted list \|48,000 (average), most in North America{{Efn\|British 121,000 (global 1781)<ref>Rinaldi, "British Army 1775–1783"</ref> "Of 7,500 men in the Gibraltar garrison in September (including 400 in hospital), some 3,430 were always on duty".<ref>Chartrand 2006, p. 63</ref>}}}} \|Navy:{{Bulleted list \|Task-force fleets & blockading squadrons{{Efn\|Royal Navy 94 ships-of-the-line global, 104 frigates global,<ref name"winfield">Winfield 2007</ref> 37 sloops global,<ref name"winfield" /> 171,000 sailors<ref name="macksey6,176">Mackesy 1993&nbsp;[1964], pp. 6, 176</ref>}}}}}} \|Loyalist troops:{{Bulleted list \|25,000 (total)<ref name="savas41">Savas & Dameron 2006, p. xli</ref>{{Efn\|Contains a detailed listing of American, French, British, German, and Loyalist regiments; indicates when they were raised, the main battles, and what happened to them. Also includes the main warships on both sides, and all the important battles.}}}} \|German troops:{{Bulleted list \|29,875 (total)<ref name="Knesebeck">Knesebeck 2017&nbsp;[1845], p. 9</ref>}} \|Native Americans:{{Bulleted list\|13,000<ref name="Greene p. 393" />}}}} \| casualties1 = {{Unbulleted list \|United States:{{Bulleted list \|178,800–223,800 total dead \|6,800 killed \|6,100 wounded \|17,000 dead from disease<ref name="oLlYw">Burrows 2008a, "Patriots or Terrorists"</ref> \|25,000–70,000 war dead<ref name="FFKG4">Peckham (ed.) 1974</ref> \|130,000 dead from smallpox<ref name="2D11O">Clodfelter 2017, pp. 133–134</ref>}} \|France:{{Bulleted list \|2,112 killed– East Coast<ref name"ApKKb">Rignault 2004, pp. 20, 53</ref>{{Efn\|1Beyond the 2112 deaths recorded by the French Government fighting for U.S. independence, additional men died fighting Britain in a war waged by France, Spain, and the Dutch Republic from 1778 to 1784, "overseas" from the American Revolution as posited by a British scholar{{specify\|dateJuly 2022}} in his "War of the American Revolution".<ref name"yt8Dp">Clodfelter 2017, pp. 75, 135</ref>}}}} \|Spain:{{Bulleted list \|371 killed – W. Florida<ref name="gZqKm">Otfinoski 2008, p. 16</ref> \|4,000 dead – prisoners<ref name="QEJS2">Archuleta 2006, p. 69</ref>}} \|Native Americans: Unknown }} \| casualties2 = {{Unbulleted list \|Great Britain:{{Bulleted list \|8,500 killed<ref name"3kb8Q">Clodfelter 2017, p. 134</ref>{{Efn\|Clodfelter reports that the total deaths among the British and their allies numbered 15,000 killed in battle or died of wounds. These included estimates of 3,000 Germans, 3,000 Loyalists and Canadians, 3,000 lost at sea, and 500 Native Americans killed in battle or died of wounds.<ref name"2D11O" />}}}} \|Germans:{{Bulleted list \|7,774 total dead \|1,800 killed \|4,888 deserted<ref name="duncan371" />}} \|Loyalists:{{Bulleted list \|7,000 total dead \|1,700 killed \|5,300 dead from disease<ref name="SlCBl">Burrows 2008b, Forgotten Patriots</ref>}} \|Native Americans:{{Bulleted list \|500 total dead<ref name="2D11O" />}} }} \| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox American Revolutionary War}} }} The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence, was the armed conflict that comprised the final eight years of the broader American Revolution, in which American Patriot forces organized as the Continental Army and commanded by George Washington defeated the British Army. The conflict was fought in North America, the Caribbean, and the Atlantic Ocean. The war's outcome seemed uncertain for most of the war. But Washington and the Continental Army's decisive victory in the Siege of Yorktown in 1781 led King George III and the Kingdom of Great Britain to negotiate an end to the war in the Treaty of Paris two years later, in 1783, in which the British monarchy acknowledged the independence of the Thirteen Colonies, leading to the establishment of the United States of America as an independent and sovereign nation. In 1763, after the British Empire gained dominance in North America following its victory over the French in the Seven Years' War, tensions and disputes began escalating between the British and the Thirteen Colonies, especially following passage of Stamp and Townshend Acts by the British Parliament. The British Army responded by seeking to occupy Boston militarily, leading to the Boston Massacre on March 5, 1770. In mid-1774, with tensions escalating even further between the British Army and the colonies, the British Parliament imposed the Intolerable Acts, an attempt to disarm Americans, leading to the Battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775, the first battles of the Revolutionary War. In June 1775, the Second Continental Congress, including 56 colonial delegates, convened in present-day Independence Hall in the colonial capital of Philadelphia, where they voted to incorporate colonial-based Patriot militias into a central military, the Continental Army, and unanimously appointed Washington its commander-in-chief. Two months later, in August 1775, the British Parliament declared the colonies to be in a state of rebellion. In July 1776, the Second Continental Congress embraced and formalized the war, passing the Lee Resolution on July 2, and, two days later, unanimously adopting the Declaration of Independence, on July 4. In March 1776, in an early win for the newly-formed Continental Army under Washington's command, following a successful siege of Boston, the Continental Army successfully drove the British Army out of Boston. British commander in chief William Howe responded by launching the New York and New Jersey campaign, which resulted in Howe's capture of New York City in November. Washington responded by clandestinely crossing the Delaware River and winning small but significant victories at Trenton and Princeton. In the summer of 1777, as Howe was poised to capture Philadelphia, the Continental Congress fled to Baltimore. In October 1777, a separate northern British force under the command of John Burgoyne was forced to surrender at Saratoga in an American victory that proved crucial in convincing France and Spain that an independent United States was a viable possibility. France signed a commercial agreement with the rebels, followed by a Treaty of Alliance in February 1778. In 1779, the Sullivan Expedition undertook a scorched earth campaign against the Iroquois who were largely allied with the British. Indian raids on the American frontier, however, continued to be a problem. Also, in 1779, Spain allied with France against Great Britain in the Treaty of Aranjuez, though Spain did not formally ally with the Americans. Howe's replacement Henry Clinton intended to take the war against the Americans into the Southern Colonies. Despite some initial success, British General Cornwallis was besieged by a Franco-American force in Yorktown in September and October 1781. Cornwallis was forced to surrender in October. The British wars with France and Spain continued for another two years, but fighting largely ceased in North America. In the Treaty of Paris, ratified on September 3, 1783, Great Britain acknowledged the sovereignty and independence of the United States, bringing the American Revolutionary War to an end. The Treaties of Versailles resolved Great Britain's conflicts with France and Spain and forced Great Britain to cede Tobago, Senegal, and small territories in India to France, and Menorca, West Florida and East Florida to Spain.<ref>Lawrence S. Kaplan, "The Treaty of Paris, 1783: A Historiographical Challenge", International History Review, Sept 1983, Vol. 5 Issue 3, pp 431–442</ref><ref name"9w1sv">Wallace 2015, "American Revolution"</ref>Prelude to war {{Main\|American Revolution}} {{Further\|American Enlightenment\|Colonial history of the United States\|Thirteen Colonies}} and Spain following the French and Indian War with lands held by the British prior to 1763 (in red), land gained by Britain in 1763 (in pink), and lands ceded to the Kingdom of Spain in secret during 1762 (in light yellow).]] The French and Indian War, part of the wider global conflict known as the Seven Years' War, ended with the 1763 Peace of Paris, which expelled France from their possessions in New France.<ref name"wtW8l">Calloway 2007, p. 4</ref> The Royal Proclamation of 1763 was designed to refocus colonial expansion north into Nova Scotia and south into Florida, with the Mississippi River as the dividing line between British and Spanish possessions in America. Settlement was tightly restricted beyond the 1763 limits, and claims west of this line, including by Virginia and Massachusetts, were rescinded.{{Sfn\|Lass\|1980\|p3}} With the exception of Virginia and others deprived of rights to western lands, the colonial legislatures agreed on the boundaries but disagreed on where to set them. Many settlers resented the restrictions entirely, and enforcement required permanent garrisons along the frontier, which led to increasingly bitter disputes over who should pay for them.<ref name"pb2Zp">Calloway 2007, p. 12</ref>Taxation and legislation {{Further\|Boston Tea Party\|Pine Tree Riot}} The huge debt incurred by the Seven Years' War and demands from British taxpayers for cuts in government expenditure meant Parliament expected the colonies to fund their own defense.<ref name"pb2Zp" /> The 1763 to 1765 Grenville ministry instructed the Royal Navy to cease trading smuggled goods and enforce customs duties levied in American ports.<ref name"pb2Zp" /> The most important was the 1733 Molasses Act; routinely ignored before 1763, it had a significant economic impact since 85% of New England rum exports were manufactured from imported molasses. These measures were followed by the Sugar Act and Stamp Act, which imposed additional taxes on the colonies to pay for defending the western frontier.<ref name"4R8zt">Watson and Clark 1960, pp. 183–184</ref> The taxes proved highly burdensome, particularly for the poorer classes, and quickly became a source of discontent.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastKay \|firstMarvin L. Michael \|dateApril 1969 \|titleThe Payment of Provincial and Local Taxes in North Carolina, 1748–1771 \|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/1918676 \|journalThe William and Mary Quarterly \|volume26 \|issue2 \|pages218–240 \|doi10.2307/1918676 \|jstor1918676 \|access-date1 September 2024}}</ref> In July 1765, the Whigs formed the First Rockingham ministry, which repealed the Stamp Act and reduced tax on foreign molasses to help the New England economy, but re-asserted Parliamentary authority in the Declaratory Act.<ref name"Leqka">Watson and Clark 1960, pp. 116, 187</ref> However, this did little to end the discontent; in 1768, a riot started in Boston when the authorities seized the sloop Liberty on suspicion of smuggling.<ref name"sImY5">Morgan 2012, p. 40</ref> Tensions escalated in March 1770 when British troops fired on rock-throwing civilians, killing five in what became known as the Boston Massacre.<ref name"kIDxS">Ferling 2007, p. 23</ref> The Massacre coincided with the partial repeal of the Townshend Acts by the Tory-based North Ministry. North insisted on retaining duty on tea to enshrine Parliament's right to tax the colonies; the amount was minor, but ignored the fact it was that very principle Americans found objectionable.<ref name="HdjZT">Morgan 2012, p. 52</ref> In April 1772, colonialists staged the first American tax revolt against British royal authority in Weare, New Hampshire, later referred to as the Pine Tree Riot.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleThe Weare NH Historical Society \|urlhttp://wearehistoricalsociety.org/pineriot.php \|access-date2024-07-01 \|websitewearehistoricalsociety.org}}</ref> This would inspire the design of the Pine Tree Flag. Tensions escalated following the destruction of a customs vessel in the June 1772 Gaspee Affair, then came to a head in 1773. A banking crisis led to the near-collapse of the East India Company, which dominated the British economy; to support it, Parliament passed the Tea Act, giving it a trading monopoly in the Thirteen Colonies. Since most American tea was smuggled by the Dutch, the act was opposed by those who managed the illegal trade, while being seen as another attempt to impose the principle of taxation by Parliament.<ref name"oTpsv">Greene & Pole 2008, pp. 155–156</ref> In December 1773, a group called the Sons of Liberty disguised as Mohawks dumped crates of tea into Boston Harbor, an event later known as the Boston Tea Party. The British Parliament responded by passing the so-called Intolerable Acts, aimed specifically at Massachusetts, although many colonists and members of the Whig opposition considered them a threat to liberty in general. This increased sympathy for the Patriot cause locally, in the British Parliament, and in the London press.<ref name"t3NFX">Ammerman 1974, p. 15</ref> Break with the British Crown {{Further\|Battles of Lexington and Concord\|First Continental Congress}} Throughout the 18th century, the elected lower houses in the colonial legislatures gradually wrested power from their governors.<ref name"0pRKw">Olsen 1992, pp. 543–544</ref> Dominated by smaller landowners and merchants, these assemblies now established ad-hoc provincial legislatures, effectively replacing royal control. With the exception of Georgia, twelve colonies sent representatives to the First Continental Congress to agree on a unified response to the crisis.<ref name"0j3B4">Ferling 2003, p. 112</ref> Many of the delegates feared that a boycott would result in war and sent a Petition to the King calling for the repeal of the Intolerable Acts.<ref name"BkMNP">Ferling 2015, p. 102</ref> After some debate, on September 17, 1774, Congress endorsed the Massachusetts Suffolk Resolves and on October 20 passed the Continental Association, which instituted economic sanctions and a boycott of goods against Britain.<ref name"yBXBu">Greene & Pole 2008, p. 199</ref> While denying its authority over internal American affairs, a faction led by James Duane and future Loyalist Joseph Galloway insisted Congress recognize Parliament's right to regulate colonial trade.<ref name"yBXBu" />{{Efn\|"Resolved, 4. That the foundation of English liberty, and of all free government, is a right in the people to participate in their legislative council: ... they are entitled to a free and exclusive power of legislation in their several provincial legislatures, where their right of representation can alone be preserved, in all cases of taxation and internal polity, subject only to the negative of their sovereign, ...: But, ... we cheerfully consent to the operation of such acts of the British parliament, as are bonafide, restrained to the regulation of our external commerce, for the purpose of securing the commercial advantages of the whole empire to the mother country, and the commercial benefits of its respective members; excluding every idea of taxation internal or external, [without the consent of American subjects]." quoted from the Declarations and Resolves of the First Continental Congress October 14, 1774.}} Expecting concessions by the North administration, Congress authorized the colonial legislatures to enforce the boycott; this succeeded in reducing British imports by 97% from 1774 to 1775.<ref name"RVpda">Paine, Kramnick (Ed.) 1982, p. 21</ref> However, on February 9 Parliament declared Massachusetts to be in rebellion and instituted a blockade of the colony.<ref name"X94UC">Ferling 2007, pp. 62–64</ref> In July, the Restraining Acts limited colonial trade with the British West Indies and Britain and barred New England ships from the Newfoundland cod fisheries. The tension led to a scramble for control of militia stores, which each assembly was legally obliged to maintain for defense.<ref name"JNwEc">Axelrod 2009, p. 83</ref> On April 19, a British attempt to secure the Concord arsenal culminated in the Battles of Lexington and Concord, which began the Revolutionary War.<ref name"Ng1sv">Fischer, D. 2004, p. 76</ref>Political reactions {{Main\|Olive Branch Petition}} , who were charged with drafting the Declaration of Independence, including (from left to right): John Adams (chair), Roger Sherman, Robert Livingston, Thomas Jefferson (the Declaration's principal author), and Benjamin Franklin]] After the Patriot victory at Concord, moderates in Congress led by John Dickinson drafted the Olive Branch Petition, offering to accept royal authority in return for George III mediating in the dispute.<ref name"nessy25">O'Shaughnessy 2013, p. 25</ref> However, since the petition was immediately followed by the Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms, Colonial Secretary Lord Dartmouth viewed the offer as insincere and refused to present the petition to the king.<ref name"NXP0A">Brown 1941, pp. 29–31</ref> Although constitutionally correct, since the monarch could not oppose his own government, it disappointed those Americans who hoped he would mediate in the dispute, while the hostility of his language annoyed even Loyalist members of Congress.<ref name"nessy25" /> Combined with the Proclamation of Rebellion, issued on August 23 in response to the Battle at Bunker Hill, it ended hopes of a peaceful settlement.<ref name"ketchum211">Ketchum 2014a, p. 211</ref> Backed by the Whigs, Parliament initially rejected the imposition of coercive measures by 170 votes, fearing an aggressive policy would drive the Americans towards independence.<ref name"maier25">Maier 1998, p. 25</ref> However, by the end of 1774 the collapse of British authority meant both Lord North and George III were convinced war was inevitable.<ref name"fFVBS">Ferling 2003, pp. 123–124</ref> After Boston, Gage halted operations and awaited reinforcements; the Irish Parliament approved the recruitment of new regiments, while allowing Catholics to enlist for the first time.<ref name"lecky162-165">Lecky 1892, vol. 3, pp. 162–165</ref> Britain also signed a series of treaties with German states to supply additional troops.<ref name"davenport132-144">Davenport 1917, pp. 132–144</ref> Within a year, it had an army of over 32,000 men in America, the largest ever sent outside Europe at the time.<ref name"smith21-23">Smith, D. 2012, pp. 21–23</ref> The employment of German soldiers against people viewed as British citizens was opposed by many in Parliament and by the colonial assemblies; combined with the lack of activity by Gage, opposition to the use of foreign troops allowed the Patriots to take control of the legislatures.<ref name"miller410">Miller, J. 1959, pp. 410–412</ref> Declaration of Independence {{Main\|United States Declaration of Independence}} Support for independence was boosted by Thomas Paine's pamphlet Common Sense, which was published on January 10, 1776, and argued for American self-government and was widely reprinted.<ref name"maier33-34">Maier 1998, pp. 33–34</ref> To draft the Declaration of Independence, the Second Continental Congress appointed the Committee of Five: Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert Livingston.<ref name"mccullough119">McCullough 2005, pp. 119–122</ref> The declaration was written almost exclusively by Jefferson.<ref>[https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/independence-dechousehistory.htm "The Declaration House Through Time"], National Park Services</ref> Identifying inhabitants of the Thirteen Colonies as "one people", the declaration simultaneously dissolved political links with Britain, while including a long list of alleged violations of "English rights" committed by George III. This is also one of the first times that the colonies were referred to as "United States", rather than the more common United Colonies.<ref name="ferling112">Ferling 2007, pp. 112, 118</ref> On July 2, Congress voted for independence and published the declaration on July 4.<ref name"R0xyC">Maier 1998, pp. 160–161</ref> At this point, the revolution ceased to be an internal dispute over trade and tax policies and had evolved into a civil war, since each state represented in Congress was engaged in a struggle with Britain, but also split between American Patriots and American Loyalists.<ref name"IE7Bq">Mays 2019, p. 2</ref> Patriots generally supported independence from Britain and a new national union in Congress, while Loyalists remained faithful to British rule. Estimates of numbers vary, one suggestion being the population as a whole was split evenly between committed Patriots, committed Loyalists, and those who were indifferent.<ref name"DEcPu">Mays 2019, p. 3</ref> Others calculate the split as 40% Patriot, 40% neutral, 20% Loyalist, but with considerable regional variations.<ref name"Greene p. 235">Greene & Pole 2008, p. 235</ref> At the onset of the war, the Second Continental Congress realized defeating Britain required foreign alliances and intelligence-gathering. The Committee of Secret Correspondence was formed for "the sole purpose of corresponding with our friends in Great Britain and other parts of the world". From 1775 to 1776, the committee shared information and built alliances through secret correspondence, as well as employing secret agents in Europe to gather intelligence, conduct undercover operations, analyze foreign publications, and initiate Patriot propaganda campaigns.<ref name"cia2007">CIA 2007, "Intelligence Until WWII"</ref> Paine served as secretary, while Benjamin Franklin and Silas Deane, sent to France to recruit military engineers,<ref>Clary, 2007, pp. 86–87</ref> were instrumental in securing French aid in Paris.<ref name"rose43">Rose A. 2014&nbsp;[2006], p. 43</ref> War breaks out {{main\|Northern theater of the American Revolutionary War\|Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War}} {{see also\|Western theater of the American Revolutionary War}} {{further\|Naval battles of the American Revolutionary War}} Early engagements {{Further\|Battles of Lexington and Concord\|Shot heard round the world}} attack at the Battle of Quebec in December 1775]] of the 2nd South Carolina Regiment, on a parapet raising the fort's South Carolina Revolutionary flag with its white crescent moon.\|Sergeant William Jasper of the 2nd South Carolina Regiment raises the fort's flag at the Battle of Sullivan's Island in Charleston, South Carolina, in June 1776]] On April 14, 1775, Sir Thomas Gage, Commander-in-Chief, North America and Governor of Massachusetts, received orders to take action against the Patriots. He decided to destroy militia ordnance stored at Concord, Massachusetts, and capture John Hancock and Samuel Adams, who were considered the principal instigators of the rebellion. The operation was to begin around midnight on April 19, in the hope of completing it before the American Patriots could respond.<ref name"oSWXd">Ferling, 2007, p. 29</ref><ref name"icqWN">Fischer, p. 85</ref> However, Paul Revere learned of the plan and notified Captain Parker, commander of the Concord militia, who prepared to resist.<ref name"Q5xrq">Ferling 2007, pp. 129–19{{page needed\|dateJune 2023}}</ref> The first action of the war, commonly referred to as the shot heard round the world, was a brief skirmish at Lexington, followed by the full-scale Battles of Lexington and Concord. British troops suffered around 300 casualties before withdrawing to Boston, which was then besieged by the militia.<ref name="Hyy3u">Ketchum 2014a, pp. 18, 54</ref> In May 1775, 4,500 British reinforcements arrived under Generals William Howe, John Burgoyne, and Sir Henry Clinton.<ref name"lSvP0">Ketchum 2014a, pp. 2–9</ref> On June 17, they seized the Charlestown Peninsula at the Battle of Bunker Hill, a frontal assault in which they suffered over 1,000 casualties.<ref name"TZZpb">Higginbotham 1983&nbsp;[1971], pp. 75–77</ref> Dismayed at the costly attack which had gained them little,<ref name"jP5Oe">Ketchum 2014a, pp. 183, 198–209</ref> Gage appealed to London for a larger army,<ref name"ktPiL">Rankin 1987, p. 63</ref> but instead was replaced as commander by Howe.<ref name="TZZpb" /> On June 14, 1775, Congress took control of Patriot forces outside Boston, and Congressional leader John Adams nominated Washington as commander-in-chief of the newly formed Continental Army.<ref name"nXlAp">Chernow, 2010, p. 186</ref> On June 16, Hancock officially proclaimed him "General and Commander in Chief of the army of the United Colonies."<ref name"Nx1rV">Chernow, 2010, p. 187</ref> He assumed command on July 3, preferring to fortify Dorchester Heights outside Boston rather than assaulting it.<ref name"CH6Xw">McCullough 2005, p. 53</ref> In early March 1776, Colonel Henry Knox arrived with heavy artillery acquired in the Capture of Fort Ticonderoga.<ref name"rFWWw">Frothingham 1903, pp. 100–101</ref> Under cover of darkness, on March 5, Washington placed these on Dorchester Heights,<ref name"E7Y0J">Ferling 2003, p. 183</ref> from where they could fire on the town and British ships in Boston Harbor. Fearing another Bunker Hill, Howe evacuated the city on March 17 without further loss and sailed to Halifax, Nova Scotia, while Washington moved south to New York City.<ref name"IDjnL">Alden 1969, pp. 188–190</ref> Beginning in August 1775, American privateers raided towns in Nova Scotia, including Saint John, Charlottetown, and Yarmouth. In 1776, John Paul Jones and Jonathan Eddy attacked Canso and Fort Cumberland respectively. British officials in Quebec began negotiating with the Iroquois for their support,<ref name"QwMwp">Smith, J. 1907&nbsp;vol. 1, p. 293</ref> while US envoys urged them to remain neutral.<ref name"yGdMY">Glatthaar 2007, pp. 91, 93</ref> Aware of Native American leanings toward the British and fearing an Anglo-Indian attack from Canada, Congress authorized a second invasion in April 1775.<ref name"eWWH5">Greene & Pole 2008, pp. 504–505</ref> After the defeat at the Battle of Quebec on December 31,<ref name"Jfxzh">Randall 1990, pp. 38–39</ref> the Americans maintained a loose blockade of the city until they retreated on May 6, 1776.<ref name"yYbsM">Lanctot 1967, pp. 141–246</ref> A second defeat at Trois-Rivières on June 8 ended operations in Quebec.<ref name"qYcQ0">Stanley 2006, pp. 127–128</ref> British pursuit was initially blocked by American naval vessels on Lake Champlain until victory at Valcour Island on October 11 forced the Americans to withdraw to Fort Ticonderoga, while in December an uprising in Nova Scotia sponsored by Massachusetts was defeated at Fort Cumberland.<ref name"84Tbw">Smith, J. 1907&nbsp;vol. 1, p. 242</ref> These failures impacted public support for the Patriot cause,<ref name"MCw6s">Watson and Clark 1960, p. 203</ref> and aggressive anti-Loyalist policies in the New England colonies alienated the Canadians.<ref name="ZFLSb">Lefkowitz 2007, pp. 264–265</ref> In Virginia, Dunmore's Proclamation on November 7, 1775, promised freedom to any slaves who fled their Patriot masters and agreed to fight for the Crown.<ref name"A8wFb">Levy 2007, p. 74</ref> British forces were defeated at Great Bridge on December 9 and took refuge on British ships anchored near Norfolk. When the Third Virginia Convention refused to disband its militia or accept martial law, Lord Dunmore ordered the Burning of Norfolk on January 1, 1776.<ref name"1FC9n">Russell 2000, p. 73</ref> The siege of Savage's Old Fields began on November 19 in South Carolina between Loyalist and Patriot militias,<ref name"CdDYP">McCrady 1901, p. 89</ref> and the Loyalists were subsequently driven out of the colony in the Snow Campaign.<ref name"3Ehts">Landrum 1897, pp. 80–81</ref> Loyalists were recruited in North Carolina to reassert British rule in the South, but they were decisively defeated in the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge.<ref name"ZWeHt">Wilson 2005, p. 33</ref> A British expedition sent to reconquer South Carolina launched an attack on Charleston in the Battle of Sullivan's Island on June 28, 1776,<ref name"efEyN">Hibbert 2008, p. 106</ref> but it failed.<ref name="LWF70">Bicheno 2014, pp. 154, 158</ref> A shortage of gunpowder led Congress to authorize a naval expedition against the Bahamas to secure ordnance stored there.<ref name"field104">Field 1898, p. 104</ref> On March 3, 1776, an American squadron under the command of Esek Hopkins landed at the east end of Nassau and encountered minimal resistance at Fort Montagu. Hopkins' troops then marched on Fort Nassau. Hopkins had promised governor Montfort Browne and the civilian inhabitants that their lives and property would not be in any danger if they offered no resistance; they complied. Hopkins captured large stores of powder and other munitions that was so great he had to impress an extra ship in the harbor to transport the supplies back home, when he departed on March 17.<ref name"field117-118">Field 1898, pp. 114–118</ref> A month later, after a brief skirmish with {{HMS\|Glasgow\|1757\|6}}, they returned to New London, Connecticut, the base for American naval operations.<ref name"I4JgD">Field 1898, pp. 120–125</ref>British New York counter-offensive {{Main\|New York and New Jersey campaign}} {{Further\|Battle of Fort Washington\|Battle of Long Island}} , connecting Upper and Lower New York Bay, to isolate Fort Washington in the Battle of Fort Washington in November 1776.]] After regrouping at Halifax in Nova Scotia,<ref name"86AtO">Fischer, D. 2004, pp. 78–76</ref> Howe set sail for New York in June 1776 and began landing troops on Staten Island near the entrance to New York Harbor on July 2. The Americans rejected Howe's informal attempt to negotiate peace on July 30;<ref name"fu3mC">Ketchum 2014&nbsp;[1973], p. 104</ref> Washington knew that an attack on the city was imminent and realized that he needed advance information to deal with disciplined British regular troops. On August 12, 1776, Patriot Thomas Knowlton was ordered to form an elite group for reconnaissance and secret missions. Knowlton's Rangers, which included Nathan Hale, became the Army's first intelligence unit.<ref name"mgY85">Johnston 1897, p. 61</ref>{{Efn\|To learn when and where the attack would occur Washington asked for a volunteer among the Rangers to spy on activity behind enemy lines in Brooklyn. Young Nathan Hale stepped forward, but he was only able to provide Washington with nominal intelligence at that time.<ref name"FLQKA">Burke 1975, p. 134</ref> On September 21, Hale was recognized in a New York City tavern, and was apprehended with maps and sketches of British fortifications and troop positions in his pockets. Howe ordered that he be summarily hung as a spy without trial the next day.<ref name"lFweM">Baker 2014, Chap. 11</ref>}} When Washington was driven off Long Island, he soon realized that he would need to professionalize military intelligence. With aid from Benjamin Tallmadge, Washington launched the six-man Culper spy ring.<ref name"Baker 2014, Chap.12">Baker 2014, Chap. 12</ref>{{Efn\|Tallmadge's cover name became John Bolton, and he was the architect of the spy ring.<ref name"Baker 2014, Chap.12" />}} The efforts of Washington and the Culper Spy Ring substantially increased the effective allocation and deployment of Continental regiments in the field.<ref name"Baker 2014, Chap.12" /> Throughout the war, Washington spent more than 10 percent of his total military funds on military intelligence.<ref name="w8uDs">CIA 2011, Historical Document</ref> Washington split the Continental Army into positions on Manhattan and across the East River in western Long Island.<ref name"QzdDu">Fischer, D. 2004, pp. 89, 381</ref> On August 27 at the Battle of Long Island, Howe outflanked Washington and forced him back to Brooklyn Heights, but he did not attempt to encircle Washington's forces.<ref name"04huq">Adams 1963&nbsp;[1895–96], p. 657</ref> Through the night of August 28, Knox bombarded the British. Knowing they were up against overwhelming odds, Washington ordered the assembly of a war council on August 29; all agreed to retreat to Manhattan. Washington quickly had his troops assembled and ferried them across the East River to Manhattan on flat-bottomed freight boats without any losses in men or ordnance, leaving General Thomas Mifflin's regiments as a rearguard.<ref name="2BFMO">McCullough 2005, pp. 184–186</ref> Howe met with a delegation from the Second Continental Congress at the September Staten Island Peace Conference, but it failed to conclude peace, largely because the British delegates only had the authority to offer pardons and could not recognize independence.<ref name"4FsKF">McGuire 2011, pp. 165–166</ref> On September 15, Howe seized control of New York City when the British landed at Kip's Bay and unsuccessfully engaged the Americans at the Battle of Harlem Heights the following day.<ref name"5YPyI">Fischer, D. 2004, pp. 102–107</ref> On October 18, Howe failed to encircle the Americans at the Battle of Pell's Point, and the Americans withdrew. Howe declined to close with Washington's army on October 28 at the Battle of White Plains and instead attacked a hill that was of no strategic value.<ref name="baDUW">Fischer, D. 2004, pp. 102–111</ref> Washington's retreat isolated his remaining forces and the British captured Fort Washington on November 16. The British victory there amounted to Washington's most disastrous defeat with the loss of 3,000 prisoners.<ref name"iikrS">Ketchum 2014&nbsp;[1973], pp. 111, 130</ref> The remaining American regiments on Long Island fell back four days later.<ref name"ImjPu">Fischer, D. 2004, pp. 109–125</ref> General Henry Clinton wanted to pursue Washington's disorganized army, but he was first required to commit 6,000 troops to capture Newport, Rhode Island, to secure the Loyalist port.<ref name"uekYy">McCullough 2005, p. 122</ref>{{Efn\|The American prisoners were subsequently sent to the infamous prison ships in the East River, where more American soldiers and sailors died of disease and neglect than died in every battle of the war combined.<ref name"YCPdp">Lowenthal 2009, pp. 61, 131</ref>}} General Charles Cornwallis pursued Washington, but Howe ordered him to halt.<ref name="1TXji">Tucker 2002, pp. 22–23</ref> The outlook following the defeat at Fort Washington appeared bleak for the American cause. The reduced Continental Army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men and was reduced further when enlistments expired at the end of the year.<ref name"U9aPa">Schecter 2003, pp. 266–267</ref> Popular support wavered, and morale declined. On December 20, 1776, the Continental Congress abandoned the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia and moved to Baltimore, where it remained until February 27, 1777.<ref name"SpAkV">Fischer, D. 2004, pp. 138–142</ref> Loyalist activity surged in the wake of the American defeat, especially in New York state.<ref name="kPQRy">Morris, R.B. Morris 1983 (1965), p. 139</ref> In London, news of the victorious Long Island campaign was well received with festivities held in the capital. Public support reached a peak.<ref name"sCNCR">McCullough 2005, p. 195</ref> Strategic deficiencies among Patriot forces were evident: Washington divided a numerically weaker army in the face of a stronger one, his inexperienced staff misread the military situation, and American troops fled in the face of enemy fire. The successes led to predictions that the British could win within a year.<ref name"bCOlv">Adams 1963&nbsp;[1895–96], pp. 650–670</ref> The British established winter quarters in the New York City area and anticipated renewed campaigning the following spring.<ref name"w14iW">Schecter 2003, pp. 259–263</ref>Patriot resurgence {{Further\|George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River\|Battle of Trenton\|Battle of Princeton}} '', an iconic 1851 Emanuel Leutze portrait depicting Washington's covert crossing of the Delaware River on December 25–26, 1776]] , the last U.S. president to fight in the Revolutionary War as a Continental Army officer, took part in the crossing of the Delaware River and the Battle of Trenton alongside George Washington]] On the night of December 25–26, 1776, Washington crossed the Delaware River, leading a column of Continental Army troops from today's Bucks County, Pennsylvania, to today's Mercer County, New Jersey, in a logistically challenging and dangerous operation. Meanwhile, the Hessians were involved in numerous clashes with small bands of Patriots and were often aroused by false alarms at night in the weeks before the actual Battle of Trenton. By Christmas they were tired, while a heavy snowstorm led their commander, Colonel Johann Rall, to assume no significant attack would occur.<ref>Stryker, 1898, p. 122</ref> At daybreak on the 26th, the American Patriots surprised and overwhelmed Rall and his troops, who lost over 20 killed including Rall,<ref>Fischer, 2006, pp. 248, 255</ref> while 900 prisoners, German cannons and supplies were captured.<ref name="QceAB">Fischer, D. 2004, pp. 206–208, 254</ref> The Battle of Trenton restored the American army's morale, reinvigorated the Patriot cause,<ref name"mjfFg">Wood 1995, pp. 72–74</ref> and dispelled their fear of what they regarded as Hessian "mercenaries".<ref name"yIUgZ">Mauch 2003, p. 416</ref> A British attempt to retake Trenton was repulsed at Assunpink Creek on January 2;<ref name"GGEem">Fischer, D. 2004, p. 307</ref> during the night, Washington outmaneuvered Cornwallis, then defeated his rearguard in the Battle of Princeton the following day. The two victories helped convince the French that the Americans were worthy military allies.<ref name"G2skh">McCullough 2005, p. 290</ref> After his success at Princeton, Washington entered winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey, where he remained until May<ref name"sZDyW">Lengel 2005, p. 208</ref> and received Congressional direction to inoculate all Patriot troops against smallpox.<ref name"4ru2u">Washington 1932, "Writings" v. 7, pp. 38, 130–131</ref>{{efn\|The mandate came by way of Benjamin Rush, chair of the Medical Committee. Congress had directed that all troops who had not previously survived smallpox infection be inoculated. In explaining himself to state governors, Washington lamented that he had lost "an army" to smallpox in 1776 by the "Natural way" of immunity.<ref name"fsQm0">Washington 1932, "Writings" v. 7, pp. 131, 130</ref>}} With the exception of a minor skirmishing between the two armies which continued until March,<ref name"T0TSz">Fischer, D. 2004, pp. 345–358</ref> Howe made no attempt to attack the Americans.<ref name"MdrQi">Lecky 1891&nbsp;Vol. 4, p. 57</ref>British northern strategy fails {{Further\|Saratoga campaign\|Philadelphia campaign\|Valley Forge}} maneuvers and (inset) the Battles of Saratoga in September and October 1777]] The 1776 campaign demonstrated that regaining New England would be a prolonged affair, which led to a change in British strategy to isolating the north by taking control of the Hudson River, allowing them to focus on the south where Loyalist support was believed to be substantial.<ref name"RnTHY">Ketchum 1997, pp. 79–80</ref> In December 1776, Howe wrote to the Colonial Secretary Lord Germain, proposing a limited offensive against Philadelphia, while a second force moved down the Hudson from Canada.<ref name"FD6xX">Ketchum 1997, pp. 81–82</ref> Burgoyne supplied several alternatives, all of which gave him responsibility for the offensive, with Howe remaining on the defensive. The option selected required him to lead the main force south from Montreal down the Hudson Valley, while a detachment under Barry St. Leger moved east from Lake Ontario. The two would meet at Albany, leaving Howe to decide whether to join them.<ref name"qw8y4">Ketchum 1997, p. 84</ref> Reasonable in principle, this did not account for the logistical difficulties involved and Burgoyne erroneously assumed Howe would remain on the defensive; Germain's failure to make this clear meant he opted to attack Philadelphia instead.<ref name"UlroQ">Ketchum 1997, pp. 85–86</ref> With a mixed force of British regulars, professional German soldiers and Canadian militia Burgoyne set out on June 14, 1777, and captured Fort Ticonderoga on July 5. As General Horatio Gates retreated, his troops blocked roads, destroyed bridges, dammed streams, and stripped the area of food.<ref name"KjViH">Ketchum 1997, pp. 244–249</ref> This slowed Burgoyne's progress and forced him to send out large foraging expeditions; one of more than 700 British troops were captured at the Battle of Bennington on August 16.<ref name"BNFDD">Gabriel 2012, p. x</ref> St Leger moved east and besieged Fort Stanwix; despite defeating an American relief force at the Battle of Oriskany on August 6, Burgoyne was abandoned by his Indian allies and withdrew to Quebec on August 22.<ref name"SzR6M">Ketchum 1997, p. 332</ref> Now isolated and outnumbered by Gates, Burgoyne continued onto Albany rather than retreating to Fort Ticonderoga, reaching Saratoga on September 13. He asked Clinton for support while constructing defenses around the town.<ref name"VbMeB">Ketchum 1997, pp. 337–339</ref> Morale among his troops rapidly declined, and an unsuccessful attempt to break past Gates at the Battle of Freeman Farms on September 19 resulted in 600 British casualties.<ref name"xIkVK">Ketchum 1997, pp. 368–369</ref> When Clinton advised he could not reach them, Burgoyne's subordinates advised retreat; a reconnaissance in force on October 7 was repulsed by Gates at the Battle of Bemis Heights, forcing them back into Saratoga with heavy losses. By October 11, all hope of British escape had vanished; persistent rain reduced the camp to a "squalid hell" and supplies were dangerously low.<ref name"MRVwq">Ferling, 2007, pp. 238–239</ref> Burgoyne capitulated on October 17; around 6,222 soldiers, including German forces commanded by General Friedrich Adolf Riedesel, surrendered their arms before being taken to Boston, where they were to be transported to England.<ref name="G36uo">Ketchum 1997, pp. 421–424</ref> After securing additional supplies, Howe made another attempt on Philadelphia by landing his troops in Chesapeake Bay on August 24.<ref name"V3zgZ">Stedman 1794, Vol. 1, pp. 317–319</ref> He now compounded failure to support Burgoyne by missing repeated opportunities to destroy his opponent: despite defeating Washington at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, he then allowed him to withdraw in good order.<ref name"lgid0">Adams 1911, p. 43</ref> After dispersing an American detachment at Paoli on September 20, Cornwallis occupied Philadelphia on September 26, with the main force of 9,000 under Howe based just to the north at Germantown.<ref name"IMKqn">Ward, C. 1952, pp. 361–362</ref> Washington attacked them on October 4, but was repulsed.<ref name"LEStg">Taaffe 2003, pp. 95–100</ref> To prevent Howe's forces in Philadelphia being resupplied by sea, the Patriots erected Fort Mifflin and nearby Fort Mercer on the east and west banks of the Delaware respectively, and placed obstacles in the river south of the city. This was supported by a small flotilla of Continental Navy ships on the Delaware, supplemented by the Pennsylvania State Navy, commanded by John Hazelwood. An attempt by the Royal Navy to take the forts in the October 20 to 22 Battle of Red Bank failed;<ref name"75GN3">Daughan, 2011, pp. 148–155</ref><ref name"mcgeorge5">McGeorge, 1905, pp. 4–8</ref> a second attack captured Fort Mifflin on November 16, while Fort Mercer was abandoned two days later when Cornwallis breached the walls.<ref name"OKOhj">Cadwalader 1901, p. 20</ref> His supply lines secured, Howe tried to tempt Washington into giving battle, but after inconclusive skirmishing at the Battle of White Marsh from December 5 to 8, he withdrew to Philadelphia for the winter.<ref name"Hlf4h">Cadwalader 1901, p. 22</ref> On December 19, the Americans followed suit and entered winter quarters at Valley Forge. As Washington's domestic opponents contrasted his lack of battlefield success with Gates' victory at Saratoga,<ref name"fsEEE">Cadwalader 1901, pp. 22, 27</ref> foreign observers such as Frederick the Great were equally impressed with Washington's command at Germantown, which demonstrated resilience and determination.<ref name"KFJ3w">Fiske 1891, p. 332</ref> Over the winter, poor conditions, supply problems and low morale resulted in 2,000 deaths, with another 3,000 unfit for duty due to lack of shoes.<ref name"USnEK">Chernow 2010 (2011), pp. 327–328</ref> However, Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben took the opportunity to introduce Prussian Army drill and infantry tactics to "model companies" in each Continental Army regiment, who then instructed their home units.<ref name"NPYXp">Lockhart 2008, p.?{{page needed\|dateSeptember 2024}}</ref> Despite Valley Forge being only twenty miles away, Howe made no effort to attack their camp, an action some critics argue could have ended the war.<ref name"A Concluding Commentary">Risch, 1981, pp. 322, 417–418</ref> Foreign intervention {{Main\|France in the American Revolutionary War\|Spain and the American Revolutionary War\|Carlisle Peace Commission}} with U.S. warships in European waters with access to Dutch, French, and Spanish ports]] Like his predecessors, French foreign minister Vergennes considered the 1763 Peace a national humiliation and viewed the war as an opportunity to weaken Britain. He initially avoided open conflict, but allowed American ships to take on cargoes in French ports, a technical violation of neutrality.<ref name"RQia1">Ferling 2007, p. 117</ref> Vergennes persuaded Louis XVI to secretly fund a government front company to purchase munitions for the Patriots, carried in neutral Dutch ships and imported through Sint Eustatius in the Caribbean.<ref name"7Emll">Jones 2002, pp. 5–6</ref> Many Americans opposed a French alliance, fearing to "exchange one tyranny for another", but this changed after a series of military setbacks in early 1776. As France had nothing to gain from the colonies reconciling with Britain, Congress had three choices: making peace on British terms, continuing the struggle on their own, or proclaiming independence, guaranteed by France. Although the Declaration of Independence had wide public support, over 20% of Congressmen voted against an alliance with France.<ref name"m8HfD">Ferling 2007, pp. 117–119</ref> Congress agreed to the treaty with reluctance and as the war moved in their favor increasingly lost interest in it.<ref name"Jh722">Chambers 1999</ref> Silas Deane was sent to Paris to begin negotiations with Vergennes, whose key objectives were replacing Britain as the United States' primary commercial and military partner while securing the French West Indies from American expansion.<ref name"AxPnm">Chambers 2004</ref> These islands were extremely valuable; in 1772, the value of sugar and coffee produced by Saint-Domingue on its own exceeded that of all American exports combined.<ref name"XpW61">Eclov 2013 pp. 23–24</ref> Talks progressed slowly until October 1777, when British defeat at Saratoga and their apparent willingness to negotiate peace convinced Vergennes only a permanent alliance could prevent the "disaster" of Anglo-American rapprochement. Assurances of formal French support allowed Congress to reject the Carlisle Peace Commission and insist on nothing short of complete independence.<ref name="LV00I">Stockley 2001, pp. 11–14</ref> On February 6, 1778, France and the United States signed the Treaty of Amity and Commerce regulating trade between the two countries, followed by a defensive military alliance against Britain, the Treaty of Alliance. In return for French guarantees of American independence, Congress undertook to defend their interests in the West Indies, while both sides agreed not to make a separate peace; conflict over these provisions would lead to the 1798 to 1800 Quasi-War.<ref name"Jh722" /> Charles III of Spain was invited to join on the same terms but refused, largely due to concerns over the impact of the Revolution on Spanish colonies in the Americas. Spain had complained on multiple occasions about encroachment by American settlers into Louisiana, a problem that could only get worse once the United States replaced Britain.<ref name"cLbUe">{{Cite web \|lastRenouf \|firstStephen \|titleSpain in the American Revolution \|urlhttps://members.sar.org/media/uploads/pages/309/TJx3jcf0O6up.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://members.sar.org/media/uploads/pages/309/TJx3jcf0O6up.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|access-date7 December 2020 \|websiteSpain Society; SAR \|publishersar.org}}</ref> 's joint expedition with Sullivan at the Battle of Rhode Island in August 1778]] Although Spain ultimately made important contributions to American success, in the Treaty of Aranjuez, Charles agreed only to support France's war with Britain outside America, in return for help in recovering Gibraltar, Menorca and Spanish Florida.<ref name"1WkNc">Davenport 1917, pp. 145–146</ref> The terms were confidential since several conflicted with American aims; for example, the French claimed exclusive control of the Newfoundland cod fisheries, a non-negotiable for colonies like Massachusetts.<ref name"Zpiql">Davenport 1917, p. 146</ref> One less well-known impact of this agreement was the abiding American distrust of 'foreign entanglements'; the U.S. would not sign another treaty with France until their NATO agreement of 1949.<ref name"Jh722" /> This was because the US had agreed not to make peace without France, while Aranjuez committed France to keep fighting until Spain recovered Gibraltar, effectively making it a condition of U.S. independence without the knowledge of Congress.<ref name"Sj8Yw">Weeks 2013, p. 27</ref> To encourage French participation in the struggle for independence, the U.S. representative in Paris, Silas Deane promised promotion and command positions to any French officer who joined the Continental Army. Such as Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, whom Congress via Dean appointed a major general,<ref>Chernow, 2010, p. 298</ref><ref>Horn, 1989, pp. 24–25, 30</ref> on July 31, 1777.<ref>Axelrod, 2009, pp. 234–235</ref> When the war started, Britain tried to borrow the Dutch-based Scots Brigade for service in America, but pro-Patriot sentiment led the States General to refuse.<ref name"REc39">Edler 2001&nbsp;[1911], pp. 28–32</ref> Although the Republic was no longer a major power, prior to 1774 they still dominated the European carrying trade, and Dutch merchants made large profits shipping French-supplied munitions to the Patriots. This ended when Britain declared war in December 1780, a conflict that proved disastrous to the Dutch economy.<ref name"2mejD">Scott 1988, pp. 572–573</ref> The British government failed to take into account the strength of the American merchant marine and support from European countries, which allowed the colonies to import munitions and continue trading with relative impunity. While well aware of this, the North administration delayed placing the Royal Navy on a war footing for cost reasons; this prevented the institution of an effective blockade.<ref name"vh541">Syrett 1998, p. 2</ref> Traditional British policy was to employ European land-based allies to divert the opposition; in 1778, they were diplomatically isolated and faced war on multiple fronts.<ref name"30Yfr">Syrett 1998, pp. 18–19</ref> Meanwhile, George III had given up on subduing America while Britain had a European war to fight.<ref name"BNJcV">Ferling 2007, p. 294</ref> He did not welcome war with France, but he held the British victories over France in the Seven Years' War as a reason to believe in ultimate victory over France.<ref name"0Xa9K">Syrett 1998, p. 17</ref> Britain subsequently changed its focus into the Caribbean theater,<ref name"bdwF7">Syrett 1998, p. 18</ref> and diverted major military resources away from America.<ref name"uPqly">Higginbotham 1983&nbsp;[1971], pp. 175–188</ref> Stalemate in the North {{Main\|Northern theater of the American Revolutionary War after Saratoga\|Western theater of the American Revolutionary War}} repulsing the British at the Battle of Springfield in June 1780; "Give 'em Watts, boys!"]] At the end of 1777, Howe resigned and was replaced by Sir Henry Clinton on May 24, 1778; with French entry into the war, he was ordered to consolidate his forces in New York.<ref name"uPqly" /> On June 18, the British departed Philadelphia with the reinvigorated Americans in pursuit; the Battle of Monmouth on June 28 was inconclusive but boosted Patriot morale. That midnight, the newly installed Clinton continued his retreat to New York.<ref name"ru2b1">Chernow 2010 (2011), p. 343</ref> A French naval force under Admiral Charles Henri Hector d'Estaing was sent to assist Washington; deciding New York was too formidable a target, in August they launched a combined attack on Newport, with General John Sullivan commanding land forces.<ref name"2fC9I">Morrissey 2004, pp. 77–78</ref> The resulting Battle of Rhode Island was indecisive; badly damaged by a storm, the French withdrew to avoid risking their ships.<ref name"hGItT">Daughan 2011&nbsp;[2008], pp. 174–176</ref> Further activity was limited to British raids on Chestnut Neck and Little Egg Harbor in October.<ref name"aNa6z">Goos</ref> In July 1779, the Americans captured British positions at Stony Point and Paulus Hook.<ref name"g7TYG">Hazard 1829, p. 54</ref> Clinton unsuccessfully tried to tempt Washington into a decisive engagement by sending General William Tryon to raid Connecticut.<ref name"Tk2S6">Nelson 1999, p. 170</ref> In July, a large American naval operation, the Penobscot Expedition, attempted to retake Maine but was defeated.<ref name"rBeAQ">Bicheno 2014, p. 149</ref> Persistent Iroquois raids in New York and Pennsylvania led to the punitive Sullivan Expedition from July to September 1779. Involving more than 4,000 patriot soldiers, the scorched earth campaign destroyed more than 40 Iroquois villages and 160,000 bushels (4,000 mts) of maize, leaving the Iroquois destitute and destroying the Iroquois confederacy as an independent power on the American frontier. However, 5,000 Iroquois fled to Canada, where, supplied and supported by the British, they continued their raids.<ref name"mffSI">Fischer, J. 2008, p. 86</ref><ref name"Soodalter">{{cite web \|last1Soodalter \|first1Ron \|titleMassacre & Retribution: The 1779-1780 Sullivan Expedition \|urlhttps://www.historynet.com/massacre-retribution-the-1779-80-sullivan-expedition/ \|websiteHistory Net \|dateJuly 8, 2011 \|access-date8 May 2024}}</ref><ref name"National Park Service">{{cite web \|titleThe Clinton-Sullivan Campaign of 1779 \|urlhttps://www.nps.gov/articles/000/the-clinton-sullivan-campaign-of-1779.htm \|websiteNational Park Service \|access-date8 April 2024}}</ref> During the winter of 1779–1780, the Continental Army suffered greater hardships than at Valley Forge.<ref name"qGXr7">Tolson 2008, "Washington's Savvy Won the Day"</ref> Morale was poor, public support fell away, the Continental dollar was virtually worthless, the army was plagued with supply problems, desertion was common, and mutinies occurred in the Pennsylvania Line and New Jersey Line regiments over the conditions.<ref name"Q0VqJ">Chandler 2017, pp. 363–380</ref> In June 1780, Clinton sent 6,000 men under Wilhelm von Knyphausen to retake New Jersey, but they were halted by local militia at the Battle of Connecticut Farms; although the Americans withdrew, Knyphausen felt he was not strong enough to engage Washington's main force and retreated.<ref name"cUzlf">Fleming 2005&nbsp;[1973], pp. 174–175</ref> A second attempt two weeks later ended in a British defeat at the Battle of Springfield, effectively ending their ambitions in New Jersey.<ref name"RoM95">Fleming 2005&nbsp;[1973], pp. 232, 302</ref> In July, Washington appointed Benedict Arnold commander of West Point; his attempt to betray the fort to the British failed due to incompetent planning, and the plot was revealed when his British contact John André was captured and executed.<ref name"cmndD">Palmer 2010, pp. 340–342</ref> Arnold escaped to New York and switched sides, an action justified in a pamphlet addressed "To the Inhabitants of America"; the Patriots condemned his betrayal, while he found himself almost as unpopular with the British.<ref name"oKXqF">Palmer 2010, pp. 376–377</ref> War in the South {{Main\|Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War}} in May 1780]] routs the British Legion at the Battle of Cowpens in Cowpens, South Carolina, in January 1781]] The Southern Strategy was developed by Lord Germain, based on input from London-based Loyalists, including Joseph Galloway. They argued that it made no sense to fight the Patriots in the north where they were strongest, while the New England economy was reliant on trade with Britain. On the other hand, duties on tobacco made the South far more profitable for Britain, while local support meant securing it required small numbers of regular troops. Victory would leave a truncated United States facing British possessions to the south, north, and west; with the Atlantic seaboard controlled by the Royal Navy, Congress would be forced to agree to terms. However, assumptions about the level of Loyalist support proved wildly optimistic.<ref name="WmAJ5">Pearson 1993, pp. 16–19</ref> Germain ordered Augustine Prévost, the British commander in East Florida, to advance into Georgia in December 1778. Lieutenant-Colonel Archibald Campbell, an experienced officer, captured Savannah on December 29, 1778. He recruited a Loyalist militia of nearly 1,100, many of whom allegedly joined only after Campbell threatened to confiscate their property.<ref name"oVXIX">Wilson 2005, p. 87</ref> Poor motivation and training made them unreliable troops, as demonstrated in their defeat by Patriot militia at the Battle of Kettle Creek on February 14, 1779, although this was offset by British victory at Brier Creek on March 3.<ref name"eTiqi">Morrill 1993, pp. 46–50</ref> In June 1779, Prévost launched an abortive assault on Charleston, before retreating to Savannah, an operation notorious for widespread looting by British troops that enraged both Loyalists and Patriots. In October, a joint French and American operation under d'Estaing and General Benjamin Lincoln failed to recapture Savannah.<ref name"yBaSD">Wilson 2005, p. 112</ref> Prévost was replaced by Lord Cornwallis, who assumed responsibility for Germain's strategy; he soon realized estimates of Loyalist support were considerably over-stated, and he needed far more regular forces.<ref name"fDcs9">Pearson 1993, pp. 22–23</ref> Reinforced by Clinton, Cornwallis's troops captured Charleston in May 1780, inflicting the most serious Patriot defeat of the war; over 5,000 prisoners were taken and the Continental Army in the south effectively destroyed. On May 29, Lieutenant-Colonel Banastre Tarleton's mainly Loyalist force routed a Continental Army force nearly three times its size under Colonel Abraham Buford at the Battle of Waxhaws. The battle is controversial for allegations of a massacre, which were later used as a recruiting tool by the Patriots.<ref name="9sQwG">Piecuch 2004, pp. 4–8</ref> Clinton returned to New York, leaving Cornwallis to oversee the south; despite their success, the two men left barely on speaking terms.<ref name"zCa8T">Borick 2003, pp. 127–128</ref> The Southern strategy depended on local support, but this was undermined by a series of coercive measures. Previously, captured Patriots were sent home after swearing not to take up arms against the king; they were now required to fight their former comrades, while the confiscation of Patriot-owned plantations led formerly neutral "grandees" to side with them.<ref name"UE0Rz">Gordon and Keegan 2007, pp. 101–102</ref> Skirmishes at Williamson's Plantation, Cedar Springs, Rocky Mount, and Hanging Rock signaled widespread resistance to the new oaths throughout South Carolina.<ref name="eJXda">Gordon and Keegan 2007, pp. 88–92</ref> In July 1780, Congress appointed Gates commander in the south; he was defeated at the Battle of Camden on August 16, leaving Cornwallis free to enter North Carolina.<ref name"CR0we">Rankin 2011&nbsp;[1996], p.</ref> Despite battlefield success, the British could not control the countryside and Patriot attacks continued; before moving north, Cornwallis sent Loyalist militia under Major Patrick Ferguson to cover his left flank, leaving their forces too far apart to provide mutual support.<ref name"P43ob">Buchanan 1997, p. 202</ref> In early October, Ferguson was defeated at the Battle of Kings Mountain, dispersing organized Loyalist resistance in the region.<ref name"6Dbvn">Ferling, 2007, pp. 459–461</ref> Despite this, Cornwallis continued into North Carolina hoping for Loyalist support, while Washington replaced Gates with General Nathanael Greene in December 1780.<ref name"MsfX6">Buchanan 1997, p. 275</ref> Greene divided his army, leading his main force southeast pursued by Cornwallis; a detachment was sent southwest under Daniel Morgan, who defeated Tarleton's British Legion at Cowpens on January 17, 1781, nearly eliminating it as a fighting force.<ref name"Y8Aqz">Golway 2005, pp. 238–242</ref> The Patriots now held the initiative in the south, with the exception of a raid on Richmond led by Benedict Arnold in January 1781.<ref name"kFdPt">Peterson 1975&nbsp;[1970], pp. 234–238</ref> Greene led Cornwallis on a series of countermarches around North Carolina; by early March, the British were exhausted and short of supplies and Greene felt strong enough to fight the Battle of Guilford Court House on March 15. Although victorious, Cornwallis suffered heavy casualties and retreated to Wilmington, North Carolina, seeking supplies and reinforcements.<ref name="NcMDc">Buchanan 1997, p. 241</ref> The Patriots now controlled most of the Carolinas and Georgia outside the coastal areas; after a minor reversal at the Battle of Hobkirk's Hill, they recaptured Fort Watson and Fort Motte on April 15.<ref name"Sfu2K">Greene, F. 1913, pp. 234–237</ref> On June 6, Brigadier General Andrew Pickens captured Augusta, leaving the British in Georgia confined to Charleston and Savannah.<ref name"ei9uo">Reynolds 2012, pp. 255–277</ref> The assumption Loyalists would do most of the fighting left the British short of troops and battlefield victories came at the cost of losses they could not replace. Despite halting Greene's advance at the Battle of Eutaw Springs on September 8, Cornwallis withdrew to Charleston with little to show for his campaign.<ref name"Mn9U7">Pancake 1985, p. 221</ref>Western campaign {{main\|Western theater of the American Revolutionary War}} Governor Henry Hamilton surrenders to Colonel George Rogers Clark at Vincennes in July 1779]] From the beginning of the war, Bernardo de Gálvez, the Governor of Spanish Louisiana, allowed the Americans to import supplies and munitions into New Orleans, then ship them to Pittsburgh.<ref name"sDaXP">Narrett 2015, p. 81</ref> This provided an alternative transportation route for the Continental Army, bypassing the British blockade of the Atlantic Coast.<ref name"T3jCI">Chavez 2002, p. 108</ref> In February 1778, an expedition of militia to destroy British military supplies in settlements along the Cuyahoga River was halted by adverse weather.<ref name"zrHvB">Nester 2004, p. 194</ref> Later in the year, a second campaign was undertaken to seize the Illinois Country from the British. Virginia militia, Canadien settlers, and Indian allies commanded by Colonel George Rogers Clark captured Kaskaskia on July 4 and then secured Vincennes, though Vincennes was recaptured by Quebec Governor Henry Hamilton. The Spanish-aligned fur trader Francis Vigo, an American sympathizer, alerted Clark to the threat posed to his control of the west by Hamilton's position and in early 1779, the Virginians counter-attacked in the siege of Fort Vincennes and took Hamilton prisoner.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastShepherd \|firstJoshua \|date2015-02-17 \|titleGeorge Rogers Clark at Vincennes: "You May Expect No Mercy" \|urlhttps://allthingsliberty.com/2015/02/you-may-expect-no-mercy-george-rogers-clark-at-vincennes/ \|access-date2025-02-27 \|websiteJournal of the American Revolution \|languageen-US}}</ref> Clark secured western British Quebec as the American Northwest Territory in the Treaty of Paris as the Revolutionary War came to an end.<ref name"A5cfw">Harrison 2001, pp. 58–60</ref> When Spain joined France's war against Britain in the Anglo-French War in 1779, their treaty specifically excluded Spanish military action in North America. Later that year, however, Gálvez initiated offensive operations against British outposts.<ref name"lGgZh">Chávez 2002, p. 170</ref> First, he cleared British garrisons in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, Fort Bute, and Natchez, Mississippi, and captured five forts.<ref name"zQHJI">Don Jaun Carlos I 1979, speech</ref> In doing so, Gálvez opened navigation on the Mississippi River north to the American settlement in Pittsburgh.<ref name="ipFTR">Deane 2018, "Spanish New Orleans helped America"</ref> On May 25, 1780, British Colonel Henry Bird invaded Kentucky as part of a wider operation to clear American resistance from Quebec to the Gulf Coast. Their advance on New Orleans was repelled by Spanish Governor Gálvez's offensive on Mobile. Simultaneous British attacks were repulsed on St. Louis by the Spanish Lieutenant Governor de Leyba, and on the Virginia County courthouse in Cahokia, Illinois, by Lieutenant Colonel Clark. The British initiative under Bird from Detroit was ended at the rumored approach of Clark.{{Efn\|Bird's expedition numbered 150 British soldiers, several hundred Loyalists, and 700 Shawnee, Wyandot, and Ottawa auxiliaries. The force skirted into the eastern regions of Patriot-conquered western Quebec that had been annexed as Illinois County, Virginia. His target was Virginia militia stationed at Lexington. As they approached downriver on the Ohio River, rumor among the natives spread that the feared Colonel Clark had discovered their approach. Bird's natives and Loyalists abandoned their mission 90 miles upriver to loot settlements at the Licking River. At the surrender of Ruddles Station, safe passage to families was promised, but 200 were massacred by Indian raiders. Grenier maintains that "The slaughter the Indians and rangers perpetrated was unprecedented".}} The scale of violence in the Licking River Valley, was extreme "even for frontier standards." It led to English and German settlements, who joined Clark's militia when the British and their hired German soldiers withdrew to the Great Lakes.<ref name"XfL5Q">Grenier 2005, p. 159</ref> The Americans responded with a major offensive along the Mad River in August which met with some success in the Battle of Piqua but did not end Indian raids.<ref name"nolLI">Nelson 1999, p. 118</ref> French soldier Augustin de La Balme led a Canadian militia in an attempt to capture Detroit, but they dispersed when Miami natives led by Little Turtle attacked the encamped settlers on November 5.<ref name"nGyQz">Gaff 2004, p. 85</ref>{{Efn\|Most Native Americans living in the area remembered the French better than any of the British they had met. Despite the British military nearby, the Miami people sought to avoid fighting with either Virginian Clark or Frenchman La Balme. On La Balme's horseback advance on Detroit, he paused two weeks to ruin a local French trader and loot surrounding Miami towns. La Balme might have treated them as allies, but he pushed Little Turtle into warrior leadership, converting most Miami tribes into British military allies, and launching the military career of one of the most successful opponents of westward settlement over the next 30 years.<ref name"h260W">Hogeland 2017, pp. 88–89</ref>}} The war in the west stalemated with the British garrison sitting in Detroit and the Virginians expanding westward settlements north of the Ohio River in the face of British-allied Indian resistance.<ref name="b02bR">Skaggs 1977, p. 132</ref> In 1781, Galvez and Pollock campaigned east along the Gulf Coast to secure West Florida, including British-held Mobile and Pensacola.<ref name"COArV">Raab 2007, p. 135</ref> The Spanish operations impaired the British supply of armaments to British Indian allies, which effectively suspended a military alliance to attack settlers between the Mississippi River and the Appalachian Mountains.<ref name"wwErI">O'Brien 2008, p. 124</ref>{{Efn\|Governor Bernardo de Gálvez is only one of eight men made honorary US citizens for his service in the American Cause. see Bridget Bowman (29 December 2014). "Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid's Very Good Year". Roll Call. The Economist Group. Retrieved April 25, 2020.}} In 1782, large scale retaliations between settlers and Native Americans in the region included the Gnadenhutten massacre and the Crawford expedition. The 1782 Battle of Blue Licks was one of the last major engagements of the war. News of the treaty between Great Britain and the United States arrived late that year. By this time, about 7% of Kentucky settlers had been killed in battles against Native Americans, contrasted with 1% of the population killed in the Thirteen Colonies. Lingering resentments led to continued fighting in the west after the war officially ended. British defeat {{Main\|Yorktown campaign}} fleet (left) engages the British in the Battle of the Chesapeake on September 5, 1781]] surrenders at Yorktown in October 1781]] Clinton spent most of 1781 based in New York City; he failed to construct a coherent operational strategy, partly due to his difficult relationship with Admiral Marriot Arbuthnot.<ref name"ap5wX">Ferling 2007, p. 444</ref> In Charleston, Cornwallis independently developed an aggressive plan for a campaign in Virginia, which he hoped would isolate Greene's army in the Carolinas and cause the collapse of Patriot resistance in the South. This strategy was approved by Lord Germain in London, but neither informed Clinton.<ref name"mnb58">Ketchum 2014b, pp. 423, 520</ref> Washington and Rochambeau discussed their options: Washington wanted to attack the British in New York, and Rochambeau wanted to attack them in Virginia, where Cornwallis's forces were less established.<ref name"xzQbp">Ketchum 2014b, p. 139</ref> Washington eventually gave way, and Lafayette took a combined Franco-American force into Virginia.<ref name"bsnMy">Ferling 2007, pp. 526–529</ref> Clinton misinterpreted his movements as preparations for an attack on New York and instructed Cornwallis to establish a fortified sea base, where the Royal Navy could evacuate British troops to help defend New York.<ref name="b3QwE">Grainger 2005, pp. 43–44</ref> When Lafayette entered Virginia, Cornwallis complied with Clinton's orders and withdrew to Yorktown, where he constructed strong defenses and awaited evacuation.<ref name"SkAo5">Taylor 2016, pp. 293–295</ref> An agreement by the Spanish Navy to defend the French West Indies allowed Admiral François Joseph Paul de Grasse to relocate to the Atlantic seaboard, a move Arbuthnot did not anticipate.<ref name"ap5wX" /> This provided Lafayette naval support, while the failure of previous combined operations at Newport and Savannah meant their coordination was planned more carefully.<ref name"6XKWu">Dull 2015&nbsp;[1975], pp. 247–248</ref> Despite repeated urging from his subordinates, Cornwallis made no attempt to engage Lafayette before he could establish siege lines.<ref name"jzAf8">Ketchum 2014b, p. 205</ref> Expecting to be withdrawn within a few days, he also abandoned the outer defenses, which were promptly occupied by the besiegers and hastened British defeat.<ref name="4QJnx">Lengel 2005, p. 337</ref> On August 31, a Royal Navy fleet under Thomas Graves left New York for Yorktown.<ref name"xdltf">Middleton 2014, pp. 29–43</ref> After landing troops and munitions for the besiegers on August 30, de Grasse remained in Chesapeake Bay and intercepted him on September 5; although the Battle of the Chesapeake was indecisive in terms of losses, Graves was forced to retreat, leaving Cornwallis isolated.<ref name"pTsmW">Black 1992, p. 110</ref> An attempted breakout over York River at Gloucester Point failed due to bad weather.<ref name"0d9W7">Dale 2005, pp. 36–37</ref> Under heavy bombardment with dwindling supplies, on October 16 Cornwallis sent emissaries to General Washington to negotiate surrender; after twelve hours of negotiations, the terms of surrender were finalized the following day.<ref name"g66wL">Ferling 2007, pp. 534–535</ref> Responsibility for defeat was the subject of fierce public debate between Cornwallis, Clinton, and Germain. Clinton ultimately took most of the blame and spent the rest of his life in relative obscurity.<ref name="irWjD">Middleton 2014, pp. 370–372</ref> Subsequent to Yorktown, American forces were assigned to supervise the armistice between Washington and Clinton made to facilitate British departure following the January 1782 law of Parliament forbidding any further British offensive action in North America. British-American negotiations in Paris led to signed preliminary agreements in November 1782, which acknowledged U.S. independence. The enacted Congressional war objective, a British withdrawal from North America and cession of these regions to the U.S., was completed in stages in East Coast cities.<ref name="OtLkf">Ferling 2003, pp. 378–379</ref> In the U.S. South, Generals Greene and Wayne observed the British remove their troops from Charleston on December 14, 1782.<ref name="FF82B">Fiske 1902, p. 516</ref> Loyalist provincial militias of whites and free Blacks and Loyalists with slaves were transported to Nova Scotia and the British West Indies.{{efn\|In Nova Scotia, a province that had been a Massachusetts county in the 1600s, British settlement of freed black Loyalists from the American Revolutionary War secured its Canadian claim there. Britain continued its last "Bourbon War" with the French and Spanish primarily amidst their mutually conflicting territorial claims adjacent the Caribbean Sea, including Jamaica, adjacent the Mediterranean Sea including Gibraltar and Isla Mallorca, and adjacent the Indian Ocean during the Second Mysore War.}} Native American allies of the British and some freed Blacks were left to escape unaided through the American lines. On April 9, 1783, Washington issued orders that "all acts of hostility" were to cease immediately. That same day, by arrangement with Washington, Carleton issued a similar order to British troops.<ref name"zaInj">Ferling 2007, p. 553</ref> As directed by a Congressional resolution of May 26, 1783, all non-commissioned officers and enlisted were furloughed "to their homes" until the "definitive treaty of peace", when they would be automatically discharged. The U.S. armies were directly disbanded in the field as of Washington's General Orders on June 2, 1783.<ref name"clMCt">Armour 1941, p. 350</ref> Once the Treaty of Paris was signed with Britain on September 3, 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army.<ref name"OtLkf" /> The last British occupation of New York City ended on November 25, 1783, with the departure of Clinton's replacement, General Sir Guy Carleton.<ref name"Xx5DW">Fleming 2006, p. 312</ref> Strategy and commanders </ref> with British movements in red and American movements in blue; the timeline shows the British won most battles in the war's first half, but Americans won the most in the second.]] To win their insurrection, Washington and the Continental Army needed to outlast the British will to fight. To restore British America, the British had to defeat the Continental Army quickly and compel the Second Continental Congress to retract its claim to self-governance.<ref name"I7Xou">Mays 2019, pp. 1–2</ref> Historian Terry M. Mays of The Citadel identifies three separate types of warfare during the Revolutionary War. The first was a colonial conflict in which objections to imperial trade regulation were as significant as taxation policy. The second was a civil war between American Patriots, American Loyalists, and those who preferred to remain neutral. Particularly in the south, many battles were fought between Patriots and Loyalists with no British involvement, leading to divisions that continued after independence was achieved.<ref name"StQAE">Mays 2019, pp. 2–3</ref> The third element was a global war between France, Spain, the Dutch Republic, and Britain, with America serving as one of several different war theaters.<ref name"StQAE" /> After entering the Revolutionary War in 1778, France provided the Americans money, weapons, soldiers, and naval assistance, while French troops fought under U.S. command in North America. While Spain did not formally join the war in America, they provided access to the Mississippi River and captured British possessions on the Gulf of Mexico that denied bases to the Royal Navy, retook Menorca and besieged Gibraltar in Europe.<ref name"ONzWM">Davenport 1917, p. 168</ref> Although the Dutch Republic was no longer a major power prior to 1774, they still dominated the European carrying trade, and Dutch merchants made large profits by shipping French-supplied munitions to the Patriots. This ended when Britain declared war in December 1780, and the conflict proved disastrous to the Dutch economy.<ref name"72JXk">Scott 1988, pp. 572–573</ref>American strategyThe Second Continental Congress stood to benefit if the Revolution evolved into a protracted war. Colonial state populations were largely prosperous and depended on local production for food and supplies rather than on imports from Britain. The thirteen colonies were spread across most of North American Atlantic seaboard, stretching 1,000 miles. Most colonial farms were remote from the seaports, and control of four or five major ports did not give Britain control over American inland areas. Each state had established internal distribution systems.<ref name"lNS5K">Greene & Pole 2008, pp. 36–39</ref> Motivation was also a major asset: each colonial capital had its own newspapers and printers, and the Patriots enjoyed more popular support than the Loyalists. Britain hoped that the Loyalists would do much of the fighting, but found that the Loyalists did not engage as significantly as they had hoped.<ref name"6bqxv" />Continental Army {{Main\|Continental Army}} {{See also\|Militia (United States)#American Revolutionary War (1775-1783)\|Minutemen}} by Charles Willson Peale, now housed in the Brooklyn Museum\|alt=Formal painting of General George Washington, standing in uniform, as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army]] When the Revolutionary War began, the Second Continental Congress lacked a professional army or navy. However, each of the colonies had a long-established system of local militia, which were combat-tested in support of British regulars in the French and Indian War. The colonial state legislatures independently funded and controlled their local militias.<ref name="lNS5K"/> Militiamen were lightly armed, had little training, and usually did not have uniforms. Their units served for only a few weeks or months at a time and lacked the training and discipline of more experienced soldiers. Local county militias were reluctant to travel far from home and were unavailable for extended operations.<ref name"JOPiQ">Black 2001&nbsp;[1991], p. 59</ref> To compensate for this, the Continental Congress established a regular force known as the Continental Army on June 14, 1775, which proved to be the origin of the modern United States Army, and appointed Washington as its commander-in-chief. However, it suffered significantly from the lack of an effective training program and from largely inexperienced officers.<ref name"4DbAi">Ferling 2007, pp. 286–287</ref> Each state legislature appointed officers for both county and state militias and their regimental Continental line officers; although Washington was required to accept Congressional appointments, he was permitted to choose and command his own generals, such as Greene; his chief of artillery, Knox; and Alexander Hamilton, the chief of staff.<ref name"pSJBj">Higginbotham 1987, Chap. 3</ref> One of Washington's most successful general officer recruits was Steuben, a veteran of the Prussian general staff who wrote the Revolutionary War Drill Manual.<ref name"4DbAi" /> The development of the Continental Army was always a work in progress and Washington used both his regulars and state militias throughout the war; when properly employed, the combination allowed them to overwhelm smaller British forces, as they did in battles at Concord, Boston, Bennington, and Saratoga. Both sides used partisan warfare, but the state militias effectively suppressed Loyalist activity when British regulars were not in the area.<ref name"JOPiQ" />{{Efn\|Three branches of the United States Military trace their roots to the American Revolutionary War; the Army comes from the Continental Army; the Navy comes from the Continental Navy, appointing Esek Hopkins as the Navy's first commander.<ref name"63K4s">Miller 1997, pp. 11–12, 16</ref> The Marine Corps links to the Continental Marines, created by Congress on November 10, 1775.<ref name="ztc3C">Smith, D. 2012, pp. iv, 459</ref>}} Washington designed the overall military strategy in cooperation with Congress, established the principle of civilian supremacy in military affairs, personally recruited his senior officer corps, and kept the states focused on a common goal.<ref name"l3gHY">Lengel 2005, pp. 365–371</ref> Washington initially employed the inexperienced officers and untrained troops in Fabian strategies rather than risk frontal assaults against Britain's professional forces.<ref name"UxzJ5">Ellis 2004, pp. 92–109</ref> Over the course of the war, Washington lost more battles than he won, but he never surrendered his troops and maintained a fighting force in the face of British field armies.<ref name="oBjRC">Rose, A. 2014&nbsp;[2006], pp. 258–261</ref> By prevailing European standards, the armies in America were relatively small, limited by lack of supplies and logistics. The British were constrained by the logistical difficulty of transporting troops across the Atlantic and their dependence on local supplies. Washington never directly commanded more than 17,000 men,<ref name"6Djag">Boatner 1974, p. 264</ref> and the combined Franco-American army in the decisive American victory at Yorktown was only about 19,000.<ref name"mtUen">Duffy 2005&nbsp;[1987], p. 13</ref> At the beginning of 1776, Patriot forces consisted of 20,000 men, with two-thirds in the Continental Army and the other third in the state militias. About 250,000 American men served as regulars or as militia for the revolutionary cause during the war, but there were never more than 90,000 men under arms at any time.<ref name="0HyhO">Crocker 2006, p. 51</ref> On the whole, American officers never equaled their British opponents in tactics and maneuvers, and they lost most of the pitched battles. The great successes at Boston (1776), Saratoga (1777), and Yorktown (1781) were won by trapping the British far from base with a greater number of troops.<ref name"pSJBj" /> After 1778, Washington's army was transformed into a more disciplined and effective force, mostly as a product of Baron von Steuben's military training.<ref name"4DbAi" /> Immediately after the Continental Army emerged from Valley Forge in June 1778, it proved its ability to match the military capabilities of the British at the Battle of Monmouth, including a Black Rhode Island regiment fending off a British bayonet attack and then counter charging the British for the first time as part of Washington's army.<ref name"kgNGc">Ferling 2007, pp. 294–295</ref> After the Battle of Monmouth, Washington came to realize that saving entire towns was not necessary, but preserving his army and keeping the revolutionary spirit alive was more important. Washington informed Henry Laurens, then president of the Second Continental Congress,{{Efn\|Laurens was president of the Second Continental Congress at this time.<ref name"6CNkb">Jillson and Wilson, 1994, p. 77</ref>}} "that the possession of our towns, while we have an army in the field, will avail them little."<ref name="76ZOZ">Chernow, 2010, p. 344</ref> Although the Continental Congress was responsible for the war effort and provided supplies to the troops, Washington took it upon himself to pressure Congress and the state legislatures to provide the essentials of war; there was never nearly enough.<ref name"CX4G4">Carp 1990, p. 220</ref> Congress evolved in its committee oversight and established the Board of War, which included members of the military.<ref name"rBEkF">Freeman and Harwell (ed.), p. 42</ref> Because the Board of War was also a committee ensnared with its own internal procedures, Congress also created the post of Secretary of War, appointing Major General Benjamin Lincoln to the position in February 1781. Washington worked closely with Lincoln to coordinate civilian and military authorities and took charge of training and supplying the army.<ref name"t1m52">Bell 2005, pp. 3–4"</ref><ref name"4DbAi" /> Continental Navy {{Main\|Continental Navy\|Continental Marines}} {{see also\|Privateer#American_Revolutionary_War\|Whaleboat War}} {{Further\|Naval battles of the American Revolutionary War}} commanded by Captain John Paul Jones]] During the first summer of the war, Washington began outfitting schooners and other small seagoing vessels to prey on ships supplying the British in Boston.<ref name"N26y3">Ferling 2007, p. 360</ref> The Second Continental Congress established the Continental Navy on October 13, 1775, and appointed Esek Hopkins as its first commander;<ref name"ofLtd">Miller 1997&nbsp;[1977], pp. 11–12, 16</ref> for most of the war, the Continental Navy included only a handful of small frigates and sloops, supported by privateers.<ref name"o5APS">Higginbotham 1987&nbsp;[1971], pp. 331–346</ref> On November 10, 1775, Congress authorized the creation of the Continental Marines, which ultimately evolved into the United States Marine Corps.<ref name"ztc3C" /> John Paul Jones became the first American naval hero when he captured HMS Drake on April 24, 1778, the first victory for any American military vessel in British waters.<ref name"L9ds0">Higginbotham 1983&nbsp;[1971], pp. 331–346</ref> The last such victory was by the frigate USS Alliance, commanded by Captain John Barry. On March 10, 1783, the Alliance outgunned HMS Sybil in a 45-minute duel while escorting Spanish gold from Havana to the Congress in Philadelphia.<ref name"unG7V">Thomas 2017, "Last Naval Battle"</ref> After Yorktown, all US Navy ships were sold or given away; it was the first time in America's history that it had no fighting forces on the high seas.<ref name="jC7za">Daughan 2011&nbsp;[2008], p. 240</ref> Congress primarily commissioned privateers to reduce costs and to take advantage of the large proportion of colonial sailors found in the British Empire. In total, they included 1,700 ships that successfully captured 2,283 enemy ships to damage the British effort and to enrich themselves with the proceeds from the sale of cargo and the ship itself.<ref name"OVxVT">, "Privateers"</ref>{{Efn\|In what was known as the Whaleboat War, American privateers mainly from New Jersey, Brooklyn, and Connecticut attacked and robbed British merchant ships and raided and robbed coastal communities of Long Island reputed to have Loyalist sympathies.<ref name"dqbl5">Philbrick 2016, p. 237</ref>}} About 55,000 sailors served aboard American privateers during the war.<ref name"usmm" />France {{Main\|France in the American Revolution}} {{Further\|History of the French Navy#Louis XVI\|Military history of France#Ancien Régime}} At the beginning of the war, the Americans had no major international allies, since most nation-states waited to see how the conflict unfolded. Over time, the Continental Army established its military credibility. Battles such as the Battle of Bennington, the Battles of Saratoga, and even defeats such as the Battle of Germantown, proved decisive in gaining the support of powerful European nations, including France, Spain, and the Dutch Republic; the Dutch moved from covertly supplying the Americans with weapons and supplies to overtly supporting them.<ref name="zaqGl">Trevelyan 1912a, p. 249</ref> The decisive American victory at Saratoga convinced France, which was already a long-time rival of Britain, to offer the Americans the Treaty of Amity and Commerce. The two nations also agreed to a defensive Treaty of Alliance to protect their trade and also guaranteed American independence from Britain. To engage the United States as a French ally militarily, the treaty was conditioned on Britain initiating a war on France to stop it from trading with the U.S. Spain and the Dutch Republic were invited to join by both France and the United States in the treaty, but neither was responsive to the request.<ref name="yOYGS">Morgan 2012&nbsp;[1956], pp. 82–83</ref> On June 13, 1778, France declared war on Great Britain, and it invoked the French military alliance with the U.S., which ensured additional U.S. private support for French possessions in the Caribbean.{{Efn\|King George III feared that the war's prospects would make it unlikely he could reclaim the North American colonies.<ref name"JuC0w">Ketchum 1997, p. 447</ref> During the later years of the Revolution, the British were drawn into numerous other conflicts about the globe.<ref name"OqppY">Ketchum 1997, pp. 405–448</ref>}} Washington worked closely with the soldiers and navy that France would send to America, primarily through Lafayette on his staff. French assistance made critical contributions required to defeat Cornwallis at Yorktown in 1781.<ref name"fNRxX">Davis 1975, pp. 203, 303, 391</ref>{{Efn\|The final elements for US victory over Britain and US independence was assured by direct military intervention from France, as well as ongoing French supply and commercial trade over the final three years of the war.<ref name"jPPnA">Higginbotham 1983&nbsp;[1971], pp. 188–198</ref>}} British strategy {{Further\|Seven Years' War}} The British military had considerable experience fighting in North America.<ref name"cdOwo">Cave 2004, pp. 21–22</ref> However, in previous conflicts they benefited from local logistics and support from the colonial militia. In the American Revolutionary War, reinforcements had to come from Europe, and maintaining large armies over such distances was extremely complex; ships could take three months to cross the Atlantic, and orders from London were often outdated by the time they arrived.<ref name"HZaQ9">Greene & Pole 2008, pp. 298, 306</ref> Prior to the conflict, the colonies were largely autonomous economic and political entities, with no centralized area of ultimate strategic importance.<ref name"Jvdgy">Rossman 2016, p. 2</ref> This meant that, unlike Europe where the fall of a capital city often ended wars, that in America continued even after the loss of major settlements such as Philadelphia, the seat of Congress, New York, and Charleston.<ref name"WTNUb">Curtis 1926, pp. 148–149</ref> British power was reliant on the Royal Navy, whose dominance allowed them to resupply their own expeditionary forces while preventing access to enemy ports. However, the majority of the American population was agrarian, rather than urban; supported by the French navy and blockade runners based in the Dutch Caribbean, their economy was able to survive.<ref name="Pole 2004">Greene & Pole 2008, pp. 42, 48</ref> Lord North, Prime Minister since 1770, delegated control of the war in North America to Lord George Germain and the Earl of Sandwich, who was head of the Royal Navy from 1771 to 1782. Defeat at Saratoga in 1777 made it clear the revolt would not be easily suppressed, especially after the Franco-American alliance of February 1778. With Spain also expected to join the conflict, the Royal Navy needed to prioritize either the war in America or in Europe; Germain advocated the former, Sandwich the latter.<ref name="Zfq4g">Syrett 1998, pp. 18–22</ref> North initially backed the Southern strategy attempting to exploit divisions between the mercantile north and slave-owning south, but after the defeat of Yorktown, he was forced to accept that this policy had failed.<ref name"6mBg1">Hibbert 2008, p. 333</ref> It was clear the war was lost, although the Royal Navy forced the French to relocate their fleet to the Caribbean in November 1781 and resumed a close blockade of American trade.<ref name"EiC1K">Davis, L. and Engerman 2006, p. 64</ref> The resulting economic damage and rising inflation meant the US was now eager to end the war, while France was unable to provide further loans; Congress could no longer pay its soldiers.<ref name="q5EIL">Rappleye 2010, pp. 300–313</ref> The geographical size of the colonies and limited manpower meant the British could not simultaneously conduct military operations and occupy territory without local support. Debate persists over whether their defeat was inevitable; one British statesman described it as "like trying to conquer a map".<ref name"arzue">Curtis 1926, p. 148</ref> While Ferling argues Patriot victory was nothing short of a miracle,<ref name"holEy">Ferling 2007, pp. 562–577</ref> Ellis suggests the odds always favored the Americans, especially after Howe squandered the chance of a decisive British success in 1776, an "opportunity that would never come again".<ref name"MqYnj">Ellis 2013, p. xi</ref> The US military history speculates the additional commitment of 10,000 fresh troops in 1780 would have placed British victory "within the realm of possibility".<ref name"Ma3JT">Stewart, R. 2005, vol. 4, p. 103</ref> British Army {{Main\|British Army during the American Revolutionary War}} {{See also\|Loyalist (American Revolution)#Military service}} , British Army Commander from 1763 to 1775]] The expulsion of France from North America in 1763 led to a drastic reduction in British troop levels in the colonies; in 1775, there were only 8,500 regular soldiers among a civilian population of 2.8&nbsp;million.<ref name"0qbek">Clode 1869, Vol. 1, p. 268</ref> The bulk of military resources in the Americas were focused on defending sugar islands in the Caribbean; Jamaica alone generated more revenue than all thirteen American colonies combined.<ref name"FJWrp">Billias 1969, p. 83</ref> With the end of the Seven Years' War, the permanent army in Britain was also cut back, which resulted in administrative difficulties when the war began a decade later.<ref name="Y118y">Clayton 2014, p. 65</ref> Over the course of the war, there were four separate British commanders-in-chief. The first was Thomas Gage, appointed in 1763, whose initial focus was establishing British rule in former French areas of Canada. Many in London blamed the revolt on his failure to take firm action earlier, and he was relieved after the heavy losses incurred at the Battle of Bunker Hill.<ref name"cosou">O'Shaunessy 2013, p. 86</ref> His replacement was Sir William Howe, a member of the Whig faction in Parliament who opposed the policy of coercion advocated by Lord North; Cornwallis, who later surrendered at Yorktown, was one of many senior officers who initially refused to serve in North America.<ref name"CZWL2">Ketchum 1997, p. 76</ref> The 1775 campaign showed the British overestimated the capabilities of their own troops and underestimated the colonial militia, requiring a reassessment of tactics and strategy,<ref name"pWpln">Ketchum 2014a, p. 208</ref> and allowing the Patriots to take the initiative.<ref name"57mVs">Miller 1959, pp. 410–412</ref> Howe's responsibility is still debated; despite receiving large numbers of reinforcements, Bunker Hill seems to have permanently affected his self-confidence and lack of tactical flexibility meant he often failed to follow up opportunities.<ref name"r4hyC">Fleming 2006, p. 44</ref> Many of his decisions were attributed to supply problems, such as his failure to pursue Washington's beaten army.<ref name"MlUcq">Davies, K. 1972, vol. 12 – 1776, 5:93, Howe to Germain, June 7 and July 7, 1776</ref> Having lost the confidence of his subordinates, he was recalled after Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga.<ref name="UkMe5">O'Shaunessy 2013, p. 216</ref> Following the failure of the Carlisle Commission, British policy changed from treating the Patriots as subjects who needed to be reconciled to enemies who had to be defeated.<ref name"o6DjZ">Hibbert 2000, pp. 160–161</ref> In 1778, Howe was replaced by Sir Henry Clinton.<ref name"eA9wm">O'Shaunessy 2013, p.</ref> Regarded as an expert on tactics and strategy,<ref name"UkMe5" /> like his predecessors Clinton was handicapped by chronic supply issues.<ref name"BZg2c">Davies, K. 1972, vol. 15 – 1778, 5:96, Clinton to Germain, September 15, 1778</ref> In addition, Clinton's strategy was compromised by conflict with political superiors in London and his colleagues in North America, especially Admiral Mariot Arbuthnot, replaced in early 1781 by Rodney.<ref name"ap5wX" /> He was neither notified nor consulted when Germain approved Cornwallis's invasion of the south in 1781 and delayed sending him reinforcements believing the bulk of Washington's army was still outside New York City.<ref name"mWJRm">Ketchum 2014b, pp. 208–210</ref> After the surrender at Yorktown, Clinton was relieved by Carleton, whose major task was to oversee the evacuation of Loyalists and British troops from Savannah, Charleston, and New York City.<ref name"YZsHH">Cashin 2005, "Revolutionary War in Georgia"</ref>German troops {{Main\|Hessian (soldier)}} troops surrender after Washington's victory at the Battle of Trenton in December 1776]] During the 18th century, states commonly hired foreign soldiers, including Britain.<ref name"jSAGZ">Baer 2015, p. 115</ref> When it became clear additional troops were needed to suppress the revolt in America, it was decided to employ professional German soldiers. There were several reasons for this, including public sympathy for the Patriot cause, a historical reluctance to expand the British army and the time needed to recruit and train new regiments.<ref name"cCTlC">Baer 2015, p. 117</ref> Many smaller states in the Holy Roman Empire had a long tradition of renting their armies to the highest bidder. The most important was Hesse-Kassel, known as "the Mercenary State".<ref name="NNZE8">Showalter 2007, "Best armies money could buy"</ref> The first supply agreements were signed by the North administration in late 1775; 30,000 Germans served in the American War.<ref name"btSGH">Baer 2015, pp. 111–112</ref> Often generically referred to as "Hessians", they included men from many other states, including Hanover and Brunswick.<ref name"srbv4">Fetter 1980, p. 508</ref> Sir Henry Clinton recommended recruiting Russian troops whom he rated very highly, having seen them in action against the Ottomans; however, negotiations with Catherine the Great made little progress.<ref name="IqLsU">Baer 2015, pp. 118–119</ref> Unlike previous wars their use led to intense political debate in Britain, France, and even Germany, where Frederick the Great refused to provide passage through his territories for troops hired for the American war.<ref name"schmidt208-209">Schmidt 1958, pp. 208–209</ref> In March 1776, the agreements were challenged in Parliament by Whigs who objected to "coercion" in general, and the use of foreign soldiers to subdue "British subjects".<ref name"vyLv6">Baer 2015, pp. 121, 141–142</ref> The debates were covered in detail by American newspapers; in May 1776 they received copies of the treaties themselves, provided by British sympathizers and smuggled into North America from London.<ref name="tIwST">Baer 2015, pp. 143–144</ref> The prospect of foreign German soldiers being used in the colonies bolstered support for independence, more so than taxation and other acts combined; the King was accused of declaring war on his own subjects, leading to the idea there were now two separate governments.<ref name"ImWYT">Baer 2015, pp. 136–143</ref><ref name"juHEN">O'Saughnessy, 2004, p. 20</ref> By apparently showing Britain was determined to go to war, it made hopes of reconciliation seem naive and hopeless, while the employment of what was regarded as "foreign mercenaries" became one of the charges levelled against George III in the Declaration of Independence.<ref name"schmidt208-209" /> The Hessian reputation within Germany for brutality also increased support for the Patriot cause among German American immigrants.<ref name"taPBr">Baer 2015, p. 142</ref> The presence of over 150,000 German Americans meant both sides felt the German soldiers might be persuaded to desert; one reason Clinton suggested employing Russians was that he felt they were less likely to defect. When the first German troops arrived on Staten Island in August 1776, Congress approved the printing of handbills, promising land and citizenship to any willing to join the Patriot cause. The British launched a counter-campaign claiming deserters could be executed.<ref name"mauch415">Mauch 2003, p. 415</ref> Desertion among the Germans occurred throughout the war, with the highest rate of desertion occurring between the surrender at Yorktown and the Treaty of Paris.<ref name"Nf6u9">Atwood, 2002, p. 194</ref> German regiments were central to the British war effort; of the estimated 30,000 sent to America, some 13,000 became casualties.<ref name"bnmql">Lowell 1884, pp. 20–21, 282–283</ref>Revolution as civil warLoyalists {{Main\|Loyalist (American Revolution)}} {{See also\|American Legion (Great Britain)\|Prince of Wales' American Regiment}} routed Loyalists at the Battle of Kings Mountain in 1780, raising Patriot morale.]] Wealthy Loyalists convinced the British government that most of the colonists were sympathetic toward the Crown;<ref name"6cWCe">Ritcheson 1973, p. 6</ref> consequently, British military planners relied on recruiting Loyalists, but had trouble recruiting sufficient numbers as the Patriots had widespread support.<ref name"JOPiQ" />{{Efn\|On militia see Boatner 1974, p.&nbsp;707;<br />Weigley 1973, ch.&nbsp;2}} Approximately 25,000 Loyalists fought for the British throughout the war.<ref name"savas41" /> Although Loyalists constituted about twenty percent of the colonial population,<ref name"Greene p. 235" /> they were concentrated in distinct communities. Many of them lived among large plantation owners in the Tidewater region and South Carolina.<ref name="Greene p. 235" /> When the British began probing the backcountry in 1777–1778, they were faced with a major problem: any significant level of organized Loyalist activity required a continued presence of British regulars.<ref name"Gu69t">Black 2001&nbsp;[1991], p. 12</ref> The available manpower that the British had in America was insufficient to protect Loyalist territory and counter American offensives.<ref name"xeYC7">Black 2001&nbsp;[1991], pp. 13–14</ref> The Loyalist militias in the South were constantly defeated by neighboring Patriot militia. The Patriot victory at the Battle of Kings Mountain irreversibly impaired Loyalist militia capability in the South.<ref name="NcMDc" /> When the early war policy was administered by Howe, the Crown's need to maintain Loyalist support prevented it from using the traditional revolt suppression methods.<ref name"m4e3v">Black 2001&nbsp;[1991], p. 14</ref> The British cause suffered when their troops ransacked local homes during an aborted attack on Charleston in 1779 that enraged both Patriots and Loyalists.<ref name"yBaSD" /> After Congress rejected the Carlisle Peace Commission in 1778 and Westminster turned to "hard war" during Clinton's command, neutral colonists in the Carolinas often allied with the Patriots.<ref name"dh9oI">Black 2001&nbsp;[1991], pp. 14–16 [16], 35, 38</ref> Conversely, Loyalists gained support when Patriots intimidated suspected Tories by destroying property or tarring and feathering.<ref name"4VC7B">Calhoon 1973, p. {{Page needed\|date=June 2023}}</ref> A Loyalist militia unit—the British Legion—provided some of the best troops in British service.<!-- Add citation for Babits 1998? --><ref name"b5poP">Buchanan 1997, p. 327</ref> It was commanded by Tarleton and gained a fearsome reputation in the colonies for "brutality and needless slaughter".<ref name"rankin">Bass 1957, pp. 548–550</ref>{{better source needed\|reasonsee talk The Green Dragoon\|dateMay 2023}} {{Clear}} Women {{Main\|Women in the American Revolution}} single-handedly captured six Loyalist soldiers who barged into her home intending to ransack it.]] Women played various roles during the Revolutionary War; they often accompanied their husbands when permitted. For example, throughout the war Martha Washington was known to visit and provide aid to her husband George at various American camps.<ref name"NsXgO">Chernow, 2010, p. 215</ref> Women often accompanied armies as camp followers to sell goods and perform necessary tasks in hospitals and camps, and numbered in the thousands during the war.<ref name"s5toN">Dunkerly 2014, "Camp Followers"</ref> Women also assumed military roles: some dressed as men to directly support combat, fight, or act as spies on both sides.<ref name"HUZJR">Howat 2017, "Women Spies"</ref> Anna Maria Lane joined her husband in the Army. The Virginia General Assembly later cited her bravery: she fought while dressed as a man and "performed extraordinary military services, and received a severe wound at the battle of Germantown ... with the courage of a soldier".<ref name"F5oSv">Historical Essay 2009</ref> On April 26, 1777, Sybil Ludington is said to have ridden to alert militia forces to the British's approach; she has been called the "female Paul Revere".<ref name"om7F0">Hunt 2015, pp. 188–222</ref> Whether the ride occurred is questioned.<ref nameHunt>{{Cite journal\|lastHunt\|firstPaula D.\|dateJune 2015\|titleSybil Ludington, the Female Paul Revere: The Making of a Revolutionary War Heroine \|journalThe New England Quarterly\|volume88\|issue2\|pages187–222\|doi10.1162/TNEQ_a_00452\|s2cid57569643\|issn0028-4866\|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref nameTucker>{{cite news \|title Did the Midnight Ride of Sibyl Ludington Ever Happen? \|lastTucker \|first Abigail \|dateMarch 2022 \|access-date July 6, 2022 \|urlhttps://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/did-midnight-ride-sibyl-ludington-ever-happen-180979557/ \|work Smithsonian}}</ref><ref nameLewis>{{cite web \|url https://www.thoughtco.com/sybil-ludington-biography-3530671 \|titleSybil Ludington, Possible Female Paul Revere \|publisher ThoughtCo \|dateAugust 15, 2019 \|access-date July 6, 2022 \|lastLewis \|first Jone Johnson}}</ref><ref nameEschner>{{cite news \|url https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonianmag/was-there-really-teenage-female-paul-revere-180962993/ \|workSmithsonian \|title Was There Really a Teenage, Female Paul Revere? \|lastEschner \|first Kat \|dateApril 26, 2017 \|access-date July 6, 2022}}</ref> A few others disguised themselves as men. Deborah Sampson fought until her gender was discovered and she was discharged as a result; Sally St. Clair was killed in action.<ref name"F5oSv" />African Americans {{Main\|African Americans in the Revolutionary War}} soldiers, including one from the 1st Rhode Island Regiment on the left]] When war began, the population of the Thirteen Colonies included an estimated 500,000 slaves, predominantly used as labor on Southern plantations.<ref name"517PM">Nash 2012, p. 251</ref> In November 1775, Lord Dunmore, the royal governor of Virginia, issued a proclamation that promised freedom to any Patriot-owned slaves willing to bear arms. Although the announcement helped to fill a temporary manpower shortage, white Loyalist prejudice meant recruits were eventually redirected to non-combatant roles. The Loyalists' motive was to deprive Patriot planters of labor rather than to end slavery; Loyalist-owned slaves were returned.<ref name"CJ6XK">Nash, 2005, pp. 167–168</ref> The 1779 Philipsburg Proclamation issued by Clinton extended the offer of freedom to Patriot-owned slaves throughout the colonies. It persuaded entire families to escape to British lines, many of which were employed growing food for the army by removing the requirement for military service. While Clinton organized the Black Pioneers, he also ensured fugitive slaves were returned to Loyalist owners with orders that they were not to be punished.<ref name"DKDsq">Canada' Digital Collections "Black Loyalists"</ref> As the war progressed, service as regular soldiers in British units became increasingly common; Black Loyalists formed two regiments of the Charleston garrison in 1783.<ref name"bfNHp">Bibko, 2016, pp. 68–69</ref> Estimates of the numbers who served the British during the war vary from 25,000 to 50,000, excluding those who escaped during wartime. Thomas Jefferson estimated that Virginia may have lost 30,000 slaves to escapes.<ref name"zag2G">Bibko, 2016, p. 59</ref> In South Carolina, nearly 25,000 slaves (about 30 percent of the enslaved population) either fled, migrated, or died, which significantly disrupted the plantation economies both during and after the war.<ref name"yRG5O">Kolchin 1994, p. 73</ref> Black Patriots were barred from the Continental Army until Washington convinced Congress in January 1778 that there was no other way to replace losses from disease and desertion. The 1st Rhode Island Regiment formed in February included former slaves whose owners were compensated; however, only 140 of its 225 soldiers were Black and recruitment stopped in June 1788.<ref name"Ltvqf">Lanning 2012, p. 75</ref> Ultimately, around 5,000 African Americans served in the Continental Army and Navy in a variety of roles, while another 4,000 were employed in Patriot militia units, aboard privateers, or as teamsters, servants, and spies. After the war, a small minority received land grants or Congressional pensions; many others were returned to their masters post-war despite earlier promises of freedom.<ref name"aJJzP">Alexander 2010, p. 356</ref> As a Patriot victory became increasingly likely, the treatment of Black Loyalists became a point of contention; after the surrender of Yorktown in 1781, Washington insisted all escapees be returned but Cornwallis refused. In 1782 and 1783, around 8,000 to 10,000 freed Blacks were evacuated by the British from Charleston, Savannah, and New York; some moved onto London, while 3,000 to 4,000 settled in Nova Scotia.<ref name"Bvc5o">Bibko, 2016, p. 61</ref> White Loyalists transported 15,000 enslaved Blacks to Jamaica and the Bahamas. The free Black Loyalists who migrated to the British West Indies included regular soldiers from Dunmore's Ethiopian Regiment, and those from Charleston who helped garrison the Leeward Islands.<ref name"bfNHp" /> Native Americans {{Main\|Category:Native Americans in the American Revolution}} Mohawk.\|Colonel Joseph Brant of the British-led Iroquois Mohawks in the war]] Most Native Americans east of the Mississippi River were affected by the war, and many tribes were divided over how to respond. A few tribes were friendly with the colonists, but most Natives opposed the union of the Colonies as a potential threat to their territory. Approximately 13,000 Natives fought on the British side, with the largest group coming from the Iroquois tribes who deployed around 1,500 men.<ref name="Greene p. 393">Greene & Pole 2008, p. 393</ref> Early in July 1776, Cherokee allies of Britain attacked the short-lived Washington District of North Carolina. Their defeat splintered both Cherokee settlements and people, and was directly responsible for the rise of the Chickamauga Cherokee, who perpetuated the Cherokee–American wars against American settlers for decades after hostilities with Britain ended.<ref name="finger2001">Finger 2001, pp. 43–64</ref> Muscogee and Seminole allies of Britain fought against Americans in Georgia and South Carolina. In 1778, a force of 800 Muscogee destroyed American settlements along the Broad River in Georgia. Muscogee warriors also joined Thomas Brown's raids into South Carolina and assisted Britain during the siege of Savannah.<ref name"KPNF9">Ward, H. 1999, p. 198</ref> Many Native Americans were involved in the fight between Britain and Spain on the Gulf Coast and along the British side of the Mississippi River. Thousands of Muscogee, Chickasaw, and Choctaw fought in major battles such as the Battle of Fort Charlotte, the Battle of Mobile, and the siege of Pensacola.<ref name"npQH7">O'Brien 2008, pp. 123–126</ref> The Iroquois Confederacy was shattered as a result of the American Revolutionary War. The Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga tribes sided with the British; members of the Mohawks fought on both sides; and many Tuscarora and Oneida sided with the Americans. To retaliate against raids on American settlement by Loyalists and their Indian allies, the Continental Army dispatched the Sullivan Expedition throughout New York to debilitate the Iroquois tribes that had sided with the British. Mohawk leaders Joseph Louis Cook and Joseph Brant sided with the Americans and the British respectively, which further exacerbated the split.<ref name="Q9pmz">Ferling 2007, pp. 200–203</ref> In the western theater, conflicts between settlers and Native Americans led to lingering distrust.<ref name"y9yCm">Reid, D. 2017, p.</ref> In the 1783 Treaty of Paris, Great Britain ceded control of the disputed lands between the Great Lakes and the Ohio River, but Native inhabitants were not a part of the peace negotiations.<ref name"lsicb">Carroll 2001, p. 24</ref> Tribes in the Northwest Territory joined as the Western Confederacy and allied with the British to resist American settlement, and their conflict continued after the Revolutionary War as the Northwest Indian War.<ref name"BnzRx">Ferling 2007, pp. 354–355</ref>Peace negotiations{{Further\|Treaty of Paris (1783)\|l1Treaty of Paris (1783)}} '' by Benjamin West portrays the American mission of (left–right): John Jay, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Henry Laurens, and William Temple Franklin. The portrait was never completed because the British commissioners refused to pose. Laurens, pictured, was actually in London at the time it was painted.<ref name="Usbu7">Morris, R.B. Morris 1983&nbsp;[1965], pp. 435–436</ref>]] , November 1783. St. Paul's Chapel is on left. The parade route in 1783 went from Bull's Head Tavern on Bowery, then continued down Chatham, Pearl, Wall, and ended at Cape's Tavern on Broadway.]] The terms presented by the Carlisle Peace Commission in 1778 included acceptance of the principle of self-government. Parliament would recognize Congress as the governing body, suspend any objectionable legislation, surrender its right to local colonial taxation, and discuss including American representatives in the House of Commons. In return, all property confiscated from Loyalists would be returned, British debts honored, and locally enforced martial law accepted. However, Congress demanded either immediate recognition of independence or the withdrawal of all British troops; they knew the commission were not authorized to accept these, bringing negotiations to a rapid end.<ref name="EVGwD">Whiteley 1996, p. 175</ref> On February 27, 1782, a Whig motion to end the offensive war in America was carried by 19 votes.<ref name"PpAUy">Namier and Brooke 1985, p. 246</ref> North resigned, obliging the king to invite Lord Rockingham to form a government; a consistent supporter of the Patriot cause, he made a commitment to U.S. independence a condition of doing so. George III reluctantly accepted and the new government took office on March 27, 1782; however, Rockingham died unexpectedly on July 1, and was replaced by Lord Shelburne who acknowledged American independence.<ref name"6fSnW">Ward and Prothero 1925, p. 458</ref> When Lord Rockingham was elevated to Prime Minister, Congress consolidated its diplomatic consuls in Europe into a peace delegation at Paris. The dean of the delegation was Benjamin Franklin. He had become a celebrity in the French Court, but he was also influential in the courts of Prussia and Austria. Since the 1760s, Franklin had been an organizer of British American inter-colony cooperation, and then served as a colonial lobbyist to Parliament in London. John Adams had been consul to the Dutch Republic and was a prominent early New England Patriot. John Jay of New York had been consul to Spain and was a past president of the Continental Congress. As consul to the Dutch Republic, Henry Laurens had secured a preliminary agreement for a trade agreement. Although active in the preliminaries, he was not a signer of the conclusive treaty.<ref name="OtLkf" /> The Whig negotiators included long-time friend of Franklin David Hartley, and Richard Oswald, who had negotiated Laurens' release from the Tower of London.<ref name"OtLkf" /> The Preliminary Peace signed on November 30 met four key Congressional demands: independence, territory up to the Mississippi, navigation rights into the Gulf of Mexico, and fishing rights in Newfoundland.<ref name"OtLkf" /> British strategy was to strengthen the U.S. sufficiently to prevent France from regaining a foothold in North America, and they had little interest in these proposals.<ref name"6HMUl">Black 2011, pp. 117–118</ref> However, divisions between their opponents allowed them to negotiate separately with each to improve their overall position, starting with the American delegation in September 1782.<ref name"s8bf9">Harvey 2004, pp. 531–532</ref> The French and Spanish sought to improve their position by creating the U.S. dependent on them for support against Britain, thus reversing the losses of 1763.<ref name"0XLAe">Cogliano 2003, p. 85</ref> Both parties tried to negotiate a settlement with Britain excluding the Americans; France proposed setting the western boundary of the U.S. along the Appalachians, matching the British 1763 Proclamation Line. The Spanish suggested additional concessions in the vital Mississippi River Basin, but required the cession of Georgia in violation of the Franco-American alliance.<ref name"0XLAe" /> Facing difficulties with Spain over claims involving the Mississippi River, and from France who was still reluctant to agree to American independence until all her demands were met, John Jay told the British that he was willing to negotiate directly with them, cutting off France and Spain, and Prime Minister Lord Shelburne, in charge of the British negotiations, agreed.<ref name"iRKom">Morris, 1983&nbsp;[1965], pp. 221–323, 331–333</ref> Key agreements for the United States in obtaining peace included recognition of US independence; all of the territory east of the Mississippi River, north of Florida and south of Canada; and fishing rights in the Grand Banks, off the coast of Newfoundland and in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. The United States and Great Britain were each given perpetual access to the Mississippi River.<ref name"XAtfM">Dull 1987&nbsp;[1975], pp. 144–151</ref><ref name="dKEt7">Morris, 1983&nbsp;[1965], pp. 218–221</ref> An Anglo-American Preliminary Peace was formally entered into in November 1782, and Congress endorsed the settlement on April 15, 1783. It announced the achievement of peace with independence, and the conclusive treaty was signed on September 2, 1783, in Paris, effective the following day when Britain signed its treaty with France. John Adams, who helped draft the treaty, claimed it represented "one of the most important political events that ever happened on the globe". Ratified respectively by Congress and Parliament, the final versions were exchanged in Paris the following spring.<ref name"9BwsN">Kaplan, L. 1983, "Treaty of Paris"</ref> On November 25, the last British troops remaining in the U.S. were evacuated from New York to Halifax.<ref name"Nuhdu">Ketchum 2014b, p. 287</ref> Aftermath {{Main\|American Revolution}} Territory The expanse of territory that was now the U.S. included millions of sparsely settled acres south of the Great Lakes between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River, much of which was part of Canada. The tentative colonial migration west became a flood during the war.<ref name="0xR4w">Herring 2011&nbsp;[2008], p. 41</ref> Britain's extended post-war policy for the U.S. continued to try to establish an Indian barrier state below the Great Lakes as late as 1814 during the War of 1812. The formally acquired western American lands continued to be populated by Indigenous tribes that had mostly been British allies.<ref name"lsicb" /> In practice the British refused to abandon the forts on territory they formally transferred. Instead, they provisioned military allies for continuing frontier raids and sponsored the Northwest Indian War (1785–1795). British sponsorship of local warfare on the U.S. continued until the Anglo-American Jay Treaty, authored by Hamilton, went into effect on February 29, 1796.<ref name"CrkMd">Benn 1993, p. 17</ref>{{Efn\|For the thirteen years prior to the Anglo-American commercial Jay Treaty of 1796 under President George Washington, the British maintained five forts in New York state: two forts at northern Lake Champlain, and three beginning at Fort Niagara stretching east along Lake Ontario. In the Northwest Territory, they garrisoned Fort Detroit and Fort Michilimackinac.<ref name="1S547">Herring 2011&nbsp;[2008], p. 45</ref>}} Of the European powers with American colonies adjacent to the newly created U.S., Spain was most threatened by American independence, and it was correspondingly the most hostile to it.{{Efn\|There had been native-born Spanish (hidalgo) uprisings in several American colonies during the American Revolution, contesting mercantilist reforms of Carlos III that had removed privileges inherited from the Conquistadors among encomiendas, and they also challenged Jesuit dominance in the Catholic Church there. American ship captains were known to have smuggled banned copies of the Declaration of Independence into Spanish Caribbean ports, provoking Spanish colonial discontent.}} Its territory adjacent to the U.S. was relatively undefended, so Spanish policy developed a combination of initiatives. Spanish soft power diplomatically challenged the British territorial cession west to the Mississippi River and the previous northern boundaries of Spanish Florida.<ref name"ImmKb">Herring 2011&nbsp;[2008], p. 46</ref> It imposed a high tariff on American goods, then blocked American settler access to the port of New Orleans. At the same time, the Spanish also sponsored war within the U.S. by Indian proxies in its Southwest Territory ceded by France to Britain, then Britain to the Americans.<ref name"0xR4w" /> Casualties and losses {{further\|Prisoners in the American Revolutionary War}} in Salem, New York]] The total loss of life throughout the conflict is largely unknown. As was typical in wars of the era, diseases such as smallpox claimed more lives than battle. Between 1775 and 1782, a smallpox epidemic throughout North America killed an estimated 130,000.<ref name"3kb8Q" />{{Efn\|In addition to as many as 30% deaths in port cities, and especially high rates among the closely confined prisoner-of-war ships, scholars have reported large numbers lost among the Mexican population, and large percentage losses among the American Indian along trade routes, Atlantic to Pacific, Eskimo to Aztec.}} Historian Joseph Ellis suggests that Washington having his troops inoculated against the disease was one of his most important decisions.<ref name"VcQK9">Ellis 2004, p. 87</ref> Up to 70,000 American Patriots died during active military service.<ref name"gNorb">Peckham 1974, p.</ref> Of these, approximately 6,800 were killed in battle, while at least 17,000 died from disease. The majority of the latter died while prisoners of war of the British, mostly in the prison ships in New York Harbor.<ref name"hQzBc">Burrows 2008b, p.{{Page needed\|dateMay 2021}}</ref>{{Efn\|If the upper limit of 70,000 is accepted as the total net loss for the Patriots, it would make the conflict proportionally deadlier than the American Civil War. Uncertainty arises from the difficulties in accurately calculating the number of those who succumbed to disease, as it is estimated at least 10,000 died in 1776 alone.<ref name"duncan371" />}} The number of Patriots seriously wounded or disabled by the war has been estimated from 8,500 to 25,000.<ref name="Xwtjh">Chambers 1999 p. 849</ref> The French suffered 2,112 killed in combat in the United States.<ref name"TO8lQ">Dawson 2017, "Frenchmen who died"</ref>{{Efn\|Elsewhere around the world, the French lost another approximately 5,000 total dead in conflicts 1778–1784.<ref name"TO8lQ" />}} The Spanish lost 124 killed and 247 wounded in West Florida.<ref name"White 2010, Essay">White 2010, "Essay"</ref>{{Efn\|During the same time period in the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, the Dutch suffered around 500 total killed, owing to the minor scale of their conflict with Britain.<ref name"White 2010, Essay" />}} A British report in 1781 puts their total Army deaths at 6,046 in North America (1775–1779).<ref name"3kb8Q" />{{Efn\|British returns in 1783 listed 43,633 rank and file deaths across the British Armed Forces.<ref name"VdGXi">Burke 1785, p.</ref> In the first three years of the Anglo-French War (1778), British list 9,372 soldiers killed in battle across the Americas; and 3,326 in the West Indies (1778–1780).<ref name"3kb8Q" /> In 1784, a British lieutenant compiled a detailed list of 205 British officers killed in action during British conflicts outside of North America, encompassing Europe, the Caribbean, and the East Indies.<ref name"g1sff">Inman 1903, pp. 203–205</ref> Extrapolations based upon this list puts British Army losses in the area of at least 4,000 killed or died of wounds outside of its North American engagements.<ref name"duncan371" />}} Approximately 7,774 Germans died in British service in addition to 4,888 deserters; among those labeled German deserters, however, it is estimated that 1,800 were killed in combat.<ref name"duncan371" />{{Efn\|Around 171,000 sailors served in the Royal Navy during British conflicts worldwide 1775–1784; approximately a quarter of whom had been pressed into service. Around 1,240 were killed in battle, while an estimated 18,500 died from disease (1776–1780).<ref name"ICbFh">Debret 1781, p. 269</ref> The greatest killer at sea was scurvy, a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency.<ref name"HKwDq">NIH GARD 2016, "Scurvy"</ref> It was not until 1795 that scurvy was eradicated from the Royal Navy after the Admiralty declared lemon juice and sugar were to be issued among the standard daily grog rations of sailors.<ref name"xPtQE">Vale 2013, p. 160</ref> Around 42,000 sailors deserted worldwide during the era.<ref name"macksey6,176" /> The impact on merchant shipping was substantial; 2,283 were taken by American privateers.<ref name"OVxVT" /> Worldwide 1775–1784, an estimated 3,386 British merchant ships were seized by enemy forces during the war among Americans, French, Spanish, and Dutch.<ref name"We1Cr">Conway 1995, p. 191</ref>}} Legacy '', meaning "A New Age Now Begins", is paraphrased from Thomas Paine's Common Sense, published January 10, 1776. "We have it in our power to begin the world over again", Paine wrote in it.<ref name="McDonald, Forrest pp. 6">McDonald, Forrest. Novus Ordo Seclorum: The Intellectual Origins of the Constitution, pp. 6–7, Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1985. {{ISBN\|0700602844}}.</ref>]] The American Revolution set an example to overthrow both monarchy and colonial governments. The United States has the world's oldest written constitution, which was used as a model in other countries, sometimes word-for-word. The Revolution inspired revolutions in France, Haiti, Latin America, and elsewhere.<ref name="Xqvd2">Bailyn, 2007, pp. 35, 134–149</ref> Although the Revolution eliminated many forms of inequality, it did little to change the status of women, despite the role they played in winning independence. Most significantly, it failed to end slavery. While many were uneasy over the contradiction of demanding liberty for some, yet denying it to others, the dependence of southern states on slave labor made abolition too great a challenge. Between 1774 and 1780, many of the states banned the importation of slaves, but the institution itself continued.<ref name"0skc6">Morgan, 2012&nbsp;[1956], pp. 96–97</ref> In 1782, Virginia passed a law permitting manumission and over the next eight years more than 10,000 slaves were given their freedom.<ref name"DggJY">Morgan, 2012&nbsp;[1956], p. 97</ref> The number of abolitionist movements greatly increased, and by 1804 all the northern states had outlawed it.<ref name"wneY7">Wood, 1992, pp. 3–8, 186–187</ref> However, slavery continued to be a serious social and political issue and caused divisions that would ultimately end in civil war.HistoriographyThe body of historical writings on the American Revolution cite many motivations for the Patriot revolt.<ref name"g6SJo">Paul David Nelson, "British Conduct of the American Revolutionary War: A Review of Interpretations." Journal of American History 65.3 (1978): 623–653. {{JSTOR\|1901416}}</ref> American Patriots stressed the denial of their constitutional rights as Englishmen, especially "no taxation without representation." Contemporaries credit the American Enlightenment with laying the intellectual, moral, and ethical foundations for the American Revolution among the Founding Fathers, who were influenced by the classical liberalism of John Locke and other Enlightenment writers and philosophers. Two Treatises of Government has long been cited as a major influence on Revolutionary-era American thinking, but historians David Lundberg and Henry F. May contend that Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding was far more widely read.<ref>See David Lundberg and Henry F. May, "The Enlightened Reader in America", American Quarterly, vol. 28, no. 2 (1976): 267.</ref> Historians since the 1960s have emphasized that the Patriot constitutional argument was made possible by the emergence of an American nationalism that united the Thirteen Colonies. In turn, that nationalism was rooted in a Republican value system that demanded consent of the governed and deeply opposed aristocratic control.<ref name"fcrPt">{{cite journal \| last1 Tyrrell \| first1 Ian \| year 1999 \| title Making Nations/Making States: American Historians in the Context of Empire \| journal Journal of American History \| volume 86 \| issue 3\| pages 1015–1044 \| jstor2568604\| doi 10.2307/2568604\| issn 0021-8723}}</ref> In Britain, on the other hand, republicanism was largely a fringe ideology since it challenged the aristocratic control of the British monarchy and political system. Political power was not controlled by an aristocracy or nobility in the 13 colonies; instead, the colonial political system was based on the winners of free elections, which were open at the time to the majority of white men. In analysis of the Revolution, historians in recent decades have often cited three motivations behind it:<ref name="ZBA7A">Robin Winks, ed. Historiography (1999) 5:95</ref> The Atlantic history view places the American story in a broader context, including subsequent revolutions in France and Haiti. It tends to reintegrate the historiographies of the American Revolution and the British Empire.<ref name"ZJ2KF">{{cite journal \| last1 Cogliano \| first1 Francis D. \| year 2010 \| title Revisiting the American Revolution \| journal History Compass \| volume 8 \| issue 8\| pages 951–963 \| doi10.1111/j.1478-0542.2010.00705.x}}</ref><ref name"WWA5Z">Eliga H. Gould, Peter S. Onuf, eds. Empire and Nation: The American Revolution in the Atlantic World (2005)</ref><ref name"UTDV9">{{cite journal \| last1 Gould \| first1 Eliga H. \| year 1999 \| title A virtual nation: Greater Britain and the imperial legacy of the American Revolution \| journal American Historical Review \| volume 104 \| issue 2\| pages 476–489 \| doi10.2307/2650376\| jstor 2650376}}</ref> * The "new social history" approach looks at community social structure to find cleavages that were magnified into colonial cleavages. * The ideological approach that centers on republicanism in the United States.<ref name"Uo7j4">{{cite book\|author1David Kennedy\|author2Lizabeth Cohen\|titleAmerican Pageant\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMJ6aBAAAQBAJ&pgPA156\|year2015\|publisherCengage Learning\|page156\|isbn978-1305537422}}</ref> Republicanism dictated there would be no royalty, aristocracy or national church but allowed for continuation of the British common law, which American lawyers and jurists understood and approved and used in their everyday practice. Historians have examined how the rising American legal profession adopted British common law to incorporate republicanism by selective revision of legal customs and by introducing more choices for courts.<ref name"dd44y">Ellen Holmes Pearson. "Revising Custom, Embracing Choice: Early American Legal Scholars and the Republicanization of the Common Law", in Gould and Onuf, eds. Empire and Nation: The American Revolution in the Atlantic World (2005) pp. 93–113</ref><ref name"5N3hK">Anton-Hermann Chroust, Rise of the Legal Profession in America (1965) vol. 2.</ref>Revolutionary War commemoration stampsAfter the first U.S. postage stamp was issued in 1849, the U.S. Postal Service frequently issued commemorative stamps celebrating people and events of the Revolutionary War. The first such stamp was the Liberty Bell issue of 1926.<ref name"ULvJk">{{Cite book \|last1Houseman \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlhB5tAEACAAJ \|titleScott Specialized Catalogue of United States Stamps and Covers \|last2Kloetzel \|publisherAmos Media Company \|year2019 \|isbn978-0894875595 \|quote=Stamps listed in chronological order}}</ref> <gallery caption"Selected issues:" mode"packed" heights="120px"> File:150th Anniversary of the Liberty Bell, 1926 Issue-2c.jpg\|upright=1\|The Liberty Bell stamp, issued on the 150th anniversary of American independence in 1926 File:Saratoga 1777 Oriskany 1927 Issue-2c.jpg\|upright=1\|150th anniversary of the Battles of Saratoga stamp featuring Burgoyne's surrender, issued in 1927 File:Washington at Prayer Valley Forge 1928 Issue-2c.jpg\|upright=1\|Washington at prayer at Valley Forge stamp, issued in 1928 File:Yorktown 1931 Issue-2c.jpg\|upright=1\|150th anniversary of the siege of Yorktown stamp featuring Rochambeau, Washington, and de Grasse, issued in 1931 </gallery> See also {{Div col}} * 1776 in the United States: events, births, deaths, and other years * Timeline of the American Revolution Topics of the Revolution * Committee of safety (American Revolution) * Diplomacy in the American Revolutionary War * Financial costs of the American Revolutionary War * Flags of the American Revolution * Naval operations in the American Revolutionary War Social history of the Revolution * Black Patriot * Christianity in the United States#American Revolution * The Colored Patriots of the American Revolution * History of Poles in the United States#American Revolution * List of clergy in the American Revolution * List of Patriots (American Revolution) * Quakers in the American Revolution * Scotch-Irish Americans#American Revolution Others in the American Revolution * Nova Scotia in the American Revolution * Watauga Association Lists of Revolutionary military * List of American Revolutionary War battles * List of British Forces in the American Revolutionary War * List of Continental Forces in the American Revolutionary War * List of infantry weapons in the American Revolution * List of United States militia units in the American Revolutionary War Legacy and related * American Revolution Statuary * Commemoration of the American Revolution * Founders Online * Independence Day (United States) * The Last Men of the Revolution * List of plays and films about the American Revolution * Museum of the American Revolution * Tomb of the Unknown Soldier of the American Revolution * List of wars of independence * Bibliography of the American Revolutionary War {{Div col end}} Notes {{Notelist}} {{reflist\|groupN}}Citations :Year dates enclosed in [brackets] denote year of original printing {{reflist\|120em}}Bibliography {{Main\|Bibliography of the American Revolutionary War}} <!-- Deny Citation Bot--> <!--works cited in the notes--> {{Refbegin\|30em}} <!-- A --> * {{Cite web \|lastAbrams \|firstCreighton W. \|titleThe Yorktown Campaign, October 1781 \|urlhttps://armyhistory.org/the-yorktown-campaign-october-1781/ \|access-dateMay 20, 2020 \|websiteNational Museum, United States Army, Army Historical Foundation \|dateJuly 16, 2014 \|refabrams }} * {{Cite book \|lastAdams \|firstCharles Francis \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCgALAAAAIAAJ \|titleProceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society: Campaign of 1777 \|publisherMassachusetts Historical Society \|year1911 \|volume44 \|ref=adams1911 }} * {{Cite book \|lastAdams \|firstCharles Francis \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/americanhistoric18951896jame/page/n7/mode/2up/search/mcclary \|titleThe American historical review \|publisherKraus Reprints \|locationNew York \|year1963 \|editor-lastJameson, J. Franklin \|refadams63 \|author-mask2 \|orig-year=1895–1896 }} * {{Cite book \|lastAlden \|firstJohn R. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgV0xAAAAQBAJ \|titleA History of the American Revolution \|publisherKnopf Doubleday Publishing Group \|year1969 \|isbn978-0306803666 \|refalden1969 \|author-mask2 }} * {{Cite book \|lastAlden \|firstJohn R. \|titleAmerican Revolution, Seventeen Seventy Five to Seventeen Eighty-Three \|publisherHarper Collins \|year1976 \|isbn978-0061330117 \|ref=alden1976}} * {{Cite book \|lastAlexander \|firstLeslie \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduivtCqOlpTsC&pgPA356 \|titleEncyclopedia of African American History \|publisherABC-CLIO \|year2010 \|isbn978-1851097746 \|page356 \|refalexander2010 \|author-mask2 }} * {{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIlpnDwAAQBAJ \|titleThe American Revolution: A World War \|date2018 \|publisherSmithsonian Institution \|isbn978-1588346599 \|editor-lastAllison \|editor-firstDavid K \|refAllison&Ferreiro2018 \|editor2-lastFerreiro \|editor2-first=Larrie D. }} * {{Cite book \|lastAmmerman \|firstDavid \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1Eh2AAAAMAAJ \|titleIn the Common Cause: American Response to the Coercive Acts of 1774 \|publisherNorton \|year1974 \|isbn978-0813905259 \|locationNew York \|refammerman }} * {{Cite journal \|lastArmour \|firstAlexander W. \|dateOctober 1941 \|titleRevolutionary War Discharges \|journalWilliam and Mary Quarterly \|publisherOmohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture \|volume21 \|issue4 \|pages344–360 \|doi10.2307/1920145 \|jstor1920145 \|refarmour1941}} * {{Cite book \|lastArchuleta \|firstRoy A. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idUPE8yotFAT4C \|titleWhere We Come from \|year2006 \|isbn978-1424304721 \|page69 \|publisherWhere We Come From, collect. \|refroy2006 }} * {{Cite book \|lastAtwood \|firstRodney \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idGejQdlQrD-kC \|titleThe Hessians: Mercenaries from Hessen-Kassel in the American Revolution \|publisherCambridge University Press \|year2002 \|isbn978-0521526371 \|ref=atwood2002 }} * {{Cite book \|lastAxelrod \|firstAlan \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiBvtuSWgt_QC \|titleThe Real History of the American Revolution: A New Look at the Past \|publisherSterling Publishing Company, Inc. \|year2009 \|isbn978-1402768163 \|ref=axelrod2009 }} * {{Cite book \|lastAxelrod \|firstAlan \|titleMercenaries: A guide to Private Armies and Private Military Companies \|publisherSAGE Publications \|year2014 \|isbn978-1608712489 \|author-mask2 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idEWQXBAAAQBAJ \|refaxelrod2014 }} <!-- B --> * {{Cite book \|lastBabits \|firstLawrence E. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbUpBDwAAQBAJ&qTarleton \|titleA Devil of a Whipping: The Battle of Cowpens \|publisherUniversity of North Carolina Press \|year2011 \|isbn978-0807887660 \|refbabits }} * {{Cite book \|lastBailyn \|firstBernard \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idpct726HjrHIC \|titleTo Begin the World Anew: The Genius and Ambiguities of the American Founders \|publisherKnopf Doubleday Publishing Group \|year2007 \|isbn978-0307429780 \|ref=bailyn2007 }} * {{Cite journal \|lastBaer \|firstFriederike \|dateWinter 2015 \|titleThe Decision to Hire German Troops in the War of American Independence: Reactions in Britain and North America, 1774–1776 \|journalEarly American Studies \|publisherUniversity of Pennsylvania Press \|volume13 \|issue1 \|pages111–150 \|doi10.1353/eam.2015.0003 \|jstor24474906 \|refbaer2015 \|s2cid=143134975}} * {{Cite book \|lastBaker \|firstMark Allen \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9gB3CQAAQBAJ \|titleSpies of Revolutionary Connecticut: From Benedict Arnold to Nathan Hale \|date2014 \|publisherThe History Press \|isbn978-1626194076 \|locationCharleston, South Carolina \|refbaker2014 }} * {{Cite journal \|lastBass \|firstRobert D. \|dateOctober 1957 \|titleThe Green Dragoon: The Lives of Banastre Tarleton and Mary Robinson \|journalThe North Carolina Historical Review \|publisherNorth Carolina Office of Archives and History \|volume34 \|issue4 \|pages548–550 \|jstor23517100 \|ref=bass}} * {{cite journal \|lastBeerman \|firstEric \|title"Yo Solo" Not "Solo": Juan Antoniao Riano \|urlhttps://palmm.digital.flvc.org/islandora/object/ucf%3A25449/datastream/OBJ/view \|journalThe Florida Historical Quarterly \|dateOctober 1979 \|publisherFlorida Historical Society \|issn0015-4113 \|access-dateJune 1, 2021 \|refbeerman1979 }} * {{Cite book \|lastBelcher \|firstHenry \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/firstamericanciv01belcuoft/page/n6/mode/2up \|titleThe first American Civil War, first period 1775–1778 \|publisherLondon, MacMillan \|year1911 \|volume1 \|refbelcher1 }} * {{Cite book \|lastBell \|firstWilliam Gardner \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXwyykzbi4pUC&pgPA3 \|titleCommanding Generals and Chiefs of Staff, 1775–2005: Portraits & Biographical Sketches of the United States Army's Senior Officer \|year2005 \|publisherGovernment Printing Office \|isbn978-0160873300 \|refbell2005 }} * {{Cite thesis \|lastBellot \|firstLJ \|titleCanada v Guadeloupe in Britain's old colonial empire: the Peace of Paris of 1763 \|date1960 \|publisherRice Institute \|urlhttps://scholarship.rice.edu/bitstream/handle/1911/89064/RICE0099.pdf?sequence1 \|typePhD \|ref=bellot }} * {{Cite book \|last1Bemis \|first1Samuel Flagg \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idENgUAAAAIAAJ \|titleThe American Secretaries of State and Their Diplomacy \|last2Ferrell \|first2Robert H. \|publisherPageant Book Company \|year1958 \|refbemis1958 }} * {{Cite book \|lastBenn \|firstCarl \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbf66Rh7QuMcC \|titleHistoric Fort York, 1793–1993 \|publisherToronto: Dundurn Press Ltd. 1 \|year1993 \|isbn0920474799 \|ref=benn1993 }} * {{Cite book \|lastBerkin \|firstCarol \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgCES-ZwlN3MC \|titleRevolutionary Mothers. Women in the Struggle for America's Independence \|publisherAlfred A. Knopf \|year2005 \|isbn1400041635 \|locationNew York \|refberkin2005 }} * {{Cite journal \|lastBibko \|firstJulia \|year2016 \|titleThe American Revolution and the Black Loyalist Exodus \|urlhttp://digitalcommons.brockport.edu/hashtaghistory/vol1/iss1/5 \|journalHistory: A Journal of Student Research \|volume1 \|issue1 \|refbibko2016 \|access-dateNovember 11, 2020 \|archive-dateApril 12, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210412064945/https://digitalcommons.brockport.edu/hashtaghistory/vol1/iss1/5/ \|url-status=dead }} * {{Cite book \|lastBicheno \|firstHugh \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idxw2hAgAAQBAJ \|titleRebels and Redcoats: The American Revolutionary War \|publisherHarperCollins \|year2014 \|isbn978-0007390915 \|ref=bicheno14 }} * {{Cite book \|lastBillias \|firstGeorge Athan \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0euvXS-AwD4C \|titleGeorge Washington's Opponents: British Generals and Admirals in the American Revolution \|publisherUniversity of California \|year1969 \|refbillias1969 }} * {{Cite book \|lastBlack \|firstJeremy \|titleParameters of British Naval Power, 1650–1850 \|publisherUniversity of Exeter Press \|year1992 \|isbn978-0859893855 \|editor-lastMichael Duffy \|locationExeter, UK \|pages95–120; here: 105 \|chapterNaval Power, Strategy and Foreign Policy, 1775–1791 \|refblack1992 \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=ysC9rOCxGhgC }} * {{Cite book \|lastBlack \|firstJeremy \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idowQaAQAAIAAJ \|titleWar for America: The Fight for Independence, 1775–1783 \|publisherSutton Publishing \|year2001 \|isbn978-0750928083 \|refblack2001 \|author-mask2 \|author-linkJeremy Black (historian) \|orig-year1991 }} * {{Cite book \|lastBlack \|firstJeremy \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idEIst_CSWOqIC \|titleFighting for America: The Struggle for Mastery in North America, 1519–1871 \|date2011 \|publisherIndiana University Press \|isbn978-0253005618 \|refBlack2011 \|author-mask2 }} * {{Cite book \|lastBoatner \|firstMark M. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhQN2AAAAMAAJ \|titleEncyclopedia of the American Revolution' \|publisherD. McKay Company \|year1974 \|isbn978-0679504405 \|refboatner74 \|orig-year1966 }} * {{Cite book \|lastBorick \|firstCarl P. \|titleA Gallant Defense: the Siege of Charleston, 1780 \|publisherUniversity of South Carolina Press \|year2003 \|isbn978-1570034879 \|oclc5051139 \|refborick2003}} * Britannica.com {{cite web \|titleFrançois Joseph Paul, count de Grasse \|date 2021 \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Francois-Joseph-Paul-comte-de-Grasse-marquis-de-Grasse-Tilly \|publisher Britannica.com \|pageWikisourse \|ref degrasseEB2021 }} * {{Cite book \|lastBrown \|firstWeldon A \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idBoYlAQAAMAAJ \|titleEmpire Or Independence A Study in the Failure Of Reconciliation 1774–1783 \|publisherKennikat Press \|year1941 \|refbrown41 }} * {{Cite book \|lastBuchanan \|firstJohn \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idzHh2AAAAMAAJ \|titleThe Road to Guilford Courthouse: The American Revolution in the Carolinas \|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons \|year1997 \|isbn978-0471164029 \|ref=buchanan97 }} * {{Cite book \|lastBurgoyne \|firstJohn \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/orderlybookoflie00burg \|titleOrderly book of Lieut. Gen. John Burgoyne, from his entry into the state of New York until his surrender at Saratoga, 16th Oct. 1777 \|publisherAlbany, N.Y., J. Munsell \|year1860 \|editor-lastO'Callaghan, E. B. \|refburgoyne1860 \|author-mask2 \|author-linkJohn Burgoyne }} * {{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idc5tNAAAAcAAJ \|titleAnnual Register: World Events, 1783 \|publisherJay Dodsley \|year1785 \|editor-lastBurke, Edmond \|locationLondon \|refBurke1785 }} * {{Cite journal \|lastBurrows \|firstEdwin G. \|author-linkEdwin G. Burrows \|dateFall 2008 \|titlePatriots or Terrorists \|urlhttp://www.americanheritage.com/content/patriots-or-terrorists \|url-statuslive \|journalAmerican Heritage \|series58 \|issue5 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130323233806/http://www.americanheritage.com/content/patriots-or-terrorists \|archive-dateMarch 23, 2013 \|access-dateNovember 29, 2014 \|refburrows2008a }} * {{Cite book \|lastBurrows \|firstEdwin \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvpUs4J8XEXoC \|titleForgotten Patriots: The Untold Story of American Prisoners During the Revolutionary War \|publisherBasic Books \|locationNew York \|year2008 \|isbn978-0786727049 \|refburrows2008b \|author-mask=2 }} * {{Cite book \|lastButterfield \|firstConsul W. \|urlhttps://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/007936660 \|titleHistory of George Rogers Clark's Conquest of the Illinois and the Wabash Towns 1778–1779 \|publisherHeer \|year1903 \|locationColumbus, Ohio \|quoteonline at Hathi Trust \|ref=butterfield }} <!-- C --> * {{Cite book \|lastCadwalader \|firstRichard McCall \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/pennsylvaniasoc00socigoog \|titleObservance of the One Hundred and Twenty-third Anniversary of the Evacuation of Philadelphia by the British Army: Fort Washington and the Encampment of White Marsh, November 2, 1777 \|publisherPress of the New Era Printing Company \|year1901 \|pages[https://archive.org/details/pennsylvaniasoc00socigoog/page/n26 20]–28 \|refcadwalader1901 \|access-date=January 7, 2016 }} * {{Cite book \|lastCalhoon \|firstRobert McCluer \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZy53AAAAMAAJ \|titleThe Loyalists in Revolutionary America, 1760–1781 \|date1973 \|publisherHarcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. \|isbn978-0801490088 \|quoteThe Founding of the American Republic Series \|refCalhoon1973 }} * {{Cite book \|lastCalloway \|firstColin G. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXtxG369-VHQC&qmercenaries \|titleThe Scratch of a Pen: 1763 and the Transformation of North America \|publisherOxford University Press \|year2007 \|isbn978-0195331271 \|refcalloway2007 }} * {{Cite book \|last1Cannon \|first1John \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9vL8CgAAQBAJ \|titleThe Oxford Companion to British History \|last2Crowcroft \|first2Robert \|publisherOxford University Press \|year2015 \|isbn978-0199677832 \|edition2nd \|refcannon2015 }} * {{Cite book \|lastCarp \|firstE. Wayne \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDL66YCXMbZ8C \|titleTo Starve the Army at Pleasure: Continental Army Administration and American Political Culture, 1775–1783 \|publisherUNC Press Books \|year1990 \|isbn978-0807842690 \|ref=carp1990 }} * {{Cite book \|lastCarroll \|firstFrancis M. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZiEkygEACAAJ \|titleA Good and Wise Measure: The Search for the Canadian-American Boundary, 1783–1842 \|publisherU of Toronto Press \|year2001 \|isbn978-0802083586 \|ref=carroll2001 }} * {{Cite web \|lastCashin \|firstEdward J. \|date26 March 2005 \|titleRevolutionary War in Georgia \|urlhttps://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/revolutionary-war-georgia \|access-date21 September 2020 \|websiteNew Georgia Encyclopedia \|quoteRevolution & Early Republic, 1775–1800 \|ref=cashin }} * {{Cite book \|lastCave \|firstAlfred A. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiiZoWyv77qQC&pgPP1 \|titleThe French and Indian War \|publisherGreenwood Press \|year2004 \|isbn978-0313321689 \|locationWestport, Connecticut; London \|ref=cave2004 }} * {{Cite book \|editor-lastChambers \|editor-firstJohn Whiteclay II \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idO69xjgEACAAJ \|titleThe Oxford Companion to American Military History \|publisherOxford University Press \|year1999 \|isbn978-0195071986 \|ref=chambers1999 }} * {{Cite journal \|lastChandler \|firstJonathan \|year2017 \|titleTo become again our brethren': Desertion and community during the American Revolutionary War, 1775–83 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPEvdvQEACAAJ \|journalHistorical Research \|publisherOxford University Press \|volume90 \|issueMarch 2017 \|pages363–380 \|doi10.1111/1468-2281.12183 \|access-dateMarch 20, 2020 \|refchandler \|doi-access=free }} * {{Cite book \|lastChávez \|firstThomas E. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idz96CAwAAQBAJ&qireland \|titleSpain and the Independence of the United States: An Intrinsic Gift \|publisherUNM Press \|year2002 \|isbn978-0826327956 \|refchavez }} * {{Cite book \|lastChartrand \|firstRené \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJUQ8vgAACAAJ \|titleGibraltar 1779–1783: The Great Siege \|publisherBloomsbury US \|year2006 \|isbn978-1841769776 \|ref=chartrand63 }} * {{Cite book \|lastChernow \|firstRon \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idr3-rsrDiE5cC \|titleWashington: A Life \|publisherPenguin Press \|year2010 \|isbn978-1594202667 \|ref=chernow2010 }} * {{Cite book \|lastClayton \|firstAnthony \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHlDJAwAAQBAJ \|titleThe British Officer: Leading the Army from 1660 to the present \|publisherRoutledge \|year2014 \|isbn978-1317864448 \|ref=clayton2014 }} * {{Cite book \|lastClode \|firstCharles M. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/militaryforcesc02clodgoog/page/n4/mode/2up \|titleThe military forces of the crown; their administration and government \|publisherLondon, J. Murray \|year1869 \|volume1 \|refclode1869a }} * {{Cite book \|lastClodfelter \|firstMicheal \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkNzCDgAAQBAJ \|titleWarfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015 \|publisherMcFarland \|year2017 \|isbn978-1476625850 \|edition4th \|refclodfelter2017 }} * {{Cite book \|lastConway \|firstStephen \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idghkm8IxFCQIC \|titleThe British Isles and the War of American Independence \|date2002 \|publisherOUP Oxford \|isbn978-0199254552 \|ref=conway }} * {{Cite book \|lastCogliano \|firstFrancis D. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQMAKWDQt1LAC \|titleRevolutionary America, 1763–1815: A Political History \|publisherFrancis and Taylor \|year2003 \|isbn978-1134678693 \|ref=cogliano2003 }} * {{Cite book \|lastCorwin \|firstEdward Samuel \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/frenchpolicyamer00corwuoft \|titleFrench policy and the American Alliance of 1778 \|date1916 \|publisherPrinceton University Press \|quoteonline at Internet Archive \|refcorwin }} * {{Cite book \|lastCrocker \|firstH.W. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbQNwDwAAQBAJ \|titleDon't Tread On Me: A 400-year History of American at War, from Indian Fighting to Terrorist Hunting \|publisherThree Rivers Press \|year2006 \|isbn978-1400053643 \|page51 \|refcrocker }} * {{Cite book \|lastCurtis \|firstEdward E. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.89355/page/n165/mode/2up?qThe+failure+of+British+arms \|titleThe Organization of the British Army in the American Revolution, Conclusion \|publisherYale University Press \|year1926 \|refcurtis1926 }} <!-- D --> * {{Cite book \|lastDale \|firstAnderson \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/battleofyorktown0000ande \|titleThe Battle of Yorktown \|publisherHarperCollins \|year2005 \|isbn978-0836853933 \|locationNew York \|ref=dale2005 }} * {{Cite book \|lastDaughan \|firstGeorge \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idpFmJ9HTq7QIC \|titleIf By Sea: The Forging of the American Navy – from the Revolution to the War of 1812 \|publisherBasic Books \|year2011 \|isbn978-0465025145 \|oclc701015376 \|refdaughan2011 \|orig-year=2008 }} * {{Cite book \|last1Davenport \|first1Frances G \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/europeantreaties04daveuoft/page/144/mode/2up \|titleEuropean Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies \|last2Paullin \|first2Charles O. \|year1917 \|volumeIV \|publisherWashington, D.C. Carnegie Institution of Washington \|refdavenport1917 }} * {{Cite book \|urlhttps://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000774193 \|titleDocuments of the American Revolution, 1779–1783 \|seriesVol. 16 has title:Documents of the American Revolution, 1779–1780 \|date1972–1981 \|publisherIrish University Press \|editor-lastDavies, K.G. \|volume12, 15, 17, 18 \|locationShannon \|isbn978-0716520856 \|oclc836225 \|quoteColonial Office Series: Great Britain, America and Canada \|refdaviesk1972 }} * {{Cite book \|last1Davis \|first1Lance E \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAyeqDTmM7BIC \|titleNaval Blockades in Peace and War: An Economic History since 1750 \|last2Engerman \|first2Stanley L \|date2006 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn978-1139458481 \|ref=davisengerman2006 }} * {{Cite book \|lastDavis \|firstBurke \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idpT92AAAAMAAJ \|titleGeorge Washington and the American Revolution \|publisherRandom House \|year1975 \|isbn978-0394463889 \|ref=davis75 }} * Dictionary of American Biography {{Cite web \|titleJean Baptiste Donatien De Vimeur Rochambeau \|date1936 \|urlhttps://link.gale.com/apps/doc/BT2310004552/GPS?uwikipedia&sidGPS&xid744d6016 \|access-dateJune 1, 2021 \|publisherCharles Scribner's Sons \|seriesGale in Context \|refrochDAB }} * {{Cite news \|lastDeane \|firstMark \|dateMay 14, 2018 \|titleThat time when Spanish New Orleans helped America win independence \|workWGNO-ABC-TV \|urlhttps://wgno.com/news-with-a-twist/nola-300-that-time-when-spanish-new-orleans-helped-america-win-independence/ \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200518231257/https://wgno.com/news-with-a-twist/nola-300-that-time-when-spanish-new-orleans-helped-america-win-independence/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-dateMay 18, 2020 \|access-date6 October 2020 \|quoteExhibit at the Cabildo Museum, 'Recovered Memories: Spain, New Orleans, and the Support for the American Revolution' \|refDeane2018 }} * {{Cite book \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/parliamentaryre11parlgoog/page/n2/mode/2up \|titleParliamentary Register, House of Commons, Fifteenth Parliament of Great Britain \|year1781 \|editor-lastDebrett, J. \|volume1 \|publisherPrinted for J. Almon \|ref=Debrett1781 }} * {{Cite book \|urlhttps://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?iduc1.$b750334&view1up&seq5 \|titleThe correspondence of King George the Third with Lord North from 1768 to 1783 \|year1867 \|editor-lastDonne, W. Bodham \|volume2 \|publisherJ. Murray \|quoteonline at Hathi Trust \|ref=donne }} * {{Cite book \|lastDuffy \|firstChristopher \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idzZiRAgAAQBAJ \|titleThe Military Experience in the Age of Reason, 1715–1789 \|publisherRoutledge \|year2005 \|isbn978-1135794583 \|refduffy1987 \|orig-year1987 }} * {{Cite book \|lastDull \|firstJonathan R \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2WF9BgAAQBAJ \|titleThe French Navy and American Independence: A Study of Arms and Diplomacy, 1774–1787 \|publisherPrinceton University Press \|year2015 \|isbn978-0691069203 \|locationPrinceton, NJ \|oclc1500030 \|refdull1975 \|orig-year1975 }} * {{Cite book \|lastDull \|firstJonathan R. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idW86WS9Z0ycYC \|titleA Diplomatic History of the American Revolution \|publisherYale University Press \|year1987 \|isbn978-0300038866 \|refdull1987 \|author-mask2 }} * {{Cite book \|lastDuncan \|firstLouis Caspar \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTj0JAAAAIAAJ \|titleMedical Men in the American Revolution, 1775–1783 \|publisherMedical field service school \|year1931 \|refduncan1931 }} * {{Cite web \|lastDunkerly \|firstRobert M. \|dateApril 2, 2014 \|title8 Fast Facts about Camp Followers \|urlhttps://allthingsliberty.com/2014/04/8-fast-facts-about-camp-followers/ \|access-dateAugust 23, 2019 \|publisherJournal of the American Revolution \|refdunkerly }} <!-- E --> * {{cite book\|authorEelking, Max von\|titleThe German Allied Troops in the North American War of Independence, 1776–1783\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/germanalliedtroo00eelk/page/n11/mode/2up\|othersTranslated from German by J. G. Rosengarten\|year1893\|publisherJoel Munsell's Sons, Albany, NY.\|lccn72081186\|refeelking1893}} * {{Cite thesis \|lastEclov \|firstJon Paul \|titleInformal Alliance: Royal Navy And U.S. Navy Co-Operation Against Republican France During The Quasi-War And Wars Of The French Revolution \|date2013 \|publisherUniversity of North Dakota \|urlhttps://commons.und.edu/theses/1417 \|typePhD \|refeclov2013 }} * {{Cite book \|lastEdler \|firstFriedrich \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/dutchrepublic00edlerich/page/n8/mode/2up \|titleThe Dutch Republic and The American Revolution \|publisherUniversity Press of the Pacific \|year2001 \|isbn0898752698 \|refedler \|orig-year=1911 }} * {{Cite book \|lastEllis \|firstJoseph J. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2Y9Rko9sT3kC \|titleHis Excellency: George Washington \|year2004 \|publisherKnopf Doubleday Publishing \|isbn978-1400032532 \|refellis2004 \|author-linkJoseph Ellis }} * {{Cite book \|lastEllis \|firstJoseph J. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idz4RqZJzho1QC \|titleRevolutionary Summer: The Birth of American Independence \|publisherRandom House \|year2013 \|isbn978-0307701220 \|refellis2013 \|author-mask2 }} * Encyclopædia Britannica {{cite EB1911\|wstitleEstaing, Charles Hector, Comte d' \|volume 09 \| page 789 \|shortx \|ref=estaingEB1911}} * {{Cite book \|lastEverest \|firstAllan Seymour \|titleMoses Hazen and the Canadian Refugees in the American Revolution\| publisherSyracuse University Press \|year1977\|isbn978-0815601296 \|ref=everest1977}} <!-- F --> * {{Cite book \|lastFaust \|firstAlbert Bernhardt \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/germanelementinu00faus \|titleThe German element in the United States \|publisherBoston : Houghton Mifflin Co. \|year1909 \|reffaust1909 \|author-linkAlbert Bernhardt Faust }} * {{Cite book \|lastFerling \|firstJohn \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/leapindark00ferl \|titleA Leap in the Dark: The Struggle to Create the American Republic \|publisherOxford University Press \|year2003 \|isbn978-0199728701 \|refferling2003 }} * {{Cite book \|lastFerling \|firstJohn E. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlyjjEsqlqo0C \|titleAlmost a Miracle \|publisherOxford University Press \|year2007 \|isbn978-0199758470 \|refferling2007 \|author-mask2 }} * {{Cite book \|lastFerling \|firstJohn \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idP0fCBwAAQBAJ \|titleWhirlwind: The American Revolution and the War That Won It \|publisherBloomsbury Publishing, US \|year2015 \|isbn978-1620401736 \|refferling2015 \|author-mask2 }} * {{Cite book \|lastFernández y Fernández \|firstEnrique \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idND93AAAAMAAJ \|titleSpain's Contribution to the independence of the United States: An Intrinsic Gift \|date2004 \|publisherUniversity of New Mexico Press \|isbn978-0826327949 \|reffernández1885 \|orig-year1885 }} * {{cite book \|lastField \|firstEdward \|titleEsek Hopkins, Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Navy During the American Revolution, 1775 to 1778: Master Mariner, politician, Brigadier General, Naval Officer, and Philanthropist \|publisherPreston & Rounds Company \|year1898 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/esekhopkinsco00fiel/page/n7/mode/2up \|ref=field }} * {{cite book \|lastFinger \|firstJohn \|title-linkTennessee Frontiers: Three Regions in Transition \|titleTennessee Frontiers: Three Regions in Transition \|publisherIndiana University Press \|year2001 \|isbn978-0253108722 \|reffinger2001}} * {{cite book \|lastFischer \|firstDavid Hackett \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idOreq1YztDcQC \|titleWashington's Crossing \|publisherOxford University Press \|year2004 \|isbn978-0195170344 \|reffischer2004 \|author-linkDavid Hackett Fischer }} * {{cite book \|lastFischer \|firstJoseph R. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_7ikGwAACAAJ \|titleA Well-Executed Failure: The Sullivan Campaign against the Iroquois \|publisherUniversity of South Carolina Press \|year2008 \|isbn978-1570038372 \|ref=fischer2008 }} * {{cite book \|lastFiske \|firstJohn \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXCcQAAAAYAAJ \|titleThe American Revolution: In Two Volumes \|date1891 \|publisherThe Riverside Press \|volume1 \|locationCambridge, MA \|reffiske1891 \|author-link=John Fiske (philosopher) }} * {{cite book \|lastFiske \|firstJohn \|titleHarpers' Encyclopaedia of United States History \|volume9 \|date1902 \|publisherHarper & brothers \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0sJAAQAAMAAJ&pgPA516 \|reffiske1902 \|author-mask=2 }} * {{cite book \|lastFleming \|firstThomas \|titleNew Jersey in the American Revolution \|publisherRivergate Books, Rutgers University Press \|year2005 \|isbn0813536022 \|editor-lastBarbara J. Mitnick \|reffleming \|orig-year=1973}} * {{cite book \|lastFleming \|firstThomas \|titleWashington's Secret War \|publisherHarperCollins \|year2006 \|isbn978-0060829629 \|reffleming2006 \|author-mask2}} * {{cite book \|lastFortescue \|firstJohn \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1GlKAAAAYAAJ&qBednore%201783&pgPA489 \|titleA history of the British army \|year1902 \|volume3 \|reffortescue }} * {{cite book \|last1Freeman \|first1Douglas Southall \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7hWBcg2iLooC \|titleWashington \|last2Harwell \|first2Richard Barksdale \|publisherSimon and Schuster \|year2011 \|isbn978-1439105337 \|quoteAn abridgement in one volume by Richard Harwell of the seven-volume biography of George Washington \|refharwell2011 }} * {{cite book \|lastFrench \|firstAllen \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZYwGAQAAIAAJ \|titleGeneral Gage's Informers \|publisherUniversity of Michigan Press \|year1932 \|reffrench1932 }} * {{cite book \|lastFrothingham \|firstRichard \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCu9BAAAAIAAJ \|titleHistory of the Siege of Boston, and of the Battles of Lexington, Concord, and Bunker Hill: also an Account of the Bunker Hill Monument \|publisherLittle, Brown, & Company \|year1903 \|viaGoogle Books ebook \|ref=Frothingham }} <!-- G --> * {{cite book \|lastGabriel \|firstMichael P. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXpx2CQAAQBAJ&qmercenaries \|titleThe Battle of Bennington: Soldiers and Civilians \|publisherThe History Press \|year2012 \|isbn978-1609495152 \|refgabriel2012 }} * {{cite book \|lastGaff \|firstAlan D. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQEI11WSV3WcC&qAugustin \|titleBayonets in the Wilderness. Anthony Waynes Legion in the Old Northwest \|publisherUniversity of Oklahoma Press \|year2004 \|isbn978-0806135854 \|locationNorman \|ref=gaff }} * {{Cite archive \|author1George III, his Britannic Majesty \|author2Commissioners of the United States of America \|itemPreliminary Articles of Peace \|date30 November 1782 \|urlhttps://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/prel1782.asp \|access-date6 October 2020 \|collection18th Century; British-American Diplomacy \|institutionYale Law School Avalon Project \|refgeoIII1782 \|quoteNine articles}} * {{Cite book \|lastGlattharr \|firstJoseph T. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXedxagDKH7EC \|titleForgotten Allies: The Oneida Indians and the American Revolution \|publisherHill & Wang \|year2007 \|isbn978-0809046003 \|ref=glatthaar }} * {{Cite book \|lastGolway \|firstTerry \|titleWashington's General: Nathanael Greene and the Triumph of the American Revolution \|date2005 \|publisherHenry Holt and Company, LLC \|isbn0805070664 \|ref=golway2005}} * {{Cite web \|lastGoos \|firstNorman \|titleA Very Large British Military Investment for Very Little Practical Profit \|urlhttps://www.sar.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Battle-at-Chestnut-Neck-by-Norman-Goos.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.sar.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Battle-at-Chestnut-Neck-by-Norman-Goos.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|access-date5 December 2020 \|websiteSons of the American Revolution \|refgoos }} * {{Cite book \|last1Gordon \|first1John W. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idUYqYDMxOcc4C \|titleSouth Carolina and the American Revolution: A Battlefield History \|last2Keegan \|first2John \|year2007 \|publisherUniv of South Carolina Press \|isbn978-1570034800 \|ref=gordon }} * {{Cite book \|lastGrainger \|firstJohn D. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idmUO8ulaX2PsC \|titleThe Battle of Yorktown, 1781: A Reassessment \|publisherBoydell Press \|year2005 \|isbn978-1843831372 \|ref=grainger2005 }} * {{Cite book \|lastGreene \|firstFrancis Vinton \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/generalgreene00greeuoft/page/n8/mode/2up \|titleGeneral Greene \|publisherNew York : D. Appleton & Co. \|year1913 \|ref=fgreene1913 }} * {{Cite book \|last1Greene \|first1Jack P. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idxK1NuzpAcH8C \|titleA Companion to the American Revolution \|last2Pole \|first2J.R. \|publisherBlackwell Publishers \|year2008 \|isbn978-0470756447 \|quoteCollection of essays focused on political and social history. \|refjgreene2008 \|orig-year=2000 }} * {{Cite book \|lastGrenier \|firstJohn \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJGCin1JJp8cC&qbird \|titleThe First Way of War: American War Making on the Frontier, 1607–1814 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|year2005 \|isbn978-1139444705 \|refgrenier }} * {{Cite map \|last1Gutman \|first1Alejandro \|last2Avanzati \|first2Beatriz \|titleNative North American Languages Distribution \|urlhttp://www.languagesgulper.com/eng/Northmap.html \|publisherA. Gutman & B. Avanzati \|date2013 \|access-date3 September 2020 \|refgutman }} <!-- H --> * {{cite journal \|lastHarrington \|firstHugh T. \|dateJanuary 2013 \|titleThe strange oddessy of George Merchant \|urlhttps://allthingsliberty.com/2013/01/the-strange-odyssey-of-george-merchant-rifleman/ \|journalJournal of the American Revolution \|ref=harrington2018 }} * {{cite book \|lastHarrison \|firstLowell Hayes \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhKsQ7yKYkaoC&qHenry+Hamilton \|titleGeorge Rogers Clark and the War in the West \|publisherUniversity Press of Kentucky \|year2001 \|isbn978-0813190143 \|refharrison2001 }} * {{cite book \|lastHarvey \|firstRobert \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYMWSDwAAQBAJ \|titleA Few Bloody Noses: The American Revolutionary War \|date2004 \|publisherRobinson \|isbn978-1841199528 \|ref=Harvey2004 }} * {{cite book \|lastHazard \|firstSamuel \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/B-001-003-105/mode/2up \|titleHazard's Register of Pennsylvania \|publisherW.F. Geddes \|year1829 \|volume4 \|refhazard54 }} * {{cite book \|lastHerring \|firstGeorge C. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idfODT-qOVoiIC \|titleFrom Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776 \|publisherOxford University Press \|year2011 \|isbn978-0199765539 \|quoteOxford History of the United States Book 12 \|refherring2011 \|orig-year=2008 }} * {{cite book \|lastHibbert \|firstChristopher \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idShQAtAEACAAJ \|titleGeorge III: A Personal History \|publisherBasic Books \|year2000 \|isbn978-0465027248 \|ref=hibbert2000 }} * {{cite book \|lastHibbert \|firstChristopher \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZwGSAwAAQBAJ \|titleRedcoats and Rebels \|publisherPen and Sword \|year2008 \|isbn978-1844156993 \|refhibbert \|author-mask2 }} * {{cite book \|lastHigginbotham \|firstDon \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idUGYqAAAAYAAJ \|titleThe War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practice, 1763–1789 \|publisherNortheastern University Press \|year1983 \|isbn0930350448 \|refhigginbotham1983 \|author-linkDon Higginbotham \|orig-year=1971 }} * {{Cite book \|lastHigginbotham \|firstDon \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNzZD0Wh99HEC \|titleGeorge Washington and the American Military Tradition \|publisherUniversity of Georgia Press \|year1987 \|isbn978-0820324005 \|refhigginbotham1987 \|author-mask2 }} * {{Cite book \|lastHoffman \|firstRonald \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhwKoMgAACAAJ \|titleDiplomacy and Revolution: The Franco-American Alliance of 1778 \|date1981 \|publisherUniversity of Virginia Press \|isbn978-0813908649 \|ref=hoffman }} * {{Cite book \|lastHogeland \|firstWilliam \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idj-hQDQAAQBAJ \|titleAutumn of the Black Snake \|publisherFarrar, Straus and Giroux \|year2017 \|isbn978-0374107345 \|locationNew York \|refhogeland2017 }} * {{cite book \|lastHorn \|firstPierre L. \|titleMarquis de Lafayette \|author-link \|publisherNew York : Chelsea House Publishers \|year1989 \|isbn978-1555468132 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/marquisdelafayet0000horn \|ref=horn1989 }} * {{Cite web \|lastHowat \|firstKenna \|date9 November 2017 \|titleRevolutionary Spies: Women Spies of the American Revolution \|urlhttps://www.colonialwilliamsburg.org/trend-tradition-magazine/spring-2017/fighting-common-soldier/ \|access-date23 August 2019 \|websiteNational Women's History Museum \|refhowat2017 }} * {{Cite book \|lastHubbard \|firstRobert Ernest \|titleMajor General Israel Putnam: Hero of the American Revolution \|publisherMcFarland & Company, Inc. \|year2017 \|isbn978-1476664538 \|locationJefferson, North Carolina \|refhubbard2017}} * {{Cite journal \|lastHunt \|firstPaula D. \|dateJune 2015 \|titleSybil Ludington, the Female Paul Revere: The Making of a Revolutionary War Heroine \|journalThe New England Quarterly \|volume88 \|issue2 \|pages187–222 \|doi10.1162/tneq_a_00452 \|issn0028-4866 \|refhunt2015 \|s2cid57569643\|doi-access=free }} <!-- I --> * {{Cite book \|lastIngrao \|firstCharles W. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPdXBnelX89YC&q%22mercenary+state%22 \|titleThe Hessian Mercenary State: Ideas, Institutions, and Reform Under Frederick II, 1760–1785 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|year2003 \|isbn978-0521533225 \|refingrao2003 }} * {{Cite magazine \|lastInman \|firstGeorge \|date1903 \|titleLosses of the Military and Naval Forces Engaged in the War of the American Revolution \|urlhttps://archive.org/stream/pennsylvaniamaga27hist#page/176/mode/1up \|magazineThe Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography \|volumeXXVII \|issue1 \|pages176–205 \|quoteopen access online at Internet Archive \|ref=inman }} <!-- J --> * {{Cite book \|last1Jackson \|first1Kenneth T. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrI_S-HgFdccC \|titleEmpire City: New York Through the Centuries \|last2Dunbar \|first2David S. \|publisherColumbia University Press \|year2005 \|isbn978-0231109093 \|ref=jackson2005 }} * {{Cite book \|lastJames \|firstJames Alton \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyoUUngEACAAJ \|titleThe Life of George Rogers Clark \|publisherLiterary Licensing \|year2013 \|isbn978-1494118921 \|ref=james2013 }} * {{Cite book \|lastJasanoff \|firstMaya \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduGKsn09oVwQC \|titleLiberty's Exiles: American Loyalists in the Revolutionary World \|publisherVintage Books \|year2012 \|isbn978-1400075478 \|ref=jasanoff2012 }} * {{Cite book \|lastJefferson \|firstThomas \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idW_5ZDwAAQBAJ \|titleThe Papers of Thomas Jefferson, Volume 4: October 1780 to February 1781 \|publisherPrinceton University Press \|year2018 \|isbn978-0691184692 \|editor-lastJulian P. Boyd \|refjefferson1780 \|author-link=Thomas Jefferson }} * {{Cite book \|lastJohnston \|firstHenry Phelps \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/battleofharlemhe00john_0/page/n10/mode/2up \|titleThe Battle of Harlem Heights \|publisherColumbia University Press \|year1897 \|ref=johnston1897 }} * {{Cite book \|lastJones \|firstHoward \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTFyLOUrdGFwC&qcrucible+of+power \|titleCrucible of Power: A History of American Foreign Relations to 1913 \|publisherScholarly Resources Inc. \|year2002 \|isbn978-0842029162 \|page5 \|ref=jones2002 }} <!-- K --> * {{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idt3SDQgfxsCIC \|titleA Necessary Evil?: Slavery and the Debate Over the Constitution \|publisherRowman & Littlefield \|year1995 \|isbn978-0945612339 \|editor-lastKaminski \|editor-firstJohn P. \|ref=kaminski1995 }} * {{Cite journal \|lastKaplan \|firstLawrence S. \|dateSeptember 1983 \|titleThe Treaty of Paris, 1783: A Historiographical Challenge \|journalInternational History Review \|publisherTaylor & Francis, Ltd. \|volume5 \|pages431–442 \|doi10.1080/07075332.1983.9640322 \|jstor40105317 \|reflskaplan1983 \|number3}} * {{Cite book \|lastKatcher \|firstPhilip \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5Ld2AAAAMAAJ \|titleEncyclopedia of British, Provincial, and German Army Units, 1775–1783 \|date1973 \|publisherStackpole Books \|isbn978-0811705424 \|ref=katcher }} * {{cite CE1913\|wstitleJean-Baptiste-Donatien de Vimeur, Count de Rochambeau \|volume 13 \|lastKeiley \|first Jarvis\|ref=keiley1912 }} * {{Cite book \|last1Kelly \|first1James \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4wMaAQAAIAAJ \|titleJamestown, Quebec, Santa Fe: Three North American Beginnings \|last2Smith \|first2Barbara Clark \|date2007 \|publisherSmithsonian \|isbn978-1588342416 \|ref=kelly }} * {{Cite book \|lastKennedy \|firstFrances H. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrTSTAwAAQBAJ \|titleThe American Revolution: A Historical Guidebook \|publisherOxford UP \|year2014 \|isbn978-0199324224 \|page163 \|refkennedy2014 }} * {{Cite book \|lastKetchum \|firstRichard M \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZWf2AwAAQBAJ \|titleThe Winter Soldiers: The Battles for Trenton and Princeton \|publisherHenry Holt and Company (reprint of 1973) \|year2014 \|isbn978-1466879515 \|refketchum73 \|author-linkRichard M. Ketchum \|orig-year=1973 }} * {{Cite book \|lastKetchum \|firstRichard M \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idw00MBAAAQBAJ \|titleSaratoga: Turning Point of America's Revolutionary War \|publisherMacmillan \|year1997 \|isbn978-0805046816 \|refketchum97 \|author-mask2 }} * {{Cite book \|lastKetchum \|firstRobert M. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQGf2AwAAQBAJ&qfrontal \|titleDecisive Day: The Battle for Bunker Hill \|publisherHenry Holt and Company \|year2014 \|isbn978-1466879508 \|refketchum2014a \|author-mask=2 }} * {{Cite book \|lastKetchum \|firstRichard M. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCwEDBAAAQBAJ&q6,000 \|titleVictory at Yorktown: The Campaign That Won the Revolution \|publisherHenry Holt and Company \|year2014 \|isbn978-1466879539 \|refketchum2014b \|author-mask=2 }} * {{Cite book \|lastKolchin \|firstPeter \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idF3nMRwAACAAJ \|titleAmerican Slavery: 1619–1877 \|publisherNew York: Hill and Wang \|year1994 \|isbn978-0809015542 \|ref=kolchin1994 }}, p.&nbsp;73 * {{Cite book \|lastKnesebeck \|firstErnst von dem \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ideNF3DgAAQBAJ&qHanover \|titleGeschichte der kurhannoverschen Truppen: in Gibraltar, Menorca und Ostindien \|publisherIm Verlage der Helwingschen Hof-Buchhandlung \|year2017 \|isbn978-9925057382 \|refernst \|orig-year=1845 }} * {{Cite book \|lastKupperman \|firstKaren Ordahl \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlIp7_e8KMJ0C \|titleThe Jamestown Project \|publisherHarvard University Press \|year2009 \|isbn978-0674027022 \|ref=kupperman }} <!-- L --> * {{Cite book \|last1Lanctot \|first1Gustave \|titleCanada and the American Revolution 1774–1783 \|translator-lastCameron\|translator-firstMargaret M\|publisherHarvard University Press \|year1967\|oclc70781264 \|ref=lanctot}} * {{Cite book \|lastLandrum \|firstJohn Belton O'Neall \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/colonialandrevo00landgoog \|titleColonial and Revolutionary History of Upper South Carolina \|publisherShannon \|year1897 \|locationGreenville, SC \|oclc187392639 \|ref=landrum1897 }} * {{Cite book \|lastLanning \|firstMichael \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1GEs53wMr7EC&pgPA193 \|titleAmerican Revolution 100: The Battles, People, and Events of the American War for Independence, Ranked by Their Significance \|publisherSourcebooks \|year2009 \|isbn978-1402241703 \|pages195–196 \|ref=lanning2009 }} * {{Cite book \|lastLanning \|firstMichael \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idEQ-uPQAACAAJ \|titleDefenders Of Liberty: African Americans in the Revolutionary War \|publisherCitadel Press \|year2012 \|isbn978-1559725132 \|ref=lanning2012 }} * {{Cite book \|lastLass \|firstWilliam \|titleMinnesota's Boundary with Canada: Its Evolution Since 1783\|publisherMinnesota Historical Society Press \|year1980 \|isbn978-0873511537}} * {{Cite book \|lastLecky \|firstWilliam Edward Hartpole \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/historyofengland03leck/page/n6/mode/2up \|titleA History of England in the Eighteenth Century \|publisherLondon: Longmans, Green \|year1892 \|volume3 \|reflecky3 }} * {{Cite book \|lastLecky \|firstWilliam Edward Hartpole \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idm3cUAAAAYAAJ&pgPA70 \|titleA History of England \|year1891 \|volume4 \|pages70–78 \|reflecky4 \|author-mask=2 }} * {{Cite book \|lastLefkowitz \|firstArthur S. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtCcRAQAAMAAJ \|titleBenedict Arnold's Army: The 1775 American Invasion of Canada during the Revolutionary War \|publisherSavas Beatie \|year2007 \|isbn978-1932714036 \|ref=lefkowitz2007 }} * {{Cite book \|lastLengel \|firstEdward \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyHTGAAAACAAJ \|titleGeneral George Washington \|publisherRandom House Paperbacks \|year2005 \|isbn978-0812969504 \|locationNew York \|reflengel2005 \|author-link=Edward G. Lengel }} * {{Cite book \|lastLockhart \|firstPaul Douglas \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIq8KX4VOgJEC \|titleThe Drillmaster at Valley Forge: The Baron de Steuben and the Making of the American Army \|date2010 \|publisherHarper Perennial \|isbn978-0061451645 \|ref=lockhart }} * {{Cite archive \|author1Louis XVI, his most Christian King \|author2Commissioners of the United States of America \|itemTreaty of Alliance \|date6 February 1778\|urlhttps://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fr1788-2.asp \|collection18th Century \|institutionYale Law School Avalon Project \|reflouisXVI1778b \|quote=Thirteen articles}} * {{Cite book \|lastLowell \|firstEdward Jackson \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/hessiansotherger00lowe/page/n4/mode/2up \|titleThe Hessians and the other German auxiliaries of Great Britain in the revolutionary war \|publisherHarper & Brothers. \|year1884 \|locationNew York \|reflowell84 }} * {{Cite book \|lastLowenthal \|firstLarry \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTPEQAQAAMAAJ \|titleHell on the East River: British Prison Ships in the American Revolution \|publisherPurple Mountain Press \|year2009 \|isbn978-0916346768 \|ref=lowenthal2009 }} <!-- M --> * {{Cite book \|lastMackesy \|firstPiers \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVKJ2AAAAMAAJ \|titleThe War for America: 1775–1783 \|publisherUniversity of Nebraska Press \|year1993 \|isbn978-0803281929 \|refmackesy93 \|orig-year1964 }}–&nbsp;Highly regarded examination of British strategy and leadership. An introduction by John W. Shy with his biographical sketch of Mackesy. * {{Cite book \|lastMahan \|firstAlfred Thayer \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/seanpowerinf00maha/page/n6/mode/2up \|titleThe influence of sea power upon history, 1660–1783 \|publisherBoston : Little, Brown and Company \|year1890 \|refmahan1890 \|author-linkAlfred Thayer Mahan }} * {{Cite book \|lastMahan \|firstAlfred T. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/majoroperationso00maha \|titleMajor Operations of the Royal Navy, 1762–1783: Being Chapter XXXI in The Royal Navy. A History \|publisherLittle, Brown \|year1898 \|locationBoston \|oclc46778589 \|refmahan1898 \|author-mask2 }} * {{Cite book \|lastMahan \|firstAlfred Thayer \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/majoroperationso1913maha \|titleThe Major Operations of the Navies in the War of American Independence \|publisherCourier Dover Publications \|year2020 \|isbn978-0486842103 \|refmahan2020 \|author-mask2 \|orig-year1913 }} * {{Cite book \|lastMaier \|firstPauline \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyvsCEY5oI8sC \|titleAmerican scripture: making the Declaration of Independence \|publisherVintage Books \|year1998 \|isbn978-0679779087 \|refmaier1998 \|author-linkPauline Maier }} * {{Cite journal \|lastMauch \|firstChristof \|dateWinter 1998 \|titleImages of America—Political Myths—Historiography: "Hessians" in the War of Independence \|journalAmerikastudien / American Studies \|publisherUniversitätsverlag WINTER Gmbh \|volume48 \|issue3 \|pages411–423 \|jstor41157873 \|ref=mauch2003}} * {{Cite book \|lastMays \|firstTerry M. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ide35_DwAAQBAJ \|titleHistorical Dictionary of the American Revolution \|publisherRowman & Littlefield \|year2016 \|isbn978-1538119723 \|ref=mays2019 }} * {{Cite book \|lastMcCrady \|firstEdward \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/historyofsouthca00mccr \|titleThe history of South Carolina in the Revolution, 1775–1780 \|publisherNew York, The Macmillan Company; London, Macmillan & Co., ltd. \|year1901 \|ref=mccrady1775 }} * {{Cite book \|lastMcCullough \|firstDavid \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduu1mC6zWNTwC \|title1776 \|publisherNew York: Simon & Schuster \|year2005 \|isbn978-0743287708 \|refmccullough2005 \|author-linkDavid McCullough }} * {{Cite book \|lastMcGeorge \|firstWallace \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/battleofredbankr00mcge \|titleThe battle of Red Bank, resulting in the defeat of the Hessians and the destruction of the British frigate Augusta, Oct. 22 and 23, 1777 \|publisherCamden, New Jersey, Sinnickson Chew, printers \|year1905 \|ref=mcgeorge1905 }} * {{Cite book \|lastMcGuire \|firstThomas J. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idOsNi7Byog6kC&pgPA166 \|titleStop the Revolution: America in the Summer of Independence and the Conference for Peace \|publisherStackpole Books \|year2011 \|isbn978-0811745086 \|refmcguire2011 }} * {{Cite book \|lastMiddlekauff \|firstRobert \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idnya0ODz-B-cC \|titleThe Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789 \|publisherOxford University Press \|year2007 \|isbn978-0199740925 \|refmiddlekauff1982 \|author-linkRobert Middlekauff \|orig-year=1982 }} * {{Cite journal \|lastMiddleton \|firstRichard \|date2014 \|titleNaval Resources and the British Defeat at Yorktown, 1781 \|urlhttps://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00253359.2014.866373 \|journalThe Mariner's Mirror \|volume100 \|issue1 \|pages29–43 \|doi10.1080/00253359.2014.866373 \|refmiddleton2014 \|s2cid154569534 }} * {{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhuu6xgEACAAJ \|titleTreaties and Other International Acts of the United States of America: 1776–1818 &nbsp;(Documents 1–40) \|publisherU.S. Government Printing Office \|year1931 \|editor-lastMiller, Hunter \|volumeII \|refmiller1931 }} * {{Cite book \|lastMiller \|firstJohn C. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDlmrAAAAIAAJ&pgPA410 \|titleOrigins of the American Revolution \|publisherStanford UP \|year1959 \|isbn978-0804705936 \|refmiller1959 }} * {{Cite journal \|lastMitchell \|firstBarbara A. \|dateAutumn 2012 \|titleAmerica's Spanish Savior: Bernardo de Gálvez \|urlhttp://www.historynet.com/americas-spanish-savior-bernardo-de-galvez.htm \|journalMHQ (Military History Quarterly) \|pages98–104 \|refmitchell2012 }} * {{Cite book \|lastMontero \|firstFrancisco Maria \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbHRmkdBONd0C \|titleHistoria de Gibraltar y de su campo \|publisherImprenta de la Revista Médica \|year1860 \|page356 \|languagees \|refmontero }} * {{Cite book \|lastMorgan \|firstEdmund S. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQC1dtQAACAAJ \|titleThe Birth of the Republic: 1763–1789 \|publisherUniversity of Chicago Press \|year2012 \|isbn978-0226923420 \|edition4th \|quoteforeword by Joseph Ellis \|refmorgan2012 \|orig-year1956 }} * {{Cite book \|lastMorley \|firstVincent \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiBrJz9XYzNgC&pgPA154 \|titleIrish Opinion and the American Revolution, 1760–1783 \|publisherCambridge UP \|year2002 \|isbn978-1139434560 \|refmorley2002 }} * {{Cite book \|lastMorrill \|firstDan \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRXh2AAAAMAAJ \|titleSouthern Campaigns of the American Revolution \|publisherNautical & Aviation Publishing \|year1993 \|isbn978-1877853210 \|ref=morrill }} * {{Cite book \|lastMorris \|firstRichard B. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_sXbxwEACAAJ \|titleThe Peacemakers: The Great Powers and American Independence \|year1983 \|isbn978-1299106598 \|refmorris1965 \|orig-year=1965 }} * {{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCUV2AAAAMAAJ \|titleEncyclopedia of American History \|publisherHarper & Row \|year1982 \|isbn978-0061816055 \|editor-lastMorris \|editor-firstRichard B. \|edition6th \|quotewith Henry Steele Commager as chief consulting editor \|refMorris1982 \|editor2-lastMorris \|editor2-first=Jeffrey B. }} * {{Cite book \|lastMorrissey \|firstBrendan \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ideR9WvgAACAAJ \|titleYorktown 1781: The World Turned Upside Down \|publisherBloomsbury \|year1997 \|isbn978-1855326880 \|ref=morrissey1997 }} * {{Cite book \|lastMulhall \|firstMichael G. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/newdictionaryofs00webb \|titleMulhall's Dictionary of Statistics \|publisherGeorge Boutleddge and Sons, London \|year1884 \|refmulhall \|orig-year1884 }} <!-- N --> * {{Cite book \|last1Namier \|first1Lewis \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTaw7DVGrbRcC&pgRA1-PA246 \|titleThe House of Commons 1754–1790 \|last2Brooke \|first2John \|publisherBoydell & Brewer \|year1985 \|isbn978-04363-0420-0 \|refnamier1985 }} * {{Cite book \|lastNash \|firstGary B. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idnOURDAAAQBAJ \|titleOxford Handbook of the American Revolution \|date2012 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0199746705 \|editor-lastGray \|editor-firstEdward G. \|pages250–270 \|chapterChapter: The African Americans Revolution \|quoteOxford Handbooks \|refnash2012 \|editor2-lastKamensky \|editor2-firstJane }} * {{Cite book \|lastNash \|firstGary \|titleThe Unknown American Revolution: The Unruly Birth of Democracy and the Struggle to Create America \|date2005 \|publisherViking Books \|isbn978-0670034208 \|ref=nash2005}} * {{Cite book \|lastNelson \|firstLarry L. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idy1KekDaaKKAC \|titleA Man of Distinction among Them: Alexander McKee and the Ohio Country Frontier, 1754–1799 \|publisherKent, Ohio: Kent State University Press \|year1999 \|isbn978-0873387002 \|ref=nelson1999 }} * {{Cite book \|lastNester \|firstWilliam R. \|titleThe Frontier War for American Independence \|publisherStackpole Books \|year2004 \|isbn978-0811700771 \|ref=nester2004}} <!-- O --> * {{Cite book \|lastO'Brien \|firstGreg \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjGFmNPevedUC&pgPA123 \|titlePre-removal Choctaw history: exploring new paths \|year2008 \|publisherUniversity of Oklahoma Press \|isbn978-0806139166 \|refo'brien2008 \|access-date=March 25, 2011 }} * {{Cite journal \|lastOlsen \|firstAlison G \|date1992 \|titleEighteenth-Century Colonial Legislatures and Their Constituents \|journalThe Journal of American History \|volume79 \|issue2 \|pages543–567 \|doi10.2307/2080046 \|jstor2080046 \|ref=olsen1992}} * {{Cite book \|lastOtfinoski \|firstSteven \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRqAaRdNGCYIC \|titleThe New Republic \|date2008 \|publisherMarshall Cavendish \|isbn978-0761429388 \|ref=otfinoski }} * {{Cite journal \|lastO'Shaughnessy \|firstAndrew Jackson \|dateSpring 2004 \|titleIf Others Will Not Be Active, I Must Drive": George III and the American Revolution \|journalEarly American Studies \|publisherUniversity of Pennsylvania Press \|volume2 \|issue1 \|pages1–46 \|doi10.1353/eam.2007.0037 \|jstor23546502 \|refoshaughnessy2004 \|s2cid=143613757}} * {{Cite book \|lastO'Shaughnessy \|firstAndrew \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idzFc-UCp6ZQsC \|titleThe Men Who Lost America \|publisherYale University Press \|year2013 \|isbn978-0300191073 \|refnessy \|author-mask2 }} <!-- P --> * {{Cite book \|lastPaine \|firstThomas \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8xNAMDp9NasC \|titleCommon Sense \|publisherPenguin Classics \|year1982 \|isbn978-0140390162 \|editor-lastKramnick, Isaac \|refkramnick82 }} * {{Cite book \|lastPancake \|firstJohn \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/thisdestructivew00panc \|titleThis Destructive War \|publisherUniversity of Alabama Press \|year1985 \|isbn978-0817301910 \|refpancake1985 }} * {{Cite book \|lastPalmer \|firstDave Richard \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idzANrP6rOOJkC \|titleGeorge Washington and Benedict Arnold: A Tale of Two Patriots \|publisherSimon and Schuster \|year2010 \|isbn978-1596981645 \|ref=palmer2010 }} * {{Cite book \|lastPares \|firstRichard \|urlhttps://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001314334 \|titleWar and Trade in the West Indies, 1739–1763 \|date1963 \|publisherF. Cass Press \|quoteonline at Hathi Trust \|refpares \|orig-year=1936 }} * {{Cite book \|lastPaterson \|firstThomas G. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9-alDgRk-IYC&pgPA13 \|titleAmerican Foreign Relations, Volume 1: A History to 1920 \|publisherCengage Learning \|year2009 \|isbn978-0547225647 \|pages13–15 \|refpaterson2009 \|display-authorsetal }} * {{Cite book \|lastPaullin \|firstCharles \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/navyamericanrev01paulgoog \|titleThe navy of the American Revolution: its administration, its policy and its achievements Oscar \|publisherThe Burrows Brothers Co \|year1906 \|quotepaullin massachusetts navy. \|refpaullin }} * {{Cite thesis \|lastPearson \|firstJesse T \|titleThe Failure of British Strategy during the Southern Campaign of the American Revolutionary War, 1780–81 \|publisherFaculty of the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College \|urlhttps://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a437052.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210228062141/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a437052.pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-dateFebruary 28, 2021 \|year2005 \|typeThesis \|ref=pearson2005 }} * {{Cite book \|lastPeckham \|firstHoward Henry \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkhuuQgAACAAJ \|titleThe Toll of Independence: Engagements & Battle Casualties of the American Revolution \|publisherUniversity of Chicago Press \|year1974 \|isbn978-0226653181 \|ref=peckham74 }} * {{Cite book \|lastPeterson \|firstMerrill D. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXcOXEb0O4-UC \|titleThomas Jefferson and the New Nation \|publisherOxford University Press \|year1975 \|isbn978-0195019094 \|refpeterson1975 \|orig-year1970 }} * {{Cite book \|lastPhilbrick \|firstNathaniel \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idwZ1iCgAAQBAJ \|titleValiant Ambition: George Washington, Benedict Arnold, and the Fate of the American Revolution \|publisherPenguin Books \|year2016 \|isbn978-0698153233 \|ref=philbrick2016 }} * {{Cite journal \|lastPiecuch \|firstJim \|dateOctober 2004 \|titleMassacre or Myth? Banastre Tarleton at the Waxhaws, May 29, 1780 \|urlhttp://www.southerncampaign.org/newsletter/v1n2.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.southerncampaign.org/newsletter/v1n2.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|journalSouthern Campaigns of the American Revolution \|volume1 \|issue2 \|refpiecuch2004 }} * {{Cite journal \|lastPybus \|firstCassandra \|year2005 \|titleJefferson's Faulty Math: The Question of Slave Defections in the American Revolution \|journalThe William and Mary Quarterly \|volume62 \|issue2 \|pages243–264 \|doi10.2307/3491601 \|jstor3491601 \|ref=pybus2005}} <!-- R --> * {{Cite book \|lastRaab \|firstJames W. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ideCc8BQAAQBAJ&pgPA135 \|titleSpain, Britain and the American Revolution in Florida, 1763–1783 \|year2007 \|isbn978-0786432134 \|page135 \|publisherMcFarland \|ref=raab }} * {{Cite journal \|lastRandall \|firstWillard Sterne \|dateSummer 1990 \|titleBenedict Arnold at Quebec \|urlhttp://www.aferguson.net/mhq/default.asp?year1990&vol2&issue4 \|journalMHQ: The Quarterly Journal of Military History \|volume2 \|issue40 \|pages38–39 \|access-dateMarch 31, 2020 \|refrandall'mhq \|archive-dateSeptember 23, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200923095400/http://www.aferguson.net/mhq/default.asp?year1990&vol2&issue4 \|url-statusdead }} * {{Cite book \|lastRankin \|firstHugh F. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idcJIqTB0B_7kC \|titleRebels and Redcoats: The American Revolution Through the Eyes of Those who Fought and Lived it \|publisherDa Capo Press \|year1987 \|isbn978-03068-03079 \|ref=rankin }} * {{Cite book \|lastRankin \|firstHugh F. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idGV_MCQAAQBAJ \|titleThe North Carolina Continentals \|year2011 \|publisherUNC Press Books \|isbn978-1258093402 \|editor-lastMemory F. Blackwelder \|refrankin \|author-mask2 \|orig-year1996 }} * {{Cite book \|lastRappleye \|firstCharles \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/robertm_rap_2010_00_1148 \|titleRobert Morris: Financier of the American Revolution \|date2010 \|publisherSimon & Schuster \|isbn978-1416570912 \|refRappleye2010 \|url-access=registration }} * {{Cite book \|lastReeve \|firstJohn L. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3k9_AgAAQBAJ \|titleStrategy in the American War of Independence: A Global Approach \|publisherRoutledge \|year2009 \|isbn978-1134210398 \|editor-lastHagan \|editor-firstKenneth J. \|chapterBritish Naval Strategy: War on a Global Scale \|refreeve \|editor2-lastMcMaster \|editor2-firstMichael T. \|editor3-lastStoker \|editor3-firstDonald }} * {{Cite journal \|lastReid \|firstDarren R. \|dateJune 19, 2017 \|titleAnti-Indian Radicalisation in the Early American West, 1774–1795 \|urlhttps://allthingsliberty.com/2017/06/anti-indian-radicalisation-early-american-west-1774-1795 \|journalJournal of the American Revolution \|ref=reidD2017 }} * {{Cite book \|lastReid \|firstJohn Phillip \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idK4zyARfDVpUC \|titleThe Authority to Tax: Constitutional History of the American Revolution \|date1987 \|publisherUniversity of Wisconsin Press \|isbn978-0299112905 \|ref=reidJ1987 }} * {{Cite book \|lastRenaut \|firstFrancis P. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWZQFAQAAIAAJ \|titleLe Pacte de famille et l'Amérique: La politique coloniale franco-espagnole de 1760 à 1792 \|year1922 \|locationParis \|refrenaut1922 }} * {{Cite book \|lastReynolds \|firstWilliam R. Jr. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2dK4A8bpxEYC&qAugusta \|titleAndrew Pickens: South Carolina Patriot in the Revolutionary War \|publisherMcFarland & Company, Inc. \|year2012 \|isbn978-0786466948 \|locationJefferson, NC \|ref=reynolds2012 }} * {{Cite book \|last1Rignault \|first1Daniel P. \|urlhttp://resource.nlm.nih.gov/101659674 \|titleThe History of the French Military Medical Corps \|translator-lastDeBakey \|translator-firstMichael E. \|publisherMinistère de la défense, Service de santé des armées \|year2004 \|id=NLM 101659674 }} * {{Cite web \|lastRinaldi \|firstRichard A. \|titleThe British Army 1775–1783 \|urlhttps://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/30059083/the-british-army-1775-1783-richard-a-rinaldi-orders-of-battle \|access-dateSeptember 23, 2013 \|publisherYumpu \|refrinaldi \|archive-dateAugust 17, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210817011751/https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/30059083/the-british-army-1775-1783-richard-a-rinaldi-orders-of-battle \|url-statusdead }} * {{Cite book \|lastRisch \|firstErna \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsfpt2Wjzcw4C \|titleSupplying Washington's Army \|publisherCenter of Military History, United States Army \|year1981 \|refrisch1981 }} * {{Cite journal \|lastRitcheson \|firstCharles R. \|year1973 \|title"Loyalist Influence" on British Policy Toward the United States After the American Revolution \|journalEighteenth-Century Studies \|publisherJohns Hopkins University Press \|volume7 \|issue1 \|pages1–17 \|doi10.2307/3031609 \|jstor3031609 \|refritcheson}} * Robinson Library {{Cite web \|titleBattle of Monmouth Courthouse \|urlhttp://www.robinsonlibrary.com/america/unitedstates/1775/campaigns/monmouth.htm \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120213042627/http://www.robinsonlibrary.com/america/unitedstates/1775/campaigns/monmouth.htm \|url-statusdead \|archive-dateFebruary 13, 2012 \|access-dateJune 20, 2017 \|websiteRobinson Library \|publisherSelf-published \|ref=none }} * {{Cite book \|lastRose \|firstAlexander \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idK4lUeuo-UI8C \|titleWashington's Spies: The Story of America's First Spy Ring \|publisherBantam Books \|year2014 \|isbn978-0553392593 \|refalexrose \|orig-year2006 }} * {{Cite book \|lastRose \|firstMichael \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtUWSAAAAQBAJ \|titleWashington's War: From Independence To Iraq \|publisherOrion Publishers \|year2013 \|isbn978-1780227108 \|ref=rose2013 }} * {{Cite book \|lastRossman \|firstVadim \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idA3djDQAAQBAJ \|titleCapital Cities: Varieties and Patterns of Development and Relocation \|publisherTaylor & Francis \|year2016 \|isbn978-1317562856 \|ref=rosssman2016 }} * {{Cite book \|lastRussell \|firstDavid Lee \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5DFy0eWaPxIC&pgPA72 \|titleThe American Revolution in the Southern colonies \|publisherMcFarland \|year2000 \|isbn978-0786407835 \|locationJefferson, NC \|oclc248087936 \|refrussell }} <!-- S --> * {{Cite book \|last1Savas \|first1Theodore P. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKRRSfy7eVoIC \|titleA Guide to the Battles of the American Revolution \|last2Dameron \|first2J. David \|publisherSavas Beatie LLC \|year2006 \|isbn978-1611210118 \|ref=savas2006 }} * {{Cite book \|last1Scheer \|first1George F. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWC2vugAACAAJ \|titleRebels and Redcoats \|last2Rankin \|first2Hugh F. \|publisherNew American library \|year1959 \|asinB000ZLZW9I \|ref=scheer1959 }} * {{Cite book \|lastSchecter \|firstBarnet \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9LRhOpZid40C \|titleThe Battle for New York: The city at the heart of the American Revolution \|publisherPenguin Books \|year2003 \|isbn978-0142003336 \|ref=schecter }} * {{Cite journal \|lastSchmidt \|firstH. D. \|date1958 \|title'The Hessian mercenaries: the career of a political cliche \|journalHistory \|publisherWiley \|volume43 \|issue149 \|pages207–212 \|doi10.1111/j.1468-229X.1958.tb02208.x \|jstor24404012 \|refschmidt1958}} * {{Cite journal \|lastScott \|firstHamish M \|date1988 \|titleSir Joseph Yorke, Dutch Politics and the Origins of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War \|journalThe Historical Journal \|volume31 \|issue3 \|pages571–589 \|doi10.1017/S0018246X00023499 \|jstor2639757 \|s2cid154619712 \|refscott1988}} * {{Cite book \|lastScott \|firstHamish M. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkndnAAAAMAAJ \|titleBritish Foreign Policy in the Age of the American Revolution \|publisherClarendon Press \|year1990 \|isbn978-0198201953 \|ref=scott1990 }} * {{Cite web \|lastShowalter \|firstDennis \|year2007 \|titleHessians: The Best Armies Money Could Buy \|urlhttps://www.historynet.com/hessians-the-best-armies-money-could-buy.htm \|access-dateOctober 3, 2020 \|publisherMilitary History Magazine/HistoryNet \|refshowalter2007 }} * {{Cite thesis \|lastSchwamenfeld \|firstSteven W. \|title"The Foundation of British Strength": National Identity and the British Common Soldier \|publisherFlorida State University \|urlhttps://fsu.digital.flvc.org/islandora/object/fsu:176453/datastream/PDF/view \|year2007 \|typePHD \|refschwamenfeld2007 }} * {{cite book \|lastSeineke \|firstKathrine Wagner \|titleGeorge Rogers Clark: Adventure in the Illinois and Selected Documents of the American Revolution at the Frontier Posts \|publisherPolyanthos \|year1981 \|isbn9992016531 \|ref=seineke1981}} * {{Cite book \|lastSelby \|firstJohn E. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWfCBYZs_jIMC \|titleThe Revolution in Virginia, 1775–1783 \|publisherColonial Williamsburg \|year2007 \|isbn978-0879352332 \|ref=selby2007 }} * {{cite book\|lastSimmons\|firstEdwin Howard\|author-linkEdwin H. Simmons\|titleThe United States Marines: A History\|edition4th\|publisherNaval Institute Press\|year2003\|locationAnnapolis, Maryland\|isbn1591147905\|url-accessregistration\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/unitedstatesmari0000simm_r8b9\|refsimmons2003}} * {{Cite book \|lastSimms \|firstBrendan \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idizhwqC3W23UC \|titleThree Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire, 1714–1783 \|publisherPenguin Books Limited \|year2009 \|isbn978-0140289848 \|ref=simms }} * {{Cite book \|lastSkaggs \|firstDavid Curtis \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1niaAAAAIAAJ \|titleThe Old Northwest in the American Revolution: An Anthology \|publisherState Historical Society of Wisconsin \|year1977 \|isbn978-0870201646 \|ref=skaggs1977 }} * {{Cite book \|lastSmith \|firstDavid \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIlMa-Krnxl8C&pgPA21 \|titleNew York 1776: The Continentals' First Battle \|publisherOsprey Publishing \|year2012 \|isbn978-1782004431 \|refsmithD2012 }} * {{Cite book \|lastSmith \|firstJustin Harvey \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/bub_gb_Ls9BAAAAIAAJ \|titleOur Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony: Canada and the American Revolution \|publisherG.P. Putnam's Sons \|year1907 \|volume1 \|locationNew York & London \|ref=smithJ1907a }} * {{Cite book \|lastSmith \|firstJustin Harvey \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/ourstruggleforf03smitgoog \|titleOur Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony: Canada and the American Revolution \|publisherG.P. Putnam's Sons \|year1907 \|volume1 \|locationNew York & London \|refsmithJ1907b \|author-mask2 }} * {{Cite book \|last1Franklin \|first1Benjamin \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/diplomaticcorres01sparuoft/page/n7/mode/2up/search/Portugal \|titleThe diplomatic correspondence of the American Revolution \|last2Lee \|first2Arthur \|last3Adams \|first3John \|publisherBoston: Hale, Gray & Bowen \|year1829 \|editor-lastSparks \|editor-firstJared \|volume1 \|refsparks1829 }} * {{Cite book \|lastStanley \|firstGeorge \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/canadainvaded17700stan \|titleCanada Invaded 1775–1776 \|publisherHakkert \|year1973 \|isbn978-0888665782 \|locationToronto \|oclc4807930 \|refstanley \|url-access=registration }} * {{Cite book \|lastStedman \|firstCharles \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/gri_33125010928733/page/n6/mode/2up \|titleThe history of the origin, progress, and termination of the American war \|publisherDublin : Printed for Messrs. P. Wogan, P. Byrne, J. Moore, and W. Jones \|year1794 \|volume1 \|refstedman1 }} * {{Cite book \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/dictionaryofnat02stepuoft/page/64/mode/2up?qAruthnot \|titleDictionary of National Biography \|publisherMacmillan \|year1885–1900 \|editor-lastStephen, Leslie \|volume2 \|locationNew York \|refstephen1885 \|editor2-lastLee, Sidney }} * {{Cite book \|urlhttp://history.army.mil/books/AMH-V1/ch04.htm \|titleAmerican Military History Volume 1 The United States Army and the Forging of a Nation, 1775–1917 \|publisherCenter of Military History, United States Army \|year2005 \|isbn0160723620 \|editor-lastStewart, Richard W. \|volume4 \|locationWashington, D.C. \|ref=stewartR }} * {{Cite book \|lastStockley \|firstAndrew \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idmHoaiPKTKvwC \|titleBritain and France at the Birth of America: The European Powers and the Peace Negotiations of 1782–1783 \|publisherUniversity of Exeter Press \|year2001 \|isbn978-0859896153 \|ref=stockley2001 }} * {{Cite book \|lastStone \|firstBailey \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idUAZAhYVJwlUC \|titleThe Genesis of the French Revolution: A Global Historical Interpretation \|year1994 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn978-0521445702 \|ref=stone1994 }} * {{Cite book \|lastSyrett \|firstDavid \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/royalnavyineurop00syre \|titleThe Royal Navy in European Waters During the American Revolutionary War \|publisherUniv of South Carolina Press \|year1998 \|isbn978-1570032387 \|refsyrett1998 \|url-access=registration }} * {{cite book \|lastStryker \|firstWilliam Scudder \|titleThe Battles of Trenton and Princeton \|volume \|author-link\|publisherBoston : Houghton, Mifflin and Company \|year1898 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/battlesoftrenton00stry/page/n9/mode/2up \|ref=stryker1898 }} <!-- T --> * {{Cite book \|lastTaafe \|firstStephen R. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLlN2AAAAMAAJ \|titleThe Philadelphia Campaign, 1777–1778 \|date2003 \|publisherUniversity Press of Kansas \|isbn978-0700612673 \|ref=taffe }} * {{Cite book \|lastTaylor \|firstAlan \|titleAmerican Revolutions: A Continental History, 1750–1804 \|publisherWW Norton & Company \|year2016 \|isbn978-0393253870 \|reftaylor2016 \|author-linkAlan Taylor (historian) }} * {{Cite book \|lastTellier \|firstL.-N. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idcXuCjDbxC1YC \|titleUrban World History: an Economic and Geographical Perspective \|publisherQuebec: PUQ \|year2009 \|isbn978-2760522091 \|ref=tellier2009 }} * {{Cite web \|lastThomas \|firstMolly \|dateNovember 9, 2017 \|titleThe Last Naval Battle of the American Revolution \|urlhttps://myfloridahistory.org/frontiers/article/184 \|access-dateOctober 2, 2020 \|publisherFlorida Frontiers Article, The Florida Historical Society \|refthomas2017 }} * {{Cite web \|lastTolson \|firstJay \|date27 June 2008 \|titleHow George Washington's Savvy Won the Day:Despite his share of errors, the commander in chief prevailed as a strategist and a politician \|urlhttps://www.usnews.com/news/national/articles/2008/06/27/how-george-washingtons-savvy-won-the-day?contextamp \|access-date29 September 2020 \|reftolson }} * {{Cite book \|lastTrevelyan \|firstGeorge Otto \|urlhttps://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?idhvd.hw20mv&view1up&seq7 \|titleGeorge the Third and Charles Fox: the concluding part of The American revolution \|date1912 \|publisherLongmans, Green, and Company \|quoteArchived online at HathiTrust.org \|reftrevelyan1912a \|author-linkSir George Trevelyan, 2nd Baronet }} * {{Cite book \|lastTrevelyan \|firstGeorge Otto \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_ggRIvlX3hAC \|titleHistory of the American Revolution \|date1912 \|publisherLongmans, Green & Co. \|volumeIV \|reftrevelyan1912b \|author-mask2 \|author-link=Sir George Trevelyan, 2nd Baronet }} * {{Cite book \|lastTucker \|firstMary \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIZUx6QnUxxQC&pgPA22 \|titleWashington Crossing the Delaware \|dateMarch 1, 2002 \|publisherLorenz Educational Press \|isbn978-0787785642 \|pages22–23 \|ref=tucker2002 }} <!-- U --> * {{Cite web \|lastU.S. Census Bureau \|dateSeptember 1975 \|titleHistorical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970; Colonial and Pre-Federal Statistics \|urlhttps://www.census.gov/library/publications/1975/compendia/hist_stats_colonial-1970.html \|quoteBicentennial Edition \|refuscb1975 }} * {{Cite web \|lastU.S. Central Intelligence Agency \|date5 December 2007 \|titleAn Overview of American Intelligence Until World War II \|urlhttps://www.cia.gov/news-information/featured-story-archive/2007-featured-story-archive/overview-of-american-intelligence.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080311225710/https://www.cia.gov/news-information/featured-story-archive/2007-featured-story-archive/overview-of-american-intelligence.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-dateMarch 11, 2008 \|websiteUS Central Intelligence Agency \|quoteFeatured Story Archive, Historical Document \|refrevamintel }} * {{Cite archive \|author1U.S. Congress \|author 2Tribes Northwest of the Ohio River: Wyandots, Delawares, etc. \|itemTreaty of Greenville 1795 \|date3 August 1795 \|urlhttps://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/greenvil.asp \|collectionDocument Collection: 18th Century, 1700–1799 \|institutionYale Law School Avalon Project \|refUSCon1795 \|quote=Ten articles in the treaty, and fifteen tribal signatories for sixteen tribes.}} * {{Cite archive \|authorU.S. Military Academy History Department \|item Principal Campaigns of the War, 1775–1783 \|item-url https://www.westpoint.edu/sites/default/files/inline-images/academics/academic_departments/history/Am%20Rev/01ARPrincipalCampaigns.pdf \|typemap \|date \|series Campaign Atlases of the United States Army \|collection The American Revolutionary War \|collection-url https://www.westpoint.edu/academics/academic-departments/history/atlases \|institution United States Military Academy, History Department \|location West Point, New York \|accession20 October 2020 \|refarwcampaigns}} <!-- V --> * {{Cite journal \|lastVale \|firstBrian \|date22 March 2013 \|titleThe Conquest of Scurvy in the Royal Navy 1793–1800: A Challenge to Current Orthodoxy \|urlhttps://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00253359.2008.10657052 \|journalThe Mariner's Mirror \|volume94, 2008 \|issue2 \|pages160–175 \|doi10.1080/00253359.2008.10657052 \|refvale2013 \|s2cid162207993 }} <!-- W --> * {{Cite book \|lastWalker \|firstJames W. St. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idBMY79c675JsC \|titleThe Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone, 1783–1870 \|year1992 \|publisherUniversity of Toronto Press \|isbn978-0802074027 \|ref=walker1992 }} * {{Cite book \|lastWallace \|firstWillard M. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idy192AAAAMAAJ \|titleTraitorous Hero: The Life and Fortunes of Benedict Arnold \|publisherHarper & Brothers \|year1954 \|isbn978-1199083234 \|locationNew York \|refwallace54 \|author-link=Willard M. Wallace }} * {{cite book \|last1Wallace \|first1Willard M. \|last2Ray \|first2Michael \|author-mask2 \|date21 September 2015 \|titleAmerican Revolution \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/event/American-Revolution \|access-date24 August 2020 \|websiteBritannica \|publisherEncyclopedia Britannica \|quoteAmerican Revolution, (1775–83), insurrection by which 13 of Great Britain's North American colonies won political independence and went on to form the United States of America. \|ref=wallaceray2015 }} * {{Cite book \|last1Ward \|first1A.W. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.107358/page/n503/mode/2up?qVan+Tyne \|titleCambridge Modern History, vol.6 (18th Century) \|last2Prothero \|first2G.W. \|publisherUniversity of Oxford, The University Press \|year1925 \|quoteDigital Library of India Item 2015.107358 \|ref=wardA1925 }} * {{Cite book \|lastWard \|firstChristopher \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idut5DCgAAQBAJ \|titleThe War of the Revolution (2 volumes) \|publisherNew York: Macmillan \|year1952 \|isbn978-1616080808 \|quoteHistory of land battles in North America \|refward1952 }} * {{Cite book \|lastWard \|firstHarry M. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkgqa4_OBcIkC&pgPA198 \|titleThe war for independence and the transformation of American society \|publisherPsychology Press \|year1999 \|isbn978-1857286564 \|refwardH1999 }} * {{Cite book \|lastWashington \|firstGeorge \|urlhttps://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?idmsu.31293023046711&view1up&seq190&q1small%20pox \|titleThe Writings of George Washington: from the Original Manuscript Sources 1745–1799 \|publisherUnited States Government Printing Office \|year1932 \|editor1-lastFitzpatrick \|editor1-firstJohn C. \|volume7 January 13, 1777 – April 30, 1777 \|locationWashington, D.C. \|quoteGeorge Washington Bicentennial Edition in 35 volumes \|refwashington1932 }} * {{Cite book \|last1Watson \|first1J. Steven \|urlhttps://www.questia.com/PM.qst?ao&d22810670 \|titleThe Reign of George III, 1760–1815 \|last2Clark \|first2Sir George \|publisherOxford University Press \|year1960 \|isbn978-0198217138 \|refwatsonclark \|access-dateAugust 24, 2017 \|archive-dateMay 24, 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120524163653/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?ao&d22810670 \|url-statusdead }} * {{Cite book \|lastWeeks \|firstWilliam \|titleThe New Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations: Volume 1 \|orig-year2013 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn978-1107536227 \|year2015 \|refweeks2013}} * {{Cite book \|lastWeigley \|firstRussell F. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id77wNLMJn8CEC \|titleThe American Way of War \|publisherIndiana University Press \|year1977 \|isbn978-0253280299 \|ref=weigley1977 }} * {{Cite web \|lastWhite \|firstMatthew \|year2010 \|titleSpanish casualties in The American Revolutionary war \|urlhttp://necrometrics.com/wars18c.htm#AmRev \|publisherNecrometrics \|ref=white2020 }} * {{Cite book \|lastWhiteley \|firstPeter \|titleLord North: The Prime Minister Who Lost America \|publisherHambledon Continuum \|year1996 \|isbn978-1852851453 \|ref=whiteley1996}} * {{Cite book \|lastWilson \|firstDavid K \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idX2GrR0Eyh-4C \|titleThe Southern Strategy: Britain's Conquest of South Carolina and Georgia, 1775–1780 \|publisherUniversity of South Carolina Press \|year2005 \|isbn978-1570035739 \|locationColumbia, SC \|oclc232001108 \|ref=wilson2005 }} * {{Cite book \|lastWinfield \|firstRif \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVJCCAwAAQBAJ \|titleBritish Warships in the Age of Sail: 1714–1792 \|publisherSeaforth Publishing \|year2007 \|isbn978-1844157006 \|ref=winfield2007 }} (See also:British Warships in the Age of Sail) * {{Cite book \|lastWood \|firstGordon S. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6lGinKwz7l8C \|title'The Radicalism of the American Revolution \|publisherAlfred A. Knopf, New York \|year1992 \|isbn978-0307758965 \|refwood1992 \|author-linkGordon S. Wood }} * {{Cite book \|lastWood \|firstGordon S. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idxxgcDgAAQBAJ \|titleFriends Divided: John Adams and Thomas Jefferson \|publisherPenguin Press, New York \|year2017 \|isbn978-0735224711 \|ref=wood2017 }} * {{Cite book \|lastWood \|firstW. J. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIms9O7z2zc0C \|titleBattles of the Revolutionary War, 1775–1781 \|publisherDa Capo Press \|year2003 \|isbn978-0306806179 \|refwood1995 \|orig-year1995 }} <!-- Y --> * {{Cite web \|lastYaniz \|firstJose I. \|date2009 \|titleThe Role of Spain in the American Revolution: An Unavoidable Mistake \|urlhttps://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a519344.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200924021946/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a519344.pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-dateSeptember 24, 2020 \|publisherMarine Corps University \|refyaniz }} <!-- Z --> <!--Websites without authors--> * {{Cite web \|lastFranklin \|firstBruce H \|access-date30 November 2015 \|titleWhich Side Benefitted the Most from the Native Americans \|urlhttps://allthingsliberty.com/2015/11/which-side-benefited-the-most-from-the-native-americans/ \|websiteJournal of the American Revolution \|dateNovember 30, 2015 \|refjareditors2025 }} * Canada's Digital Collections Program {{Cite web \|titleThe Philipsburg Proclamation \|urlhttp://www.blackloyalist.com/canadiandigitalcollection/story/revolution/philipsburg.htm \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071117055926/http://www.blackloyalist.com/canadiandigitalcollection/story/revolution/philipsburg.htm \|archive-dateNovember 17, 2007 \|access-date1 November 2020 \|websiteBlack Loyalists: Our History, Our People \|publisherCanada's Digital Collections Program \|refblackcancol \|place=Industry Canada }} * History.org {{Cite web \|lastAron \|firstPaul \|year2020 \|orig-year2005 \|titleWomen's Service with the Revolutionary Army : The Colonial Williamsburg Official History & Citizenship Site \|urlhttp://www.history.org/history/teaching/enewsletter/volume7/nov08/women_revarmy.cfm \|access-dateOctober 2, 2020 \|publisherThe Colonial Williamsburg Foundation \|refwomens2009 \|archive-dateAugust 1, 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150801064318/http://www.history.org/history/teaching/enewsletter/volume7/nov08/women_revarmy.cfm \|url-statusdead }} * Maryland State House {{Cite web \|year2007 \|title"The Road to Peace, A Chronology: 1779–1784 \|urlhttps://msa.maryland.gov/msa/mdstatehouse/html/road_peace.html \|access-dateJune 3, 2020 \|publisherWilliam L. Clements Library / The Maryland State House \|refclements2007 }} * The History Place {{Cite web \|titleAn Unlikely Victory 1777–1783 \|urlhttps://www.historyplace.com/unitedstates/revolution/revwar-77.htm \|access-date16 September 2020 \|websiteThe History Place \|quoteAmerican Revolution timeline \|refunlikelyvictory }} * Totallyhistory.com {{Cite web \|year2012 \|titleRed Coats \|urlhttp://totallyhistory.com/red-coats/ \|access-dateMarch 23, 2020 \|publisherTotallyhistory.com \|refredcoats2012 }} * U.S. Merchant Marine {{Cite web \|year2012 \|titlePrivateers and Mariners in the Revolutionary War \|urlhttp://www.usmm.org/revolution.html \|access-dateMay 25, 2017 \|publisherU.S. Merchant Marine \|refusmm2012 }} * U.S. National Archives {{Cite web \|year1783 \|titleContinental Congress: Remarks on the Provisional Peace Treaty \|urlhttps://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-03-02-0186#ARHN-01-03-02-0186-fn-0001 \|access-dateJuly 15, 2020 \|publisherU.S. National Archives \|refnational }} * Valley Forge National Historic Park {{Cite web \|date12 August 2019 \|orig-year2007 \|titleOverview of History and Significance of Valley Forge \|urlhttps://www.nps.gov/vafo/learn/historyculture/valley-forge-history-and-significance.htm \|websiteValley Forge National Historical Park, Pennsylvania \|refvafo.nhp }} * Yale Law School, Massachusetts Act {{Cite web \|year2008 \|titleGreat Britain : Parliament – The Massachusetts Government Act; May 20, 1774 \|urlhttps://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/mass_gov_act.asp \|publisherYale Law School: The Avalon Project \|ref=yale'mga }} {{Refend}} Further reading <!-- Deny Citation Bot--> {{Main\|Bibliography of the American Revolutionary War\|Bibliography of George Washington}} {{Refbegin\|30em}} * Allison, David, and Larrie D. Ferreiro, eds. The American Revolution: A World War (Smithsonian, 2018) [https://www.amazon.com/American-Revolution-World-War/dp/1588346331/ excerpt] * Bobrick, Benson. Angel in the Whirlwind: The Triumph of the American Revolution. Penguin, 1998 (paperback reprint) * Brands, H. W. Our First Civil War: Patriots and Loyalists in the American Revolution. New York: Anchor Books 2022. {{ISBN\|978-0-593-08256-0}} * {{Cite book \|lastBritish Army \|urlhttps://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001658143 \|titleProceedings of a Board of general officers of the British army at New York, 1781 \|seriesNew-York Historical Society. Collections. The John Watts de Peyster publication fund series, no. 49 \|date1916 \|publisherNew York Historical Society \|quoteThe board of inquiry was convened by Sir Henry Clinton into Army accounts and expenditures \|refnone \|orig-year=7 August 1781 }} * {{Cite book \|lastBurgoyne \|firstJohn \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/stateofexpeditio00burg \|titleA state of the expedition from Canada : as laid before the House of commons \|publisherLondon : Printed for J. Almon \|year1780 \|refnone \|author-linkJohn Burgoyne }} * {{Cite journal \|lastButterfield \|firstLyman H. \|dateJune 1950 \|titlePsychological Warfare in 1776: The Jefferson-Franklin Plan to Cause Hessian Desertions \|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/3143556 \|journalProceedings of the American Philosophical Society \|publisherAmerican Philosophical Society \|volume94 \|pages233–241 \|jstor3143556 \|refnone \|number3 }} * {{Cite book \|lastCate \|firstAlan C. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idl24SiYu1AjgC \|titleFounding Fighters: The Battlefield Leaders Who Made American Independence \|publisherGreenwood Publishing Group \|year2006 \|isbn0275987078 \|ref=name }} * {{Cite book \|lastCaughey \|firstJohn W. \|titleBernardo de Gálvez in Louisiana 1776–1783 \|publisherPelican Publishing Company \|year1998 \|isbn978-1565545175 \|locationGretna \|refnone}} * Chartrand, Rene. The French Army in the American War of Independence (1994). Short (48 pp), very well illustrated descriptions. * {{Cite book \|last1Christie \|first1Ian R. \|titleEmpire or independence, 1760–1776 \|last2Labaree \|first2Benjamin W. \|publisherPhaidon Press \|year1976 \|isbn978-0714816142 \|ref=none}} * {{Cite book \|lastClarfield \|firstGerard \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idt-OhkgEACAAJ \|titleUnited States Diplomatic History: From Revolution to Empire \|publisherPrentice-Hall \|year1992 \|isbn978-0130292322 \|locationNew Jersey \|refnone }} * {{Cite book \|lastClode \|firstCharles M. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/militaryforcesc00clodgoog/page/n7/mode/2up \|titleThe military forces of the crown; their administration and government \|publisherLondon, J. Murray \|year1869 \|volume2 \|refnone }} * Commager, Henry Steele and Richard B. Morris, eds. ''The Spirit of 'Seventy-Six': The Story of the American Revolution as told by Participants''. (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1958). [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.234145 online] * {{Cite journal \|lastDavies \|firstWallace Evan \|dateJuly 1939 \|titlePrivateering around Long Island during the Revolution \|journalNew York History \|publisherFenimore Art Museum \|volume20 \|issue3 \|pages283–294 \|jstor23134696 \|ref=none}} * {{Cite book \|lastDownes \|firstRandolph C. \|urlhttps://www.amazon.com/Council-Fires-Upper-Ohio-Narrative/dp/B07GH35VCG \|titleCouncil Fires on the Upper Ohio: A Narrative of Indian Affairs in the Upper Ohio Valley until 1795 \|publisherUniversity of Pittsburgh Press \|year1940 \|isbn0822952017 \|locationPittsburgh \|ref=none }} * {{Cite book \|lastDuncan \|firstFrancis \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/historyofroyalre02duncuoft \|titleHistory of the Royal Regiment of Artillery \|publisherLondon: John Murray \|year1879 \|ref=none }} * {{Cite book \|lastFerling \|firstJohn E. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlifQ0G0m9WwC&qlafayette \|titleSetting the World Ablaze: Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and the American Revolution \|publisherOxford University Press \|year2002 \|isbn978-0195134094 \|refnone \|author-linkJohn E. Ferling \|orig-year2000 }} * {{cite book\|lastFleming\|firstThomas\|titleThe Perils of Peace \|locationNew York\|publisherThe Dial Press\|year1970\|isbn=978-0061139116}} * Foner, Eric, "Whose Revolution?: The history of the United States' founding from below" (review of Woody Holton, Liberty Is Sweet: The Hidden History of the American Revolution, Simon & Schuster, 2021, 800 pp.), The Nation, vol. 314, no. 8 (18–25 April 2022), pp.&nbsp;32–37. Highlighted are the struggles and tragic fates of America's Indians and Black slaves. For example, "In 1779 [George] Washington dispatched a contingent of soldiers to upstate New York to burn Indian towns and crops and seize hostages 'of every age and sex.' The following year, while serving as governor of Virginia, [Thomas] Jefferson ordered troops under the command of George Rogers Clark to enter the Ohio Valley and bring about the expulsion or 'extermination' of local Indians." (pp.&nbsp;34–35.) * {{Cite book \|lastFortescue \|firstJohn \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1GlKAAAAYAAJ&qBednore%201783&pgPA489 \|titleA history of the British army \|year1902 \|volume3 \|refnone }} * {{Cite book \|lastFredriksen \|firstJohn C. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2ZIdNNZVDzgC \|titleRevolutionary War Almanac Almanacs of American wars Facts on File library of American history. \|publisherInfobase Publishing \|year2006 \|isbn978-0816074686 \|ref=none }} * {{Cite book \|lastFreedman \|firstRussell \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIa5ivgAACAAJ \|titleWashington at Valley Forge \|date2008 \|publisherHoliday House \|isbn978-0823420698 \|ref=none }} * {{cite book\|editor1-lastFremont-Barnes\|editor1-firstGregory\|editor2-lastRyerson\|editor2-firstRichard A\|titleEncyclopedia of the American Revolutionary War: A Political, Social, and Military History\|publisherABC-CLIO\|year2006\|isbn978-1851094080}} * {{cite book\|lastFrey\|firstSylvia R\|titleThe British Soldier in America: A Social History of Military Life in the Revolutionary Period\|publisherUniversity of Texas Press\|year1982\|isbn978-0292780408}} * {{Cite book \|lastGilbert \|firstAlan \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-c7-udZhrvgC \|titleBlack Patriots and Loyalists: Fighting for Emancipation in the War for Independence \|publisherUniversity of Chicago Press \|year2012 \|isbn978-0226101552 \|ref=none }} * {{Cite journal \|lastGrant \|firstJohn N. \|year1973 \|titleBlack Immigrants into Nova Scotia, 1776–1815 \|journalThe Journal of Negro History \|volume58 \|issue3 \|pages253–270 \|doi10.2307/2716777 \|jstor2716777 \|refnone \|s2cid150064269}} * {{Cite book \|lastJensen \|firstMerrill \|titleThe Founding of a Nation: A History of the American Revolution 1763–1776 \|publisherHackett Publishing \|year2004 \|isbn978-0872207059 \|ref=none}} * {{Cite book \|lastJohnston \|firstHenry Phelps \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/yorktowncampaign00johnrich \|titleThe Yorktown Campaign and the Surrender of Cornwallis, 1781 \|publisherHarper & Bros \|year1881 \|locationNew York \|page34 \|oclc426009 \|refnone }} * {{Cite journal \|lastHagist \|firstDon N. \|dateWinter 2011 \|titleUnpublished Writings of Roger Lamb, Soldier of the American War of Independence \|journalJournal of the Society for Army Historical Research \|publisherSociety for Army Historical Research \|volume89 \|issue360 \|pages280–290 \|jstor44232931 \|ref=none}} * {{Cite journal \|lastKaplan \|firstRodger \|dateJanuary 1990 \|titleThe Hidden War: British Intelligence Operations during the American Revolution \|journalThe William and Mary Quarterly \|publisherOmohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture \|volume47 \|issue1 \|pages115–138 \|doi10.2307/2938043 \|jstor2938043 \|refnone}} * {{Cite journal \|lastKepner \|firstK. \|dateFebruary 1945 \|titleA British View of the Siege of Charleston, 1776 \|journalThe Journal of Southern History \|publisherSouthern Historical Association \|volume11 \|issue1 \|pages93–103 \|doi10.2307/2197961 \|jstor2197961 \|refnone}} * {{Cite book \|last1Kilmeade \|first1Brian. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idS-8QE2uCbScC \|titleGeorge Washington's Secret Six: The Spy Ring That Saved the American Revolution \|last2Yaeger \|first2Don \|publisherPenguin Books \|year2013 \|isbn978-0698137653 \|ref=none }} * {{Cite book \|lastKnight \|firstPeter \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqMIDrggs8TsC&pgPA184 \|titleConspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia \|publisherABC-CLIO \|year2003 \|isbn978-1576078129 \|pages184–185 \|ref=none }} * {{Cite book \|lastKohn \|firstGeorge C. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idOIzreCGlHxIC \|titleDictionary of Wars \|edition3rd \|publisherInfobase Publishing \|year2006 \|isbn978-1438129167 \|refnone }} * Kwasny, Mark V. ''Washington's Partisan War, 1775–1783. Kent, Ohio: 1996. {{ISBN\|0873385462}}. Militia warfare. * {{Cite book \|lastLarabee \|firstLeonard Woods \|titleConservatism in Early American History \|date1959 \|publisherCornell University Press \|isbn978-0151547456 \|quoteGreat Seal Books \|refnone}} * {{Cite book \|lastLemaître \|firstGeorges Édouard \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZlxAFMQs4kYC&pgPA229 \|titleBeaumarchais \|publisherKessinger Publishing \|year2005 \|isbn978-1417985364 \|refnone }} * {{Cite book \|lastLevy \|firstAndrew \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/firstemancipator0000levy/page/74 \|titleThe First Emancipator: Slavery, Religion, and the Quiet Revolution of Robert Carter \|publisherRandom House Trade Paperbacks \|year2007 \|isbn978-0375761041 \|page[https://archive.org/details/firstemancipator0000levy/page/74 74] \|ref=none }} * Library of Congress {{Cite web \|last<!--Not stated--> \|titleRevolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781–1783 \|urlhttps://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/timeline/amrev/peace/ \|access-date24 August 2020 \|websiteLibrary of Congress \|refnone }} * {{Cite book \|lastLloyd \|firstEarnest Marsh \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/reviewofhistoryo00lloyrich \|titleA review of the history of infantry \|publisherNew York: Longmans, Green, and Co. \|year1908 \|ref=none }} * May, Robin. The British Army in North America 1775–1783'' (1993). Short (48pp), very well illustrated descriptions. * {{Cite web \|lastMcGrath \|firstNick \|titleBattle of Guilford Courthouse \|urlhttp://www.mountvernon.org/digital-encyclopedia/article/battle-of-guilford-courthouse/ \|access-dateJanuary 26, 2017 \|websiteGeorge Washington's Mount Vernon: Digital Encyclopedia \|publisherMount Vernon Ladies' Association \|refnone }} * {{Cite journal \|lastMiddleton \|firstRichard \|dateJuly 2013 \|titleThe Clinton–Cornwallis Controversy and Responsibility for the British Surrender at Yorktown \|urlhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1468-229X.12014 \|journalHistory \|publisherWiley Publishers \|volume98 \|issue3 \|pages370–389 \|doi10.1111/1468-229X.12014 \|jstor24429518 \|ref=none }} * {{Cite book \|lastMiddleton \|firstRichard \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ids9MFBAAAQBAJ \|titleThe War of American Independence, 1775–1783 \|publisherLondon: Pearson \|year2014 \|isbn978-0582229426 \|refnone \|author-mask2 }} * {{Cite book \|lastMiller \|firstKen \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idUKZFDwAAQBAJ&qmercenaries \|titleDangerous Guests: Enemy Captives and Revolutionary Communities During the War for Independence \|publisherCornell University Press \|year2014 \|isbn978-0801454943 \|refnone }} * {{Cite book \|last1Nash, Gary B. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtyzmAJfLKs8C&pgPA64 \|titleAtlas Of American History \|last2Carter Smith \|publisherInfobase Publishing \|year2007 \|isbn978-1438130132 \|page64 \|ref=none }} * Neimeyer, Charles Patrick. America Goes to War: A Social History of the Continental Army (1995) {{JSTOR\|j.ctt9qg7q2}} * {{Cite book \|lastNicolas \|firstPaul Harris \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/historicalrecor00harrgoog/page/n167 \|titleHistorical record of the Royal Marine Forces, Volume 2 \|publisherThomas and William Boone \|year1845 \|locationLondon \|quoteport praya suffren 1781. \|ref=none }} * {{Cite web \|lastOrtiz \|firstJ.D. \|titleGeneral Bernardo Galvez in the American Revolution \|urlhttp://www.thecajuns.com/galvezrw.htm \|access-date9 September 2020 \|refnone }} * {{Cite book \|lastPerkins \|firstJames Breck \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/franceinamerican00perk \|titleFrance in the American Revolution \|date2009 \|publisherCornell University Library \|asinB002HMBV52 \|refnone \|orig-year=1911 }} * {{Cite book \|urlhttps://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collIdllsl&fileName008/llsl008.db&recNum21 \|titleA Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774–1875: Treaty of Alliance with France 1778, "Article II". \|publisherLibrary of Congress archives \|year1846 \|editor-lastPeters \|editor-firstRichard \|refnone }} * {{Cite book \|lastRamsay \|firstDavid \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/universalhistor03ramsgoog/page/n4/mode/2up \|titleUniversal History Americanised: Or, An Historical View of the World, from the Earliest Records to the Year 1808 \|publisherPhiladelphia : M. Carey & Son \|year1819 \|volume4 \|refnone \|author-link=David Ramsay (historian) }} * {{Cite book \|lastReich \|firstJerome R. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idALDbuNPu_IQC&qCarlisle+Commission&pgPA121 \|titleBritish friends of the American Revolution \|publisherM.E. Sharpe \|year1997 \|isbn978-0765631435 \|page121 \|refnone }} * {{Cite book \|lastRidpath \|firstJohn Clark \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idY8lKAAAAYAAJ \|titleThe new complete history of the United States of America \|publisherJones Brothers \|year1915 \|volume6 \|locationCincinnati \|oclc2140537 \|ref=none }} * Royal Navy Museum {{Cite web \|titleShips Biscuits – Royal Navy hardtack \|urlhttp://www.royalnavalmuseum.org/info_sheet_ship_biscuit.htm \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091031064002/http://www.royalnavalmuseum.org/info_sheet_ship_biscuit.htm \|archive-dateOctober 31, 2009 \|access-dateJanuary 14, 2010 \|publisherRoyal Navy Museum \|refnone }} * {{Cite book \|lastSawyer \|firstC.W. \|urlhttps://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?idmdp.39015004848258&view1up&seq9 \|titleFirearms in American History \|publisherC.W. Sawyer \|year1910 \|locationBoston \|quoteonline at Hathi Trust \|refnone }} * {{Cite book \|lastSchiff \|firstStacy \|author-linkStacy Schiff \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1vhpYe99Tn4C&pgPT18 \|titleA Great Improvisation: Franklin, France, and the Birth of America \|publisherMacmillan \|year2006 \|isbn978-1429907996 \|page5 \|refnone }} * {{Cite book \|lastScribner \|firstRobert L. \|titleRevolutionary Virginia, the Road to Independence \|publisherUniversity of Virginia Press \|year1988 \|isbn978-0813907482 \|ref=none}} * {{Cite book \|lastSelig \|firstRobert A. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idngEmGQAACAAJ \|titleRochambeau in Connecticut, Tracing His Journey: Historic and Architectural Survey \|publisherConnecticut Historical Commission \|year1999 \|refnone }} * {{Cite book \|lastSmith \|firstMerril D. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyqxmCgAAQBAJ&pgPA374 \|titleThe World of the American Revolution: A Daily Life Encyclopedia \|publisherABC-CLIO \|year2015 \|isbn978-1440830280 \|page374 \|ref=none }} * {{Cite book \|lastSouthey \|firstRobert \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/lifeoflordnelson00sout_0/page/n2/mode/2up \|titleThe life of Lord Nelson \|publisherHenry Chapman Publishers \|year1831 \|isbn978-0665213304 \|refnone }} * Stoker, Donald, Kenneth J. Hagan, and Michael T. McMaster, eds. Strategy in the American War of Independence: a global approach (Routledge, 2009) [https://www.amazon.com/Strategy-American-War-Independence-Approach/dp/0415695686/ excerpt]. * Symonds, Craig L. A Battlefield Atlas of the American Revolution (1989), newly drawn maps emphasizing the movement of military units * {{Cite book \|lastTrew \|firstPeter \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5XfxAAAAMAAJ \|titleRodney and the Breaking of the Line \|publisherPen & Sword Military \|year2006 \|isbn978-1844151431 \|ref=none }} * {{Cite web \|lastTrickey \|firstErick \|titleThe Little-Remembered Ally Who Helped America Win the Revolution \|urlhttps://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/little-remembered-ally-who-helped-america-win-revolution-180961782/ \|access-dateApril 28, 2020 \|publisherSmithsonian Magazine January 13, 2017 \|ref=none }} * {{Cite book \|lastTurner \|firstFrederick Jackson \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/frontierinameric1920turn \|titleThe frontier in American history \|publisherNew York: H. Holt and company \|year1920 \|refturner1920 \|author-linkFrederick Jackson Turner }} * {{Cite book \|lastVolo \|firstM. James \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2gw8grU4NcoC \|titleBlue Water Patriots: The American Revolution Afloat \|publisherRowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. \|year2006 \|isbn978-0742561205 \|ref=none }} * U.S. Army, [http://history.army.mil/books/AMH-V1/ch04.htm "The Winning of Independence, 1777–1783"] American Military History Volume I, 2005. * U.S. National Park Service {{Cite web \|dateApril 25, 2013 \|titleSpringfield Armory \|urlhttp://www.nps.gov/spar/historyculture/french-field_4pdr.htm \|access-dateMay 8, 2013 \|publisherNps.gov \|refnone }} * {{Cite book \|lastWeir \|firstWilliam \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWEXj4gHHARgC&pgPA32 \|titleThe Encyclopedia of African American Military History \|publisherPrometheus Books \|year2004 \|isbn978-1615928316 \|refnone }}} * {{Cite web \|lastZeller-Frederick \|firstAndrew A. \|date18 April 2018 \|titleThe Hessians Who Escaped Washington's Trap at Trenton \|urlhttps://allthingsliberty.com/2018/04/the-hessians-who-escaped-washingtons-trap-at-trenton/ \|websiteJournal of the American Revolution \|publisherBruce H. Franklin \|quoteCiting William M. Dwyer and Edward J. Lowell, The Hessians: And the Other German Auxiliaries in the Revolutionary War, 1970 \|ref=none }} * Zlatich, Marko; Copeland, Peter. ''General Washington's Army (1): 1775–78 (1994). Short (48pp), very well illustrated descriptions. * ——. General Washington's Army (2): 1779–83'' (1994). Short (48pp), very well illustrated descriptions. {{Refend}} External links {{Commons category}} {{Wiktionary\|American Revolutionary War}} {{EB1911 poster\|American War of Independence}} {{Spoken Wikipedia\|date=2022-10-16\|En-American_Revolutionary_War-article.ogg}} * [https://westpoint.edu/academics/academic-departments/history/american-revolution "The American Revolutionary War"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230415155049/https://www.westpoint.edu/academics/academic-departments/history/american-revolution \|dateApril 15, 2023 }} at United States Military Academy * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/revolution/home.html Library of Congress Guide to the American Revolution] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130508072510/http://www.history.army.mil/reference/revbib/revwar.htm Bibliographies of the War of American Independence] compiled by the United States Army Center of Military History {{American Revolutionary War}} {{Continental Army}} {{American conflicts}} {{British colonial campaigns}} {{US history}} {{United States topics}} {{Portal bar\|United States\|Great Britain}} {{Authority control}} Category:Conflicts in 1775 Category:Conflicts in 1776 Category:Conflicts in 1777 Category:Conflicts in 1778 Category:Conflicts in 1779 Category:Conflicts in 1780 Category:Conflicts in 1781 Category:Conflicts in 1782 Category:Conflicts in 1783 Category:Civil wars in the United States Category:Rebellions against the British Empire Category:Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States Category:Wars of independence	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War	2025-04-05T18:25:21.828617
772	Ampere	The ampere ( , ; symbol: A), often shortened to amp, is the unit of electric current in the International System of Units (SI). One ampere is equal to 1 coulomb (C) moving past a point per second. It is named after French mathematician and physicist André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836), considered the father of electromagnetism along with Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted. As of the 2019 revision of the SI, the ampere is defined by fixing the elementary charge to be exactly , which means an ampere is an electric current equivalent to elementary charges moving every seconds or elementary charges moving in a second. Prior to the redefinition the ampere was defined as the current passing through two parallel wires 1 metre apart that produces a magnetic force of newtons per metre. The earlier CGS system has two units of current, one structured similarly to the SI's and the other using Coulomb's law as a fundamental relationship, with the CGS unit of charge defined by measuring the force between two charged metal plates. The CGS unit of current is then defined as one unit of charge per second. History The ampere is named for French physicist and mathematician André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836), who studied electromagnetism and laid the foundation of electrodynamics. In recognition of Ampère's contributions to the creation of modern electrical science, an international convention, signed at the 1881 International Exposition of Electricity, established the ampere as a standard unit of electrical measurement for electric current. The ampere was originally defined as one tenth of the unit of electric current in the centimetre–gram–second system of units. That unit, now known as the abampere, was defined as the amount of current that generates a force of two dynes per centimetre of length between two wires one centimetre apart. The size of the unit was chosen so that the units derived from it in the MKSA system would be conveniently sized. The "international ampere" was an early realization of the ampere, defined as the current that would deposit of silver per second from a silver nitrate solution. Later, more accurate measurements revealed that this current is . Since power is defined as the product of current and voltage, the ampere can alternatively be expressed in terms of the other units using the relationship , and thus 1 A = 1 W/V. Current can be measured by a multimeter, a device that can measure electrical voltage, current, and resistance. Former definition in the SI Until 2019, the SI defined the ampere as follows: The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed one metre apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to newtons per metre of length. Ampère's force law states that there is an attractive or repulsive force between two parallel wires carrying an electric current. This force is used in the formal definition of the ampere. The SI unit of charge, the coulomb, was then defined as "the quantity of electricity carried in 1 second by a current of 1 ampere". Techniques to establish the realisation of an ampere had a relative uncertainty of approximately a few parts in 10, and involved realisations of the watt, the ohm and the volt. The SI unit of charge, the coulomb, "is the quantity of electricity carried in 1 second by a current of 1 ampere". Conversely, a current of one ampere is one coulomb of charge going past a given point per second: \rm 1\ A=1\,\text{C/s}. In general, charge is determined by steady current flowing for a time as . Constant, instantaneous and average current are expressed in amperes (as in "the charging current is 1.2 A") and the charge accumulated (or passed through a circuit) over a period of time is expressed in coulombs (as in "the battery charge is "). The relation of the ampere (C/s) to the coulomb is the same as that of the watt (J/s) to the joule. Units derived from the ampere The international system of units (SI) is based on seven SI base units the second, metre, kilogram, kelvin, ampere, mole, and candela representing seven fundamental types of physical quantity, or "dimensions", (time, length, mass, temperature, electric current, amount of substance, and luminous intensity respectively) with all other SI units being defined using these. These SI derived units can either be given special names e.g. watt, volt, lux, etc. or defined in terms of others, e.g. metre per second. The units with special names derived from the ampere are: Quantity Unit Symbol Meaning In SI base units Electric charge coulomb C ampere second A⋅s Electric potential difference volt V joule per coulomb kg⋅m2⋅s−3⋅A−1 Electrical resistance ohm Ω volt per ampere kg⋅m2⋅s−3⋅A−2 Electrical conductance siemens S ampere per volt or inverse ohm s3⋅A2⋅kg−1⋅m−2 Electrical inductance henry H ohm second kg⋅m2⋅s−2⋅A−2 Electrical capacitance farad F coulomb per volt s4⋅A2⋅kg−1⋅m−2 Magnetic flux weber Wb volt second kg⋅m2⋅s−2⋅A−1 Magnetic flux density tesla T weber per square metre kg⋅s−2⋅A−1 There are also some SI units that are frequently used in the context of electrical engineering and electrical appliances, but are defined independently of the ampere, notably the hertz, joule, watt, candela, lumen, and lux. SI prefixes Like other SI units, the ampere can be modified by adding a prefix that multiplies it by a power of 10. See also References External links The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty NIST Definition of ampere and μ0 Category:SI base units Category:Units of electric current	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere	2025-04-05T18:25:21.849880
775	Algorithm	{{Short description\|Sequence of operations for a task}} {{Redirect\|Algorithms\|the subfield of computer science\|Analysis of algorithms\|other uses\|Algorithm (disambiguation)}} {{redirect\|Algorythm\|the album\|Beyond Creation}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=September 2017}} {{Essay\|date=April 2024}} of number r and s\|alt=In a loop, subtract the larger number against the smaller number. Halt the loop when the subtraction will make a number negative. Assess two numbers, whether one of them is equal to zero or not. If yes, take the other number as the greatest common divisor. If no, put the two numbers in the subtraction loop again.]] In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm ({{IPAc-en\|audioen-us-algorithm.ogg\|ˈ\|æ\|l\|ɡ\|ə\|r\|ɪ\|ð\|əm}}) is a finite sequence of mathematically rigorous instructions, typically used to solve a class of specific problems or to perform a computation.<ref name":0">{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/algorithm\|titleDefinition of ALGORITHM\|workMerriam-Webster Online Dictionary \|languageen \|access-date2019-11-14 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200214074446/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/algorithm \|archive-dateFebruary 14, 2020\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Algorithms are used as specifications for performing calculations and data processing. More advanced algorithms can use conditionals to divert the code execution through various routes (referred to as automated decision-making) and deduce valid inferences (referred to as automated reasoning). In contrast, a heuristic is an approach to solving problems without well-defined correct or optimal results.<ref name=":2">David A. Grossman, Ophir Frieder, Information Retrieval: Algorithms and Heuristics, 2nd edition, 2004, {{isbn\|1402030045}}</ref> For example, although social media recommender systems are commonly called "algorithms", they actually rely on heuristics as there is no truly "correct" recommendation. As an effective method, an algorithm can be expressed within a finite amount of space and time<ref name":3">"Any classical mathematical algorithm, for example, can be described in a finite number of English words" (Rogers 1987:2).</ref> and in a well-defined formal language<ref name":4">Well defined concerning the agent that executes the algorithm: "There is a computing agent, usually human, which can react to the instructions and carry out the computations" (Rogers 1987:2).</ref> for calculating a function.<ref>"an algorithm is a procedure for computing a function (concerning some chosen notation for integers) ... this limitation (to numerical functions) results in no loss of generality", (Rogers 1987:1).</ref> Starting from an initial state and initial input (perhaps empty),<ref>"An algorithm has zero or more inputs, i.e., quantities which are given to it initially before the algorithm begins" (Knuth 1973:5).</ref> the instructions describe a computation that, when executed, proceeds through a finite<ref>"A procedure which has all the characteristics of an algorithm except that it possibly lacks finiteness may be called a 'computational method{{'"}} (Knuth 1973:5).</ref> number of well-defined successive states, eventually producing "output"<ref>"An algorithm has one or more outputs, i.e., quantities which have a specified relation to the inputs" (Knuth 1973:5).</ref> and terminating at a final ending state. The transition from one state to the next is not necessarily deterministic; some algorithms, known as randomized algorithms, incorporate random input.<ref>Whether or not a process with random interior processes (not including the input) is an algorithm is debatable. Rogers opines that: "a computation is carried out in a discrete stepwise fashion, without the use of continuous methods or analog devices ... carried forward deterministically, without resort to random methods or devices, e.g., dice" (Rogers 1987:2).</ref> Etymology Around 825 AD, Persian scientist and polymath Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī wrote kitāb al-ḥisāb al-hindī ("Book of Indian computation") and ''kitab al-jam' wa'l-tafriq al-ḥisāb al-hindī ("Addition and subtraction in Indian arithmetic").<ref name":0" /> In the early 12th century, Latin translations of said al-Khwarizmi texts involving the Hindu–Arabic numeral system and arithmetic appeared, for example Liber Alghoarismi de practica arismetrice, attributed to John of Seville, and Liber Algorismi de numero Indorum, attributed to Adelard of Bath.<ref name":1">Blair, Ann, Duguid, Paul, Goeing, Anja-Silvia and Grafton, Anthony. Information: A Historical Companion, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2021. p. 247</ref> Hereby, alghoarismi or algorismi'' is the Latinization of Al-Khwarizmi's name; the text starts with the phrase Dixit Algorismi, or "Thus spoke Al-Khwarizmi".<ref name":2" /> Around 1230, the English word algorism is attested and then by Chaucer in 1391, English adopted the French term.<ref name":3" /><ref name":4" />{{Clarification needed\|dateApril 2024}} In the 15th century, under the influence of the Greek word ἀριθμός (arithmos, "number"; cf. "arithmetic"), the Latin word was altered to algorithmus.{{Citation needed\|dateApril 2024}} Definition {{For\|a detailed presentation of the various points of view on the definition of "algorithm"\|Algorithm characterizations}} One informal definition is "a set of rules that precisely defines a sequence of operations",<ref>Stone 1973:4</ref>{{request quotation \| reason Stone (1972) suggests on page 4: "...any sequence of instructions that a robot can obey, is called an algorithm"\|dateJuly 2020}} which would include all computer programs (including programs that do not perform numeric calculations), and any prescribed bureaucratic procedure<ref> {{cite book \|last1Simanowski \|first1Roberto \|author-link1Roberto Simanowski \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRJV5DwAAQBAJ \|titleThe Death Algorithm and Other Digital Dilemmas \|date2018 \|publisherMIT Press \|isbn9780262536370 \|seriesUntimely Meditations \|volume14 \|locationCambridge, Massachusetts \|page147 \|translator1-lastChase \|translator1-firstJefferson \|quote[...] the next level of abstraction of central bureaucracy: globally operating algorithms. \|access-date27 May 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191222120705/https://books.google.com/books?idRJV5DwAAQBAJ \|archive-dateDecember 22, 2019 \|url-status=live}} </ref> or cook-book recipe.<ref> {{cite book \|last1Dietrich \|first1Eric \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-wt1aZrGXLYC \|titleThe MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences \|publisherMIT Press \|year1999 \|isbn9780262731447 \|editor1-lastWilson \|editor1-firstRobert Andrew \|seriesMIT Cognet library \|locationCambridge, Massachusetts \|publication-date2001 \|page11 \|chapterAlgorithm \|quoteAn algorithm is a recipe, method, or technique for doing something. \|access-date22 July 2020 \|editor2-lastKeil \|editor2-first=Frank C.}} </ref> In general, a program is an algorithm only if it stops eventually<ref>Stone requires that "it must terminate in a finite number of steps" (Stone 1973:7–8).</ref>—even though infinite loops may sometimes prove desirable. {{Harvtxt\|Boolos\|Jeffrey\|1974, 1999\|ref=CITEREFBoolosJeffrey1999}} define an algorithm to be an explicit set of instructions for determining an output, that can be followed by a computing machine or a human who could only carry out specific elementary operations on symbols.<ref>Boolos and Jeffrey 1974, 1999:19</ref> Most algorithms are intended to be implemented as computer programs. However, algorithms are also implemented by other means, such as in a biological neural network (for example, the human brain performing arithmetic or an insect looking for food), in an electrical circuit, or a mechanical device. History {{Missing information\|1section\|220th and 21st century development of computer algorithms\|dateOctober 2023}} Ancient algorithms Step-by-step procedures for solving mathematical problems have been recorded since antiquity. This includes in Babylonian mathematics (around 2500 BC),<ref name"Springer Science & Business Media">{{cite book \|last1Chabert \|first1Jean-Luc \|titleA History of Algorithms: From the Pebble to the Microchip \|date2012 \|publisherSpringer Science & Business Media \|isbn9783642181924 \|pages7–8}}</ref> Egyptian mathematics (around 1550 BC),<ref name"Springer Science & Business Media" /> Indian mathematics (around 800 BC and later),<ref name":6">{{cite book \|last1Sriram \|first1M. S. \|editor1-lastEmch \|editor1-firstGerard G. \|editor2-lastSridharan \|editor2-firstR. \|editor3-lastSrinivas \|editor3-firstM. D. \|titleContributions to the History of Indian Mathematics \|date2005 \|publisherSpringer \|isbn978-93-86279-25-5 \|page153 \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqfJdDwAAQBAJ&pgPA153 \|languageen \|chapterAlgorithms in Indian Mathematics}}</ref><ref>Hayashi, T. (2023, January 1). [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Brahmagupta Brahmagupta]. Encyclopedia Britannica.</ref> the Ifa Oracle (around 500 BC),<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastZaslavsky \|firstClaudia \|date1970 \|titleMathematics of the Yoruba People and of Their Neighbors in Southern Nigeria \|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/3027363 \|journalThe Two-Year College Mathematics Journal \|volume1 \|issue2 \|pages76–99 \|doi10.2307/3027363 \|jstor3027363 \|issn0049-4925}}</ref> Greek mathematics (around 240 BC),<ref name"Cooke2005">{{cite book\|lastCooke\|firstRoger L.\|titleThe History of Mathematics: A Brief Course\|date2005\|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons\|isbn978-1-118-46029-0}}</ref> Chinese mathematics (around 200 BC and later),<ref>{{Cite journal \|date1999 \|editor-lastChabert \|editor-firstJean-Luc \|titleA History of Algorithms \|urlhttps://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-642-18192-4 \|journalSpringerLink \|languageen \|doi10.1007/978-3-642-18192-4\|isbn978-3-540-63369-3 }}</ref> and Arabic mathematics (around 800 AD).<ref name"Dooley">{{cite book \|last1Dooley \|first1John F. \|titleA Brief History of Cryptology and Cryptographic Algorithms \|date2013 \|publisherSpringer Science & Business Media \|isbn9783319016283 \|pages=12–3}}</ref> The earliest evidence of algorithms is found in ancient Mesopotamian mathematics. A Sumerian clay tablet found in Shuruppak near Baghdad and dated to {{Circa\|2500 BC}} describes the earliest division algorithm.<ref name"Springer Science & Business Media" /> During the Hammurabi dynasty {{Circa\|1800\|1600 BC\|lkno}}, Babylonian clay tablets described algorithms for computing formulas.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Knuth \|first1Donald E. \|date1972 \|titleAncient Babylonian Algorithms \|urlhttp://steiner.math.nthu.edu.tw/disk5/js/computer/1.pdf \|url-statusdead \|journalCommun. ACM \|volume15 \|issue7 \|pages671–677 \|doi10.1145/361454.361514 \|issn0001-0782 \|s2cid7829945 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121224100137/http://steiner.math.nthu.edu.tw/disk5/js/computer/1.pdf \|archive-date2012-12-24}}</ref> Algorithms were also used in Babylonian astronomy.{{Citation needed\|dateMarch 2025}} Babylonian clay tablets describe and employ algorithmic procedures to compute the time and place of significant astronomical events.<ref>{{cite book \|lastAaboe \|firstAsger \|author-linkAsger Aaboe \|titleEpisodes from the Early History of Astronomy \|date2001 \|publisherSpringer \|isbn978-0-387-95136-2 \|placeNew York \|pages=40–62}}</ref> Algorithms for arithmetic are also found in ancient Egyptian mathematics, dating back to the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus {{Circa\|1550 BC\|lkno}}.<ref name"Springer Science & Business Media" /> Algorithms were later used in ancient Hellenistic mathematics. Two examples are the Sieve of Eratosthenes, which was described in the Introduction to Arithmetic by Nicomachus,<ref>{{cite web \|lastAst \|firstCourtney \|titleEratosthenes \|urlhttp://www.math.wichita.edu/history/men/eratosthenes.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150227150653/http://www.math.wichita.edu/history/men/eratosthenes.html \|archive-dateFebruary 27, 2015 \|access-dateFebruary 27, 2015 \|publisherWichita State University: Department of Mathematics and Statistics}}</ref><ref name"Cooke2005" />{{rp\|Ch 9.2}} and the Euclidean algorithm, which was first described in ''Euclid's Elements ({{circa\|300 BC\|lkno}}).<ref name"Cooke2005" />{{rp\|Ch 9.1}}Examples of ancient Indian mathematics included the Shulba Sutras, the Kerala School, and the Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta.<ref name=":6" /> The first cryptographic algorithm for deciphering encrypted code was developed by Al-Kindi, a 9th-century Arab mathematician, in A Manuscript On Deciphering Cryptographic Messages''. He gave the first description of cryptanalysis by frequency analysis, the earliest codebreaking algorithm.<ref name"Dooley" /> Computers Weight-driven clocks Bolter credits the invention of the weight-driven clock as "the key invention [of Europe in the Middle Ages]," specifically the verge escapement mechanism<ref>Bolter 1984:24</ref> producing the tick and tock of a mechanical clock. "The accurate automatic machine"<ref>Bolter 1984:26</ref> led immediately to "mechanical automata" in the 13th century and "computational machines"—the difference and analytical engines of Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace in the mid-19th century.<ref>Bolter 1984:33–34, 204–206.</ref> Lovelace designed the first algorithm intended for processing on a computer, Babbage's analytical engine, which is the first device considered a real Turing-complete computer instead of just a calculator. Although the full implementation of Babbage's second device was not realized for decades after her lifetime, Lovelace has been called "history's first programmer". Electromechanical relay Bell and Newell (1971) write that the Jacquard loom, a precursor to Hollerith cards (punch cards), and "telephone switching technologies" led to the development of the first computers.<ref>Bell and Newell diagram 1971:39, cf. Davis 2000</ref> By the mid-19th century, the telegraph, the precursor of the telephone, was in use throughout the world. By the late 19th century, the ticker tape ({{circa\|1870s}}) was in use, as were Hollerith cards (c. 1890). Then came the teleprinter ({{circa\|1910\|lkno}}) with its punched-paper use of Baudot code on tape. Telephone-switching networks of electromechanical relays were invented in 1835. These led to the invention of the digital adding device by George Stibitz in 1937. While working in Bell Laboratories, he observed the "burdensome" use of mechanical calculators with gears. "He went home one evening in 1937 intending to test his idea... When the tinkering was over, Stibitz had constructed a binary adding device".<ref>Melina Hill, Valley News Correspondent, A Tinkerer Gets a Place in History, Valley News West Lebanon NH, Thursday, March 31, 1983, p. 13.</ref><ref>Davis 2000:14</ref> Formalization 's diagram from "Note G", the first published computer algorithm]] In 1928, a partial formalization of the modern concept of algorithms began with attempts to solve the Entscheidungsproblem (decision problem) posed by David Hilbert. Later formalizations were framed as attempts to define "effective calculability"<ref>Kleene 1943 in Davis 1965:274</ref> or "effective method".<ref>Rosser 1939 in Davis 1965:225</ref> Those formalizations included the Gödel–Herbrand–Kleene recursive functions of 1930, 1934 and 1935, Alonzo Church's lambda calculus of 1936, Emil Post's Formulation 1 of 1936, and Alan Turing's Turing machines of 1936–37 and 1939. Representations Algorithms can be expressed in many kinds of notation, including natural languages, pseudocode, flowcharts, drakon-charts, programming languages or control tables (processed by interpreters). Natural language expressions of algorithms tend to be verbose and ambiguous and are rarely used for complex or technical algorithms. Pseudocode, flowcharts, drakon-charts, and control tables are structured expressions of algorithms that avoid common ambiguities of natural language. Programming languages are primarily for expressing algorithms in a computer-executable form but are also used to define or document algorithms. Turing machines There are many possible representations and Turing machine programs can be expressed as a sequence of machine tables (see finite-state machine, state-transition table, and control table for more), as flowcharts and drakon-charts (see state diagram for more), as a form of rudimentary machine code or assembly code called "sets of quadruples", and more. Algorithm representations can also be classified into three accepted levels of Turing machine description: high-level description, implementation description, and formal description.<ref name":5">Sipser 2006:157</ref> A high-level description describes the qualities of the algorithm itself, ignoring how it is implemented on the Turing machine.<ref name":5" /> An implementation description describes the general manner in which the machine moves its head and stores data to carry out the algorithm, but does not give exact states.<ref name":5" /> In the most detail, a formal description gives the exact state table and list of transitions of the Turing machine.<ref name":5" /> Flowchart representation The graphical aid called a flowchart offers a way to describe and document an algorithm (and a computer program corresponding to it). It has four primary symbols: arrows showing program flow, rectangles (SEQUENCE, GOTO), diamonds (IF-THEN-ELSE), and dots (OR-tie). Sub-structures can "nest" in rectangles, but only if a single exit occurs from the superstructure. Algorithmic analysis {{Main\|Analysis of algorithms}} It is often important to know how much time, storage, or other cost an algorithm may require. Methods have been developed for the analysis of algorithms to obtain such quantitative answers (estimates); for example, an algorithm that adds up the elements of a list of n numbers would have a time requirement of {{tmath\|O(n)}}, using big O notation. The algorithm only needs to remember two values: the sum of all the elements so far, and its current position in the input list. If the space required to store the input numbers is not counted, it has a space requirement of {{tmath\|O(1)}}, otherwise {{tmath\|O(n)}} is required. Different algorithms may complete the same task with a different set of instructions in less or more time, space, or 'effort' than others. For example, a binary search algorithm (with cost {{tmath\|O(\log n)}}) outperforms a sequential search (cost {{tmath\|O(n)}} ) when used for table lookups on sorted lists or arrays. Formal versus empirical {{Main\|Empirical algorithmics\|Profiling (computer programming)\|Program optimization}} The analysis, and study of algorithms is a discipline of computer science. Algorithms are often studied abstractly, without referencing any specific programming language or implementation. Algorithm analysis resembles other mathematical disciplines as it focuses on the algorithm's properties, not implementation. Pseudocode is typical for analysis as it is a simple and general representation. Most algorithms are implemented on particular hardware/software platforms and their algorithmic efficiency is tested using real code. The efficiency of a particular algorithm may be insignificant for many "one-off" problems but it may be critical for algorithms designed for fast interactive, commercial, or long-life scientific usage. Scaling from small n to large n frequently exposes inefficient algorithms that are otherwise benign. Empirical testing is useful for uncovering unexpected interactions that affect performance. Benchmarks may be used to compare before/after potential improvements to an algorithm after program optimization. Empirical tests cannot replace formal analysis, though, and are non-trivial to perform fairly.<ref name"KriegelSchubert2016">{{cite journal\|last1Kriegel\|first1Hans-Peter\|author-linkHans-Peter Kriegel\|last2Schubert\|first2Erich\|last3Zimek\|first3Arthur\|author-link3Arthur Zimek\|titleThe (black) art of run-time evaluation: Are we comparing algorithms or implementations?\|journalKnowledge and Information Systems\|volume52\|issue2\|year2016\|pages341–378\|issn0219-1377\|doi10.1007/s10115-016-1004-2\|s2cid40772241}}</ref> Execution efficiency {{Main\|Algorithmic efficiency}} To illustrate the potential improvements possible even in well-established algorithms, a recent significant innovation, relating to FFT algorithms (used heavily in the field of image processing), can decrease processing time up to 1,000 times for applications like medical imaging.<ref>{{cite web\| titleBetter Math Makes Faster Data Networks\| authorGillian Conahan\| dateJanuary 2013\| urlhttp://discovermagazine.com/2013/jan-feb/34-better-math-makes-faster-data-networks\| publisherdiscovermagazine.com\| access-dateMay 13, 2014\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140513212427/http://discovermagazine.com/2013/jan-feb/34-better-math-makes-faster-data-networks\| archive-dateMay 13, 2014\| url-statuslive}}</ref> In general, speed improvements depend on special properties of the problem, which are very common in practical applications.<ref name"Hassanieh12">Haitham Hassanieh, Piotr Indyk, Dina Katabi, and Eric Price, "[http://siam.omnibooksonline.com/2012SODA/data/papers/500.pdf ACM-SIAM Symposium On Discrete Algorithms (SODA)] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130704180806/http://siam.omnibooksonline.com/2012SODA/data/papers/500.pdf \|dateJuly 4, 2013 }}, Kyoto, January 2012. See also the [http://groups.csail.mit.edu/netmit/sFFT/ sFFT Web Page] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120221145740/http://groups.csail.mit.edu/netmit/sFFT/ \|dateFebruary 21, 2012 }}.</ref> Speedups of this magnitude enable computing devices that make extensive use of image processing (like digital cameras and medical equipment) to consume less power. Design {{See also\|Algorithm#By design paradigm}} Algorithm design is a method or mathematical process for problem-solving and engineering algorithms. The design of algorithms is part of many solution theories, such as divide-and-conquer or dynamic programming within operation research. Techniques for designing and implementing algorithm designs are also called algorithm design patterns,<ref>{{cite book \|last1Goodrich \|first1Michael T. \|author1-linkMichael T. Goodrich \|urlhttp://ww3.algorithmdesign.net/ch00-front.html \|titleAlgorithm Design: Foundations, Analysis, and Internet Examples \|last2Tamassia \|first2Roberto \|author2-linkRoberto Tamassia \|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc. \|year2002 \|isbn978-0-471-38365-9 \|access-dateJune 14, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150428201622/http://ww3.algorithmdesign.net/ch00-front.html \|archive-dateApril 28, 2015 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> with examples including the template method pattern and the decorator pattern. One of the most important aspects of algorithm design is resource (run-time, memory usage) efficiency; the big O notation is used to describe e.g., an algorithm's run-time growth as the size of its input increases.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleBig-O notation (article) {{!}} Algorithms \|urlhttps://www.khanacademy.org/computing/computer-science/algorithms/asymptotic-notation/a/big-o-notation \|access-date2024-06-03 \|websiteKhan Academy \|languageen}}</ref> Structured programming Per the Church–Turing thesis, any algorithm can be computed by any Turing complete model. Turing completeness only requires four instruction types—conditional GOTO, unconditional GOTO, assignment, HALT. However, Kemeny and Kurtz observe that, while "undisciplined" use of unconditional GOTOs and conditional IF-THEN GOTOs can result in "spaghetti code", a programmer can write structured programs using only these instructions; on the other hand "it is also possible, and not too hard, to write badly structured programs in a structured language".<ref>John G. Kemeny and Thomas E. Kurtz 1985 Back to Basic: The History, Corruption, and Future of the Language, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. Reading, MA, {{ISBN\|0-201-13433-0}}.</ref> Tausworthe augments the three Böhm-Jacopini canonical structures:<ref>Tausworthe 1977:101</ref> SEQUENCE, IF-THEN-ELSE, and WHILE-DO, with two more: DO-WHILE and CASE.<ref>Tausworthe 1977:142</ref> An additional benefit of a structured program is that it lends itself to proofs of correctness using mathematical induction.<ref>Knuth 1973 section 1.2.1, expanded by Tausworthe 1977 at pages 100ff and Chapter 9.1</ref> Legal status {{see also\|Software patent}} By themselves, algorithms are not usually patentable. In the United States, a claim consisting solely of simple manipulations of abstract concepts, numbers, or signals does not constitute "processes" (USPTO 2006), so algorithms are not patentable (as in Gottschalk v. Benson). However practical applications of algorithms are sometimes patentable. For example, in Diamond v. Diehr, the application of a simple feedback algorithm to aid in the curing of synthetic rubber was deemed patentable. The patenting of software is controversial,<ref>{{Cite news \|date2013-05-16 \|titleThe Experts: Does the Patent System Encourage Innovation? \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887323582904578487200821421958 \|access-date2017-03-29 \|workThe Wall Street Journal \|issn0099-9660}}</ref> and there are criticized patents involving algorithms, especially data compression algorithms, such as Unisys's LZW patent. Additionally, some cryptographic algorithms have export restrictions (see export of cryptography). Classification By implementation ; Recursion : A recursive algorithm invokes itself repeatedly until meeting a termination condition and is a common functional programming method. Iterative algorithms use repetitions such as loops or data structures like stacks to solve problems. Problems may be suited for one implementation or the other. The Tower of Hanoi is a puzzle commonly solved using recursive implementation. Every recursive version has an equivalent (but possibly more or less complex) iterative version, and vice versa. ; Serial, parallel or distributed : Algorithms are usually discussed with the assumption that computers execute one instruction of an algorithm at a time on serial computers. Serial algorithms are designed for these environments, unlike parallel or distributed algorithms. Parallel algorithms take advantage of computer architectures where multiple processors can work on a problem at the same time. Distributed algorithms use multiple machines connected via a computer network. Parallel and distributed algorithms divide the problem into subproblems and collect the results back together. Resource consumption in these algorithms is not only processor cycles on each processor but also the communication overhead between the processors. Some sorting algorithms can be parallelized efficiently, but their communication overhead is expensive. Iterative algorithms are generally parallelizable, but some problems have no parallel algorithms and are called inherently serial problems. ; Deterministic or non-deterministic : Deterministic algorithms solve the problem with exact decisions at every step; whereas non-deterministic algorithms solve problems via guessing. Guesses are typically made more accurate through the use of heuristics. ; Exact or approximate : While many algorithms reach an exact solution, approximation algorithms seek an approximation that is close to the true solution. Such algorithms have practical value for many hard problems. For example, the Knapsack problem, where there is a set of items, and the goal is to pack the knapsack to get the maximum total value. Each item has some weight and some value. The total weight that can be carried is no more than some fixed number X. So, the solution must consider the weights of items as well as their value.<ref>{{Cite book\|urlhttps://www.springer.com/us/book/9783540402862\|titleKnapsack Problems {{!}} Hans Kellerer {{!}} Springer\|languageen\|isbn978-3-540-40286-2\|publisherSpringer\|year2004\|doi10.1007/978-3-540-24777-7\|access-dateSeptember 19, 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171018181055/https://www.springer.com/us/book/9783540402862\|archive-dateOctober 18, 2017\|url-statuslive\|last1Kellerer\|first1Hans\|last2Pferschy\|first2Ulrich\|last3Pisinger\|first3David\|s2cid28836720 }}</ref> ; Quantum algorithm : Quantum algorithms run on a realistic model of quantum computation. The term is usually used for those algorithms that seem inherently quantum or use some essential feature of Quantum computing such as quantum superposition or quantum entanglement. By design paradigm Another way of classifying algorithms is by their design methodology or paradigm. Some common paradigms are: ; Brute-force or exhaustive search : Brute force is a problem-solving method of systematically trying every possible option until the optimal solution is found. This approach can be very time-consuming, testing every possible combination of variables. It is often used when other methods are unavailable or too complex. Brute force can solve a variety of problems, including finding the shortest path between two points and cracking passwords. ; Divide and conquer : A divide-and-conquer algorithm repeatedly reduces a problem to one or more smaller instances of itself (usually recursively) until the instances are small enough to solve easily. Merge sorting is an example of divide and conquer, where an unordered list can be divided into segments containing one item and sorting of the entire list can be obtained by merging the segments. A simpler variant of divide and conquer is called a decrease-and-conquer algorithm, which solves one smaller instance of itself, and uses the solution to solve the bigger problem. Divide and conquer divides the problem into multiple subproblems and so the conquer stage is more complex than decrease and conquer algorithms.{{Citation needed\|date=October 2024}} An example of a decrease and conquer algorithm is the binary search algorithm. ; Search and enumeration : Many problems (such as playing chess) can be modelled as problems on graphs. A graph exploration algorithm specifies rules for moving around a graph and is useful for such problems. This category also includes search algorithms, branch and bound enumeration, and backtracking. ;Randomized algorithm : Such algorithms make some choices randomly (or pseudo-randomly). They find approximate solutions when finding exact solutions may be impractical (see heuristic method below). For some problems, the fastest approximations must involve some randomness.<ref>For instance, the volume of a convex polytope (described using a membership oracle) can be approximated to high accuracy by a randomized polynomial time algorithm, but not by a deterministic one: see {{cite journal \| last1 Dyer \| first1 Martin \| last2 Frieze \| first2 Alan \| last3 Kannan \| first3 Ravi \| date = January 1991 \| doi = 10.1145/102782.102783 \| issue = 1 \| journal = J. ACM \| pages = 1–17 \| title = A Random Polynomial-time Algorithm for Approximating the Volume of Convex Bodies \| volume 38\| citeseerx 10.1.1.145.4600\| s2cid = 13268711 }}</ref> Whether randomized algorithms with polynomial time complexity can be the fastest algorithm for some problems is an open question known as the P versus NP problem. There are two large classes of such algorithms: # Monte Carlo algorithms return a correct answer with high probability. E.g. RP is the subclass of these that run in polynomial time. # Las Vegas algorithms always return the correct answer, but their running time is only probabilistically bound, e.g. ZPP. ; Reduction of complexity : This technique transforms difficult problems into better-known problems solvable with (hopefully) asymptotically optimal algorithms. The goal is to find a reducing algorithm whose complexity is not dominated by the resulting reduced algorithms. For example, one selection algorithm finds the median of an unsorted list by first sorting the list (the expensive portion), and then pulling out the middle element in the sorted list (the cheap portion). This technique is also known as transform and conquer. ; Back tracking : In this approach, multiple solutions are built incrementally and abandoned when it is determined that they cannot lead to a valid full solution. Optimization problems For optimization problems there is a more specific classification of algorithms; an algorithm for such problems may fall into one or more of the general categories described above as well as into one of the following: ; Linear programming : When searching for optimal solutions to a linear function bound by linear equality and inequality constraints, the constraints can be used directly to produce optimal solutions. There are algorithms that can solve any problem in this category, such as the popular simplex algorithm.<ref> George B. Dantzig and Mukund N. Thapa. 2003. Linear Programming 2: Theory and Extensions. Springer-Verlag.</ref> Problems that can be solved with linear programming include the maximum flow problem for directed graphs. If a problem also requires that any of the unknowns be integers, then it is classified in integer programming. A linear programming algorithm can solve such a problem if it can be proved that all restrictions for integer values are superficial, i.e., the solutions satisfy these restrictions anyway. In the general case, a specialized algorithm or an algorithm that finds approximate solutions is used, depending on the difficulty of the problem. ; Dynamic programming : When a problem shows optimal substructures—meaning the optimal solution can be constructed from optimal solutions to subproblems—and overlapping subproblems, meaning the same subproblems are used to solve many different problem instances, a quicker approach called dynamic programming avoids recomputing solutions. For example, Floyd–Warshall algorithm, the shortest path between a start and goal vertex in a weighted graph can be found using the shortest path to the goal from all adjacent vertices. Dynamic programming and memoization go together. Unlike divide and conquer, dynamic programming subproblems often overlap. The difference between dynamic programming and simple recursion is the caching or memoization of recursive calls. When subproblems are independent and do not repeat, memoization does not help; hence dynamic programming is not applicable to all complex problems. Using memoization dynamic programming reduces the complexity of many problems from exponential to polynomial. ; The greedy method : Greedy algorithms, similarly to a dynamic programming, work by examining substructures, in this case not of the problem but of a given solution. Such algorithms start with some solution and improve it by making small modifications. For some problems, they always find the optimal solution but for others they may stop at local optima. The most popular use of greedy algorithms is finding minimal spanning trees of graphs without negative cycles. Huffman Tree, Kruskal, Prim, Sollin are greedy algorithms that can solve this optimization problem. ;The heuristic method :In optimization problems, heuristic algorithms find solutions close to the optimal solution when finding the optimal solution is impractical. These algorithms get closer and closer to the optimal solution as they progress. In principle, if run for an infinite amount of time, they will find the optimal solution. They can ideally find a solution very close to the optimal solution in a relatively short time. These algorithms include local search, tabu search, simulated annealing, and genetic algorithms. Some, like simulated annealing, are non-deterministic algorithms while others, like tabu search, are deterministic. When a bound on the error of the non-optimal solution is known, the algorithm is further categorized as an approximation algorithm. Examples {{Further\|List of algorithms}} One of the simplest algorithms finds the largest number in a list of numbers of random order. Finding the solution requires looking at every number in the list. From this follows a simple algorithm, which can be described in plain English as: High-level description: # If a set of numbers is empty, then there is no highest number. # Assume the first number in the set is the largest. # For each remaining number in the set: if this number is greater than the current largest, it becomes the new largest. # When there are no unchecked numbers left in the set, consider the current largest number to be the largest in the set. (Quasi-)formal description: Written in prose but much closer to the high-level language of a computer program, the following is the more formal coding of the algorithm in pseudocode or pidgin code: {{algorithm-begin\|name=LargestNumber}} Input: A list of numbers L. Output: The largest number in the list L. if L.size = 0 return null largest ← L[0] for each item in L, do if item > largest, then largest ← item return largest {{algorithm-end}} See also {{Portal\|Mathematics\|Computer programming}} {{div col\|colwidth=22em}} * Abstract machine * ALGOL * Algorithm aversion * Algorithm engineering * Algorithm characterizations * Algorithmic bias * Algorithmic composition * Algorithmic entities * Algorithmic synthesis * Algorithmic technique * Algorithmic topology * Computational mathematics * Garbage in, garbage out * Introduction to Algorithms (textbook) * Government by algorithm * List of algorithms * List of algorithm general topics * Medium is the message * Regulation of algorithms * Theory of computation Computability theory Computational complexity theory {{div col end}} Notes {{Reflist}} Bibliography {{refbegin\|30em}} * {{cite journal \| last1 Axt \| first1 P \| year 1959 \| title On a Subrecursive Hierarchy and Primitive Recursive Degrees \| journal Transactions of the American Mathematical Society \| volume 92 \| issue 1\| pages 85–105 \| doi10.2307/1993169\| jstor 1993169 \| doi-access = free}} * Bell, C. Gordon and Newell, Allen (1971), Computer Structures: Readings and Examples, McGraw–Hill Book Company, New York. {{ISBN\|0-07-004357-4}}. * {{Cite journal\|author1-linkAndreas Blass\|first1Andreas\|last1Blass\|author2-linkYuri Gurevich\|first2Yuri\|last2Gurevich\|year2003\|urlhttp://research.microsoft.com/~gurevich/Opera/164.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://research.microsoft.com/~gurevich/Opera/164.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|titleAlgorithms: A Quest for Absolute Definitions\|journalBulletin of European Association for Theoretical Computer Science\|volume 81}} Includes a bibliography of 56 references. * {{cite book\| last Bolter\| first David J.\| title Turing's Man: Western Culture in the Computer Age\| edition 1984\| year 1984\| publisher The University of North Carolina Press\|locationChapel Hill, NC\| isbn 978-0-8078-1564-9 }}, {{ISBN\|0-8078-4108-0}} * {{cite book\| last1 Boolos\| first1 George\| last2 Jeffrey\| first2 Richard\| title Computability and Logic\| url https://archive.org/details/computabilitylog0000bool_r8y9\| url-access registration\| edition 4th\| orig-year 1974\| year 1999\| publisher Cambridge University Press, London\| isbn 978-0-521-20402-6\| author1-link George Boolos\| author2-link Richard Jeffrey }}: cf. Chapter 3 Turing machines where they discuss "certain enumerable sets not effectively (mechanically) enumerable". * {{cite book\| last Burgin\| first Mark\| title Super-Recursive Algorithms\| year 2004\| publisher Springer\| isbn 978-0-387-95569-8 }} * Campagnolo, M.L., Moore, C., and Costa, J.F. (2000) An analog characterization of the subrecursive functions. In Proc. of the 4th Conference on Real Numbers and Computers, Odense University, pp.&nbsp;91–109 * {{Cite journal\|lastChurch\|firstAlonzo\|author-linkAlonzo Church\|titleAn Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory\|journalAmerican Journal of Mathematics\|volume58\|pages345–363\|year1936\|doi10.2307/2371045\|issue2\|jstor=2371045}} Reprinted in The Undecidable, p.&nbsp;89ff. The first expression of "Church's Thesis". See in particular page 100 (The Undecidable) where he defines the notion of "effective calculability" in terms of "an algorithm", and he uses the word "terminates", etc. * {{Cite journal\|lastChurch\|firstAlonzo\|author-linkAlonzo Church\|titleA Note on the Entscheidungsproblem\|journalThe Journal of Symbolic Logic\|volume1\|year1936\|pages40–41\|doi10.2307/2269326\|issue1\|jstor2269326\|s2cid42323521 }} {{cite journal\|lastChurch\|firstAlonzo\|titleCorrection to a Note on the Entscheidungsproblem\|journalThe Journal of Symbolic Logic\|volume1\|year1936\|pages101–102\|doi10.2307/2269030\|issue3\|jstor2269030\|s2cid=5557237 }} Reprinted in The Undecidable, p.&nbsp;110ff. Church shows that the Entscheidungsproblem is unsolvable in about 3 pages of text and 3 pages of footnotes. * {{cite book\| last Daffa'\| first Ali Abdullah al-\| title The Muslim contribution to mathematics\| year 1977\| publisher Croom Helm\| location London\| isbn = 978-0-85664-464-1 }} * {{cite book\| last Davis\| first Martin\| author-link Martin Davis (mathematician)\| title The Undecidable: Basic Papers On Undecidable Propositions, Unsolvable Problems and Computable Functions\| url https://archive.org/details/undecidablebasic0000davi\| url-access registration\| year 1965\| publisher Raven Press\| location New York\| isbn 978-0-486-43228-1 }} Davis gives commentary before each article. Papers of Gödel, Alonzo Church, Turing, Rosser, Kleene, and Emil Post are included; those cited in the article are listed here by author's name. * {{cite book\| last Davis\| first Martin\| author-link Martin Davis (mathematician)\| title Engines of Logic: Mathematicians and the Origin of the Computer\| year 2000\| publisher W.W. Nortion\| location New York\| isbn 978-0-393-32229-3 }} Davis offers concise biographies of Leibniz, Boole, Frege, Cantor, Hilbert, Gödel and Turing with von Neumann as the show-stealing villain. Very brief bios of Joseph-Marie Jacquard, Babbage, Ada Lovelace, Claude Shannon, Howard Aiken, etc. * {{DADS\|algorithm\|algorithm}} * {{cite journal\|titleEvolution and moral diversity \|authorDean, Tim \|journalBaltic International Yearbook of Cognition, Logic and Communication\|year2012\|volume7\|doi10.4148/biyclc.v7i0.1775 \|doi-access=free}} * {{cite book\| last Dennett\| first Daniel\| author-link Daniel Dennett\| title Darwin's Dangerous Idea\| pages [https://archive.org/details/darwinsdangerous0000denn/page/32 32]–36\| year 1995\| publisher Touchstone/Simon & Schuster\| location New York\| isbn 978-0-684-80290-9\| url https://archive.org/details/darwinsdangerous0000denn\| url-access = registration}} * {{cite book\| last Dilson\| first Jesse\| title The Abacus\| edition (1968, 1994)\| year 2007\| publisher St. Martin's Press, NY\| isbn 978-0-312-10409-2\| url https://archive.org/details/abacusworldsfirs0000dils}}, {{ISBN\|0-312-10409-X}} * Yuri Gurevich, [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi10.1.1.146.3017&reprep1&type=pdf Sequential Abstract State Machines Capture Sequential Algorithms], ACM Transactions on Computational Logic, Vol 1, no 1 (July 2000), pp.&nbsp;77–111. Includes bibliography of 33 sources. * {{cite book\| last van Heijenoort\| first Jean\| author-link Jean van Heijenoort\| title From Frege to Gödel, A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879–1931\| edition (1967)\| year 2001\| publisher Harvard University Press, Cambridge\| isbn 978-0-674-32449-7 }}, 3rd edition 1976[?], {{ISBN\|0-674-32449-8}} (pbk.) * {{cite book\| last Hodges\| first Andrew\| author-link Andrew Hodges\| title Alan Turing: The Enigma\| year 1983\| publisher Simon and Schuster\| location New York\| isbn 978-0-671-49207-6\| title-link = Alan Turing: The Enigma}}, {{ISBN\|0-671-49207-1}}. Cf. Chapter "The Spirit of Truth" for a history leading to, and a discussion of, his proof. * {{Cite journal\|lastKleene\|firstStephen C.\|author-linkStephen Kleene\|titleGeneral Recursive Functions of Natural Numbers\|journalMathematische Annalen\|volume112\|pages727–742\|urlhttp://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/index.php?id11&PPNGDZPPN002278499&L1\|year1936\|doi10.1007/BF01565439\|issue5\|s2cid120517999\|access-dateSeptember 30, 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140903092121/http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/index.php?id11&PPNGDZPPN002278499&L1\|archive-dateSeptember 3, 2014\|url-statusdead}} Presented to the American Mathematical Society, September 1935. Reprinted in The Undecidable, p.&nbsp;237ff. Kleene's definition of "general recursion" (known now as mu-recursion) was used by Church in his 1935 paper An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory that proved the "decision problem" to be "undecidable" (i.e., a negative result). * {{Cite journal\|lastKleene\|firstStephen C.\|author-linkStephen Kleene \|title Recursive Predicates and Quantifiers\|journalTransactions of the American Mathematical Society\|volume53\|pages41–73\|year1943 \|doi10.2307/1990131\|issue1\|jstor1990131\|doi-accessfree}} Reprinted in The Undecidable, p.&nbsp;255ff. Kleene refined his definition of "general recursion" and proceeded in his chapter "12. Algorithmic theories" to posit "Thesis I" (p.&nbsp;274); he would later repeat this thesis (in Kleene 1952:300) and name it "Church's Thesis"(Kleene 1952:317) (i.e., the Church thesis). * {{cite book\| last Kleene\| first Stephen C.\| author-link Kleene\| title Introduction to Metamathematics\| edition Tenth\|year 1991\| orig-year 1952\| publisher North-Holland Publishing Company\| isbn = 978-0-7204-2103-3 }} * {{cite book\| last Knuth\| first Donald\| author-link Donald Knuth\| title Fundamental Algorithms, Third Edition\| year 1997\| publisher Addison–Wesley\| location Reading, Massachusetts\| isbn 978-0-201-89683-1 }} * {{Cite book\|lastKnuth\|firstDonald\|author-linkDonald Knuth\|titleVolume 2/Seminumerical Algorithms, The Art of Computer Programming First Edition\|publisherAddison–Wesley\|locationReading, Massachusetts\|year=1969}} * Kosovsky, N.K. Elements of Mathematical Logic and its Application to the theory of Subrecursive Algorithms, LSU Publ., Leningrad, 1981 * {{Cite journal\|lastKowalski\|firstRobert\|author-linkRobert Kowalski\|titleAlgorithmLogic+Control\|journalCommunications of the ACM\|volume22\|issue7\|pages424–436\|year1979\|doi10.1145/359131.359136\|s2cid2509896\|doi-access=free}} * A.A. Markov (1954) Theory of algorithms. [Translated by Jacques J. Schorr-Kon and PST staff] Imprint Moscow, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1954 [i.e., Jerusalem, Israel Program for Scientific Translations, 1961; available from the Office of Technical Services, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington] Description 444 p.&nbsp;28&nbsp;cm. Added t.p. in Russian Translation of Works of the Mathematical Institute, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, v.&nbsp;42. Original title: Teoriya algerifmov. [QA248.M2943 Dartmouth College library. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Office of Technical Services, number OTS {{not a typo\|60-51085}}.] * {{cite book\| last Minsky\| first Marvin\| author-link Marvin Minsky\| title Computation: Finite and Infinite Machines\| url https://archive.org/details/computationfinit0000mins\| url-access registration\| edition First\| year 1967\| publisher Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ\| isbn 978-0-13-165449-5 }} Minsky expands his "...idea of an algorithm – an effective procedure..." in chapter 5.1 Computability, Effective Procedures and Algorithms. Infinite machines. * {{Cite journal\|lastPost\|firstEmil\|author-linkEmil Post\|titleFinite Combinatory Processes, Formulation I \|journalThe Journal of Symbolic Logic \|volume1 \|year1936 \|pages103–105 \|doi10.2307/2269031 \|issue3 \|jstor2269031\|s2cid40284503 }} Reprinted in The Undecidable, pp.&nbsp;289ff. Post defines a simple algorithmic-like process of a man writing marks or erasing marks and going from box to box and eventually halting, as he follows a list of simple instructions. This is cited by Kleene as one source of his "Thesis I", the so-called Church–Turing thesis. * {{Cite book\|lastRogers\|firstHartley Jr.\|titleTheory of Recursive Functions and Effective Computability\|publisherThe MIT Press\|year1987\|isbn978-0-262-68052-3}} * {{Cite journal\|lastRosser\|firstJ.B.\|author-linkJ. B. Rosser\|titleAn Informal Exposition of Proofs of Godel's Theorem and Church's Theorem\|journalJournal of Symbolic Logic\|volume 4 \|issue2\|year1939\|doi10.2307/2269059\|pages53–60\|jstor2269059\|s2cid39499392 }} Reprinted in The Undecidable, p.&nbsp;223ff. Herein is Rosser's famous definition of "effective method": "...a method each step of which is precisely predetermined and which is certain to produce the answer in a finite number of steps... a machine which will then solve any problem of the set with no human intervention beyond inserting the question and (later) reading the answer" (p.&nbsp;225–226, The Undecidable) * {{cite book \|lastSantos-Lang \|firstChristopher \|editor1-firstSimon \|editor1-lastvan Rysewyk \|editor2-firstMatthijs \|editor2-lastPontier \|titleMachine Medical Ethics \|volume74 \|publisherSpringer \| locationSwitzerland \| pages111–127 \| chapterMoral Ecology Approaches to Machine Ethics\| chapter-urlhttp://grinfree.com/MoralEcology.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://grinfree.com/MoralEcology.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \| doi10.1007/978-3-319-08108-3_8\|seriesIntelligent Systems, Control and Automation: Science and Engineering \|date2015 \|isbn978-3-319-08107-6 }} * {{Cite book\|lastScott\|firstMichael L.\|titleProgramming Language Pragmatics \|edition3rd \|publisherMorgan Kaufmann Publishers/Elsevier\|year2009\|isbn=978-0-12-374514-9}} * {{cite book\| last Sipser\| first Michael\| title Introduction to the Theory of Computation\| year 2006\| publisher PWS Publishing Company\| isbn 978-0-534-94728-6\| url = https://archive.org/details/introductiontoth00sips}} * {{cite book \|last1Sober \|first1Elliott \|last2Wilson \|first2David Sloan \|year1998 \|titleUnto Others: The Evolution and Psychology of Unselfish Behavior \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/untoothersevolut00sobe \|url-accessregistration \|locationCambridge \|publisherHarvard University Press\|isbn=9780674930469 }} * {{Cite book\|lastStone\|firstHarold S.\|titleIntroduction to Computer Organization and Data Structures\|edition1972\|publisherMcGraw-Hill, New York\|isbn978-0-07-061726-1\|year=1972}} Cf. in particular the first chapter titled: Algorithms, Turing Machines, and Programs. His succinct informal definition: "...any sequence of instructions that can be obeyed by a robot, is called an algorithm" (p.&nbsp;4). * {{cite book\| last Tausworthe\| first Robert C\| title Standardized Development of Computer Software Part 1 Methods\| year 1977\| publisher Prentice–Hall, Inc.\| location Englewood Cliffs NJ\| isbn = 978-0-13-842195-3 }} * {{Cite journal\|lastTuring\|firstAlan M.\|author-linkA. M. Turing\|titleOn Computable Numbers, With An Application to the Entscheidungsproblem\|journalProceedings of the London Mathematical Society\|seriesSeries 2\|volume42\|pages 230–265 \|year1936–37\|doi10.1112/plms/s2-42.1.230 \|s2cid=73712 }}. Corrections, ibid, vol. 43(1937) pp.&nbsp;544–546. Reprinted in The Undecidable, p.&nbsp;116ff. Turing's famous paper completed as a Master's dissertation while at King's College Cambridge UK. * {{Cite journal\|lastTuring\|firstAlan M.\|author-linkA. M. Turing\|titleSystems of Logic Based on Ordinals\|journalProceedings of the London Mathematical Society\|volume45\|pages161–228\|year1939\|doi10.1112/plms/s2-45.1.161\|hdl21.11116/0000-0001-91CE-3\|hdl-access=free}} Reprinted in The Undecidable, pp.&nbsp;155ff. Turing's paper that defined "the oracle" was his PhD thesis while at Princeton. * United States Patent and Trademark Office (2006), [http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/mpep/documents/2100_2106_02.htm 2106.02 *>Mathematical Algorithms: 2100 Patentability], Manual of Patent Examining Procedure (MPEP). Latest revision August 2006 {{refend\|30em}} Zaslavsky, C. (1970). Mathematics of the Yoruba People and of Their Neighbors in Southern Nigeria. The Two-Year College Mathematics Journal, 1(2), 76–99. https://doi.org/10.2307/3027363 Further reading {{refbegin}} * {{cite book \|lastBellah \|firstRobert Neelly \|year1985 \|author-linkRobert N. Bellah \|titleHabits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life \|locationBerkeley \|isbn978-0-520-25419-0 \|publisherUniversity of California Press \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXsUojihVZQcC }} * {{cite book \|lastBerlinski \|firstDavid \|titleThe Advent of the Algorithm: The 300-Year Journey from an Idea to the Computer \|year2001 \|publisherHarvest Books \|isbn978-0-15-601391-8 \|url=https://archive.org/details/adventofalgorith0000berl }} * {{cite book \|lastChabert \|firstJean-Luc \|titleA History of Algorithms: From the Pebble to the Microchip \|year1999 \|publisherSpringer Verlag \|isbn978-3-540-63369-3}} * {{cite book \|author1Thomas H. Cormen \|author2Charles E. Leiserson \|author3Ronald L. Rivest \|author4Clifford Stein \|titleIntroduction To Algorithms \|edition3rd \|year2009 \|publisherMIT Press \|isbn=978-0-262-03384-8}} * {{cite book \|authorHarel, David \|author2Feldman, Yishai \|titleAlgorithmics: The Spirit of Computing \|year2004 \|publisherAddison-Wesley \|isbn978-0-321-11784-7}} * {{cite book \|last1Hertzke \|first1Allen D. \|last2McRorie \|first2Chris \|year1998 \|editor1-lastLawler \|editor1-firstPeter Augustine \|editor2-lastMcConkey \|editor2-firstDale \|chapterThe Concept of Moral Ecology \|titleCommunity and Political Thought Today \|locationWestport, CT \|publisher=Praeger }} * Jon Kleinberg, Éva Tardos(2006): Algorithm Design, Pearson/Addison-Wesley, ISBN 978-0-32129535-4 * Knuth, Donald E. (2000). [http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~uno/aa.html Selected Papers on Analysis of Algorithms] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170701190647/http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~uno/aa.html \|dateJuly 1, 2017 }}. Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information. * Knuth, Donald E. (2010). [http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~uno/da.html Selected Papers on Design of Algorithms] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170716225848/http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~uno/da.html \|dateJuly 16, 2017 }}. Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information. * {{Cite book \|first1Wendell \|last1Wallach \|first2Colin \|last2Allen \|dateNovember 2008 \|titleMoral Machines: Teaching Robots Right from Wrong \|isbn978-0-19-537404-9 \|publisherOxford University Press \|location=US }} * {{cite book \|authorBleakley, Chris \|titlePoems that Solve Puzzles: The History and Science of Algorithms \|year2020 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-19-885373-2 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=3pr5DwAAQBAJ }} {{refend}} External links {{wiktionary}} {{wikibooks\|Algorithms}} {{Wikiversity department}} {{Commons category\|Algorithms}} * {{springer\|titleAlgorithm\|idp/a011780\|mode=cs1}} * {{MathWorld \| urlnameAlgorithm \| titleAlgorithm}} * [https://www.nist.gov/dads/ Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures] – National Institute of Standards and Technology ; Algorithm repositories * [http://www.cs.sunysb.edu/~algorith/ The Stony Brook Algorithm Repository] – State University of New York at Stony Brook * [http://calgo.acm.org/ Collected Algorithms of the ACM] – Associations for Computing Machinery * [http://www-cs-staff.stanford.edu/~knuth/sgb.html The Stanford GraphBase] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151206222112/http://www-cs-staff.stanford.edu/%7Eknuth/sgb.html \|dateDecember 6, 2015 }} – Stanford University {{Industrial and applied mathematics}} {{Algorithmic paradigms}} {{Authority control}} Category:Articles with example pseudocode Category:Mathematical logic Category:Theoretical computer science	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm	2025-04-05T18:25:21.910431
777	Annual plant	right\|thumb\|240px\|Peas are an annual plant. An annual plant is a plant that completes its life cycle, from germination to the production of seeds, within one growing season, and then dies. Globally, 6% of all plant species and 15% of herbaceous plants (excluding trees and shrubs) are annuals. The annual life cycle has independently emerged in over 120 different plant families throughout the entire angiosperm phylogeny. The evolutionary and ecological drivers of the annual life cycle Traditionally, there has been a prevailing assumption that annuals have evolved from perennial ancestors. However, recent research challenges this notion, revealing instances where perennials have evolved from annual ancestors. Intriguingly, models propose that transition rates from an annual to a perennial life cycle are twice as fast as the reverse transition. The life-history theory posits that annual plants are favored when adult mortality is higher than seedling (or seed) mortality, i.e., annuals will dominate environments with disturbances or high temporal variability, reducing adult survival. This hypothesis finds support in observations of increased prevalence of annuals in regions with hot-dry summers, with elevated adult mortality and high seed persistence. Furthermore, the evolution of the annual life cycle under hot-dry summer in different families makes it one of the best examples of convergent evolution. Disturbances linked to activities like grazing and agriculture, particularly following European settlement, have facilitated the invasion of annual species from Europe and Asia into the New World. In various ecosystems, the dominance of annual plants is often a temporary phase during secondary succession, particularly in the aftermath of disturbances. For instance, after fields are abandoned, annuals may initially colonize them but are eventually replaced by long-lived species. However, in certain Mediterranean systems, a unique scenario unfolds: when annuals establish dominance, perennials do not necessarily supplant them. This peculiarity is attributed to alternative stable states in the system—both annual dominance and perennial states prove stable, with the ultimate system state dependent on the initial conditions. Traits of annuals and their implication for agriculture Annual plants commonly exhibit a higher growth rate, allocate more resources to seeds, and allocate fewer resources to roots than perennials. In contrast to perennials, which feature long-lived plants and short-lived seeds, annual plants compensate for their lower longevity by maintaining a higher persistence of soil seed banks. These differences in life history strategies profoundly affect ecosystem functioning and services. For instance, annuals, by allocating less resources belowground, play a more minor role in reducing erosion, storing organic carbon, and achieving lower nutrient- and water-use efficiencies than perennials. The distinctions between annual and perennial plants are notably evident in agricultural contexts. Despite constituting a minor part of global biomass, annual species stand out as the primary food source for humankind, likely owing to their greater allocation of resources to seed production, thereby enhancing agricultural productivity. In the Anthropocene epoch, marked by human impact on the environment, there has been a substantial increase in the global cover of annuals. This shift is primarily attributed to the conversion of natural systems, often dominated by perennials, into annual cropland. Currently, annual plants cover approximately 70% of croplands and contribute to around 80% of worldwide food consumption. Molecular genetics In 2008, it was discovered that the inactivation of only two genes in one species of annual plant leads to its conversion into a perennial plant. Researchers deactivated the SOC1 and FUL genes (which control flowering time) of Arabidopsis thaliana. This switch established phenotypes common in perennial plants, such as wood formation. See also - Plant that flowers & sets seeds once, then dies. Ephemeral plant References External links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annual_plant	2025-04-05T18:25:21.919644
779	Anthophyta	The anthophytes are a paraphyletic grouping of plant taxa bearing flower-like reproductive structures. The group, once thought to be a clade, Detailed morphological and molecular studies have shown that the group is not actually monophyletic, with proposed floral homologies of the gnetophytes and the angiosperms having evolved in parallel. Some more recent studies have used the word anthophyte to describe a hypothetical group which includes the angiosperms and a variety of extinct seed plant groups (with various suggestions including at least some of the following groups: glossopterids, corystosperms, Petriellales Pentoxylales, Bennettitales and Caytoniales), but not the Gnetales. References Category:Historically recognized plant taxa	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthophyta	2025-04-05T18:25:21.922090
780	Atlas (disambiguation)	An atlas is a collection of maps. Atlas may also refer to: Arts, entertainment and media Fictional characters Atlas (DC Comics), several fictional characters Atlas (Teen Titans) Atlas, an Astro Boy (1980) character Atlas (BioShock) Atlas, a BattleMech in the BattleTech universe Atlas, an antagonist in Mega Man ZX Advent Atlas, a Portal 2 character Atlas, a PS238 character Erik Josten, a.k.a. Atlas, a Marvel Comics supervillain The Atlas, a strong driving force from No Man's Sky Literature Atlas, a photography book by Gerhard Richter The Atlas (novel), by William T. Vollmann Atlas (magazine) The Atlas (newspaper), published in England from 1826 to 1869 Music Bands Atlas (band), a New Zealand rock band Albums Atlas (Kinky album) Atlas (Laurel Halo album) Atlas (Parkway Drive album) Atlas (Real Estate album) Atlas (RÜFÜS album) Atlas (The Score album) Opera Atlas (opera), 1991, by Meredith Monk Atlas: An Opera in Three Parts, a 1993 recording of Monk's opera Songs "Atlas" (Battles song), 2007 "Atlas" (Bicep song), 2020 "Atlas" (Coldplay song), 2013 "Atlas", by Delphic "Atlas", from the album The Tide, the Thief & River's End by Caligula's Horse "Atlas", by Parkway Drive "Atlas", from Man Overboard by Man Overboard "Atlas", by Jake Chudnow, used as the main theme in the YouTube series Mind Field “Atlas”, by Coheed and Cambria “Atlas”, by Good Kid Gaming The Atlas (video game), a 1991 multiplatform strategy video game Atlas (video game), a massively-multiplayer online video game released for early access in 2018 Atlas Corporation, an arms manufacturer in the video game series Borderlands Atlas Corporation, a private military company in the video game Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare Other uses in arts, entertainment and media Atlas (1961 film), an action-adventure film Atlas (2024 film), an American science fiction thriller film Atlas (comic book series), by Dylan Horrocks Atlas (statue), a statue by Lee Lawrie in Rockefeller Center Businesses and organizations Atlas Air, an American cargo airline Atlas Aircraft, a 1940s aircraft manufacturer Atlas Aviation, an aircraft maintenance firm Atlas Blue, a Moroccan low-cost airline Atlas (appliance company), in Belarus Atlas Car and Manufacturing Company, a locomotive manufacturer Atlas Comics (1950s), a publisher Atlas/Seaboard Comics, a 1970s line of comics Atlas Consortium, a group of technology companies Atlas Copco, a Swedish company founded in 1873 Atlas Corporation, an investment company Atlas Drop Forge Company, a parts subsidiary of REO Motor Car Company Atlas Elektronik, a German naval/marine electronics and systems business Atlas Entertainment, a film production company Atlas Group, a Pakistani business group Atlas Media Corp., a non-fiction entertainment company Atlas Aircraft Corporation, a South African military aircraft manufacturer Atlas Model Railroad, American maker of model trains and accessories Atlas Network, formerly Atlas Economic Research Foundation Atlas Powder Company, an American explosives and chemicals company Atlas Press, a UK publisher Atlas Press (tool company) Atlas (restaurant), a Michelin-starred restaurant in Atlanta Atlas Solutions, an online advertising subsidiary of Meta Platforms Atlas Van Lines, a moving company Atlas Werke, a defunct German shipbuilding company RTV Atlas, a broadcaster in Montenegro Military Airbus A400M Atlas, a military aircraft produced since 2007 Armstrong Whitworth Atlas, a British military aircraft produced 1927–1933 HMLAT-303, a United States Marine Corps helicopter training squadron Atlas Aircraft Corporation, a South African military aircraft manufacturer French ship Atlas, several French Navy ships HMS Atlas, several Royal Navy ships USS Atlas, several U.S. Navy ships ATLAS (simulation) (Army Tactical Level Advanced Simulation), a Thai military system Mythological and legendary figures Atlas (mythology), a Titan in ancient Greek mythology Atlas of Atlantis, the first legendary king of Atlantis Atlas of Mauretania, a legendary king People Atlas (name), including lists of people with the given name or surname Atlas (graffiti artist) Places United States Atlas, Illinois Atlas, Texas Atlas, West Virginia Atlas, Wisconsin Atlas District, in Washington, D.C. Atlas Peak AVA, a California wine region Atlas Township, Michigan Other places Atlas Cinema, a historic movie theatre in Istanbul, Turkey Atlas Mountains, a set of mountain ranges in northwestern Africa Atlas, Nilüfer, a village in Bursa Province, Turkey Science and technology Astronomy Atlas (comet) (C/2019 Y4) Atlas (crater), on the near side of the Moon Atlas (moon), a satellite of Saturn Atlas (star), a triple star system in the constellation of Taurus and a member of the Pleiades Advanced Topographic Laser Altimeter System (ATLAS), a space-based lidar instrument on ICESat-2 Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS) Computing Atlas (computer), a 1960s supercomputer Atlas Supervisor, its operating system Atlas (robot) ATLAS (software), a tool to scan American citizenship records for candidates for denaturalization Atlas, a computer used at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in 2006 Abbreviated Test Language for All Systems (ATLAS), a computer language for equipment testing Advanced Technology Leisure Application Simulator (ATLAS), a hydraulic motion simulator used in theme parks ASP.NET AJAX (formerly "Atlas"), a set of ASP.NET extensions ATLAS Transformation Language, a programming language for model transformation Atlas.ti, a qualitative analysis program Automatically Tuned Linear Algebra Software (ATLAS) ERA Atlas, a version of the UNIVAC 1101, a 1950s American computer Mathematics Atlas (topology), a set of charts A set of charts which covers a manifold A smooth structure, a maximal smooth atlas for a topological manifold Physics Argonne Tandem Linear Accelerator System (ATLAS), at the Argonne National Laboratory ATLAS experiment, a particle detector for the Large Hadron Collider at CERN Atomic-terrace low-angle shadowing (ATLAS), a nanofabrication technique Biology and healthcare Atlas (anatomy), a vertebra in the cervical spine Atlas personality, the personality of someone whose childhood was characterized by excessive responsibilities Animals and plants Atlas bear Atlas beetle Atlas cedar Atlas moth Atlas pied flycatcher, a bird Atlas turtle Atlas, a book about flora and/or fauna of a region, such as atlases of the flora and fauna of Britain and Ireland Sport Atlas Delmenhorst, a German association football club Atlas F.C., a Mexican professional football club Club Atlético Atlas, an Argentine amateur football club KK Atlas, a former Serbian men's professional basketball club Transport Aerospace Atlas (rocket family) SM-65 Atlas intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) AeroVelo Atlas, a human-powered helicopter Birdman Atlas, an ultralight aircraft La Mouette Atlas, a French hang glider design Automotive Atlas (1951 automobile), a French mini-car Atlas (light trucks), a Greek motor vehicle manufacturer Atlas (Pittsburgh automobile), produced 1906–1907 Atlas (Springfield automobile), produced 1907–1913 Atlas, a British van by the Standard Motor Company produced 1958–1962 Atlas Motor Buggy, an American highwheeler produced in 1909 Ford Atlas, a concept pickup truck that previewed the then-new 2015 F-150 Geely Atlas, a sport utility vehicle General Motors Atlas engine Honda Atlas Cars Pakistan, a car manufacturer Nissan Atlas, a Japanese light truck Volkswagen Atlas, a sport utility vehicle Ships and boats Atlas (ship), various merchant ships ST Atlas, a Swedish tugboat Trains Atlas, an 1863–1885 South Devon Railway Dido class locomotive Atlas, a 1927–1962 LMS Royal Scot Class locomotive Other uses Atlas (architecture) Atlas (storm), which hit the Midwestern United States in October 2013 Agrupación de Trabajadores Latinoamericanos Sindicalistas (ATLAS), a 1950s Latin American trade union confederation Atlas languages, Berber languages spoken in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco ATLAS Network, a network of European special police units Atlas power station, İskenderun, Hatay Province, Turkey Atlas Uranium Mill, Moab, Utah, United States Atlas folio, a book size See also Altas (disambiguation) AtlasGlobal, a former Turkish airline Atlas-Imperial, an American diesel engine manufacturer Atlas Mara Limited, formerly Atlas Mara Co-Nvest Limited, a financial holding company that owns banks in Africa Dresser Atlas, a provider of oilfield and factory automation services Tele Atlas, a Dutch mapping company Western Atlas, an oilfield services company Brain atlas, a neuroanatomical map of the brain of a human or other animal Black Atlass, a Canadian musician Advanced Technology Large-Aperture Space Telescope (ATLAST)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_(disambiguation)	2025-04-05T18:25:21.931916
782	Mouthwash	{{Short description\|Liquid rinse for oral hygiene}} {{Other uses}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=June 2020}} ]] Mouthwash, mouth rinse, oral rinse, or mouth bath<ref namepmid12856008>{{cite journal \| vauthors Matthews RW \| title Hot salt water mouth baths \| journal British Dental Journal \| volume 195 \| issue 1 \| page 3 \| date July 2003 \| pmid 12856008 \| doi 10.1038/sj.bdj.4810318 \| s2cid = 3995032 }}</ref> is a liquid which is held in the mouth passively or swirled around the mouth by contraction of the perioral muscles and/or movement of the head, and may be gargled, where the head is tilted back and the liquid bubbled at the back of the mouth. Usually mouthwashes are antiseptic solutions intended to reduce the microbial load in the mouth, although other mouthwashes might be given for other reasons such as for their analgesic, anti-inflammatory or anti-fungal action. Additionally, some rinses act as saliva substitutes to neutralize acid and keep the mouth moist in xerostomia (dry mouth).<ref namewsj>{{cite web \| vauthors Reddy S \| date 12 January 2015 \| work The Wall Street Journal \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/there-is-more-to-your-mouthwash-than-a-minty-taste-1421096379\|titleThere is More to Your Mouthwash Than a Minty Taste}}</ref><ref namemedX>{{cite web \| author Tufts University \| date 23 March 2015 \| publisher Medical Xpress \|urlhttp://medicalxpress.com/news/2015-03-mouthwash.html\|titleShould I use mouthwash?}}</ref> Cosmetic mouthrinses temporarily control or reduce bad breath and leave the mouth with a pleasant taste.<ref nameada>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.ada.org/en/science-research/ada-seal-of-acceptance/product-category-information/mouthrinses \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20141011031124/http://www.ada.org/en/science-research/ada-seal-of-acceptance/product-category-information/mouthrinses \| archive-date 11 October 2014 \|titleLearn More About Mouthrinses \| publisher American Dental Association }}</ref> Rinsing with water or mouthwash after brushing with a fluoride toothpaste can reduce the availability of salivary fluoride. This can lower the anti-cavity re-mineralization and antibacterial effects of fluoride.<ref namepmid21591596>{{cite journal \| vauthors Mystikos C, Yoshino T, Ramberg P, Birkhed D \| title Effect of post-brushing mouthrinse solutions on salivary fluoride retention \| journal Swedish Dental Journal \| volume 35 \| issue 1 \| pages 17–24 \| year 2011 \| pmid 21591596 }}</ref><ref namepmid1423447>{{cite journal \| vauthors Chesters RK, Huntington E, Burchell CK, Stephen KW \| title Effect of oral care habits on caries in adolescents \| journal Caries Research \| volume 26 \| issue 4 \| pages 299–304 \| year 1992 \| pmid 1423447 \| doi 10.1159/000261456 }}</ref><ref namepmid18534177>{{cite journal \| vauthors Zamataro CB, Tenuta LM, Cury JA \| title Low-fluoride dentifrice and the effect of postbrushing rinsing on fluoride availability in saliva \| journal European Archives of Paediatric Dentistry \| volume 9 \| issue 2 \| pages 90–3 \| date June 2008 \| pmid 18534177 \| doi 10.1007/BF03262616 \| s2cid 31708112 }}</ref> Fluoridated mouthwash may mitigate this effect or in high concentrations increase available fluoride, but is not as cost-effective as leaving the fluoride toothpaste on the teeth after brushing.<ref name"pmid21591596"/> A group of experts discussing post brushing rinsing in 2012 found that although there was clear guidance given in many public health advice publications to "spit, avoid rinsing with water/excessive rinsing with water"<ref name":0">{{cite web \| publisher Public Health England, Department of Health. \| title Delivering better oral health: an evidence-based toolkit for prevention \| edition 3rd \| date March 2017 \| url https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/605266/Delivering_better_oral_health.pdf }}</ref> they believed there was a limited evidence base for best practice.<ref namepmid22498529>{{cite journal \| vauthors Pitts N, Duckworth RM, Marsh P, Mutti B, Parnell C, Zero D \| title Post-brushing rinsing for the control of dental caries: exploration of the available evidence to establish what advice we should give our patients \| journal British Dental Journal \| volume 212 \| issue 7 \| pages 315–20 \| date April 2012 \| pmid 22498529 \| doi 10.1038/sj.bdj.2012.260 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Use Common use involves rinsing the mouth with about {{nowrap\|20–50 ml}} {{nowrap\|({{cvt\|20\|-\|50\|ml\|usfloz\|1\|dispout\|lkon}})}} of mouthwash. The wash is typically swished or gargled for about half a minute and then spat out. Most companies suggest not drinking water immediately after using mouthwash. In some brands, the expectorate is stained, so that one can see the bacteria and debris.<ref namepmid8794967>{{cite journal \| vauthors Kozlovsky A, Goldberg S, Natour I, Rogatky-Gat A, Gelernter I, Rosenberg M \| title Efficacy of a 2-phase oil: water mouthrinse in controlling oral malodor, gingivitis, and plaque \| journal Journal of Periodontology \| volume 67 \| issue 6 \| pages 577–82 \| date June 1996 \| pmid 8794967 \| doi 10.1902/jop.1996.67.6.577 }}</ref><ref namepmid1552460>{{cite journal \| vauthors Rosenberg M, Gelernter I, Barki M, Bar-Ness R \| title Day-long reduction of oral malodor by a two-phase oil:water mouthrinse as compared to chlorhexidine and placebo rinses \| journal Journal of Periodontology \| volume 63 \| issue 1 \| pages 39–43 \| date January 1992 \| pmid 1552460 \| doi 10.1902/jop.1992.63.1.39 }}</ref><ref namepmid2076696>{{cite journal \| vauthors Rosenberg M \| title Bad breath, diagnosis and treatment \| journal University of Toronto Dental Journal \| volume 3 \| issue 2 \| pages 7–11 \| year 1990 \| pmid = 2076696 }}</ref> Mouthwash should not be used immediately after brushing the teeth so as not to wash away the beneficial fluoride residue left from the toothpaste. Similarly, the mouth should not be rinsed out with water after brushing. Patients were told to "spit don't rinse" after toothbrushing as part of a National Health Service campaign in the UK.<ref>{{cite web\|titleOral health promotion messages: "Spit don't rinse"\|urlhttp://www.networks.nhs.uk/nhs-networks/healthcare-professionals-commissioning-network/messageboard/healthcare-professionals-commissioning-network-forum/795055410/562863043/oral-health-promotion-messages-doc}}</ref> A fluoride mouthrinse can be used at a different time of the day to brushing.<ref name=":0" /> Gargling is where the head is tilted back, allowing the mouthwash to sit in the back of the mouth while exhaling, causing the liquid to bubble. Gargling is practiced in Japan for perceived prevention of viral infection. One commonly used way is with infusions or tea. In some cultures, gargling is usually done in private, typically in a bathroom at a sink so the liquid can be rinsed away.<ref name"Pubchem">{{cite web\|urlhttps://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Eucalyptol\|titleEucalyptol {{!}} C10H18O – PubChem\|lastPubchem\|websitepubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\|access-date2016-12-01}}</ref> Dangerous misuse {{main\|Surrogate alcohol}} Serious harm and even death can quickly result from ingestion due to the high alcohol content and other substances harmful to ingestion present in some brands of mouthwash.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleWhat Are the Dangers of Drinking Mouthwash? {{!}} Laguna Hospital \|urlhttps://lagunatreatment.com/alcohol-abuse/drinking-mouthwash/ \|access-date2023-01-22 \|websiteLaguna Treatment Hospital \|language=en}}</ref> Zero percent alcohol mouthwashes do exist, as well as many other formulations for different needs (covered in the above sections). These risks may be higher in toddlers and young children if they are allowed to use toothpaste and/or mouthwash unsupervised, where they may swallow it. Misuse in this way can be avoided with parental admission or supervision and by using child-safe forms or a children's brand of mouthwash. Surrogate alcohol use such as ingestion of mouthwash is a common cause of death among homeless people during winter months, because a person can feel warmer after drinking it.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleThe People Giving Alcoholics Beer to Get Them to Stop Drinking Mouthwash \|urlhttps://www.vice.com/en/article/5gj7nd/people-are-getting-wasted-off-mouthwash-and-rubbing-alcohol-and-its-killing-them \|access-date2023-01-22 \|websitevice.com \|date16 March 2016 \|languageen}} </ref> <span class"anchor" id"Magic mouthwash"></span> Effects The most commonly used mouthwashes are commercial antiseptics, which are used at home as part of an oral hygiene routine. Mouthwashes combine ingredients to treat a variety of oral conditions. Variations are common, and mouthwash has no standard formulation, so its use and recommendation involves concerns about patient safety. Some manufacturers of mouthwash state that their antiseptic and antiplaque mouthwashes kill the bacterial plaque that causes cavities, gingivitis, and bad breath. It is, however, generally agreed that the use of mouthwash does not eliminate the need for both brushing and flossing.<ref namepmid17138709>{{cite journal \| vauthors Gunsolley JC \| title A meta-analysis of six-month studies of antiplaque and antigingivitis agents \| journal Journal of the American Dental Association \| volume 137 \| issue 12 \| pages 1649–57 \| date December 2006 \| pmid 17138709 \| doi 10.14219/jada.archive.2006.0110 \| s2cid 9347082 }}</ref><ref namepmid2366142>{{cite journal \| vauthors Tal H, Rosenberg M \| title Estimation of dental plaque levels and gingival inflammation using a simple oral rinse technique \| journal Journal of Periodontology \| volume 61 \| issue 6 \| pages 339–42 \| date June 1990 \| pmid 2366142 \| doi 10.1902/jop.1990.61.6.339 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news \| urlhttp://www.nbcnews.com/id/6799764 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141006203443/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/6799764 \| url-statusdead \| archive-date6 October 2014 \|titleListerine no replacement for flossing?\|workNBC News \| date7 January 2005 \| access-date14 October 2013 }}</ref> The American Dental Association asserts that regular brushing and proper flossing are enough in most cases, in addition to regular dental check-ups, although they approve many mouthwashes.<ref>{{cite web \| author Jake \| date 1 April 2015 \|titleShould I use Mouthwash \|url=http://brushflossandmouthwash.com/should-i-be-using-mouthwash/ }}</ref> For many patients, however, the mechanical methods could be tedious and time-consuming, and, additionally, some local conditions may render them especially difficult. Chemo{{shy}}thera{{shy}}peutic agents, including mouthwashes, could have a key role as adjuncts to daily home care, preventing and controlling supra{{shy}}gingival plaque, gingivitis and oral malodor.<ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.1590/S1806-83242007000500005 \|titleThe effect of mouthrinses against oral microorganisms \|journalBrazilian Oral Research \|volume21 \|pages23–8 \|year2007 \| vauthors Cortelli JR, Thénoux RE \|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Minor and transient side effects of mouthwashes are very common, such as taste disturbance, tooth staining, sensation of a dry mouth, etc. Alcohol-containing mouthwashes may make dry mouth and halitosis worse, as they dry out the mouth.<ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Oneschuk D, Hagen N, MacDonald N \|titlePalliative Medicine: A case-based manual\|year2012\|publisherOxford University Press\|isbn9780191628733\|page126 \| url https://books.google.com/books?idMJOE2MflzngC&qnon+alcoholic+mouthwash+halitosis&pgPA126 \|edition3rd}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \| vauthors Philipp J \| date 16 July 2015 \| work azcentral.com \|urlhttp://www.azcentral.com/story/entertainment/life/health/2015/07/16/medications-diseases-among-factors-dry-mouth-cbt/30270419/\|titleMedications, diseases among factors for dry mouth}}</ref> Soreness, ulceration and redness may sometimes occur (e.g., aphthous stomatitis or allergic contact stomatitis) if the person is allergic or sensitive to mouthwash ingredients, such as preservatives, coloring, flavors and fragrances. Such effects might be reduced or eliminated by diluting the mouthwash with water, using a different mouthwash (e.g. saltwater), or foregoing mouthwash entirely. Prescription mouthwashes are used prior to and after oral surgery procedures, such as tooth extraction, or to treat the pain associated with mucositis caused by radiation therapy or chemotherapy. They are also prescribed for aphthous ulcers, other oral ulcers, and other mouth pain.<ref name"DetailDoc"/> "Magic mouthwashes" are prescription mouthwashes compounded in a pharmacy from a list of ingredients specified by a doctor.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.drotterholt.com/magicmouthwash.html \|titleMagic Mouthwash \|access-date2009-12-05 \| vauthors Otterholt R }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.pharmacistsletter.com/(S(4xxt15452khjdpbrnmrxdbfi))/pl/Browse.aspx?sPL&dd230703&cat4313&pt2 \|titleMagic Mouthwash \|access-date2009-12-05 \|workPharmacist's Letter \|publisherTherapeutic Research Center }}</ref> Despite a lack of evidence that prescription mouthwashes are more effective in decreasing the pain of oral lesions, many patients and prescribers continue to use them. There has been only one controlled study to evaluate the efficacy of magic mouthwash; it shows no difference in efficacy between the most common magic-mouthwash formulation, on the one hand, and commercial mouthwashes (such as chlorhexidine) or a saline/baking soda solution, on the other. Current guidelines suggest that saline solution is just as effective as magic mouthwash in pain relief and in shortening the healing time of oral mucositis from cancer therapies.<ref name"DetailDoc"/>History {{pb}} {{np}} The first known references to mouth rinsing is in Ayurveda<ref namepmid21760690>{{cite journal \| vauthors Singh A, Purohit B \| title Tooth brushing, oil pulling and tissue regeneration: A review of holistic approaches to oral health \| journal Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine \| volume 2 \| issue 2 \| pages 64–8 \| date April 2011 \| pmid 21760690 \| pmc 3131773 \| doi 10.4103/0975-9476.82525 \| doi-access free }}</ref> for treatment of gingivitis.<ref>{{cite journal \|title Mouthwash: A review for South African health care workers \|journalSouth African Family Practice \|volume52 \|issue2 \|pages121–7 \|year2014 \| vauthors Van Zyl AW, Van Heerden WF \| doi 10.1080/20786204.2010.10873950 \|hdl2263/14207 \|doi-accessfree \|hdl-accessfree }}</ref> Later, in the Greek and Roman periods, mouth rinsing following mechanical cleansing became common among the upper classes, and Hippocrates recommended a mixture of salt, alum, and vinegar.<ref namepmid9643227>{{cite journal \| vauthors Fischman SL \| title The history of oral hygiene products: how far have we come in 6000 years? \| journal Periodontology 2000 \| volume 15 \| pages 7–14 \| date October 1997 \| pmid 9643227 \| doi 10.1111/j.1600-0757.1997.tb00099.x \| doi-access free }}</ref> The Jewish Talmud, dating back about 1,800 years, suggests a cure for gum ailments containing "dough water" and olive oil.<ref namepmid12389360>{{cite journal \| vauthors Shifman A, Orenbuch S, Rosenberg M \| title Bad breath--a major disability according to the Talmud \| journal The Israel Medical Association Journal \| volume 4 \| issue 10 \| pages 843–5 \| date October 2002 \| pmid 12389360 }}</ref> The ancient Chinese had also gargled salt water, tea and wine as a form of mouthwash after meals, due to the antiseptic properties of those liquids.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2019-12-12 \|titleGetting to the roots of dentistry in ancient China \|urlhttps://www.scmp.com/magazines/post-magazine/short-reads/article/3041650/getting-roots-dentistry-ancient-china-it-wasnt \|access-date2022-05-18 \|websiteSouth China Morning Post \|languageen}}</ref> Before Europeans came to the Americas, Native North American and Mesoamerican cultures used mouthwashes, often made from plants such as Coptis trifolia.<ref nameKeoke2002 /> Peoples of the Americas used salt water mouthwashes for sore throats, and other mouthwashes for problems such as teething and mouth ulcers.<ref nameKeoke2002>{{cite book\| vauthors Keoke ED, Porterfield KM \| titleEncyclopedia of American Indian contributions to the world 15,000 years of inventions and innovations\|year2002\|publisherFacts on File\|locationNew York, NY\|isbn978-1-4381-0990-9\|page180\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQIFTVWJH3doC&qsalt+mouthwash&pg=PA180}}</ref> Anton van Leeuwenhoek, the famous 17th century microscopist, discovered living organisms (living, because they were mobile) in deposits on the teeth (what we now call dental plaque). He also found organisms in water from the canal next to his home in Delft. He experimented with samples by adding vinegar or brandy and found that this resulted in the immediate immobilization or killing of the organisms suspended in water. Next he tried rinsing the mouth of himself and somebody else with a mouthwash containing vinegar or brandy and found that living organisms remained in the dental plaque. He concluded—correctly—that the mouthwash either did not reach, or was not present long enough, to kill the plaque organisms.<ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Lax A \|date27 October 2005 \|titleToxin: The cunning of bacterial poisons \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIuvRClJOT5EC&qLeeuwenhoek+dental+plaque+mouthwash&pgPT27 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-157850-2}}</ref> In 1892, German Richard Seifert invented mouthwash product Odol, which was produced by company founder Karl August Lingner (1861–1916) in Dresden.<ref>[http://lingner-archiv.jimdo.com/ Lingner-Archiv (German)]</ref> That remained the state of affairs until the late 1960s when Harald Loe (at the time a professor at the Royal Dental College in Aarhus, Denmark) demonstrated that a chlorhexidine compound could prevent the build-up of dental plaque. The reason for chlorhexidine's effectiveness is that it strongly adheres to surfaces in the mouth and thus remains present in effective concentrations for many hours.<ref namepmid4575037>{{cite journal \| vauthors Budtz-Jörgensen E, Löe H \| title Chlorhexidine as a denture disinfectant in the treatment of denture stomatitis \| journal Scandinavian Journal of Dental Research \| volume 80 \| issue 6 \| pages 457–64 \| year 1972 \| pmid 4575037 \| doi 10.1111/j.1600-0722.1972.tb00314.x }}</ref> Since then commercial interest in mouthwashes has been intense and several newer products claim effectiveness in reducing the build-up in dental plaque and the associated severity of gingivitis, in addition to fighting bad breath. Many of these solutions aim to control the volatile sulfur compound–creating anaerobic bacteria that live in the mouth and excrete substances that lead to bad breath and unpleasant mouth taste.<ref namepmid1552460/><ref namepmid8794967/><ref namepmid8133414>{{cite journal \| vauthors Bosy A, Kulkarni GV, Rosenberg M, McCulloch CA \| title Relationship of oral malodor to periodontitis: evidence of independence in discrete subpopulations \| journal Journal of Periodontology \| volume 65 \| issue 1 \| pages 37–46 \| date January 1994 \| pmid 8133414 \| doi 10.1902/jop.1994.65.1.37 }}</ref><ref namepmid12013345>{{cite journal \| vauthors Loesche WJ, Kazor C \| title Microbiology and treatment of halitosis \| journal Periodontology 2000 \| volume 28 \| pages 256–79 \| year 2002 \| pmid 12013345 \| doi 10.1034/j.1600-0757.2002.280111.x }}</ref><ref namepmid1499240>{{cite journal \| vauthors Yaegaki K, Sanada K \| title Effects of a two-phase oil-water mouthwash on halitosis \| journal Clinical Preventive Dentistry \| volume 14 \| issue 1 \| pages 5–9 \| year 1992 \| pmid 1499240 }}</ref> For example, the number of mouthwash variants in the United States of America has grown from 15 (1970) to 66 (1998) to 113 (2012).<ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.1057/dddmp.2013.34 \|titleCustomers' online shopping preferences in mass customization \|journalJournal of Direct, Data and Digital Marketing Practice \|volume15 \|issue1 \|pages20–35 \|year2013 \| vauthors Aichner T, Coletti P \|doi-accessfree }}</ref>ResearchResearch in the field of microbiotas shows that only a limited set of microbes cause tooth decay, with most of the bacteria in the human mouth being harmless. Focused attention on cavity-causing bacteria such as Streptococcus mutans has led research into new mouthwash treatments that prevent these bacteria from initially growing. While current mouthwash treatments must be used with a degree of frequency to prevent this bacteria from regrowing, future treatments could provide a viable long-term solution.<ref>{{cite web \| vauthors Greenwood V \|urlhttps://www.discovermagazine.com/health/hacking-the-microbiome-for-fun-and-profit-can-killing-just-one-mouth-bacterium-stop-cavities \|titleHacking the Microbiome for Fun and Profit: Can Killing Just One Mouth Bacterium Stop Cavities? \| work Discover Magazine \|access-date31 October 2012\|date=2012-02-02 }}</ref> A clinical trial and laboratory studies have shown that alcohol-containing mouthwash could reduce the growth of Neisseria gonorrhoeae in the pharynx.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Chow \|first1Eric PF \|last2Howden \|first2Benjamin P. \|last3Walker \|first3Sandra \|last4Lee \|first4David \|last5Bradshaw \|first5Catriona S. \|last6Chen \|first6Marcus Y. \|last7Snow \|first7Anthony \|last8Cook \|first8Stuart \|last9Fehler \|first9Glenda \|last10Fairley \|first10Christopher K. \|date2017-03-01 \|titleAntiseptic mouthwash against pharyngeal Neisseria gonorrhoeae: a randomised controlled trial and an in vitro study \|urlhttps://sti.bmj.com/content/93/2/88 \|journalSexually Transmitted Infections \|languageen \|volume93 \|issue2 \|pages88–93 \|doi10.1136/sextrans-2016-052753 \|issn1368-4973 \|pmid27998950\|s2cid3479567 \|doi-accessfree }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Williams \|first1Eloise \|last2Zhang \|first2Bowen \|last3Chow \|first3Eric P. F. \|last4Chea \|first4Socheata \|last5Phillips \|first5Tiffany R. \|last6Maddaford \|first6Kate \|last7Krysiak \|first7Marcelina \|last8Nong \|first8Yi \|last9Stefanatos \|first9Helen \|last10Pasricha \|first10Shivani \|last11Fairley \|first11Christopher K. \|last12Wiliamson \|first12Deborah A. \|date2022-06-21 \|titleInhibitory Activity of Antibacterial Mouthwashes and Antiseptic Substances against Neisseria gonorrhoeae \|journalAntimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy \|languageen \|volume66 \|issue6 \|pagese0004222 \|doi10.1128/aac.00042-22 \|issn0066-4804 \|pmc9211398 \|pmid35579459}}</ref> However, subsequent trials have found that there was no difference in gonorrhoea cases among men using daily mouthwash compared to those who did not use mouthwash for 12 weeks.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Chow \|first1Eric P F \|last2Williamson \|first2Deborah A \|last3Hocking \|first3Jane S \|last4Law \|first4Matthew G \|last5Maddaford \|first5Kate \|last6Bradshaw \|first6Catriona S \|last7McNulty \|first7Anna \|last8Templeton \|first8David J \|last9Moore \|first9Richard \|last10Murray \|first10Gerald L \|last11Danielewski \|first11Jennifer A \|last12Wigan \|first12Rebecca \|last13Chen \|first13Marcus Y \|last14Guy \|first14Rebecca J \|last15Zhang \|first15Lei \|dateMay 2021 \|titleAntiseptic mouthwash for gonorrhoea prevention (OMEGA): a randomised, double-blind, parallel-group, multicentre trial \|urlhttps://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1473309920307040 \|journalThe Lancet Infectious Diseases \|languageen \|volume21 \|issue5 \|pages647–656 \|doi10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30704-0\|pmid33676595 \|s2cid232142254 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Van Dijck \|first1Christophe \|last2Tsoumanis \|first2Achilleas \|last3Rotsaert \|first3Anke \|last4Vuylsteke \|first4Bea \|last5Van den Bossche \|first5Dorien \|last6Paeleman \|first6Elke \|last7De Baetselier \|first7Irith \|last8Brosius \|first8Isabel \|last9Laumen \|first9Jolein \|last10Buyze \|first10Jozefien \|last11Wouters \|first11Kristien \|last12Lynen \|first12Lutgarde \|last13Van Esbroeck \|first13Marjan \|last14Herssens \|first14Natacha \|last15Abdellati \|first15Said \|dateMay 2021 \|titleAntibacterial mouthwash to prevent sexually transmitted infections in men who have sex with men taking HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PReGo): a randomised, placebo-controlled, crossover trial \|urlhttps://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30778-7 \|journalThe Lancet Infectious Diseases \|volume21 \|issue5 \|pages657–667 \|doi10.1016/s1473-3099(20)30778-7 \|pmid33676596 \|s2cid232142467 \|issn1473-3099}}</ref> {{Clear}} Ingredients <!-- this section alphabetized --> Alcohol Alcohol is added to mouthwash not to destroy bacteria but to act as a carrier agent for essential active ingredients such as menthol, eucalyptol and thymol, which help to penetrate plaque.<ref name"cleef"/> Sometimes a significant amount of alcohol (up to 27% vol) is added,<ref name"Mildau">{{cite journal \| vauthors Lachenmeier DW, Keck-Wilhelm A, Sauermann A, Mildau G \|year2008 \|titleSafety Assessment of Alcohol-Containing Mouthwashes and Oral Rinses \|journalSOFW Journal \|volume134 \|issue10 \|pages70–8 \|urlhttp://www.sofw.com/index/sofw_en/sofw_en_archive.html?cosearchmouthwashes&cosearch_samouthwashes&costart&date_from%5BY%5D2004&date_from%5Bm%5D1&date_until%5BY%5D2008&date_until%5Bm%5D10&do_search_sa1&naid3193}}</ref> as a carrier for the flavor, to provide "bite".<ref name"Pader">{{cite journal \| vauthors Pader M \|titleOral rinses \|journalCosmetics & Toiletries \|dateOctober 1994 \|volume109 \|issue10 \|pages59–68 \|issn0361-4387}}</ref>{{Unreliable medical source\|dateSeptember 2011}} Because of the alcohol content, it is possible to fail a breathalyzer test after rinsing, although breath alcohol levels return to normal after 10 minutes.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://alcoholrehabadvice.com/dangers-of-drinking-mouthwash/\|titleDangers of Drinking Mouthwash {{!}} Alcohol Rehab Advice\|websitealcoholrehabadvice.com\|access-date2016-12-01}}</ref> In addition, alcohol is a drying agent, which encourages bacterial activity in the mouth, releasing more malodorous volatile sulfur compounds. Therefore, alcohol-containing mouthwash may temporarily worsen halitosis in those who already have it, or, indeed, be the sole cause of halitosis in other individuals.<ref name":1" /> Alcohol in mouthwashes may act as a carcinogen (cancer-inducing agent) in some cases {{xref\|(see: {{slink\|Oral cancer\|Alcohol}})}}.<ref name":19">{{Cite journal \| vauthors Rao KN, Mehta R, Dange P, Nagarkar NM \|date2024-05-08 \|titleAlcohol-Containing Mouthwash and the Risk of Oral Cancer: Exploring the Association \|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/380426336 \|journalIndian Journal of Surgical Oncology \|volume15 \|issue3 \|pages553–556 \|languageen \|doi10.1007/s13193-024-01948-4 \|issn0975-7651\|quoteThere is some evidence for alcohol-containing mouthwash use which is associated with the potential risk of developing carcinoma of oral cavity. The results are inconclusive.}}</ref> Many newer brands of mouthwash are alcohol-free, not just in response to consumer concerns about oral cancer, but also to cater for religious groups who abstain from alcohol consumption.Benzydamine (analgesic)In painful oral conditions such as aphthous stomatitis, analgesic mouthrinses (e.g. benzydamine mouthwash, or "Difflam") are sometimes used to ease pain, commonly used before meals to reduce discomfort while eating.Benzoic acidBenzoic acid acts as a buffer.<ref name"cleef"/> Betamethasone Betamethasone is sometimes used as an anti-inflammatory, corticosteroid mouthwash. It may be used for severe inflammatory conditions of the oral mucosa such as the severe forms of aphthous stomatitis.<ref nameCawson2002 />{{rp\|209}}Cetylpyridinium chloride (antiseptic, antimalodor)Cetylpyridinium chloride containing mouthwash (e.g. 0.05%) is used in some specialized mouthwashes for halitosis.<ref name"pmid27228022">{{Cite journal \|last1Kumbargere Nagraj \|first1Sumanth \|last2Eachempati \|first2Prashanti \|last3Uma \|first3Eswara \|last4Singh \|first4Vijendra Pal \|last5Ismail \|first5Noorliza Mastura \|last6Varghese \|first6Eby \|date2019-12-11 \|editor-lastCochrane Oral Health Group \|titleInterventions for managing halitosis \|journalCochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \|languageen \|volume2019 \|issue12 \|pagesCD006701 \|doi10.1002/14651858.CD012213.pub2 \|pmc6905014 \|pmid31825092}}</ref> Cetylpyridinium chloride mouthwash has less anti-plaque effect than chlorhexidine and may cause staining of teeth, or sometimes an oral burning sensation or ulceration.<ref nameScully2013 /> Chlorhexidine digluconate and hexetidine (antiseptic) Chlorhexidine digluconate is a chemical antiseptic and is used in a 0.05–0.2% solution as a mouthwash.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Radzki \|first1Dominik \|last2Wilhelm-Węglarz \|first2Marta \|last3Pruska \|first3Katarzyna \|last4Kusiak \|first4Aida \|last5Ordyniec-Kwaśnica \|first5Iwona \|dateJanuary 2022 \|titleA Fresh Look at Mouthwashes&mdash;What Is Inside and What Is It For? \|journalInternational Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health \|languageen \|volume19 \|issue7 \|pages3926 \|doi10.3390/ijerph19073926 \|issn1660-4601 \|pmc8997378 \|pmid35409608\|doi-accessfree }}</ref><ref namepmid1552460/><ref name"cleef">{{citation \|titleChemical composition of everyday products \| vauthors Toedt J, Koza D, Van Cleef-Toedt K \|editionillustrated \|publisher Greenwood Publishing Group \|year2005 \|isbn 9780313325793 \|pages48–49 \|url https://books.google.com/books?idUnjD4aBm9ZcC&qactive+ingredients+mouthwash&pgPA48}}</ref><ref namepmid17391828>{{cite journal \| vauthors Ribeiro LG, Hashizume LN, Maltz M \| title The effect of different formulations of chlorhexidine in reducing levels of mutans streptococci in the oral cavity: A systematic review of the literature \| journal Journal of Dentistry \| volume 35 \| issue 5 \| pages 359–70 \| date May 2007 \| pmid 17391828 \| doi 10.1016/j.jdent.2007.01.007 }}</ref> There is no evidence to support that higher concentrations are more effective in controlling dental plaque and gingivitis.<ref name"pmid28362061">{{cite journal \| vauthors James P, Worthington HV, Parnell C, Harding M, Lamont T, Cheung A, Whelton H, Riley P \| display-authors 6 \| title Chlorhexidine mouthrinse as an adjunctive treatment for gingival health \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| volume 3 \| pages CD008676 \| date March 2017 \| issue 12 \| pmid 28362061 \| pmc 6464488 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD008676.pub2 }}</ref> A randomized clinical trial conducted in Rabat University in Morocco found better results in plaque inhibition when chlorohexidine with alcohol base 0.12% was used, when compared to an alcohol-free 0.1% chlorhexidine mouthrinse.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Ennibi O, Lakhdar L, Bouziane A, Bensouda Y, Abouqal R \| title Chlorhexidine alcohol base mouthrinse versus Chlorhexidine formaldehyde base mouthrinse efficacy on plaque control: double blind, randomized clinical trials \| journal Medicina Oral, Patologia Oral y Cirugia Bucal \| volume 18 \| issue 1 \| pages e135-9 \| date January 2013 \| pmid 23229237 \| pmc 3548633 \| doi = 10.4317/medoral.17863 }}</ref> Chlorhexidine has good substantivity (the ability of a mouthwash to bind to hard and soft tissues in the mouth).<ref nameScully2013 /> It has anti-plaque action, and also some anti-fungal action.<ref nameScully2013 /> It is especially effective against Gram-negative rods.<ref nameScully2013>{{cite book\| vauthors Scully C \| title Oral and maxillofacial medicine : the basis of diagnosis and treatment\|year2013\|publisherChurchill Livingstone\|locationEdinburgh\|isbn9780702049484\|edition3rd\|pages39, 41}}</ref> The proportion of Gram-negative rods increase as gingivitis develops, so it is also used to reduce gingivitis.<ref namepmid28362061/><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Herrera D \| title Chlorhexidine mouthwash reduces plaque and gingivitis \| journal Evidence-Based Dentistry \| volume 14 \| issue 1 \| pages 17–8 \| date March 2013 \| pmid 23579302 \| doi 10.1038/sj.ebd.6400915 \| doi-access free }}</ref> It is sometimes used as an adjunct to prevent dental caries and to treat periodontal disease,<ref nameScully2013 /> although it does not penetrate into periodontal pockets well.<ref nameBNF>{{cite web\|titleMouthwashes, gargles, and dentifrices\|urlhttp://www.medicinescomplete.com/mc/bnf/current/PHP7409-mouthwashes-gargles-and-dentifrices.htm\|workBritish National Formulary March 2014\|publisherBMJ Group and the Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain 2014}}</ref> Chlorhexidine mouthwash alone is unable to prevent plaque, so it is not a substitute for regular toothbrushing and flossing.<ref nameBNF /> Instead, chlorhexidine mouthwash is more effective when used as an adjunctive treatment with toothbrushing and flossing.<ref namepmid28362061/> In the short term, if toothbrushing is impossible due to pain, as may occur in primary herpetic gingivostomatitis, chlorhexidine mouthwash is used as a temporary substitute for other oral hygiene measures.<ref nameBNF /> It is not suited for use in acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis, however.<ref nameBNF /> Rinsing with chlorhexidine mouthwash before and after a tooth extraction may reduce the risk of a dry socket.<ref nameCochraneChlorhex>{{cite journal \|last1Daly \|first1BJ \|last2Sharif \|first2MO \|last3Jones \|first3K \|last4Worthington \|first4HV \|last5Beattie \|first5A \|titleLocal interventions for the management of alveolar osteitis (dry socket). \|journalThe Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \|date26 September 2022 \|volume2022 \|issue9 \|pagesCD006968 \|doi10.1002/14651858.CD006968.pub3 \|pmid36156769\|pmc9511819 }}</ref> Other uses of chlorhexidine mouthwash include prevention of oral candidiasis in immunocompromised persons,<ref nameBNF /> treatment of denture-related stomatitis, mucosal ulceration/erosions and oral mucosal lesions, general burning sensation<ref namepmid28362061/> and many other uses.<ref name=BNF /> Chlorhexidine mouthwash is known to have minor adverse effects.<ref nameCochraneChlorhex/> Chlorhexidine binds to tannins, meaning that prolonged use in persons who consume coffee, tea or red wine is associated with extrinsic staining (i.e. removable staining) of teeth.<ref nameScully2013 /> A systematic review of commercial chlorhexidine products with anti-discoloration systems (ADSs) found that the ADSs were able to reduce tooth staining without affecting the beneficial effects of chlorhexidine.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Swaaij \|first1Bregje W. M. \|last2van der Weijden \|first2G. A. (Fridus) \|last3Bakker \|first3Eric W. P. \|last4Graziani \|first4Filippo \|last5Slot \|first5Dagmar E. \|titleDoes chlorhexidine mouthwash, with an anti-discoloration system, reduce tooth surface discoloration without losing its efficacy? A systematic review and meta-analysis \|journalInternational Journal of Dental Hygiene \|dateAugust 2019 \|volume18 \|issue1 \|pages27–43 \|doi10.1111/idh.12402\|pmid31054209 \|pmc7003798 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Chlorhexidine mouthwash can also cause taste disturbance or alteration.<ref namepmid28362061/> Chlorhexidine is rarely associated with other issues like overgrowth of enterobacteria in persons with leukemia, desquamation, irritation, and stomatitis of oral mucosa,<ref nameScully2013 /><ref nameCochraneChlorhex/> salivary gland pain and swelling, and hypersensitivity reactions including anaphylaxis.<ref nameScully2013 /> Hexetidine<ref name"cleef"/> also has anti-plaque, analgesic, astringent and anti-malodor properties, but is considered an inferior alternative to chlorhexidine.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://ebd.ada.org/en/evidence/evidence-by-topic/periodontics/the-effect-of-hexetidine-mouthwash-on-the-prevention-of-plaque-and-gingival-inflammation-a-systema\|titleEffect of hexetidine mouthwash - systematic review\|access-date12 October 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304082604/http://ebd.ada.org/en/evidence/evidence-by-topic/periodontics/the-effect-of-hexetidine-mouthwash-on-the-prevention-of-plaque-and-gingival-inflammation-a-systema\|archive-date4 March 2016\|url-statusdead}}</ref>Chlorine dioxideIn dilute concentrations, chlorine dioxide is an ingredient that acts as an antiseptic agent in some mouthwashes.<ref name"pmid32410557">{{cite journal \|vauthorsKerémi B, Márta K, Farkas K, Czumbel LM, Tóth B, Szakács Z, Csupor D, Czimmer J, Rumbus Z, Révész P, Németh A, Gerber G, Hegyi P, Varga G \|titleEffects of Chlorine Dioxide on Oral Hygiene - A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis \|journalCurrent Pharmaceutical Design \|volume26 \|issue25 \|pages3015–3025 \|date2020 \|pmid32410557 \|pmc8383470 \|doi10.2174/1381612826666200515134450}}</ref><ref name"pmid36634129">{{cite journal \|vauthorsSzalai E, Tajti P, Szabó B, Hegyi P, Czumbel LM, Shojazadeh S, Varga G, Németh O, Keremi B \|titleDaily use of chlorine dioxide effectively treats halitosis: A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials \|journalPLOS ONE \|volume18 \|issue1 \|pagese0280377 \|date2023 \|pmid36634129 \|pmc9836286 \|doi10.1371/journal.pone.0280377\|doi-accessfree \|bibcode2023PLoSO..1880377S }}</ref>Edible oilsIn traditional Ayurvedic medicine, the use of oil mouthwashes is called "Kavala" ("oil swishing") or "Gandusha",<ref namepmid21760690/><ref name"Beck2014"/> and this practice has more recently been re-marketed by the complementary and alternative medicine industry as "oil pulling".<ref name"pmid21760690"/><!-- "Oil pulling [...] has recently become very popular as a CAM remedy for many different health ailments." N.B., by consensus discussion (see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Oil_pulling#Unreliable_source_for_claim_about_dental_plaque) this source does not meet WP:MEDRS and is not suitable to support statements about effects of oil pulling on health --> Its promoters claim it works by "pulling out" "toxins", which are known as ama in Ayurvedic medicine, and thereby reducing inflammation.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.foxnews.com/health/what-is-oil-pulling-examining-the-ancient-detoxifying-ritual/ \| titleWhat is oil pulling? Examining the ancient detoxifying ritual \| workFox News Channel \| date24 March 2014 \| access-date24 March 2014 \| vauthors Grush L }}</ref> Ayurvedic literature claims that oil pulling is capable of improving oral and systemic health, including a benefit in conditions such as headaches, migraines, diabetes mellitus, asthma,<ref name"pmid21760690"/> and acne, as well as whitening teeth.<ref name"Butler2014"/> Oil pulling has received little study and there is little evidence to support claims made by the technique's advocates.<ref name"Beck2014"/> When compared with chlorhexidine in one small study, it was found to be less effective at reducing oral bacterial load,<ref namepmid19336860>{{cite journal \| vauthors Asokan S, Emmadi P, Chamundeswari R \| title Effect of oil pulling on plaque induced gingivitis: a randomized, controlled, triple-blind study \| journal Indian Journal of Dental Research \| volume 20 \| issue 1 \| pages 47–51 \| year 2009 \| pmid 19336860 \| doi 10.4103/0970-9290.49067 \| doi-access free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.rdhmag.com/articles/print/volume-34/issue-5/columns/a-second-look-at-oil-pulling.html \|titleA second look at oil pulling as dental home care therapy\|date16 May 2014 }}</ref> and the other health claims of oil pulling have failed scientific verification<ref name"Beck2014"/> or have not been investigated.<ref name"Beck2014"/> There is a report of lipid pneumonia caused by accidental inhalation of the oil during oil pulling.<ref namepmid24429325>{{cite journal \| vauthors Kim JY, Jung JW, Choi JC, Shin JW, Park IW, Choi BW \| title Recurrent lipoid pneumonia associated with oil pulling \| journal The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease \| volume 18 \| issue 2 \| pages 251–2 \| date February 2014 \| pmid 24429325 \| doi 10.5588/ijtld.13.0852 }}</ref><ref name"oil pulling leg">{{cite web \| vauthors Novella S \| date 12 March 2014 \| work Science Based Medicine \|urlhttp://www.sciencebasedmedicine.org/oil-pulling-your-leg/ \|titleOil Pulling Your Leg }}</ref><ref>{{cite news \| vauthors Arbogast S \| date 21 May 2014 \| work CBS Pittsburgh \|urlhttp://pittsburgh.cbslocal.com/2014/05/21/does-oil-pulling-actually-have-health-benefits/ \|titleDoes 'Oil-Pulling' Actually Have Health Benefits?}}</ref> The mouth is rinsed with approximately one tablespoon of oil for 10–20 minutes then spat out.<ref name"Beck2014">{{cite news\| urlhttps://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2014/03/swishing-with-oil-for-oral-health-not-recommended/284490/ \| workThe Atlantic \| titleSwishing With Oil for Oral Health: Not Recommended\| vauthors Beck J \|date19 March 2014}}</ref><ref name"Butler2014">{{cite news\| urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/news/to-your-health/wp/2014/03/20/everyone-is-talking-about-oil-pulling-but-does-this-health-practice-actually-work/ \| locationWashington State, U.S.A. \| newspaperThe Washington Post \| titleEveryone is talking about 'oil pulling.' But does this health practice actually work?\| vauthors Butler B \| date20 March 2014}}</ref> Sesame oil, coconut oil and ghee are traditionally used,<ref name"Butler2014"/> but newer oils such as sunflower oil are also used.<ref name"Butler2014"/>Essential oilsPhenolic compounds and monoterpenes include essential oil constituents that have some antibacterial properties,<ref name"cleef"/><ref namepmid17608576/> such as eucalyptol,<ref name"Pubchem" /> eugenol,<ref name"cleef"/> hinokitiol,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Iha K, Suzuki N, Yoneda M, Takeshita T, Hirofuji T \| title Effect of mouth cleaning with hinokitiol-containing gel on oral malodor: a randomized, open-label pilot study \| journal Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology and Oral Radiology \| volume 116 \| issue 4 \| pages 433–9 \| date October 2013 \| pmid 23969334 \| doi 10.1016/j.oooo.2013.05.021 }}</ref> menthol,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Alshehri FA \| title The use of mouthwash containing essential oils (LISTERINE®) to improve oral health: A systematic review \| journal The Saudi Dental Journal \| volume 30 \| issue 1 \| pages 2–6 \| date January 2018 \| pmid 30166864 \| pmc 6112363 \| doi 10.1016/j.sdentj.2017.12.004 }}</ref> phenol,<ref name"cleef"/> or thymol.<ref name"cleef"/> Essential oils are oils which have been extracted from plants. Mouthwashes based on essential oils could be more effective than traditional mouthcare as anti-gingival treatments.<ref namepmid17608576>{{cite journal \| vauthors Stoeken JE, Paraskevas S, van der Weijden GA \| title The long-term effect of a mouthrinse containing essential oils on dental plaque and gingivitis: a systematic review \| journal Journal of Periodontology \| volume 78 \| issue 7 \| pages 1218–28 \| date July 2007 \| pmid 17608576 \| doi 10.1902/jop.2007.060269 }}</ref><ref name"pmid21043801">{{cite journal \| vauthors Van Leeuwen MP, Slot DE, Van der Weijden GA \| title Essential oils compared to chlorhexidine with respect to plaque and parameters of gingival inflammation: a systematic review \| journal Journal of Periodontology \| volume 82 \| issue 2 \| pages 174–94 \| date February 2011 \| pmid 21043801 \| doi 10.1902/jop.2010.100266 }}</ref> They have been found effective in reducing halitosis, and are being used in several commercial mouthwashes. Fluoride (anticavity) Anti-cavity mouthwashes contain fluoride compounds (such as sodium fluoride, stannous fluoride, or sodium monofluorophosphate) to protect against tooth decay.<ref name"pmid37709645">{{cite journal \|vauthorsYazicioglu O, Ucuncu MK, Guven K \|titleIngredients in Commercially Available Mouthwashes \|journalInternational Dental Journal \|volume74 \|issue2 \|pages223–241 \|dateApril 2024 \|pmid37709645 \|pmc10988267 \|doi10.1016/j.identj.2023.08.004 \|quoteAmongst the mouthwashes included in our study, sodium fluoride, sodium monofluorophosphate, and stannous fluoride were found.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Marinho VC, Chong LY, Worthington HV, Walsh T \| title Fluoride mouthrinses for preventing dental caries in children and adolescents \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| volume 7 \| issue 7 \| pages CD002284 \| date July 2016 \| pmid 27472005 \| pmc 6457869 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD002284.pub2 }}</ref> Fluoride-containing mouthwashes are used as prevention for dental caries for individuals who are considered at higher risk for tooth decay, whether due to xerostomia related to salivary dysfunction or side effects of medication, to not drinking fluoridated water, or to being physically unable to care for their oral needs (brushing and flossing), and as treatment for those with dentinal hypersensitivity, gingival recession/ root exposure. Flavoring agents and xylitol Flavoring agents include sweeteners such as sorbitol, sucralose, sodium saccharin, and xylitol, which stimulate salivary function due to their sweetness and taste and helps restore the mouth to a neutral level of acidity.<ref name=wsj/> Xylitol rinses double as a bacterial inhibitor,<ref namepmid9831777>{{cite journal \| vauthors Giertsen E, Emberland H, Scheie AA \| title Effects of mouth rinses with xylitol and fluoride on dental plaque and saliva \| journal Caries Research \| volume 33 \| issue 1 \| pages 23–31 \| year 1999 \| pmid 9831777 \| doi 10.1159/000016492 \| s2cid 46789673 }}</ref> and have been used as substitute for alcohol to avoid dryness of mouth associated with alcohol.<ref namewsj/> Hydrogen peroxide Hydrogen peroxide can be used as an oxidizing mouthwash (e.g. Peroxyl, 1.5%).<ref nameBNF /><ref namepmid379049>{{cite journal \| vauthors Wennström J, Lindhe J \| title Effect of hydrogen peroxide on developing plaque and gingivitis in man \| journal Journal of Clinical Periodontology \| volume 6 \| issue 2 \| pages 115–30 \| date April 1979 \| pmid 379049 \| doi 10.1111/j.1600-051x.1979.tb02190.x }}</ref> It kills anaerobic bacteria, and also has a mechanical cleansing action when it froths as it comes into contact with debris in mouth.<ref nameBNF /> It is often used in the short term to treat acute necrotising ulcerative gingivitis.<ref nameBNF /> Side effects can occur with prolonged use, including hypertrophy of the lingual papillae.<ref nameBNF /> Lactoperoxidase (saliva substitute) Enzymes and non-enzymatic proteins, such as lactoperoxidase, lysozyme, and lactoferrin, have been used in mouthwashes (e.g., Biotene) to reduce levels of oral bacteria, and, hence, of the acids produced by these bacteria.<ref name"Hoogedoorn_1985">{{cite book \| vauthors Hoogedoorn H \|veditorsTenovuo JO, Pruitt KM \| title The Lactoperoxidase system: chemistry and biological significance \| publisher Dekker \| location New York \| year 1985 \| pages 217–228 \| isbn 978-0-8247-7298-7 \| chapter Activation of the salivary peroxidase system: clinical studies }}</ref> Lidocaine/xylocaine Oral lidocaine is useful for the treatment of mucositis symptoms (inflammation of mucous membranes) induced by radiation or chemotherapy.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Yamashita S, Sato S, Kakiuchi Y, Miyabe M, Yamaguchi H \| title Lidocaine toxicity during frequent viscous lidocaine use for painful tongue ulcer \| journal Journal of Pain and Symptom Management \| volume 24 \| issue 5 \| pages 543–5 \| date November 2002 \| pmid 12547053 \| doi 10.1016/S0885-3924(02)00498-0 \| doi-access free }}</ref> There is evidence that lidocaine anesthetic mouthwash has the potential to be systemically absorbed, when it was tested in patients with oral mucositis who underwent a bone marrow transplant.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Elad S, Cohen G, Zylber-Katz E, Findler M, Galili D, Garfunkel AA, Or R \| title Systemic absorption of lidocaine after topical application for the treatment of oral mucositis in bone marrow transplantation patients \| journal Journal of Oral Pathology & Medicine \| volume 28 \| issue 4 \| pages 170–2 \| date April 1999 \| pmid 10235370 \| doi 10.1111/j.1600-0714.1999.tb02018.x }}</ref>Methyl salicylateMethyl salicylate functions as an antiseptic, antiinflammatory, and analgesic agent, a flavoring, and a fragrance.<ref name":1">{{Cite news\|urlhttp://www.theecologist.org/green_green_living/behind_the_label/269558/behind_the_label_listerine_teeth_and_gum_defence.html\|titleBehind the label: Listerine teeth and gum defence\|newspaperThe Ecologist\|access-date2016-12-01}}</ref> Methyl salicylate has some anti-plaque action, but less than chlorhexidine.<ref nameScully2013 /> Methyl salicylate does not stain teeth.<ref nameScully2013 /> Nystatin Nystatin suspension is an antifungal ingredient used for the treatment of oral candidiasis.<ref name"Nystatin PI">{{cite web\|titleNYSTATIN- nystatin suspension\|urlhttps://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/getFile.cfm?setidac2bbe44-79e5-430d-b1c3-b2a565964c3e&typepdf&nameac2bbe44-79e5-430d-b1c3-b2a565964c3e\|publisherQualitest Pharmaceuticals\|access-date17 March 2018}}</ref> Potassium oxalate A randomized clinical trial found promising results in controlling and reducing dentine hypersensitivity when potassium oxalate mouthwash was used in conjugation with toothbrushing.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Lynch MC, Perfekt R, McGuire JA, Milleman J, Gallob J, Amini P, Milleman K \| title Potassium oxalate mouthrinse reduces dentinal hypersensitivity: A randomized controlled clinical study \| journal Journal of the American Dental Association \| volume 149 \| issue 7 \| pages 608–618 \| date July 2018 \| pmid 29728195 \| doi 10.1016/j.adaj.2018.02.027 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Povidone/iodine (PVP-I) A 2005 study found that gargling three times a day with simple water or with a povidone-iodine solution was effective in preventing upper respiratory infection and decreasing the severity of symptoms if contracted.<ref namepmid16242593>{{cite journal \| vauthors Satomura K, Kitamura T, Kawamura T, Shimbo T, Watanabe M, Kamei M, Takano Y, Tamakoshi A \| display-authors 6 \| title Prevention of upper respiratory tract infections by gargling: a randomized trial \| journal American Journal of Preventive Medicine \| volume 29 \| issue 4 \| pages 302–7 \| date November 2005 \| pmid 16242593 \| doi = 10.1016/j.amepre.2005.06.013 }}</ref> Other sources attribute the benefit to a simple placebo effect.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20091218181745/http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fl20091215zg.html To gargle or not to gargle?] Japan Times, 15 December 2009</ref> PVP-I in general covers "a wider virucidal spectrum, covering both enveloped and nonenveloped viruses, than the other commercially available antiseptics",<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Kawana R, Kitamura T, Nakagomi O, Matsumoto I, Arita M, Yoshihara N, Yanagi K, Yamada A, Morita O, Yoshida Y, Furuya Y, Chiba S \| display-authors 6 \| title Inactivation of human viruses by povidone-iodine in comparison with other antiseptics \| journal Dermatology \| volume 195 Suppl 2 \| pages 29–35 \| date 1997 \| issue 2 \| pmid 9403252 \| doi 10.1159/000246027 }}</ref> which also includes the novel SARS-CoV-2 virus.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Bidra AS, Pelletier JS, Westover JB, Frank S, Brown SM, Tessema B \| title Comparison of In Vitro Inactivation of SARS CoV-2 with Hydrogen Peroxide and Povidone-Iodine Oral Antiseptic Rinses \| journal Journal of Prosthodontics \| volume 29 \| issue 7 \| pages 599–603 \| date August 2020 \| pmid 32608097 \| pmc 7361576 \| doi 10.1111/jopr.13220 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Maurya RK, Singh H, Kapoor P, Sharma P, Srivastava D \| title Povidone-iodine preprocedural rinse-An evidence-based, second-line defense against severe acute respiratory coronavirus virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in dental healthcare \| journal Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology \| pages 822–824 \| date March 2021 \| volume 43 \| issue 6 \| pmid 33706836 \| pmc 7985894 \| doi 10.1017/ice.2021.90 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleCOLCORONA COVID19 Clinical Trial \|urlhttps://www.colcorona.net/de/corona-halsschmerzen \|access-date2022-12-11 \|websitewww.colcorona.net \|languageen-US}}</ref>SanguinarineSanguinarine-containing mouthwashes are marketed as anti-plaque and anti-malodor treatments.<ref nameScully2013 /> Sanguinarine is a toxic alkaloid herbal extract, obtained from plants such as Sanguinaria canadensis (bloodroot), Argemone mexicana (Mexican prickly poppy), and others.<ref nameScully2013 /> However, its use is strongly associated with the development of leukoplakia (a white patch in the mouth), usually in the buccal sulcus.<ref nameScully2013 /><ref>[http://www.aaomp.org/public/docs/leukoplakia.pdf Leukoplakia] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130703162903/http://www.aaomp.org/public/docs/leukoplakia.pdf \|date3 July 2013 }}, (pdf format) hosted by the American Academy of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology. Page accessed on 19 December 2006.</ref> This type of leukoplakia has been termed "sanguinaria-associated keratosis", and more than 80% of people with leukoplakia in the vestibule of the mouth have used this substance. Upon stopping contact with the causative substance, the lesions may persist for years. Although this type of leukoplakia may show dysplasia, the potential for malignant transformation is unknown.<ref nameNeville2002>{{cite book \| vauthors Neville BW, Damm DD, Allen CM, Bouquot JE \|titleOral & maxillofacial pathology\|year2002\|publisherW.B. Saunders\|locationPhiladelphia\|isbn978-0721690032\|pages337–345\|edition2nd}}</ref> Ironically, elements within the complementary and alternative medicine industry promote the use of sanguinaria as a therapy for cancer.Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda)Sodium bicarbonate is sometimes combined with salt to make a simple homemade mouthwash, indicated for any of the reasons that a saltwater mouthwash might be used. Pre-mixed mouthwashes of 1% sodium bicarbonate and 1.5% sodium chloride in aqueous solution are marketed, although pharmacists will easily be able to produce such a formulation from the base ingredients when required. Sodium bicarbonate mouthwash is sometimes used to remove viscous saliva and to aid visualization of the oral tissues during examination of the mouth.<ref nameCawson2002>{{cite book\|vauthorsCawson RA, Odell EW, Porter S \|titleCawson's Essentials of Oral Pathology and Oral Medicine\|year2002\|publisherChurchill Livingstone\|locationEdinburgh\|isbn978-0443071065\|edition7th}}</ref>{{rp\|4}}Sodium chloride (salt) {{main\|Salt rinse}} {{See also\|Saline (medicine)}} Saline has a mechanical cleansing action and an antiseptic action, as it is a hypertonic solution in relation to bacteria, which undergo lysis. The heat of the solution produces a therapeutic increase in blood flow (hyperemia)<ref nameBNF /> to the surgical site, promoting healing.<ref namepmid12856008/> Hot saltwater mouthwashes also encourage the draining of pus from dental abscesses.<ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Edwards C, Stillman P \|titleMinor Illness or Major Disease?: The Clinical Pharmacist in the Community\|year2006\|publisherPharmaceutical Press\|locationLondon [u.a.]\|isbn9780853696278\|page223\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ido2nftDmulYIC&qsalt+mouthwash&pgPA223\|edition4th}}</ref> In contrast, if heat is applied on the side of the face (e.g., hot water bottle) rather than inside the mouth, it may cause a dental abscess to drain extra-orally, which is later associated with an area of fibrosis on the face {{xref\|(see: Cutaneous sinus of dental origin)}}.<ref name=Wray2003 /> Saltwater mouthwashes are also routinely used after oral surgery, to keep food debris out of healing wounds and to prevent infection. Some oral surgeons consider saltwater mouthwashes the mainstay of wound cleanliness after surgery.<ref nameWray2003>{{cite book\|vauthorsWray D, Stenhouse D, Lee D, Clark AJ \|titleTextbook of General and Oral Surgery\|year2003\|publisherChurchill Livingstone\|locationEdinburgh [etc.]\|isbn978-0443070839\|pages199, 210, 222}}</ref> In dental extractions, hot saltwater mouthbaths should start about 24 hours after a dental extraction.<ref nameWray2003 /> The term mouth bath implies that the liquid is passively held in the mouth, rather than vigorously swilled around (which could dislodge a blood clot). Once the blood clot has stabilized, the mouthwash can be used more vigorously.<ref nameWray2003 /> These mouthwashes tend to be advised for use about 6 times per day, especially after meals (to remove food from the socket).<ref nameWray2003 />Sodium lauryl sulfate (foaming agent)Sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) is used as a foaming agent in many oral hygiene products, including many mouthwashes. Some may suggest that it is probably advisable to use mouthwash at least an hour after brushing with toothpaste when the toothpaste contains SLS, since the anionic compounds in the SLS toothpaste can deactivate cationic agents present in the mouthwash.<ref namepmid11905111>{{cite journal \| vauthors Rosenberg M \| title The science of bad breath \| journal Scientific American \| volume 286 \| issue 4 \| pages 72–9 \| date April 2002 \| pmid 11905111 \| doi 10.1038/scientificamerican0402-72 \| bibcode 2002SciAm.286d..72R }}</ref> Sucralfate Sucralfate is a mucosal coating agent, composed of an aluminum salt of sulfated sucrose.<ref name"Saunders et al">{{cite journal \| vauthors Saunders DP, Epstein JB, Elad S, A Mario J, Bossi P, van de Wetering MD, Rao NG, Potting C, Cheng KK, Freidank A, Brennan MT, Bowen J, Dennis K, Lalla RV \| display-authors 6 \| title Systematic review of antimicrobials, mucosal coating agents, anesthetics, and analgesics for the management of oral mucositis in cancer patients \| journal Supportive Care in Cancer \| volume 21 \| issue 11 \| pages 3191–207 \| date November 2013 \| pmid 23832272 \| doi 10.1007/s00520-013-1871-y \| doi-access free }}</ref> It is not recommended for use in the prevention of oral mucositis in head and neck cancer patients receiving radiotherapy or chemoradiation, due to a lack of efficacy found in a well-designed, randomized controlled trial.<ref name"Saunders et al" />Tetracycline (antibiotic)Tetracycline is an antibiotic which may sometimes be used as a mouthwash in adults (it causes red staining of teeth in children). It is sometimes use for herpetiforme ulceration (an uncommon type of aphthous stomatitis), but prolonged use may lead to oral candidiasis, as the fungal population of the mouth overgrows in the absence of enough competing bacteria.<ref nameCawson2002 />{{rp\|209}} Similarly, minocycline mouthwashes of 0.5% concentrations can relieve symptoms of recurrent aphthous stomatitis.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Yarom N, Zelig K, Epstein JB, Gorsky M \| title The efficacy of minocycline mouth rinses on the symptoms associated with recurrent aphthous stomatitis: a randomized, double-blind, crossover study assessing different doses of oral rinse \| journal Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology and Oral Radiology \| volume 123 \| issue 6 \| pages 675–679 \| date June 2017 \| pmid 28411006 \| doi 10.1016/j.oooo.2017.02.013 }}</ref> Erythromycin is similar.<ref name"DetailDoc">{{cite journal\|titleMagic Mouthwash\|journalPharmacist's Letter/Prescriber's Letter\|date2007-07-03 \| vauthors Tom WC \|volume23\|issue230703\|pages1–5\|urlhttp://mercypharmacy.wikispaces.com/file/view/MAGIC%20MOUTHWASH.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://mercypharmacy.wikispaces.com/file/view/MAGIC%20MOUTHWASH.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|access-date2009-12-09 }}</ref> Tranexamic acid A 4.8% tranexamic acid solution is sometimes used as an antifibrinolytic mouthwash to prevent bleeding during and after oral surgery in persons with coagulopathies (clotting disorders) or who are taking anticoagulants (blood thinners such as warfarin).<ref nameGlick2003>{{cite book\|vauthorsGreenberg MS, Glick M \|titleBurket's oral medicine diagnosis & treatment\|year2003\|publisherBC Decker\|locationHamilton, Ont.\|isbn978-1550091861\|edition10th}}</ref>{{rp\|473}} Triclosan Triclosan is a non-ionic chlorinate bisphenol antiseptic found in some mouthwashes.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://drbenkim.com/articles/triclosan-products.htm\|titleProducts That Contain Triclosan\|workdrbenkim.com}}</ref> When used in mouthwash (e.g. 0.03%), there is moderate substantivity, broad spectrum anti-bacterial action, some anti-fungal action, and significant anti-plaque effect, especially when combined with a copolymer or zinc citrate.<ref nameScully2013 /> Triclosan does not cause staining of the teeth.<ref nameScully2013 /> The safety of triclosan has been questioned.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://newyorkorthodontists.net/triclosan-dangers-side-effects-in-toothpastes-and-mouthwash/\|titleNew studies show dangers of Triclosan in Toothpastes and Mouthwash\|workNew York Orthodontists\|date2012-08-15}}</ref>ZincAstringents like zinc chloride provide a pleasant-tasting sensation and shrink tissues.<ref nameGentleDENTALcare>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.dentalgentlecare.com/mouthrinses.htm\|titleFAMILY GENTLE DENTAL CARE - Mouth Rinses\|date14 September 2022 }}</ref> Zinc, when used in combination with other antiseptic agents, can limit the buildup of tartar.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://www.livestrong.com/article/290616-zinc-treatment-for-bad-breath/\|titleZinc for Bad Breath (Halitosis)\| vauthors McNamara M \|newspaperLIVESTRONG.COM\|access-date2016-12-01}}</ref> See also * Sodium fluoride/malic acid * Virucide References {{Reflist\|32em}} External links * [https://www.today.com/news/be-kissable-get-rid-bad-breath-wbna17011346 Article on Bad-Breath Prevention Products] – from MSNBC * [http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/magic-mouthwash/AN02024 Mayo Clinic Q&A on Magic Mouthwash for chemotherapy sores] * [https://www.ada.org/resources/research/science-and-research-institute/oral-health-topics/mouthrinse-mouthwash American Dental Association article on mouthwash] {{Periodontology}} {{Throat preparations}} {{Dosage forms}} {{Authority control}} Category:Dentifrices Category:Oral hygiene products Category:Drug delivery devices Category:Dosage forms	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouthwash	2025-04-05T18:25:21.961960
783	Alexander the Great	{{Short description\|Military commander, King of Macedon from 336 to 323 BC}} {{About\|the ancient king of Macedon}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{pp-move}} {{Good article}} {{Use Oxford spelling\|date=September 2020}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=January 2025}} {{Infobox royalty \| name = Alexander the Great \| title = Basileus \| image = Alexander the Great mosaic (cropped).jpg \| caption = Alexander in the Alexander Mosaic \| succession = King of Macedon \| reign = October 336 – June 323 BC \| predecessor = Philip II \| successor = Philip III \| succession2 Hegemon of the Hellenic League, Strategos Autokrator of Greece{{Sfn\|Cawkwell\|1978\|page170}} \| reign2 = 336–323 BC \| predecessor2 = Philip II \| successor2 = Demetrius I \| succession3 = Pharaoh of Egypt \| reign3 = 332–323 BC \| predecessor3 = Darius III \| successor3 = Philip III \| reg-type3 \| regent3 {{Ancient Egyptian royal titulary case \|nomen{{ubl\|{{transliteration\|egy\|ꜣrwksjndrs}}\|{{transliteration\|egy\|Aluksindres}}\|Alexandros}} \|nomen_hiero<hiero>A-rw:k:z-i-n:d:r:z</hiero> \|horus{{ubl\|{{transliteration\|egy\|mk-kmt}}\|{{transliteration\|egy\|Mekemet}}\|Protector of Egypt}} {{Infobox pharaoh/Serekh \|Horus<hiero>S-HqA-q:n:nw-D40</hiero>}}{{pb}}Second Horus name:{{ubl\|{{transliteration\|egy\|ḥḳꜣ-ḳnj tkn-ḫꜣswt}}\|{{transliteration\|egy\|Heqaqeni tekenkhasut}}\|The brave ruler who has attacked foreign lands}} {{Infobox pharaoh/Serekh \|Horus<hiero>HqA-q:n:nw:D40-t:k:n:D54-N25:N25:N25</hiero>}}{{pb}}Third Horus name:{{ubl\|{{transliteration\|egy\|ḥḳꜣ ḥḳꜣw nw tꜣ (r) ḏr-f}}\|{{transliteration\|egy\|Heqa heqau nu ta (er) djeref}}\|The ruler of the rulers of the entire land}} {{Infobox pharaoh/Serekh \|Horus<hiero>HqA-q-HqA-HqA-q-N33-nw-N33-N17:N34-r:f</hiero>}}Fourth Horus name:{{ubl\|{{transliteration\|egy\|ṯmꜣ-ꜥ}}\|{{transliteration\|egy\|Tjema'a}}\|The sturdy-armed one}} {{Infobox pharaoh/Serekh \|Horus<hiero>T:mA-a</hiero>}} \|nebty{{ubl\|{{transliteration\|egy\|mꜣj wr-pḥty jṯ ḏww tꜣw ḫꜣswt}}\|{{transliteration\|egy\|Mai werpehty itj dju tau khasut}}\|The lion, great of might, who takes possession of mountains, lands, and deserts}} \|nebty_hiero<hiero>E23-wr:r-F9:F9-V15-N25:N25:N33-N17:N17:N33-N25:N25:N33</hiero> \|golden{{ubl\|{{transliteration\|egy\|kꜣ (nḫt) ḫwj bꜣḳ(t) ḥḳꜣ wꜣḏ(-wr) šnw n jtn}}\|{{transliteration\|egy\|Ka (nakht) khui baq(et) heqa wadj(wer) shenu en Aten}}\|The (strong) bull who protects Egypt, the ruler of the sea and of what the sun encircles}} \|golden_hiero<hiero>E1:n-i-wx-D40-q:t-b-</hiero>{{pb}}<hiero>D10-HqA-M14-N35A-V9:Z1-i-t:n:HASH</hiero> \|prenomen{{ubl\|{{transliteration\|egy\|stp.n-rꜥ mrj-jmn}}\|{{transliteration\|egy\|Setepenre meryamun}}\|Chosen by Ra, beloved by Amun{{pb}}{{Infobox pharaoh/Prenomen \|Prenomen<hiero>C2\-C12-stp:n:N36</hiero>}}{{pb}}{{Infobox pharaoh/Prenomen \|Prenomen<hiero>mr\-C12\-C2-stp:n</hiero>}}}}}} \| succession4 = King of Persia \| reign4 = 330–323 BC \| predecessor4 = Darius III \| successor4 = Philip III \| full name \| spouse {{hlist\|Roxana\|Stateira\|Parysatis }} \| issue = 3, including {{plainlist\| Alexander IV * Heracles{{Cref2\|a}} }} \| native_lang1 = Greek \| native_lang1_name1 = {{lang\|grc\|Ἀλέξανδρος}}{{Cref2\|b}} \| house = Argead \| house-type = Dynasty \| father = Philip II of Macedon \| mother = Olympias of Epirus \| birth_date = 20 or 21 July 356 BC \| birth_place = Pella, Macedon \| death_date = 10 or 11 June 323 BC (aged 32)<!-- 32 years, 10 months and 20 days (approx.) --> \| death_place = Babylon, Macedon \| religion = Ancient Greek religion }} Alexander III of Macedon ({{langx\|grc\|Ἀλέξανδρος\|Aléxandros}}; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), most commonly known as Alexander the Great,{{Cref2\|c}} was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon.{{Cref2\|d}} He succeeded his father Philip II to the throne in 336 BC at the age of 20 and spent most of his ruling years conducting a lengthy military campaign throughout Western Asia, Central Asia, parts of South Asia, and Egypt. By the age of 30, he had created one of the largest empires in history, stretching from Greece to northwestern India.<ref>Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila S. (2009), The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture: Mosul to Zirid, Volume 3. (Oxford University Press Incorporated, 2009), 385; "[Khojand, Tajikistan]; As the easternmost outpost of the empire of Alexander the Great, the city was renamed Alexandria Eschate ("furthest Alexandria") in 329 BCE."{{pb}}Golden, Peter B. Central Asia in World History (Oxford University Press, 2011), 25;"[...] his campaigns in Central Asia brought Khwarazm, Sogdia, and Bactria under Graeco-Macedonian rule. As elsewhere, Alexander founded or renamed a number of cities, such as Alexandria Eschate ("Outernmost Alexandria," near modern Khojent in Tajikistan)."</ref> He was undefeated in battle and is widely considered to be one of history's greatest and most successful military commanders.{{Sfn \|Yenne\|2010 \| page 159}}<ref name":8">{{Cite book \|lastGrant \|firstR.G. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/epdf.pub_commanders-rg-grant-dk/page/n19 \|titleCommanders: History's Greatest Military Leaders \|publisherDK Publishing \|year2011 \|isbn978-1-4053-3696-3 \|pages18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|lastBeaton \|firstRoderick \|author-linkRoderick Beaton \|titleThe Greeks: A Global History \|publisherBasic Books \|year2021 \|isbn9781541618299 \|edition1st \|locationNew York \|pages163}}</ref> Until the age of 16, Alexander was tutored by Aristotle. In 335 BC, shortly after his assumption of kingship over Macedon, he campaigned in the Balkans and reasserted control over Thrace and parts of Illyria before marching on the city of Thebes, which was subsequently destroyed in battle. Alexander then led the League of Corinth, and used his authority to launch the pan-Hellenic project envisaged by his father, assuming leadership over all Greeks in their conquest of Persia.{{sfn\|Heckel\|Tritle\|2009\|p99}}<ref>{{cite book \|last1Burger \|first1Michael \|titleThe Shaping of Western Civilization: From Antiquity to the Enlightenment \|date2008 \|publisherUniversity of Toronto Press \|isbn978-1-55111-432-3 \|page76}}</ref> In 334 BC, he invaded the Achaemenid Persian Empire and began a series of campaigns that lasted for 10 years. Following his conquest of Asia Minor, Alexander broke the power of Achaemenid Persia in a series of decisive battles, including those at Issus and Gaugamela; he subsequently overthrew Darius III and conquered the Achaemenid Empire in its entirety.{{Cref2\|e}} After the fall of Persia, the Macedonian Empire held a vast swath of territory between the Adriatic Sea and the Indus River. Alexander endeavored to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea" and invaded India in 326 BC, achieving an important victory over Porus, an ancient Indian king of present-day Punjab, at the Battle of the Hydaspes. Due to the mutiny of his homesick troops, he eventually turned back at the Beas River and later died in 323 BC in Babylon, the city of Mesopotamia that he had planned to establish as his empire's capital. Alexander's death left unexecuted an additional series of planned military and mercantile campaigns that would have begun with a Greek invasion of Arabia. In the years following his death, a series of civil wars broke out across the Macedonian Empire, eventually leading to its disintegration at the hands of the Diadochi. With his death marking the start of the Hellenistic period, Alexander's legacy includes the cultural diffusion and syncretism that his conquests engendered, such as Greco-Buddhism and Hellenistic Judaism. He founded more than twenty cities, with the most prominent being the city of Alexandria in Egypt. Alexander's settlement of Greek colonists and the resulting spread of Greek culture led to the overwhelming dominance of Hellenistic civilization and influence as far east as the Indian subcontinent. The Hellenistic period developed through the Roman Empire into modern Western culture; the Greek language became the lingua franca of the region and was the predominant language of the Byzantine Empire until its collapse in the mid-15th century AD. Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mould of Achilles, featuring prominently in the historical and mythical traditions of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. His military achievements and unprecedented enduring successes in battle made him the measure against which many later military leaders would compare themselves,{{cref2\|f}} and his tactics remain a significant subject of study in military academies worldwide.{{Sfn\|Yenne\|2010\|pageviii}} Legends of Alexander's exploits coalesced into the third-century Alexander Romance which, in the premodern period, went through over one hundred recensions, translations, and derivations and was translated into almost every European vernacular and every language of the Islamic world.<ref name"auto">{{Cite book \|lastDoufikar-Aerts \|firstFaustina \|urlhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118635193.ctwl0072 \|titleA Companion to World Literature \|date2020 \|publisherWiley \|isbn978-1-118-99318-7 \|editor-lastSeigneurie \|editor-firstKen \|pages1–11\|chapterThe Arabic Alexander Romance: Mirror of a Bold, Clever, and Devout Prince \|doi10.1002/9781118635193.ctwl0072}}</ref> After the Bible, it was the most popular form of European literature.<ref name":5">{{Cite book \|last1Mínguez Cornelles \|first1Víctor \|titleThe visual legacy of Alexander the Great from the Renaissance to the age of revolution \|last2Rodríguez Moya \|first2Inmaculada \|date2024 \|publisherRoutledge, Taylor & Francis Group \|isbn978-1-032-54990-3 \|seriesRoutledge research in art history \|locationNew York London \|pages22}}</ref> {{TOC limit\|3}} Early life Lineage and childhood , Greece, Alexander's birthplace]] Alexander III was born in Pella, the capital of the Kingdom of Macedon,<ref>{{cite book \|lastGreen \|firstPeter \|titleAlexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.: a historical biography \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idg6Wl4AKGQkIC&pgPA559 \|pagexxxiii \|year1970 \|seriesHellenistic culture and society \|editionillustrated, revised reprint \|publisherUniversity of California Press \|isbn978-0-520-07165-0 \|quote356 – Alexander born in Pella. The exact date is not known, but probably either 20 or 26 July. \|access-date20 June 2015}}</ref> on the sixth day of the ancient Greek month of Hekatombaion, which probably corresponds to 20 July 356 BC (although the exact date is uncertain).<ref>Plutarch, Life of Alexander 3.5: {{cite web \|urlhttps://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_t32.html#7 \|titleThe birth of Alexander the Great \|workLivius\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150320180439/https://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_t32.html\|archive-date20 March 2015\|url-status dead \|access-date16 December 2011 \|quoteAlexander was born the sixth of Hekatombaion.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|authorDavid George Hogarth \|date1897 \|titlePhilip and Alexander of Macedon : two essays in biography \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/cu31924028251217/page/n321/mode/2up?viewtheater \|locationNew York \|publisherCharles Scribner's Sons \|pages286–287 \|access-date9 November 2021}}</ref> He was the son of the king of Macedon, Philip II, and his fourth wife, Olympias (daughter of Neoptolemus I, king of Epirus).<ref>{{harvnb\|McCarty\|2004\|p10}}, {{harvnb\|Renault\|2001\|p28}}, {{harvnb\|Durant\|1966\|p538}}</ref>{{Cref2\|g}} Although Philip had seven or eight wives, Olympias was his principal wife for some time, likely because she gave birth to Alexander.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p171}}, Alexander's mother]]Several legends surround Alexander's birth and childhood.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p188}} According to the ancient Greek biographer Plutarch, on the eve of the consummation of her marriage to Philip, Olympias dreamed that her womb was struck by a thunderbolt that caused a flame to spread "far and wide" before dying away. Sometime after the wedding, Philip is said to have seen himself, in a dream, securing his wife's womb with a seal engraved with a lion's image.<ref name"PA2" /> Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations for these dreams: that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb; or that Alexander's father was Zeus. Ancient commentators were divided about whether the ambitious Olympias promulgated the story of Alexander's divine parentage, variously claiming that she had told Alexander, or that she dismissed the suggestion as impious.<ref name"PA2" /> On the day Alexander was born, Philip was preparing a siege on the city of Potidea on the peninsula of Chalcidice. That same day, Philip received news that his general Parmenion had defeated the combined Illyrian and Paeonian armies and that his horses had won at the Olympic Games. It was also said that on this day, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, burnt down. This led Hegesias of Magnesia to say that it had burnt down because Artemis was away, attending the birth of Alexander.<ref>{{harvnb\|Renault\|2001\|p28}}, {{harvnb\|Bose\|2003\|p21}}</ref> Such legends may have emerged when Alexander was king, and possibly at his instigation, to show that he was superhuman and destined for greatness from conception.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p=188}} In his early years, Alexander was raised by a nurse, Lanike, sister of Alexander's future general Cleitus the Black. Later in his childhood, Alexander was tutored by the strict Leonidas, a relative of his mother, and by Lysimachus of Acarnania.{{sfn\|Renault\|2001\|pp33–34}} Alexander was raised in the manner of noble Macedonian youths, learning to read, play the lyre, ride, fight, and hunt.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p186}} When Alexander was ten years old, a trader from Thessaly brought Philip a horse, which he offered to sell for thirteen talents. The horse refused to be mounted, and Philip ordered it away. Alexander, however, detecting the horse's fear of its own shadow, asked to tame the horse, which he eventually managed.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p188}} Plutarch stated that Philip, overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring: "My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too small for you", and bought the horse for him.<ref name"PA6" /> Alexander named it Bucephalas, meaning "ox-head". Bucephalas carried Alexander as far as India. When the animal died (because of old age, according to Plutarch, at age 30), Alexander named a city after him, Bucephala.<ref>{{harvnb\|Durant\|1966\|p538}}, {{harvnb\|Lane Fox\|1980\|p64}}, {{harvnb\|Renault\|2001\|p39}}</ref>Education {{Alexander the Great series}} When Alexander was 13, Philip began to search for a tutor, and considered such academics as Isocrates and Speusippus, the latter offering to resign from his stewardship of the Academy to take up the post. In the end, Philip chose Aristotle and provided the Temple of the Nymphs at Mieza as a classroom. In return for teaching Alexander, Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle's hometown of Stageira, which Philip had razed, and to repopulate it by buying and freeing the ex-citizens who were slaves, or pardoning those who were in exile.<ref>{{harvnb\|Lane Fox\|1980\|pp65–66}}, {{harvnb\|Renault\|2001\|p44}}, {{harvnb\|McCarty\|2004\|p=15}}</ref> Mieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and the children of Macedonian nobles, such as Ptolemy, Hephaistion, and Cassander. Many of these students would become his friends and future generals, and are often known as the "Companions". Aristotle taught Alexander and his companions about medicine, philosophy, morals, religion, logic, and art. Under Aristotle's tutelage, Alexander developed a passion for the works of Homer, and in particular the Iliad; Aristotle gave him an annotated copy, which Alexander later carried on his campaigns.<ref>{{harvnb\|Lane Fox\|1980\|pp65–66}}, {{harvnb\|Renault\|2001\|pp45–47}}, {{harvnb\|McCarty\|2004\|p16}}</ref> Alexander was able to quote Euripides from memory.<ref name"RLF">{{cite book \|last1Lane Fox \|first1Robin \|titleAlexander the Great \| date1986 \|publisherPenguin Group \|isbn978-0-14-008878-6 \|page=48}}</ref> In his youth, Alexander was also acquainted with Persian exiles at the Macedonian court, who received the protection of Philip II for several years as they opposed Artaxerxes III.{{sfn\|Cawthorne\|2004\|pp[https://books.google.com/books?idoxyz0v9T74sC&pgPA42 42–43]}}<ref>{{cite book \|last1Howe \|first1Timothy \|last2Brice \|first2Lee L. \|titleBrill's Companion to Insurgency and Terrorism in the Ancient Mediterranean \|date2015 \|publisherBrill \|isbn978-90-04-28473-9 \|page170 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id248DCwAAQBAJ&pgPA170\|access-date23 February 2019}}</ref><ref name"EDC">{{cite book \|last1Carney \|first1Elizabeth Donnelly \|titleWomen and Monarchy in Macedonia \|date2000 \|publisherUniversity of Oklahoma Press \|isbn978-0-8061-3212-9 \|page101 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZbI2hZBy_EkC&pgPA101\|access-date23 February 2019}}</ref> Among them were Artabazos II and his daughter Barsine, possible future mistress of Alexander, who resided at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BC, as well as Amminapes, future satrap of Alexander, and a Persian nobleman named Sisines.{{sfn\|Cawthorne\|2004\|pp[https://books.google.com/books?idoxyz0v9T74sC&pgPA42 42–43]}}<ref name"JM">{{cite book \|last1Morgan \|first1Janett \|titleGreek Perspectives on the Achaemenid Empire: Persia Through the Looking Glass \|date2016 \|publisherEdinburgh University Press \|isbn978-0-7486-4724-8 \|pages271–272 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id49JVDwAAQBAJ&pgPA271\|access-date23 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Briant \|first1Pierre \|titleAlexander the Great and His Empire: A Short Introduction \|date2012 \|publisherPrinceton University Press \|isbn978-0-691-15445-9 \|page114 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWAW6kmL30RUC&pgPA114\|access-date23 February 2019}}</ref><ref name"EJ">{{cite book \|last1Jensen \|first1Erik \|titleBarbarians in the Greek and Roman World \|date2018 \|publisherHackett Publishing \|isbn978-1-62466-714-5 \|page92 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQCRtDwAAQBAJ&pgPA92\|access-date23 February 2019}}</ref> This gave the Macedonian court a good knowledge of Persian issues, and may even have influenced some of the innovations in the management of the Macedonian state.<ref name="JM"/> Suda writes that Anaximenes of Lampsacus was one of Alexander's teachers, and that Anaximenes also accompanied Alexander on his campaigns.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/alpha/1989\|titleSOL Search\|websitecs.uky.edu\|access-date24 August 2019\|archive-date9 August 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200809025936/https://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/alpha/1989\|url-statuslive}}</ref>Heir of Philip IIRegency and ascent of Macedon {{Main\|Philip II of Macedon\|Rise of Macedon}} {{further\|History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)}} , Alexander's father]] At the age of 16, Alexander's education under Aristotle ended. Philip II had waged war against the Thracians to the north, which left Alexander in charge as regent and heir apparent.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p188}} During Philip's absence, the Thracian tribe of Maedi revolted against Macedonia. Alexander responded quickly and drove them from their territory. The territory was colonized, and a city, named Alexandropolis, was founded.<ref>{{harvnb\|Lane Fox\|1980\|p68}}, {{harvnb\|Renault\|2001\|p47}}, {{harvnb\|Bose\|2003\|p43}}</ref> Upon Philip's return, Alexander was dispatched with a small force to subdue the revolts in southern Thrace. Campaigning against the Greek city of Perinthus, Alexander reportedly saved his father's life. Meanwhile, the city of Amphissa began to work lands that were sacred to Apollo near Delphi, a sacrilege that gave Philip the opportunity to further intervene in Greek affairs. While Philip was occupied in Thrace, Alexander was ordered to muster an army for a campaign in southern Greece. Concerned that other Greek states might intervene, Alexander made it look as though he was preparing to attack Illyria instead. During this turmoil, the Illyrians invaded Macedonia, only to be repelled by Alexander.{{sfn\|Renault\|2001\|pp=47–49}} Philip and his army joined his son in 338 BC, and they marched south through Thermopylae, taking it after stubborn resistance from its Theban garrison. They went on to occupy the city of Elatea, only a few days' march from both Athens and Thebes. The Athenians, led by Demosthenes, voted to seek alliance with Thebes against Macedonia. Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to win Thebes's favour, but Athens won the contest.<ref>{{harvnb\|Renault\|2001\|pp50–51}}, {{harvnb\|Bose\|2003\|pp44–45}}, {{harvnb\|McCarty\|2004\|p23}}</ref> Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly acting on the request of the Amphictyonic League), capturing the mercenaries sent there by Demosthenes and accepting the city's surrender. Philip then returned to Elatea, sending a final offer of peace to Athens and Thebes, who both rejected it.<ref>{{harvnb\|Renault\|2001\|p51}}, {{harvnb\|Bose\|2003\|p47}}, {{harvnb\|McCarty\|2004\|p24}}</ref> ]] As Philip marched south, his opponents blocked him near Chaeronea, Boeotia. During the ensuing Battle of Chaeronea, Philip commanded the right wing and Alexander the left, accompanied by a group of Philip's trusted generals. According to the ancient sources, the two sides fought bitterly for some time. Philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat, counting on the untested Athenian hoplites to follow, thus breaking their line. Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines, followed by Philip's generals. Having damaged the enemy's cohesion, Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed them. With the Athenians lost, the Thebans were surrounded. Left to fight alone, they were defeated.<ref name="DiodXVI" /> After the victory at Chaeronea, Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into the Peloponnese, devastating much of Laconia and ejecting the Spartans from various parts of it.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Cartledge \|first1Paul \|titleSparta and Lakonia: A Regional History, 1300-362 B.C. \|date2002 \|publisherRoutledge \|locationNew York \|isbn0-415-26276-3 \|page273 \|edition2nd \|quotePhilip laid Lakonia waste as far south as Gytheion and formally deprived Sparta of Dentheliatis (and apparently the territory on the Messenian Gulf as far as the Little Pamisos river), Belminatis, the territory of Karyai and the east Parnon foreland.}}</ref> At Corinth, Philip established a "Hellenic Alliance" (modelled on the old anti-Persian alliance of the Greco-Persian Wars), which included most Greek city-states except Sparta. Philip was then named Hegemon (often translated as "Supreme Commander") of this league (known by modern scholars as the League of Corinth), and announced his plans to attack the Persian Empire.{{sfn\|Renault\|2001\|p54}}{{sfn\|McCarty\|2004\|p26}} Exile and return When Philip returned to Pella, he fell in love with and married Cleopatra Eurydice in 338 BC,<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastGreen \|firstPeter \|date1991 \|titleAlexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age (Hellenistic Culture and Society) \|locationBerkeley & Los Angeles \|publisherUniversity of California Press \|journalThe American Historical Review \|volume1 \|doi10.1086/ahr/96.5.1515 \|issn 0002-8762}}</ref> the niece of his general Attalus.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p179}} The marriage made Alexander's position as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half-Macedonian.{{sfn\|McCarty\|2004\|p27}} During the wedding banquet, a drunken Attalus publicly prayed to the gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p=179}} {{Blockquote\|At the wedding of Cleopatra, whom Philip fell in love with and married, she being much too young for him, her uncle Attalus in his drink desired the Macedonians would implore the gods to give them a lawful successor to the kingdom by his niece. This so irritated Alexander that throwing one of the cups at his head, "You villain," said he, "what, am I then a bastard?" Then Philip, taking Attalus's part, rose up and would have run his son through; but by good fortune for them both, either his over-hasty rage, or the wine he had drunk, made his foot slip, so that he fell down on the floor, at which Alexander reproachfully insulted him: "See there," said he, "the man who makes preparations to pass out of Europe into Asia, overturned in passing from one seat to another."\|Plutarch, describing the feud at Philip's wedding.<ref name="PA9" />}} In 337 BC, Alexander fled Macedon with his mother, dropping her off with her brother, King Alexander I of Epirus in Dodona, capital of the Molossians.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p180}} He continued to Illyria{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p180}} where he sought refuge with one or more Illyrian kings, perhaps with Glaucias, and was treated as a guest, despite having defeated them in battle a few years before.<ref>A History of Macedonia: Volume III: 336–167 B.C. By N. G. L. Hammond, F. W. Walbank</ref> However, it appears Philip never intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p180}} Accordingly, Alexander returned to Macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family friend, Demaratus, who mediated between the two parties.<ref>{{harvnb\|Bose\|2003\|p75}}, {{harvnb\|Renault\|2001\|p=56}}</ref> In the following year, the Persian satrap (governor) of Caria, Pixodarus, offered his eldest daughter to Alexander's half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p180}} Olympias and several of Alexander's friends suggested this showed Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus his heir.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p180}} Alexander reacted by sending an actor, Thessalus of Corinth, to tell Pixodarus that he should not offer his daughter's hand to an illegitimate son, but instead to Alexander. When Philip heard of this, he stopped the negotiations and scolded Alexander for wishing to marry the daughter of a Carian, explaining that he wanted a better bride for him.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p180}} Philip exiled four of Alexander's friends, Harpalus, Nearchus, Ptolemy and Erigyius, and had the Corinthians bring Thessalus to him in chains.<ref>{{harvnb\|McCarty\|2004\|p27}}, {{harvnb\|Renault\|2001\|p59}}, {{harvnb\|Lane Fox\|1980\|p71}}</ref> King of Macedon Accession {{Further\|Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)}} In the 24th day of the Macedonian month Dios, which probably corresponds to 25 October 336 BC,<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastHammond \|firstN. G. L. \|date21 December 1992 \|titleThe Regnal Years of Philip and Alexander \|urlhttps://grbs.library.duke.edu/index.php/grbs/article/view/3531 \|journalGreek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies \|languageen \|volume33 \|issue4 \|pages355–373 \|issn2159-3159}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|lastParise \|firstFrank \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/bookofcalendars0000unse_y2i4/page/10/mode/2up \|titleThe book of calendars \|date2002 \|publisherGorgias Press \|isbn978-1-931956-76-5 \|locationPiscataway, NJ \|pages10 \|orig-date1983}} The month of Dios started on 2 October that year.</ref> while at Aegae attending the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra to Olympias's brother, Alexander I of Epirus, Philip was assassinated by the captain of his bodyguards, Pausanias,{{Cref2\|h}} who, according to Diodorus, was also his lover.<ref>Philip and Pausanias: a deadly love in Macedonian Politics, The Classical Quarterly, 62.1 pp423-439 (2012); [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/classical-quarterly/article/abs/philip-and-pausanias-a-deadly-love-in-macedonian-politics/E15C00FFA970BF2D30DA39EE1D919FDF]</ref> As Pausanias tried to escape, he tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers, including two of Alexander's companions, Perdiccas and Leonnatus. Alexander was proclaimed king on the spot by the nobles and army at the age of 20.{{sfn\|McCarty\|2004\|pp30–31}}<ref>{{harvnb\|Renault\|2001\|pp61–62}}</ref><ref name"Fox 1980 72">{{harvnb\|Lane Fox\|1980\|p72}}</ref>Consolidation of powerAlexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne. He had his cousin, the former Amyntas IV, executed.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p190}} He also had two Macedonian princes from the region of Lyncestis killed for having been involved in his father's assassination, but spared a third, Alexander Lyncestes. Olympias had Cleopatra Eurydice, and Europa, her daughter by Philip, burned alive. When Alexander learned about this, he was furious. Alexander also ordered the murder of Attalus,{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p190}} who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor and Cleopatra's uncle.<ref name"Green 2007 5–6">{{harvnb\|Green\|2007\|pp=5–6}}</ref> Attalus was at that time corresponding with Demosthenes, regarding the possibility of defecting to Athens. Attalus also had severely insulted Alexander, and following Cleopatra's murder, Alexander may have considered him too dangerous to be left alive.<ref name"Green 2007 5–6" /> Alexander spared Arrhidaeus, who was by all accounts mentally disabled, possibly as a result of poisoning by Olympias.{{sfn\|McCarty\|2004\|pp30–31}}<ref name"Fox 1980 72" /><ref>{{harvnb\|Renault\|2001\|pp70–71}}</ref> News of Philip's death roused many states into revolt, including Thebes, Athens, Thessaly, and the Thracian tribes north of Macedon. When news of the revolts reached Alexander, he responded quickly. Though advised to use diplomacy, Alexander mustered 3,000 Macedonian cavalry and rode south towards Thessaly. He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass between Mount Olympus and Mount Ossa, and ordered his men to ride over Mount Ossa. When the Thessalians awoke the next day, they found Alexander in their rear and promptly surrendered, adding their cavalry to Alexander's force. He then continued south towards the Peloponnese.<ref>{{harvnb\|McCarty\|2004\|p31}}, {{harvnb\|Renault\|2001\|p72}}, {{harvnb\|Lane Fox\|1980\|p104}}, {{harvnb\|Bose\|2003\|p95}}</ref> Alexander stopped at Thermopylae where he was recognized as the leader of the Amphictyonic League before heading south to Corinth. Athens sued for peace and Alexander pardoned the rebels. The famous encounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynic occurred during Alexander's stay in Corinth. When Alexander asked Diogenes what he could do for him, the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a little to the side, as he was blocking the sunlight.{{sfn\|Stoneman\|2004\|p21}} This reply apparently delighted Alexander who is reported to have said, "But verily, if I were not Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes."{{sfn\|Dillon\|2004\|pp187–88}} At Corinth, Alexander took the title of Hegemon ("leader") and, like Philip, was appointed commander for the coming war against Persia. He also received news of a Thracian uprising.<ref>{{harvnb\|Renault\|2001\|p72}}, {{harvnb\|Bose\|2003\|p96}}</ref> Balkan campaign {{Main\|Alexander's Balkan campaign}} Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders. In the spring of 335&nbsp;BC, he advanced to suppress several revolts. Starting from Amphipolis, he travelled east into the country of the "Independent Thracians", and at Mount Haemus, the Macedonian army attacked and defeated the Thracian forces manning the heights.<ref name"I, 1" /> The Macedonians marched into the country of the Triballi and defeated their army near the Lyginus river<ref>{{harvnb\|Arrian\|1976\|locI, 2}}</ref> (a tributary of the Danube). Alexander then marched for three days to the Danube, encountering the Getae tribe on the opposite shore. Crossing the river at night, he surprised them and forced their army to retreat after the first cavalry skirmish.<ref>{{harvnb\|Arrian\|1976\|locI, 3–4}}, {{harvnb\|Renault\|2001\|pp73–74}}</ref> News then reached Alexander that the Illyrian chieftain Cleitus and King Glaukias of the Taulantii were in open revolt against his authority. Marching west into Illyria, Alexander defeated each in turn, forcing the two rulers to flee with their troops. With these victories, he secured his northern frontier.<ref>{{harvnb\|Arrian\|1976\|locI, 5–6}}, {{harvnb\|Renault\|2001\|p77}}</ref> Destruction of Thebes While Alexander campaigned north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once again. Alexander immediately headed south.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p192}} While the other cities again hesitated, Thebes decided to fight. The Theban resistance was ineffective and Alexander razed the city and divided its territory between the other Boeotian cities. The end of Thebes cowed Athens, leaving all of Greece temporarily at peace.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p192}} Alexander then set out on his Asian campaign, leaving Antipater as regent.<ref name"Roisman 2010 199">{{harvnb\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p199}}</ref> Conquest of the Achaemenid Persian Empire {{Main\|Wars of Alexander the Great\|Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia}} Strategy {{Main\|Military tactics of Alexander the Great#Grand strategy}} Alexander's invasion of Persia as a whole has been denoted as a supreme example of a "strategic line" of conducting war, a line formed by "the chain of logic that connects operations into a single whole." In his book Strategy, Soviet military officer and theorist Alexander Svechin delineates Alexander's strategic steps. After securing his Greek base and the Balkans by subjugating his political opponents, and securing his army's rear through the conquest of all the Afro-Asian coastline, where the Persian fleet was based and from which it was supplied, Alexander, moved to confront directly the Persians. He thus resolved the eternal problem of an army conducting operations deep into enemy territory, Svechin states, in an "exemplary manner."<ref namesvechin>{{cite book \|last Svechin\|firstAlexander \|author-linkAlexander Svechin\|date1991\|orig-date1927\|editor-lastLee\|editor-firstKent D.\|titleStrategy\|publisherEast View Information Services\|page263 \|chapterCombining Operations for Achieving the ultimate Goal of the War\|isbn1-879944-33-2}}</ref>Asia Minor {{Further\|Battle of the Granicus\|Siege of Halicarnassus\|Siege of Miletus}} {{Campaigns of Alexander the Great}} {{OSM Location map \| coord = {{coord\|35\|48}} \| zoom = 3 \| float = right \| nolabels = 1 \| width = 352 \| height = 160 \| title \| shapeD n-circle \| shape-colorD = navy \| shape-outlineD = white \| label-colorD = navy \| label-sizeD = 12 \| label-posD = left \| label-offset-xD = 0 \| label-offset-yD = 0 \| label1 = Pella \| mark-coord1 = {{coord\|40.75\|22.52}} \| mark-title1 = Birthplace July 356 BC \| mark-description1 = Pella in Macedonia (ancient kingdom) \| label-pos1 = top \| label-offset-x1 = 10 \| label2 = Granicus \| mark-coord2 = {{coord\|40.32\|27.28}} \| mark-title2 = Battle of the Granicus May, 334 BC \| mark-description2 = Granicus River \| label-pos2 = right \| label-offset-y2 = -10 \| label3 = Miletus \| mark-coord3 = {{coord\|37.53\|27.28}} \| mark-title3 = Siege of Miletus 334 BC<br>Siege of Halicarnassus 334 BC \| mark-description3 = Miletus \| label-pos3 = right \| label-offset-y3 = -10 \| label4 = Issus \| mark-coord4 = {{coord\|36.75\|36.19}} \| mark-title4 = Battle of Issus 334 BC \| mark-description4 = Issus (Cilicia) \| label5 = Tyre \| mark-coord5 = {{coord\|33.27\|35.2}} \| mark-title5 = Siege of Tyre (332 BC) January–July 332 BC \| mark-description5 = Tyre, Lebanon \| label-offset-x5 = 2 \| label-offset-y5 = -2 \| label6 = Gaza \| mark-coord6 = {{coord\|31.52\|34.45}} \| mark-title6 = Siege of Gaza October 332 BC \| mark-description6 = Gaza City \| label-pos6 = right \| label7 = Alexandria \| mark-coord7 = {{coord\|31.2\|29.92}} \| mark-title7 = Foundation of Alexandria 331 BC \| mark-description7 = Alexandria \| label-pos7 = bottom \| label-offset-y7 = -5 \| label8 = Gaugamela \| mark-coord8 = {{coord\|36.56\|43.44}} \| mark-title8 = Battle of Gaugamela 1 October 331 BC \| mark-description8 = Erbil \| label-pos8 = right \| label-offset-y8 = -5 \| label9 = Uxians \| mark-coord9 = {{coord\|32.19\|48.25}} \| mark-title9 = Battle of the Uxian Defile December 331 BC \| mark-description9 = Susa \| label-pos9 = right \| label-offset-y9 = -10 \| label10 = Persian Gate \| mark-coord10 = {{coord\|30.71\|51.6}} \| mark-title10 = Battle of the Persian Gate 20 January 330 BC \| mark-description10 = Persian Gates \| label-pos10 = bottom \| label-offset-y10 = -5 \| label11 = Cyropolis \| mark-coord11 = {{coord\|40.28\|69.63}} \| mark-title11 = Siege of Cyropolis 329 BC<br>Battle of Jaxartes October 329 BC<br>Siege of the Sogdian Rock 327 BC \| mark-description11 = Cyropolis \| label-offset-x11 = 2 \| label-offset-y11 = -2 \| label12 = Cophen \| mark-coord12 = {{coord\|35.2\|72.48}} \| mark-title12 = Cophen campaign May 327 BC – March 326 BC \| mark-description12 = Kabul River \| label-offset-x12 = 2 \| label-offset-y12 = -2 \| label13 = Hydaspes \| mark-coord13 = {{coord\|32.83\|73.64}} \| mark-title13 = Battle of the Hydaspes May 326 BC \| mark-description13 = Jhelum River \| label-offset-x13 = 2 \| label-offset-y13 = -2 \| label14 = Malavas \| mark-coord14 = {{coord\|30.7\|72.3}} \| mark-title14 = Mallian campaign November 326 – February 325 BC \| mark-description14 = Punjab \| label-offset-x14 = 2 \| label-offset-y14 = -2 \| label15 = Babylon \| mark-coord15 = {{coord\|32.54\|44.42}} \| mark-title15 = Death of Alexander the Great 10 or 11 June 323 BC \| mark-description15 = Babylon \| label-offset-x15 = 20 \| label-offset-y15 = -10 }} After his victory at the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), Philip II began the work of establishing himself as hēgemṓn ({{langx\|el\|ἡγεμών}}) of a league which according to Diodorus was to wage a campaign against the Persians for the sundry grievances Greece suffered in 480 and free the Greek cities of the western coast and islands from Achaemenid rule. In 336 he sent Parmenion, Amyntas, Andromenes, Attalus, and an army of 10,000 men into Anatolia to make preparations for an invasion.<ref name"PB">{{cite book \|last1Briant \|first1Pierre \|titleFrom Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire \|date2002 \|publisherEisenbrauns \|isbn978-1-57506-120-7 \|page817 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlxQ9W6F1oSYC&pgPA817\|access-date21 February 2019}}</ref><ref name"WH">{{cite book \|last1Heckel \|first1Waldemar \|titleWho's Who in the Age of Alexander the Great: Prosopography of Alexander's Empire \|date2008 \|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons \|isbn978-1-4051-5469-7 \|page205 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNR4Wn9VU8vkC&pgPT205\|access-date21 February 2019}}</ref> The Greek cities on the western coast of Anatolia revolted until the news arrived that Philip had been murdered and had been succeeded by his young son Alexander. The Macedonians were demoralized by Philip's death and were subsequently defeated near Magnesia by the Achaemenids under the command of the mercenary Memnon of Rhodes.<ref name"PB"/><ref name"WH"/> Taking over the invasion project of Philip II, Alexander's army crossed the Hellespont in 334&nbsp;BC with approximately 48,100 soldiers, 6,100 cavalry, and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38,000{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p192}} drawn from Macedon and various Greek city states, mercenaries, and feudally raised soldiers from Thrace, Paionia, and Illyria.<ref>{{harvnb\|Arrian\|1976\|locI, 11}}</ref>{{Cref2\|i}} He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he accepted Asia as a gift from the gods. This also showed Alexander's eagerness to fight, in contrast to his father's preference for diplomacy.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p=192}} After an initial victory against Persian forces at the Battle of the Granicus, Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of Sardis; he then proceeded along the Ionian coast, granting autonomy and democracy to the cities. Miletus, held by Achaemenid forces, required a delicate siege operation, with Persian naval forces nearby. Further south, at Halicarnassus, in Caria, Alexander successfully waged his first large-scale siege, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain Memnon of Rhodes and the Persian satrap of Caria, Orontobates, to withdraw by sea.<ref>{{harvnb\|Arrian\|1976\|locI, 20–23}}</ref> Alexander left the government of Caria to a member of the Hecatomnid dynasty, Ada, who adopted Alexander.<ref name"Arrian 1976 locI, 23">{{harvnb\|Arrian\|1976\|locI, 23}}</ref> '' by Jean-Simon Berthélemy (1767)]] From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous Lycia and the Pamphylian plain, asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the Persians naval bases. From Pamphylia onwards, the coast held no major ports and Alexander moved inland. At Termessos, Alexander humbled and did not storm the Pisidian city.<ref>{{harvnb\|Arrian\|1976\|locI, 27–28}}</ref> At the ancient Phrygian capital of Gordium, Alexander "undid" the hitherto unsolvable Gordian Knot, a feat said to await the future "king of Asia".<ref>{{harvnb\|Arrian\|1976\|locI, 3}}</ref> According to the story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone, and hacked it apart with his sword.<ref>{{harvnb\|Green\|2007\|p351}}</ref>The Levant and Syria {{Further\|Battle of Issus\|Siege of Tyre (332 BC)}} In spring 333 BC, Alexander crossed the Taurus into Cilicia. After a long pause due to an illness, he marched on towards Syria. Though outmanoeuvered by Darius's significantly larger army, he marched back to Cilicia, where he defeated Darius at Issus. Darius fled the battle, causing his army to collapse, and left behind his wife, his two daughters, his mother Sisygambis, and a fabulous treasure.<ref>{{harvnb\|Arrian\|1976\|locI, 11–12}}</ref> He offered a peace treaty that included the lands he had already lost, and a ransom of 10,000 talents for his family. Alexander replied that since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial divisions.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.gutenberg.org/files/46976/46976-h/46976-h.htm\|titleThe Project Gutenberg eBook of Anabasis of Alexander, by Arrian.\|viaProject Gutenberg\|access-date11 January 2018\|archive-date26 March 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180326221313/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/46976/46976-h/46976-h.htm\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Alexander proceeded to take possession of Syria, and most of the coast of the Levant.<ref name"Arrian 1976 locI, 23" /> In the following year, 332&nbsp;BC, he was forced to attack Tyre, which he captured after a long and difficult siege.<ref>{{harvnb\|Arrian\|1976\|locII, 16–24}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb\|Gunther\|2007\|p84}}</ref> The men of military age were massacred and the women and children sold into slavery.<ref>{{harvnb\|Sabin\|van Wees\|Whitby\|2007\|p396}}</ref>Egypt {{Further\|Siege of Gaza (332 BCE)}} (written from right to left), {{circa\|332&nbsp;BC}}, Egypt. Louvre Museum.]] When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route to Egypt quickly capitulated. However, Alexander was met with resistance at Gaza. The stronghold was heavily fortified and built on a hill, requiring a siege. When "his engineers pointed out to him that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible... this encouraged Alexander all the more to make the attempt".<ref>{{harvnb\|Arrian\|1976\|locII, 26}}</ref> After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell, but not before Alexander had received a serious shoulder wound. As in Tyre, men of military age were put to the sword, and the women and children were sold into slavery.<ref>{{harvnb\|Arrian\|1976\|locII, 26–27}}</ref> Egypt was only one of a large number of territories taken by Alexander from the Persians. After his trip to Siwa, Alexander was crowned in the temple of Ptah at Memphis. It appears that the Egyptian people did not find it disturbing that he was a foreigner – nor that he was absent for virtually his entire reign.<ref name":0">{{Cite book\|lastStrudwick\|firstHelen\|titleThe Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt\|publisherSterling Publishing Co., Inc.\|year2006\|isbn978-1-4351-4654-9\|locationNew York\|pages96–97}}</ref> Alexander restored the temples neglected by the Persians and dedicated new monuments to the Egyptian gods. In the temple of Luxor, near Karnak, he built a chapel for the sacred barge. During his brief months in Egypt, he reformed the taxation system on the Greek models and organized the military occupation of the country, but in early 331 BC he left for Asia in pursuit of the Persians.<ref name":0" /> Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC where he was regarded as a liberator.<ref>{{harvnb\|Ring\|Salkin\|Berney\|Schellinger\|1994\|pp49, 320}}</ref> To legitimize taking power and be recognized as the descendant of the long line of pharaohs, Alexander made sacrifices to the gods at Memphis and went to consult the famous oracle of Amun-Ra at the Siwa Oasis in the Libyan desert,<ref name":0" /> at which he was pronounced the son of the deity Amun.{{sfn\|Bosworth\|1988\|pp71–74}} Henceforth, Alexander often referred to Zeus-Ammon as his true father, and after his death, currency depicted him adorned with horns, using the Horns of Ammon as a symbol of his divinity.<ref>{{harvnb\|Dahmen\|2007\|pp10–11}}</ref> The Greeks interpreted this message – one that the gods addressed to all pharaohs – as a prophecy.<ref name=":0" /> During his stay in Egypt, he founded Alexandria, which would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic Kingdom after his death.<ref>{{harvnb\|Arrian\|1976\|locIII, 1}}</ref> Control of Egypt passed to Ptolemy I (son of Lagos), the founder of the Ptolemaic Dynasty (305–30 BC) after the death of Alexander.{{sfn\|Chisholm\|1911\|p616}} Assyria and Babylonia {{Further\|Battle of Gaugamela}} (1665)\|upright=1]] Leaving Egypt in 331&nbsp;BC, Alexander marched eastward into Achaemenid Assyria in Upper Mesopotamia (now northern Iraq) and defeated Darius again at the Battle of Gaugamela.<ref>{{harvnb\|Arrian\|1976\|locIII 7–15}}; also in a [https://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_t40.html contemporary Babylonian account of the battle of Gaugamela] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170224083355/http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_t40.html \|date24 February 2017 }}</ref> Darius once more fled the field, and Alexander chased him as far as Arbela. Gaugamela would be the final and decisive encounter between the two.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastHanson \|firstVictor Davis \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXGr16-CxpH8C \|titleCarnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power \|year2007 \|publisherKnopf Doubleday Publishing Group \|isbn978-0-307-42518-8\|access-date5 September 2020}}</ref> Darius fled over the mountains to Ecbatana (modern Hamadan) while Alexander captured Babylon.<ref name="AIII16" /> Babylonian astronomical diaries say that "the king of the world, Alexander" sent his scouts with a message to the people of Babylon before entering the city: "I shall not enter your houses".<ref>{{cite web\| url https://www.livius.org/sources/content/oriental-varia/a-contemporary-account-of-the-battle-of-gaugamela/\| title a contemporary account of the battle of Gaugamela\| access-date 16 July 2021\| archive-date 12 August 2021\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210812155458/https://www.livius.org/sources/content/oriental-varia/a-contemporary-account-of-the-battle-of-gaugamela/\| url-status live}}</ref> Persia {{Further\|Battle of the Persian Gate}} in modern-day Iran; the road was built in the 1990s.]] From Babylon, Alexander went to Susa, one of the Achaemenid capitals, and captured its treasury.<ref name"AIII16" /> He sent the bulk of his army to the Persian ceremonial capital of Persepolis via the Persian Royal Road. Alexander himself took selected troops on the direct route to the city. He then stormed the pass of the Persian Gates (in the modern Zagros Mountains) which had been blocked by a Persian army under Ariobarzanes and then hurried to Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury.<ref>{{harvnb\|Arrian\|1976\|locIII, 18}}</ref> On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days.<ref>{{harvnb\|Foreman\|2004\|page152}}</ref> Alexander stayed in Persepolis for five months.{{sfn\|Morkot\|1996\|p121}} During his stay, a fire broke out in the eastern palace of Xerxes I and spread to the rest of the city. Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the Second Persian War by Xerxes;{{sfn\|Hammond\|1983\|pp72–73}} Plutarch and Diodorus allege that Alexander's companion, the hetaera Thaïs, instigated and started the fire. Even as he watched the city burn, Alexander immediately began to regret his decision.{{Sfn \|Yenne\|2010 \| page [https://books.google.com/books?idkngnd0GlUc4C&pgPA99 99]}}<ref>{{cite book \|last1Freeman \|first1Philip \|titleAlexander the Great \|date2011 \|publisherSimon & Schuster Paperbacks \|locationNew York \|isbn978-1-4391-9328-0 \|page213 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idv550aeZcGowC&pgPA213 \|access-date21 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Briant \|first1Pierre \|titleAlexander the Great and His Empire: A Short Introduction \|date2010 \|orig-year1974 \|publisherPrinceton University Press \|locationPrinceton, NJ \|isbn978-0-691-15445-9 \|page109 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6wl0xMQCW40C&pgPA109 \|access-date21 November 2017}}</ref> Plutarch claims that he ordered his men to put out the fires{{Sfn \|Yenne\|2010 \| page [https://books.google.com/books?idkngnd0GlUc4C&pgPA99 99]}} but the flames had already spread to most of the city.{{Sfn \|Yenne\|2010 \| page [https://books.google.com/books?idkngnd0GlUc4C&pgPA99 99]}} Curtius claims that Alexander did not regret his decision until the next morning.{{Sfn \|Yenne\|2010 \| page [https://books.google.com/books?idkngnd0GlUc4C&pgPA99 99]}} Plutarch recounts an anecdote in which Alexander pauses and talks to a fallen statue of Xerxes as if it were a live person: {{blockquote\|Shall I pass by and leave you lying there because of the expeditions you led against Greece, or shall I set you up again because of your magnanimity and your virtues in other respects?<ref>{{cite book \|titleAlexander the Great: The Invisible Enemy: A Biography \|firstJohn Maxwell \|lastO'Brien \|publisherPsychology Press \|date1994 \|page[https://archive.org/details/alexandergreatin00obri_0/page/104 104] \|isbn978-0-415-10617-7 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/alexandergreatin00obri_0/page/104}}</ref>}} Fall of the Persian Empire and the East dated to the seventh year of Alexander's reign (324 BC), bearing the first known use of the "Alexandros" form of his name, Khalili Collection of Aramaic Documents<ref>{{Cite web\|titleA Long List of Supplies Disbursed\|urlhttps://www.khalilicollections.org/collections/aramaic-documents/khalili-collection-aramaic-documents-a-long-list-of-supplies-disbursed-ia17/\|access-date6 January 2021\|websiteKhalili Collections\|archive-date15 August 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190815095632/https://www.khalilicollections.org/collections/aramaic-documents/khalili-collection-aramaic-documents-a-long-list-of-supplies-disbursed-ia17/\|url-status=live}}</ref>]] Alexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia.{{Sfn \|Arrian\|1976\|locIII, 19–20}} The Persian king no longer controlled his own destiny, and was taken prisoner by Bessus, his Bactrian satrap and kinsman.{{Sfn \|Arrian\|1976\| loc III, 21}} As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared himself Darius's successor as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against Alexander.{{Sfn \|Arrian\|1976\|locIII, 21, 25}} Alexander buried Darius's remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral.{{Sfn \| Arrian\| 1976 \| loc III, 22}} He claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him as his successor to the Achaemenid throne.{{sfn\|Gergel\|2004\|p81}} The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen with Darius.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander10.html \|titleThe end of Persia \|publisherLivius \|access-date16 November 2009 \|archive-date16 March 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160316211044/http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander10.html \|url-statusdead }}</ref> However, as basic forms of community life and the general structure of government were maintained and resuscitated by Alexander under his own rule, he, in the words of the Iranologist Pierre Briant "may therefore be considered to have acted in many ways as the last of the Achaemenids."{{sfn\|Briant\|1985\|pages=827–830}} Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him. This campaign, initially against Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central Asia. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern Kandahar in Afghanistan, and Alexandria Eschate ("The Furthest") in modern Tajikistan. The campaign took Alexander through Media, Parthia, Aria (West Afghanistan), Drangiana, Arachosia (South and Central Afghanistan), Bactria (North and Central Afghanistan), and Scythia.{{Sfn \|Arrian\|1976\|loc=III, 23–25, 27–30; IV, 1–7}} In 329 BC, Spitamenes, who held an undefined position in the satrapy of Sogdiana, betrayed Bessus to Ptolemy, one of Alexander's trusted companions, and Bessus was executed.{{Sfn \|Arrian\|1976\|locIII, 30}} However, at some point later when Alexander was on the Jaxartes dealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at the Battle of Jaxartes and immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. After the defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace.{{Sfn \|Arrian\|1976\|loc IV, 5–6, 16–17}} Problems and plots , by André Castaigne (1898–1899)]] During this time, Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom of proskynesis'', either a symbolic kissing of the hand, or prostration on the ground, that Persians showed to their social superiors.<ref name"AVII11" /> This was one aspect of Alexander's broad strategy aimed at securing the aid and support of the Iranian upper classes.{{sfn\|Briant\|1985\|pages827–830}} The Greeks however regarded the gesture of proskynesis as the province of deities and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. This cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen, and he eventually abandoned it.{{sfn\|Morkot\|1996\|p=111}} During the long rule of the Achaemenids, the elite positions in many segments of the empire including the central government, the army, and the many satrapies were specifically reserved for Iranians and to a major degree, Persian noblemen.{{sfn\|Briant\|1985\|pages827–830}} The latter were in many cases additionally connected through marriage alliances with the royal Achaemenid family.{{sfn\|Briant\|1985\|pages827–830}} This created a problem for Alexander as to whether he had to make use of the various segments and people that had given the empire its solidity and unity for a lengthy period of time.{{sfn\|Briant\|1985\|pages827–830}} Pierre Briant explains that Alexander realized that it was insufficient to merely exploit the internal contradictions within the imperial system as in Asia Minor, Babylonia or Egypt; he also had to (re)create a central government with or without the support of the Iranians.{{sfn\|Briant\|1985\|pages827–830}} As early as 334 BC he demonstrated awareness of this, when he challenged incumbent King Darius III "by appropriating the main elements of the Achaemenid monarchy's ideology, particularly the theme of the king who protects the lands and the peasants".{{sfn\|Briant\|1985\|pages827–830}} Alexander wrote a letter in 332 BC to Darius III, wherein he argued that he was worthier than Darius "to succeed to the Achaemenid throne".{{sfn\|Briant\|1985\|pages827–830}} However, Alexander's eventual decision to burn the Achaemenid palace at Persepolis in conjunction with the major rejection and opposition of the "entire Persian people" made it impracticable for him to pose himself as Darius' legitimate successor.{{sfn\|Briant\|1985\|pages827–830}} Against Bessus (Artaxerxes V) however, Briant adds, Alexander reasserted "his claim to legitimacy as the avenger of Darius III".{{sfn\|Briant\|1985\|pages827–830}} A plot against his life was revealed, and one of his officers, Philotas, was executed for failing to alert Alexander. The death of the son necessitated the death of the father, and thus Parmenion, who had been charged with guarding the treasury at Ecbatana, was assassinated at Alexander's command, to prevent attempts at vengeance. Most infamously, Alexander personally killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus, Cleitus the Black, during a violent drunken altercation at Maracanda (modern day Samarkand in Uzbekistan), in which Cleitus accused Alexander of several judgmental mistakes and especially of having forgotten the Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle.{{sfn\|Gergel\|2004\|p=99}} Later, in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life was revealed. This one was instigated by his own royal pages. His official historian, Callisthenes of Olynthus, was implicated in the plot, and in the Anabasis of Alexander, Arrian states that Callisthenes and the pages were then tortured on the rack as punishment, and likely died soon after.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://archive.org/details/cu31924026460752\|titleThe Anabasis of Alexander; or, The history of the wars and conquests of Alexander the Great. Literally translated, with a commentary, from the Greek of Arrian, the Nicomedian\|date18 January 1884\|publisherLondon, Hodder and Stoughton\|viaInternet Archive}}</ref> It remains unclear if Callisthenes was actually involved in the plot, for prior to his accusation he had fallen out of favour by leading the opposition to the attempt to introduce proskynesis.<ref>{{harvnb\|Heckel\|Tritle\|2009\|pp47–48}}</ref> Macedon in Alexander's absence When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general Antipater, an experienced military and political leader, and part of Philip II's "Old Guard", in charge of Macedon.<ref name"Roisman 2010 199" /> Alexander's sacking of Thebes ensured that Greece remained quiet during his absence.<ref name"Roisman 2010 199" /> The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan king Agis III in 331&nbsp;BC, whom Antipater defeated and killed in the battle of Megalopolis.<ref name"Roisman 2010 199" /> Antipater referred the Spartans' punishment to the League of Corinth, which then deferred to Alexander, who chose to pardon them.<ref>{{harvnb\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p201}}</ref> There was also considerable friction between Antipater and Olympias, and each complained to Alexander about the other.<ref>{{harvnb\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p=202}}</ref> In general, Greece enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity during Alexander's campaign in Asia.<ref>{{harvnb\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p203}}</ref> Alexander sent back vast sums from his conquest, which stimulated the economy and increased trade across his empire.<ref>{{harvnb\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p205}}</ref> However, Alexander's constant demands for troops and the migration of Macedonians throughout his empire depleted Macedon's strength, greatly weakening it in the years after Alexander, and ultimately led to its subjugation by Rome after the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC).{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p186}} Coinage of Alexander the Great struck by Balakros or his successor Menes, both former somatophylakes (bodyguards) of Alexander, when they held the position of satrap of Cilicia in the lifetime of Alexander, {{circa\|333–327&nbsp;BC}}. The obverse shows Heracles, ancestor of the Macedonian royal line and the reverse shows a seated Zeus Aëtophoros.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID368240\|title eAuction 430. KINGS of MACEDON. Alexander III 'the Great'. 336–323 BC. AR Tetradrachm (25mm, 17.15 g, 1h). Tarsos mint. Struck under Balakros or Menes, circa 333–327 BC.\|websiteCNG \|access-date17 February 2019\|archive-date18 February 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190218081840/https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID368240\|url-statuslive}}</ref>]] The conquest by Philip II of Pangaeum, and then of the island of Thasos between 356 and 342 BC brought rich gold and silver mines under Macedonian control.<ref>Arrian, Anabasis VII, 3</ref> Alexander appears to have introduced a new coinage in Cilicia in Tarsus, after the Battle of Issus in 333 BC, which went on to become the main coinage of the empire.<ref name"LE RIDER 2003, p153-214">G. LE RIDER, Alexandre le Grand : Monnaie, finances et politique, Chapitre V, "Histoire", PUF, 2003, p153-214</ref> Alexander minted gold staters, silver tetradrachms and drachims, and various fractional bronze coins. The types of these coins remained constant in his empire.<!-- But this is incorrect, because the minting of Philippeioi continued throughout Alexander's reign – see Le Rider.--> The gold series had the head of Athena on the obverse and a winged Nike (Victory) on the reverse.<ref>REBUFFAT Françoise, La monnaie dans l'Antiquité, Picard, 1996 .p204</ref> The silver coinage had a beardless head of Heracles wearing a lionskin headdress on the obverse and Zeus aetophoros ('eagle bearer') enthroned with a scepter in his left hand, on the reverse.<ref>Gerin, Dominique; Grandjean, Catherine; Amandry, Michel; De Callatay. La monnaie grecque, "L'Antiquité : une histoire", Ellipse, 2001. pp. 117–119.</ref> There are both Greek and non-Greek aspects to this design. Heracles and Zeus were important deities for the Macedonians, with Heracles considered to be the ancestor of the Temenid dynasty and Zeus the patron of the main Macedonian sanctuary, Dium.<ref name"LE RIDER 2003, p153-214"/> The lion was also the symbolic animal of the Anatolian god Sandas, worshipped at Tarsus.<ref name"LE RIDER 2003, p153-214"/> The reverse design of Alexander's tetradrachms is closely modelled on the depiction of the god Baaltars (Baal of Tarsus), on the silver staters minted at Tarsus by the Persian satrap Mazaeus before Alexander's conquest.<ref name"LE RIDER 2003, p153-214"/> Alexander did not attempt to impose uniform imperial coinage throughout his new conquests. Persian coins continued to circulate in all the satrapies of the empire.<ref>BRIANT Pierre, Alexandre Le Grand, "Que sais-je ?", PUF, 2011.</ref> Indian campaign {{Main\|Indian campaign of Alexander the Great}} Forays into the Indian subcontinent After the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to Roxana (Raoxshna in Old Iranian) to cement relations with his new satrapies, Alexander turned to the Indian subcontinent. He invited the chieftains of the former satrapy of Gandhara (a region presently straddling eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan), to come to him and submit to his authority. Omphis (Indian name Ambhi), the ruler of Taxila, whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Hydaspes (Jhelum), complied, but the chieftains of some hill clans, including the Aspasioi and Assakenoi sections of the Kambojas (known in Indian texts also as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas), refused to submit.{{sfn\|Tripathi\|1999\|pp=118–21}} Ambhi hastened to relieve Alexander of his apprehension and met him with valuable presents, placing himself and all his forces at his disposal. Alexander not only returned Ambhi his title and the gifts but he also presented him with a wardrobe of "Persian robes, gold and silver ornaments, 30 horses and 1,000 talents in gold". Alexander was emboldened to divide his forces, and Ambhi assisted Hephaestion and Perdiccas in constructing a bridge over the Indus where it bends at Hund,<ref>Lane Fox 1973</ref> supplied their troops with provisions, and he received Alexander and his whole army in his capital city of Taxila, with every demonstration of friendship and the most liberal hospitality. Attacking the Centre in the Battle of the Hydaspes by André Castaigne (1898–1899)]] On the subsequent advance of the Macedonian king, Taxiles accompanied him with a force of 5,000 men and took part in the Battle of the Hydaspes. After that victory, he was sent by Alexander in pursuit of Porus, to whom he was charged to offer favourable terms, but narrowly escaped losing his life at the hands of his old enemy. Subsequently, the two rivals were reconciled by the personal mediation of Alexander; Taxiles contributed zealously to the equipment of the fleet on the Hydaspes and was entrusted by Alexander with the government of the whole territory between that river and the Indus. A considerable accession of power was granted him after the death of Philip, son of Machatas, and he was allowed to retain his authority at the death of Alexander himself (323 BC), as well as in the subsequent partition of the provinces at Triparadisus, 321 BC. In the winter of 327/326&nbsp;BC, Alexander personally led a campaign against the Aspasioi of the Kunar Valley, the Guraeans of the Guraeus Valley, and the Assakenoi of the Swat and Buner Valleys.<ref>{{harvnb\|Narain\|1965\|pp155–65}}</ref> A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which Alexander was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, but eventually the Aspasioi lost. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi who fought against him from the strongholds of Massaga, Ora, and Aornos.{{sfn\|Tripathi\|1999\|pp118–21}} The fort of Massaga was reduced after days of bloody fighting in which Alexander was seriously wounded in the ankle. According to Curtius, "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubble."<ref>{{cite book \|lastMcCrindle \|firstJ. W. \|chapterCurtius \|titleHistory of Punjab \|volumeI \|year1997 \|publisherPunjabi University \|locationPatiala \|editor1-firstFauja \|editor1-lastSingh \|editor2-firstL. M. \|editor2-lastJoshi \|page229}}</ref> A similar slaughter followed at Ora. In the aftermath of Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians fled to the fortress of Aornos. Alexander followed close behind and captured the strategic hill-fort after four bloody days.{{sfn\|Tripathi\|1999\|pp118–21}} surrenders to Alexander]] After Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus and won an epic battle against King Porus, who ruled a region lying between the Hydaspes and the Acesines (Chenab), in what is now the Punjab, in the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326&nbsp;BC.{{sfn\|Tripathi\|1999\|pp124–25}} Alexander was impressed by Porus's bravery and made him an ally. He appointed Porus as satrap, and added to Porus's territory land that he did not previously own, towards the south-east, up to the Hyphasis (Beas).<ref name"ReferenceA">p. xl, Historical Dictionary of Ancient Greek Warfare, J, Woronoff & I. Spence</ref><ref name"ReferenceB">Arrian Anabasis of Alexander, V.29.2</ref> Choosing a local helped him control these lands that were distant from Greece.{{sfn\|Tripathi\|1999\|pp126–27}} Alexander founded two cities on opposite sides of the Hydaspes river, naming one Bucephala, in honour of his horse, who died around this time.{{sfn\|Gergel\|2004\|p120}} The other was Nicaea (Victory), thought to be located at the site of modern-day Mong, Punjab.<ref>{{harvnb\|Worthington\|2003\|p175}}</ref> Philostratus the Elder in the Life of Apollonius of Tyana writes that in the army of Porus, there was an elephant who fought bravely against Alexander's army, and Alexander dedicated it to the Helios (Sun) and named it Ajax because he thought that such a great animal deserved a great name. The elephant had gold rings around its tusks and an inscription was on them written in Greek: "Alexander the son of Zeus dedicates Ajax to the Helios" (ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ Ο ΔΙΟΣ ΤΟΝ ΑΙΑΝΤΑ ΤΩΙ ΗΛΙΩΙ).<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docurn:cts:greekLit:tlg0638.tlg001.perseus-grc1:2.12\|titlePhilostratus the Athenian, Vita Apollonii, book 2, chapter 12\|websiteperseus.tufts.edu\|access-date20 February 2021\|archive-date25 February 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210225081128/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docurn:cts:greekLit:tlg0638.tlg001.perseus-grc1:2.12\|url-statuslive}}</ref>Revolt of the Hellenic army and the Gangaridai of the Indian subcontinent, in relation to Alexander's Empire and neighbours]] East of Porus's kingdom, near the Ganges River, was the Nanda Empire of Magadha, and further east, the Gangaridai Empire of Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent. Fearing the prospect of facing other large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, Alexander's army mutinied at the Hyphasis River (Beas), refusing to march farther east.{{sfn\|Kosmin\|2014\|p34}} This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander's conquests.{{sfn\|Tripathi\|1999\|pp129–30}} {{blockquote\|As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was {{convert\|32\|furlong\|km\|1\|spellin\|dispsqbr}}, its depth {{convert\|100\|fathom\|m\|spellin\|dispsqbr}}, while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of men-at-arms and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand war elephants.<ref name="PA62" />}} Alexander tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther, but his general Coenus pleaded with him to change his opinion and return; the men, he said, "longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland". Alexander eventually agreed and turned south, marching along the Indus. Along the way his army conquered the Malhi (in modern-day Multan) and other Indian tribes; while besieging the Mallian citadel, Alexander suffered a near-fatal injury when an arrow penetrated his armor and entered his lung.{{sfn\|Tripathi\|1999\|pp137–38}}<ref>{{Cite book \|lastDodge \|firstTheodore Ayrault \|urlhttps://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/100769753 \|titleAlexander \|seriesGreat captains \|publisherHoughton Mifflin \|year1890 \|volume2 \|pages604–605 \|author-link=Theodore Ayrault Dodge}}</ref> Alexander sent much of his army to Carmania (modern southern Iran) with general Craterus, and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus, while he led the rest back to Persia through the more difficult southern route along the Gedrosian Desert and Makran.{{sfn\|Tripathi\|1999\|p141}} Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC, but not before losing many men to the harsh desert.<ref>{{harvnb\|Morkot\|1996\|p9}}</ref> Last years in Persia ; possibly meaning his general Hephaestion]] Discovering that many of his satraps and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way to Susa.<ref name"AVI27" /><ref name"AVII4" /> As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedon, led by Craterus. His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of Opis. They refused to be sent away and criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units.<ref name"Worthington 2003 307">{{harvnb\|Worthington\|2003\|pp307–08}}</ref> After three days, unable to persuade his men to back down, Alexander gave Persians command posts in the army and conferred Macedonian military titles upon Persian units. The Macedonians quickly begged forgiveness, which Alexander accepted, and held a great banquet with several thousand of his men.<ref name"Roisman 2010 194">{{harvnb\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p194}}</ref> In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, Alexander held a mass marriage of his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen at Susa, but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year.<ref name="AVII4" /> '', by Pierre-Henri de Valenciennes (1796)]] Meanwhile, upon his return to Persia, Alexander learned that guards of the tomb of Cyrus the Great in Pasargadae had desecrated it, and swiftly executed them.<ref name"AVI29" /> Alexander admired Cyrus the Great, from an early age reading Xenophon's Cyropaedia, which described Cyrus's heroism in battle and governance as a king and legislator.<ref name"Ulrich">{{cite book \|titleAlexander the Great \|authorUlrich Wilcken \|publisherW.W. Norton & Company \|year1967 \|page146 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWiSZM-LYsk4C&pgPA146 \|isbn978-0-393-00381-9 \|access-date5 September 2020}}</ref> During his visit to Pasargadae, Alexander ordered his architect Aristobulus to decorate the interior of the sepulchral chamber of Cyrus's tomb.<ref name="Ulrich" /> Afterwards, Alexander travelled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure. There, his closest friend, Hephaestion, died of illness or poisoning.<ref name"AVII14" /> Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander and he ordered the preparation of an expensive funeral pyre in Babylon along with a decree for public mourning.<ref name"AVII14" /> Back in Babylon, Alexander planned a series of new campaigns, beginning with an invasion of Arabia.<ref name"AVII19" />Death and succession {{Main\|Death of Alexander the Great}} (c.&nbsp;323–322&nbsp;BC) recording the death of Alexander (British Museum, London)]] On either 10 or 11 June 323&nbsp;BC, Alexander died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II, in Babylon, at age 32.<ref>{{cite web \|titleA contemporary account of the death of Alexander \|urlhttps://www.livius.org/sources/content/oriental-varia/a-contemporary-account-of-the-death-of-alexander/ \|access-date5 November 2019 \|publisherLivius.org}}</ref><ref name"Depuydt" /> There are two different versions of Alexander's death, differing slightly in details. Plutarch's account is that roughly 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained admiral Nearchus and spent the night and next day drinking with Medius of Larissa.<ref name"P75" /> Alexander developed a fever, which worsened until he was unable to speak. The common soldiers, anxious about his health, were granted the right to file past him as he silently waved at them.{{Sfn \|Wood\|2001\|pp2267–70}} In the second account, Diodorus recounts that Alexander was struck with pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in honour of Heracles followed by 11 days of weakness; he did not develop a fever, instead dying after some agony.<ref name"DSXVII117" /> Arrian also mentioned this as an alternative, but Plutarch specifically denied this claim.<ref name="P75" /> Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination and Alexander's relatively young age,{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|pp1–2}} foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and Justin all mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned. Justin stated that Alexander was the victim of a poisoning conspiracy, Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication,<ref name"PA77" /> while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of completeness.<ref name"DSXVII117" /><ref name"AVII27" /> The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in designating Antipater, recently removed as Macedonian viceroy, replaced by Craterus, as the head of the alleged plot.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Pitt \|first1E. M. \|last2Richardson \|first2W. P. \|dateMay 2017 \|titleHostile inaction? Antipater, Craterus and the Macedonian regency \|journalThe Classical Quarterly \|volume67 \|issue1 \|pages77–78 \|doi10.1017/S0009838817000301 \|s2cid157417151 }}</ref> Perhaps taking his summons to Babylon as a death sentence{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|pp23–24}} and having seen the fate of Parmenion and Philotas,<ref name"DSXVII118" /> Antipater purportedly arranged for Alexander to be poisoned by his son Iollas, who was Alexander's wine-pourer.<ref name"AVII27" /><ref name"DSXVII118" /> There was even a suggestion that Aristotle may have participated.<ref name="AVII27" /> The strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days passed between the start of his illness and his death; such long-acting poisons were probably not available.{{Sfn \|Lane Fox\|2006\|locchapter 32}} However, in a 2003 BBC documentary investigating the death of Alexander, Leo Schep from the New Zealand National Poisons Centre proposed that the plant white hellebore (Veratrum album), which was known in antiquity, may have been used to poison Alexander.<ref>{{cite news \|date16 October 2003 \|urlhttp://www.royalsociety.org.nz/2003/10/16/alexander/ \|titleNZ scientist's detective work may reveal how Alexander died \|access-date15 January 2014 \|locationDunedin \|workThe Royal Society of New Zealand \|url-status dead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140116141707/http://www.royalsociety.org.nz/2003/10/16/alexander/ \|archive-date16 January 2014}}</ref>{{Sfn \|Cawthorne\|2004\|p138}}<ref>{{cite journal \|lastBursztajn \|firstHarold J \|titleDead Men Talking \|journalHarvard Medical Alumni Bulletin \|year2005 \|issueSpring \|urlhttp://www.forensic-psych.com/articles/artDeadMenTalking.php \|access-date16 December 2011 \|archive-date29 March 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190329124207/http://www.forensic-psych.com/articles/artDeadMenTalking.php \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In a 2014 manuscript in the journal Clinical Toxicology, Schep suggested Alexander's wine was spiked with Veratrum album, and that this would produce poisoning symptoms that match the course of events described in the Alexander Romance.<ref name"schep">{{cite journal \|vauthorsSchep LJ, Slaughter RJ, Vale JA, Wheatley P \|titleWas the death of Alexander the Great due to poisoning? Was it Veratrum album? \|journalClinical Toxicology \|volume52 \|issue1 \|pages72–77 \|dateJanuary 2014 \|pmid24369045 \|doi10.3109/15563650.2013.870341\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Veratrum album poisoning can have a prolonged course and it was suggested that if Alexander was poisoned, Veratrum album offers the most plausible cause.<ref name"schep" /><ref>{{cite news \|lastBennett-Smith \|firstMeredith \|date14 January 2014 \|urlhttp://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/01/13/alexander-the-great-poisoned-toxic-wine_n_4591553.html \|titleWas Alexander The Great Poisoned By Toxic Wine? \|access-date15 January 2014 \|workThe Huffington Post \|archive-date17 June 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170617050647/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/01/13/alexander-the-great-poisoned-toxic-wine_n_4591553.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Another poisoning explanation put forward in 2010 proposed that the circumstances of his death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river Styx (modern-day Mavroneri in Arcadia, Greece) that contained calicheamicin, a dangerous compound produced by bacteria.<ref>{{cite news \|lastSquires \|firstNick \|date4 August 2010 \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/greece/7924855/Alexander-the-Great-poisoned-by-the-River-Styx.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/greece/7924855/Alexander-the-Great-poisoned-by-the-River-Styx.html \|archive-date10 January 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive \|titleAlexander the Great poisoned by the River Styx \|access-date12 December 2011 \|locationLondon \|workThe Daily Telegraph}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Several natural causes (diseases) have been suggested, including malaria and typhoid fever. A 1998 article in the New England Journal of Medicine attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by bowel perforation and ascending paralysis.<ref name"AMD" /> A 2004 analysis suggested pyogenic (infectious) spondylitis or meningitis.<ref name"ashrafian" /> Other illnesses fit the symptoms, including acute pancreatitis, West Nile virus,<ref name"ref1" /><ref>{{cite journal \|lastSbarounis \|firstCN \|titleDid Alexander the Great die of acute pancreatitis? \|journalJ Clin Gastroenterol \|volume24 \|pages294–96 \|year2007 \|doi10.1097/00004836-199706000-00031 \|pmid9252868 \|issue4}}</ref> and Guillain-Barré syndrome.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.livescience.com/64676-alexander-the-great-declared-dead-prematurely.html\|titleWhy Alexander the Great May Have Been Declared Dead Prematurely (It's Pretty Gruesome)\|authorOwen Jarus\|websiteLive Science\|date4 February 2019\|access-date3 November 2021\|archive-date27 July 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210727002144/https://www.livescience.com/64676-alexander-the-great-declared-dead-prematurely.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Natural-cause theories also tend to emphasize that Alexander's health may have been in general decline after years of heavy drinking and severe wounds. The anguish that Alexander felt after Hephaestion's death may also have contributed to his declining health.<ref name"AMD" />Post-death events {{see also\|Tomb of Alexander the Great}} Alexander's body was laid in a gold anthropoid sarcophagus that was filled with honey, which was in turn placed in a gold casket.<ref name"sarco1" /><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://casswww.ucsd.edu/archive/personal/ron/CVNC/byline/bugs_96mar.html \|dateMar 1996 \|titleBayfront Byline Bug Walk \|publisherUCSD \|access-date25 March 2013 \|archive-date3 December 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121203070121/http://casswww.ucsd.edu/archive/personal/ron/CVNC/byline/bugs_96mar.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> According to Aelian, a seer called Aristander foretold that the land where Alexander was laid to rest "would be happy and unvanquishable forever".<ref name"Aelian" /> Perhaps more likely, the successors may have seen possession of the body as a symbol of legitimacy, since burying the prior king was a royal prerogative.{{Sfn \|Green\|2007\|p= 32}} ]] While Alexander's funeral cortege was on its way to Macedon, Ptolemy seized it and took it temporarily to Memphis.<ref name"sarco1" /><ref name"Aelian" /> His successor, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it remained until at least late antiquity. Ptolemy IX Lathyros, one of Ptolemy's final successors, replaced Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass one so he could convert the original to coinage.<ref name"sarco2" /> The 2014 discovery of an enormous tomb in northern Greece, at Amphipolis, dating from the time of Alexander the Great<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-29239529 \|titleGreeks captivated by Alexander-era tomb at Amphipolis \|publisherBBC News \|date22 September 2014 \|last1Christides \|first1Giorgos \|access-date21 June 2018 \|archive-date21 September 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140921235011/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-29239529 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> has given rise to speculation that its original intent was to be the burial place of Alexander. This would fit with the intended destination of Alexander's funeral cortege. However, the memorial was found to be dedicated to the dearest friend of Alexander the Great, Hephaestion.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2015/09/30/excavator-ancient-grave-in-greece-honored-alexanders-pal \|titleArchaeologist claims opulent grave in Greece honored Alexander the Great's best friend \|websiteusnews.com \|date30 September 2015 \|access-date15 April 2020 \|archive-date5 March 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160305153254/http://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2015/09/30/excavator-ancient-grave-in-greece-honored-alexanders-pal \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://greece.greekreporter.com/2015/09/30/hephaestions-monogram-found-at-amphipolis-tomb/ \|titleHephaestion's Monogram Found at Amphipolis Tomb \|newspaperGreekreporter.com \|date30 September 2015 \|access-date15 April 2020 \|archive-date1 October 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151001135401/http://greece.greekreporter.com/2015/09/30/hephaestions-monogram-found-at-amphipolis-tomb/ \|url-statuslive \|last1Papapostolou \|first1=Anastasios }}</ref> ]] Pompey, Julius Caesar and Augustus all visited the tomb in Alexandria where Augustus, allegedly, accidentally knocked the nose of Alexander's mummified body off. Caligula was said to have taken Alexander's breastplate from the tomb for his own use. Around AD 200, Emperor Septimius Severus closed Alexander's tomb to the public. His son and successor, Caracalla, a great admirer, visited the tomb during his own reign. After this, details on the fate of the tomb are hazy.<ref name="sarco2" /> The so-called "Alexander Sarcophagus", discovered near Sidon and now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, is so named not because it was thought to have contained Alexander's remains, but because its bas-reliefs depict Alexander and his companions fighting the Persians and hunting. It was originally thought to have been the sarcophagus of Abdalonymus (died 311 BC), the king of Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately following the Battle of Issus in 332.<ref>{{harvnb\|Studniczka\|1894\|pp226ff}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|lastBieber \|firstM \|titleThe Portraits of Alexander \|journalGreece & Rome \|seriesSecond Series \|year1965 \|pages183–88 \|volume12 \|issue2 \|doi10.1017/s0017383500015345\|s2cid163858858 }}</ref> However, in 1969, it was suggested by Karl Schefold that it may date from earlier than Abdalonymus's death.<ref>{{cite journal \|lastSismondo Ridgway \|firstBrunilde \|year1969 \|titleReview: Der Alexander-Sarkophag by Karl Schefold \|journalAmerican Journal of Archaeology \|volume73 \|page482 \|doi10.2307/504019 \| urlhttps://repository.brynmawr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article1006&contextarch_pubs\| jstor504019}}</ref> Demades likened the Macedonian army, after the death of Alexander, to the blinded Cyclops due to the many random and disorderly movements that it made.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:2008.01.0045:chapter1:section4\|titlePlutarch, Galba, chapter 1, section 4\|websiteperseus.tufts.edu\|access-date20 February 2021\|archive-date27 February 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210227032246/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0045%3Achapter%3D1%3Asection%3D4\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:2008.01.0116:chapter1:section4\|titlePlutarch, Galba, chapter 1, section 4\|websiteperseus.tufts.edu\|access-date20 February 2021\|archive-date24 February 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210224185759/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0116%3Achapter%3D1%3Asection%3D4\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:2008.01.0191:chapter27\|titlePlutarch, Regum et imperatorum apophthegmata, Ἀλέξανδρος\|websiteperseus.tufts.edu\|access-date20 February 2021\|archive-date24 February 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210224161752/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0191%3Achapter%3D27\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In addition, Leosthenes also likened the anarchy between the generals, after Alexander's death, to the blinded Cyclops "who after he had lost his eye went feeling and groping about with his hands before him, not knowing where to lay them".<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docurn:cts:greekLit:tlg0007.tlg087.perseus-grc1:2.4\|titlePlutarch, De Alexandri magni fortuna aut virtute, chapter 2, section 4\|websiteperseus.tufts.edu\|access-date20 February 2021\|archive-date24 February 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210224150622/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docurn:cts:greekLit:tlg0007.tlg087.perseus-grc1:2.4\|url-statuslive}}</ref>Division of the Macedonian Empire {{Main\|Partition of Babylon\|Diadochi}} in 301&nbsp;BC: the Ptolemaic Kingdom (dark blue), the Seleucid Empire (yellow), Kingdom of Lysimachus (orange), and Kingdom of Macedon (green). Also shown are the Roman Republic (light blue), the Carthaginian Republic (purple), and the Kingdom of Epirus (red).]] Alexander's death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece, they were not immediately believed.<ref name"Roisman 2010 199" /> Alexander had no obvious or legitimate heir, his son Alexander IV by Roxane being born after Alexander's death.{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|pp24–26}} According to Diodorus, Alexander's companions asked him on his deathbed to whom he bequeathed his kingdom; his laconic reply was "tôi kratistôi"—"to the strongest".<ref name"DSXVII117" /> Another theory is that his successors wilfully or erroneously misheard "tôi Kraterôi"—"to Craterus", the general leading his Macedonian troops home and newly entrusted with the regency of Macedonia.<ref nameShipley>{{cite book \|titleThe Greek World After Alexander 323–30 BC \|authorGraham Shipley \|page40 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsAoiAwAAQBAJ&pgPA40 \|isbn978-1-134-06531-8 \|date2014 \|publisherRoutledge \|access-date9 November 2017}}</ref> Arrian and Plutarch claimed that Alexander was speechless by this time, implying that this was an apocryphal story.<ref>{{harvnb\|Green\|2007\|p20}}</ref> Diodorus, Curtius and Justin offered the more plausible story that Alexander passed his signet ring to Perdiccas, a bodyguard and leader of the companion cavalry, in front of witnesses, thereby nominating him.<ref name"DSXVII117" />{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|pp=24–26}} Perdiccas initially did not claim power, instead suggesting that Roxane's baby would be king, if male, with himself, Craterus, Leonnatus, and Antipater as guardians. However, the infantry, under the command of Meleager, rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion. Instead, they supported Alexander's half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus. Eventually, the two sides reconciled, and after the birth of Alexander IV, he and Philip III were appointed joint kings, albeit in name only.{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|pp26–29}} Dissension and rivalry soon affected the Macedonians. The satrapies handed out by Perdiccas at the Partition of Babylon became power bases each general used to bid for power. After the assassination of Perdiccas in 321&nbsp;BC, Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40&nbsp;years of war between "The Successors" (Diadochi) ensued before the Hellenistic world settled into three stable power blocs: Ptolemaic Egypt, Seleucid Syria and East, and Antigonid Macedonia. In the process, both Alexander IV and Philip III were murdered.{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|pp29–34}} Last plans Diodorus stated that Alexander had given detailed written instructions to Craterus some time before his death, which are known as Alexander's "last plans".<ref name"DSXVIII4" /> Craterus started to carry out Alexander's commands, but the successors chose not to further implement them, on the grounds they were impractical and extravagant.<ref name"DSXVIII4" /> Furthermore, Perdiccas had read the notebooks containing Alexander's last plans to the Macedonian troops in Babylon, who voted not to carry them out.<ref name="Roisman 2010 199" /> According to Diodorus, Alexander's last plans called for military expansion into the southern and western Mediterranean, monumental constructions, and the intermixing of Eastern and Western populations. It included: * Construction of 1,000 ships larger than triremes, along with harbours and a road running along the African coast all the way to the Pillars of Hercules, to be used for an invasion of Carthage and the western Mediterranean;<ref name=Bad/> * Erection of great temples in Delos, Delphi, Dodona, Dium, Amphipolis, all costing 1,500 talents, and a monumental temple to Athena at Troy<ref name"Roisman 2010 199" /><ref nameBad/> * Amalgamation of small settlements into larger cities ("synoecisms") and the "transplant of populations from Asia to Europe and in the opposite direction from Europe to Asia, in order to bring the largest continent to common unity and to friendship by means of intermarriage and family ties"<ref>{{harvnb\|McKechnie\|1989\|p54}}</ref><ref nameBad/> * Construction of a monumental tomb for his father Philip, "to match the greatest of the pyramids of Egypt"<ref name"Roisman 2010 199" /><ref nameBad/> * Conquest of Arabia<ref name="Roisman 2010 199" /> * Circumnavigation of Africa<ref name="Roisman 2010 199" /> The enormous scale of these plans has led many scholars to doubt their historicity. Ernst Badian argued that they were exaggerated by Perdiccas in order to ensure that the Macedonian troops voted not to carry them out.<ref nameBad>{{cite journal \|last1Badian \|first1Erns \|titleA King's Notebooks \|journalHarvard Studies in Classical Philology \|date1968 \|volume72 \|pages183–204\|doi10.2307/311079 \|jstor311079 }}</ref> Other scholars have proposed that they were invented by later authors within the tradition of the Alexander Romance.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastTarn\|firstWilliam Woodthorpe\|titleAlexander the Great \|date1948 \|publisherUniversity Press \|isbn978-0-521-22584-7 \|locationCambridge [England] \|page378 \|oclc606613}}</ref>CharacterGeneralship {{further\|Military tactics of Alexander the Great}} Alexander perhaps earned the epithet "the Great" due to his unparalleled success as a military commander; he never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p[https://books.google.com/books?idlkYFVJ3U-BIC&pgPA192 192]}} This was due to use of terrain, phalanx and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and the fierce loyalty of his troops.<ref name"Roisman 2010 193">{{harvnb\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p193}}, {{harvnb\|Morkot\|1996\|p110}}</ref> The Macedonian phalanx, armed with the sarissa, a spear {{convert \|6\|m\|ft}} long, had been developed and perfected by Philip II through rigorous training, and Alexander used its speed and manoeuvrability to great effect against larger but more disparate Persian forces.{{sfn\|Morkot\|1996\|p110}} Alexander also recognized the potential for disunity among his diverse army, which employed various languages and weapons. He overcame this by being personally involved in battle,{{sfn\|Morkot\|1996\|p121}} in the manner of a Macedonian king.<ref name="Roisman 2010 193"/> , 334 BC]] In his first battle in Asia, at Granicus, Alexander used only a small part of his forces, perhaps 13,000 infantry with 5,000 cavalry, against a much larger Persian force of 40,000.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastTarn\|firstWilliam Woodthorpe\|titleAlexander the Great \|date1948 \|publisherUniversity Press \|isbn978-0-521-22584-7 \|locationCambridge [England] \|pages361–362 \|oclc606613}}</ref> Alexander placed the phalanx at the center and cavalry and archers on the wings, so that his line matched the length of the Persian cavalry line, about {{convert\|3\|km\|2\|abbron}}. By contrast, the Persian infantry was stationed behind its cavalry. This ensured that Alexander would not be outflanked, while his phalanx, armed with long pikes, had a considerable advantage over the Persians' scimitars and javelins. Macedonian losses were negligible compared to those of the Persians.{{sfn\|Morkot\|1996\|p=122}} , 333 BC]] At Issus in 333 BC, his first confrontation with Darius, he used the same deployment, and again the central phalanx pushed through.{{sfn\|Morkot\|1996\|p122}} Alexander personally led the charge in the center, routing the opposing army.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p193}} At the decisive encounter with Darius at Gaugamela, Darius equipped his chariots with scythes on the wheels to break up the phalanx and equipped his cavalry with pikes. Alexander arranged a double phalanx, with the center advancing at an angle, parting when the chariots bore down and then reforming. The advance was successful and broke Darius's center, causing the latter to flee once again.{{sfn\|Morkot\|1996\|p=122}} When faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques, such as in Central Asia and India, Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents' style. Thus, in Bactria and Sogdiana, Alexander successfully used his javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements, while massing his cavalry at the center.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p193}} In India, confronted by Porus's elephant corps, the Macedonians opened their ranks to envelop the elephants and used their sarissas to strike upwards and dislodge the elephants' handlers.<ref name "Roisman 2010 194" /> Physical appearance by Pyrgoteles\|upright=.9]] Historical sources frequently give conflicting accounts of Alexander's appearance, and the earliest sources are the most scant in their detail;<ref>{{cite book \|last1Stewart \|first1Andrew \|titleFaces of Power : Alexander's Image and Hellenistic Politics Hellenistic Culture and Society \|date1993 \|publisherUniversity of California Press \|isbn978-0-520-06851-3 \|page72}}</ref> for example, Arrian describes him simply as "very handsome".<ref>{{harvnb\|Arrian\|1976\|locVII, 28}}</ref> During his lifetime, Alexander carefully curated his image by commissioning works from famous and great artists of the time. This included commissioning sculptures by Lysippos, paintings by Apelles and gem engravings by Pyrgoteles.<ref name"Alexander the Great">{{cite book \|last1Nawotka \|first1Krzysztof \|titleAlexander the Great \|date2010 \|publisherCambridge Scholars Publishing \|page43}}</ref> Ancient authors recorded that Alexander was so pleased with portraits of himself created by Lysippos that he forbade other sculptors from crafting his image; scholars today, however, find the claim dubious.<ref>{{cite web \|titleImages of Authority II: The Greek Example \|year2005 \|publisherSUNY Oneonta \|urlhttp://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/arth200/politics/images_authority_2_greek.html \|access-date16 December 2011 \|archive-date4 October 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181004195912/http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/arth200/politics/images_authority_2_greek.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"Alexander the Great"/> Andrew Stewart highlights the fact that artistic portraits, not least because of who they are commissioned by, are always partisan, and that artistic portrayals of Alexander "seek to legitimize him (or, by extension, his Successors), to interpret him to their audiences, to answer their critiques, and to persuade them of his greatness", and thus should be considered within a framework of "praise and blame", in the same way sources such as praise poetry are.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Stewart \|first1Andrew \|titleFaces of Power : Alexander's Image and Hellenistic Politics Hellenistic Culture and Society \|date1993 \|publisherUniversity of California Press \|isbn978-0-520-06851-3 \|page69}}</ref> Nevertheless, though idealised, Lysippos's sculpture was thought to be the most faithful plastic representation.{{Sfn \|Bosworth\|1988\|pp 19–20}} Curtius Rufus, a Roman historian from the first century AD, who wrote the Histories of Alexander the Great, gives this account of Alexander sitting on the throne of Darius III: {{blockquote\|Then Alexander seating himself on the royal throne, which was far too high for his bodily stature. Therefore, since his feet did not reach its lowest step, one of the royal pages placed a table under his feet.{{sfn \|Rolfe \|1946 \|loc = 5.2.13}}}} Both Curtius and Diodorus report a story that when Darius III's mother, Sisygambis, first met Alexander and Hephaestion, she assumed that the latter was Alexander because he was the taller and more physically impressive of the two.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Skelton \|first1Debra \|last2Dell \|first2Pamela \|titleEmpire of Alexander the Great \|date2009 \|publisherInfobase Publishing \|isbn978-1-60413-162-8 \|page83 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQcJuRH89a8UC&dqRobin+Lane+Fox+Hephaestion+Sisygambis&pgPA83 \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Siculus \|first1Diodorus \|titleDiodorus of Sicily in Twelve Volumes with an English Translation by C. H. Oldfather. Vol. 4–8. \|date1989 \|publisherHarvard University Press \|urlhttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084%3Abook%3D17%3Achapter%3D37 \|access-date7 July 2021 \|archive-date9 July 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210709192544/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.01.0084:book%3D17:chapter%3D37 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> \|left\|upright]] The Greek biographer Plutarch ({{circa\| 45\|120&nbsp;AD}}) discusses the accuracy of his depictions: {{blockquote\|The outward appearance of Alexander is best represented by the statues of him which Lysippus made, and it was by this artist alone that Alexander himself thought it fit that he should be modelled. For those peculiarities which many of his successors and friends afterwards tried to imitate, namely, the poise of the neck, which was bent slightly to the left, and the melting glance of his eyes, this artist has accurately observed. Apelles, however, in painting him as wielder of the thunder-bolt, did not reproduce his complexion, but made it too dark and swarthy. Whereas he was of a fair colour, as they say, and his fairness passed into ruddiness on his breast particularly, and in his face. Moreover, that a very pleasant odour exhaled from his skin and that there was a fragrance about his mouth and all his flesh, so that his garments were filled with it, this we have read in the Memoirs of Aristoxenus.{{Sfn \|Plutarch\|1919\|loc [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.01.0243:chapter4&highlightlysippus IV, 1]}}}} Historians have understood the detail of the pleasant fragrance attributed to Alexander as stemming from a belief in ancient Greece that pleasant scents are characteristic of gods and heroes.<ref name="Alexander the Great"/> at Aigai, the only known painting of Alexander made during his lifetime, 330s BC]] The Alexander Mosaic and contemporary coins portray Alexander with "a straight nose, a slightly protruding jaw, full lips and eyes deep set beneath a strongly pronounced forehead".<ref name"Alexander the Great"/> He is also described as having a slight upward tilt of his head to the left.{{sfn\|Renault\|2013\|p1}} The ancient historian Aelian ({{circa\|175}} – {{circa\|235 AD}}), in his Varia Historia (12.14), describes Alexander's hair color as "ξανθὴν" (xanthín), which at the time, could mean blond, brown, tawny (light brown) or auburn.{{sfn\|Liddell\|Scott\|1940\|loc[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.04.0057:entrycanqo/s ξανθός]}}<ref>{{Cite book \|lastWoodhouse \|firstSidney Chawner \|titleEnglish–Greek Dictionary: A Vocabulary of the Attic Language \|publisherRoutledge & Kegan Paul Limited \|year1910 \|locationLondon \|pages52,84,101}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|last1Beekes \|first1Robert Stephen Paul \|titleEtymological Dictionary of Greek \|last2Beek \|first2Lucien van \|publisherBrill \|year2010 \|locationLeiden; Boston \|pages1033}}</ref> It is sometimes claimed that Alexander had one blue and one brown eye,<ref>{{cite book \|firstPeter \|lastGreen \|author-linkPeter Green (historian) \|titleAlexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age \|publisherOrion Publishing Co \|year2008 \|pages15–16 \|isbn978-0-7538-2413-9}}</ref> referring to the Alexander Romance, which is however a fictional account that also claims Alexander "had sharp teeth like fangs" and "did not look like Philip or Olympias". Reconstruction, based on remaining traces of paint of the original polychromy on his sarcophagus, indicates that he was depicted with brown eyes and chestnut brown hair.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Brinkmann \|first1Vinzenz \|urlhttps://pictures.abebooks.com/inventory/31048007537_3.jpg \|titleGods in Color: Painted Sculpture of Classical Antiquity \|last2Wunsche \|first2Raimund \|publisherArthur M. Sackler / Harvard University Art Museum \|year2007 \|pages159 \|access-date12 April 2022 \|archive-date31 July 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220731043302/https://pictures.abebooks.com/inventory/31048007537_3.jpg \|url-statuslive }}</ref> While the acropolis museum suggests that trace amounts of red paint on a head statue of Alexander were most likely a base coat for golden hues to be painted over for his hair.<ref>{{cite web \|titleHead of a statue of Alexander the Great {{!}} Acropolis Museum {{!}} Official website \|urlhttps://www.theacropolismuseum.gr/en/head-statue-alexander-great \|websitewww.theacropolismuseum.gr \|access-date1 October 2024}}</ref> Personality '' and fighting an Asiatic lion with his friend Craterus (detail); late 4th century BC mosaic,<ref>Olga Palagia (2000). "Hephaestion's Pyre and the Royal Hunt of Alexander", in A.B. Bosworth and E.J. Baynham (eds), Alexander the Great in Fact and Fiction. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN\|978-0-19-815287-3}}, p. 185.</ref> Pella Museum]] Both of Alexander's parents encouraged his ambitions. His father Philip was probably Alexander's most immediate and influential role model, as the young Alexander watched him campaign practically every year, winning victory after victory while ignoring severe wounds.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p190}} Alexander's relationship with his father "forged" the competitive side of his personality; he had a need to outdo his father, illustrated by his reckless behavior in battle.{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|pp15–16}} While Alexander worried that his father would leave him "no great or brilliant achievement to be displayed to the world",<ref name"PA5"/> he also downplayed his father's achievements to his companions.{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|pp15–16}} Alexander's mother Olympia similarly had huge ambitions, and encouraged her son to believe it was his destiny to conquer the Persian Empire.{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|pp15–16}} She instilled a sense of destiny in him,{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|p4}} and Plutarch tells how his ambition "kept his spirit serious and lofty in advance of his years".<ref name="PA4"/> According to Plutarch, Alexander also had a violent temper and rash, impulsive nature,<ref name"AVII29"/> which could influence his decision making.{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|pp15–16}} Although Alexander was stubborn and did not respond well to orders from his father, he was open to reasoned debate.<ref name"PA7"/> He had a calmer side—perceptive, logical, and calculating. He had a great desire for knowledge, a love for philosophy, and was an avid reader.<ref name"PA8"/> This was no doubt in part due to Aristotle's tutelage; Alexander was intelligent and quick to learn.{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|pp15–16}} His intelligent and rational side was amply demonstrated by his ability and success as a general.<ref name"AVII29"/> He had great self-restraint in "pleasures of the body", in contrast with his lack of self-control with alcohol.<ref name"AVII28">{{harvnb \| Arrian\|1976\|locVII, 28}}</ref> of an original 3rd century BC Greek bust depicting Alexander the Great, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen]] Alexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences.<ref name"PA4"/><ref name"PA8"/> However, he had little interest in sports or the Olympic Games (unlike his father), seeking only the Homeric ideals of honour (timê) and glory (kudos).<ref>{{harvnb\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p190}}, {{harvnb\|Green\|2007\|p4}}</ref> He had great charisma and force of personality, characteristics which made him a great leader.{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|pp24–26}}<ref name"AVII29"/> His unique abilities were further demonstrated by the inability of any of his generals to unite Macedonia and retain the Empire after his death—only Alexander had the ability to do so.{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|pp=24–26}} During his final years, and especially after the death of Hephaestion, Alexander began to exhibit signs of megalomania and paranoia.{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|pp23–24}} His extraordinary achievements, coupled with his own ineffable sense of destiny and the flattery of his companions, may have combined to produce this effect.{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|pp20–21}} His delusions of grandeur are readily visible in his will and in his desire to conquer the world,{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|pp23–24}} in as much as he is by various sources described as having boundless ambition,<ref>M Wood (edited by T Gergel) – [https://books.google.com/books?id5kxoAAAAMAAJ Alexander: Selected Texts from Arrian, Curtius and Plutarch] Penguin, 2004 {{ISBN\|978-0-14-101312-1}} [Retrieved 8 April 2015]</ref><ref>{{cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTUqQbemlo80C&pgPA7 \|page7 \|titleMedieval French Alexander, the \|isbn978-0-7914-8832-4 \|last1Maddox \|first1Donald \|last2Sturm-Maddox \|first2Sara \|dateFebruary 2012 \|publisherState University of New York Press \|access-date17 October 2016}}</ref> an epithet, the meaning of which has descended into a historical cliché.<ref>G Highet<!-- taught classics at Oxford University until 1938; in 1950 he was appointed Anthon Professor of the Latin Language and Literature at Columbia University --> – [https://books.google.com/books?idKRbBTeM9M2oC&pgPA68 The Classical Tradition: Greek and Roman Influences on Western Literature: Greek and Roman Influences on Western Literature], Oxford University Press, 31 December 1949 p. 68 [Retrieved 2015-04-08] (ed. cf. – [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/clich%C3%A9 Merriam-webster.com] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150626135648/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/clich%C3%A9 \|date26 June 2015 }})</ref><ref>Merriam-Webster [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/epithet – epithet] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150326115024/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/epithet \|date=26 March 2015 }} [Retrieved 8 April 2015]</ref> He appears to have believed himself a deity, or at least sought to deify himself.{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|pp23–24}} Olympias always insisted to him that he was the son of Zeus,<ref name"PA3" /> an idea apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of Amun at Siwa.<ref name"P27"/> He began to identify himself as the son of Zeus-Ammon.<ref name"P27"/> Alexander adopted elements of Persian dress and customs at court, notably proskynesis, which was one aspect of Alexander's broad strategy aimed at securing the aid and support of the Iranian upper classes;{{sfn\|Briant\|1985\|pages827–830}} however the practise of proskynesis was disapproved by the Macedonians, and they were unwilling to perform it.<ref name"AVII11"/> This behaviour cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen.<ref name"PA45"/> Alexander also was a pragmatic ruler who understood the difficulties of ruling culturally disparate peoples, many of whom lived in societies where the king was treated as divine.<ref>{{harvnb\|Morkot\|1996\|p111}}, {{harvnb\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p195}}</ref> Thus, rather than megalomania, his behaviour may have been a practical attempt at strengthening his rule and keeping his empire together.<ref>{{harvnb\|Morkot\|1996\|p121}}, {{harvnb\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p195}}</ref>Personal relationships {{Main \|Personal relationships of Alexander the Great}} , depicting the marriage of Alexander to Stateira in 324 BC; the couple is apparently dressed as Ares and Aphrodite.]] Alexander married three times: Roxana, daughter of the Sogdian nobleman Oxyartes of Bactria,<ref>Ahmed, S. Z. (2004), Chaghatai: the Fabulous Cities and People of the Silk Road, West Conshokoken: Infinity Publishing, p. 61.</ref><ref>Strachan, Edward and Roy Bolton (2008), Russia and Europe in the Nineteenth Century, London: Sphinx Fine Art, p. 87, {{ISBN\|978-1-907200-02-1}}.</ref><ref>Livius.org. "[https://www.livius.org/articles/person/roxane/ Roxane] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210414100829/https://www.livius.org/articles/person/roxane/ \|date14 April 2021}}." Articles on Ancient History. Retrieved on 30 August 2016.</ref> out of love;{{Sfn\|Plutarch\|1919\|loc[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243%3Achapter%3D47 LXVII, 1]}} and the Persian princesses Stateira and Parysatis, the former a daughter of Darius III and the latter a daughter of Artaxerxes III, for political reasons.<ref name"Carney">{{cite book \|lastCarney \|firstElizabeth Donnelly \|titleWomen and Monarchy in Macedonia \|date2000 \|publisherUniversity of Oklahoma Press \|locationNorman \|isbn978-0-8061-3212-9}}</ref>{{Sfn \|Plutarch\|1936\|loc= [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Fortuna_Alexandri/2.html II, 6]}} Alexander apparently had two children by Roxana: an unnamed first child, who was born in India and died in infancy in November 326 BC,<ref>Metz Epitome 70 </ref> and Alexander IV of Macedon, born after his father's death. Additionally Heracles of Macedon was claimed to be his illegitimate son born of mistress, Barsine. Alexander also had a close relationship with his friend, general, and bodyguard Hephaestion, the son of a Macedonian noble.<ref name"AVII14" />{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|pp15–16}}<ref name"DSXVII114" /> Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander.<ref name"AVII14" /><ref name"P72" /> This event may have contributed to Alexander's failing health and detached mental state during his final months.{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|pp23–24}}<ref name"AMD" /> Sexuality Alexander's sexuality has been the subject of speculation and controversy in modern times.{{sfn\|Ogden\|2009\|p204}} The Roman era writer Athenaeus says, based on the scholar Dicaearchus, who was Alexander's contemporary, that the king "was quite excessively keen on boys", and that Alexander kissed the eunuch Bagoas in public.<ref>{{cite book \|titleHomosexuality in Greece and Rome: A Sourcebook of Basic Documents \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/homosexualitygre00hubb\|url-accesslimited \|editorThomas K. Hubbard \|year2003 \|isbn978-0-520-23430-7 \|publisherUniversity of California Press \|page[https://archive.org/details/homosexualitygre00hubb/page/n97 79]}}</ref> This episode is also told by Plutarch, probably based on the same source. Historian William Woodthorpe Tarn rejected the stories of Bagoas as fabricated in ancient times to defame Alexander, mainly referring to the Rufus's fairly fictionalized biography of Alexander that criticized the Macedonian's "degeneration" in embracing foreign Persian customs<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastTougher \|firstSean \|date2008 \|titleThe Renault Bagoas: The Treatemnet of Alexander the Great's Eunuch in Mary Renault's The Persian Boy \|urlhttps://fass.open.ac.uk/sites/fass.open.ac.uk/files/files/new-voices-journal/issue3/Tougher.pdf \|journalNew Voices in Classical Reception Studies \|issue3 \|pages77–89}}</ref> However, in 1958 Badian countered Tarn's arguments, though his concern was the issue of the reliability of sources for Alexander rather than the figure of the eunuch himself.{{sfn\|Tougher\|2008}} None of Alexander's contemporaries, however, are known to have explicitly described Alexander's relationship with Hephaestion as sexual, though the pair was often compared to Achilles and Patroclus, who are often interpreted as a couple. Aelian writes of Alexander's visit to Troy where "Alexander garlanded the tomb of Achilles, and Hephaestion that of Patroclus, the latter hinting that he was a beloved of Alexander, in just the same way as Patroclus was of Achilles."<ref name"AelXII7" /> At the same time, ancient writers did not conclusively identify them as lovers.<ref>{{Citation \|lastPalagia \|firstOlga \|titleHephaestion's Pyre and the Royal Hunt of Alexander \|date2000-09-07 \|workAlexander the Great in Fact and Fiction \|pages167–206 \|urlhttps://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198152873.003.0006 \|access-date2025-03-06 \|publisherOxford University Press \|doi10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198152873.003.0006 \|isbn978-0-19-815287-3}}</ref> Some modern historians (e.g., Robin Lane Fox) believe not only that Alexander's youthful relationship with Hephaestion was sexual, but also that their sexual contacts may have continued into adulthood, which went against the social norms of at least some Greek cities, such as Athens,<ref>{{cite book \|authorMarilyn Skinner \|titleSexuality in Greek and Roman Culture (Ancient Cultures) \|edition2nd \|publisherWiley-Blackwell \|isbn978-1-4443-4986-3 \|page190 \|year2013}}</ref>{{sfn\|Sacks\|1995\|p16}} though some modern researchers have tentatively proposed that Macedonia (or at least the Macedonian court) may have been more tolerant of homosexuality between adults.<ref>{{cite book\|editor-lastHubbard\|editor-firstThomas \|titleA Companion to Greek and Roman Sexualities \|date2014 \|publisherBlackwell Publishing Ltd \|isbn978-1-4051-9572-0 \|page143 \|chapterChapter 8: Peer Homosexuality \|author=Thomas Hubbard}}</ref> , at the Getty Villa\|left]] Peter Green argues that there is little evidence in ancient sources that Alexander had much sexual interest in women; he did not produce an heir until the very end of his life.{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|pp15–16}} However, Ogden calculates that Alexander, who impregnated his partners three times in eight years, had fathered more children than his father at the same age.{{sfn\|Ogden\|2009\|p208\|ps...&nbsp;three attested pregnancies in eight years produces an attested impregnation rate of one every 2.7&nbsp;years, which is actually superior to that of his father.}} Two of these pregnancies—Stateira's and Barsine's—are of dubious legitimacy.<ref>{{cite book \|titleThe Nature of Alexander \|authorMary Renault \|quoteNo record at all exists of such a woman [ie, Barsine] accompanying his march; nor of any claim by her, or her powerful kin, that she had borne him offspring. Yet twelve years after his death a boy was produced, seventeen years old, born therefore five years after Damascus, her alleged son "brought up in Pergamon"; a claimant and shortlived pawn in the succession wars, chosen probably for a physical resemblance to Alexander. That he actually did marry another Barsine must have helped both to launch and preserve the story; but no source reports any notice whatever taken by him of a child who, Roxane's being posthumous, would have been during his lifetime his only son, by a near-royal mother. In a man who named cities after his horse and dog, this strains credulity. \|page110 \|year1979 \|publisherPantheon \|isbn978-0-394-73825-3}}</ref> According to Diodorus Siculus, Alexander accumulated a harem in the style of Persian kings, but he used it rather sparingly, "not wishing to offend the Macedonians",<ref name"DSXVII77" /> showing great self-control in "pleasures of the body".<ref name"AVII28" /> Nevertheless, Plutarch described how Alexander was infatuated by Roxana while complimenting him on not forcing himself on her.<ref>{{cite web \|year1936 \|urlhttps://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Fortuna_Alexandri/2.html \|authorPlutarch \|titleMoralia \|idI, 11 \|publisherUniversity of Chicago \|refnone \|access-date19 February 2021}}</ref> Green suggested that, in the context of the period, Alexander formed quite strong friendships with women, including Ada of Caria, who adopted him, and even Darius's mother Sisygambis, who supposedly died from grief upon hearing of Alexander's death.{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|pp15–16}}Battle record{\| class"wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%; font-size:90%; margin:1em auto 1em auto;" \|- !width="65"\|Outcome ! style="width:140px;"\|Date ! style="width:110px;"\|War ! style="width:auto;"\|Action ! style="width:170px;"\|Opponent/s !width="45"\|Type ! style="width:120px;"\|Country<br>(present day) !width="50"\|Rank \|- \|{{yes2}}Victory !scope"row"\|<span style"display:none">338-08-02</span> 2 August 338 BC \|style="background:#ACBECF"\|Philip II's submission of Greece \|<span style="display:none">Chaeronea</span> Battle of Chaeronea \|<span style="display:none">.</span>Thebans, Athenians and other Greek cities \|Battle \|Greece \|Prince <span style="display:none">⁂</span> \|- \|{{yes2}}Victory !scope"row"\|<span style"display:none">335</span> 335 BC \|style="background:#ACBECF"\|Balkan Campaign \|<span style="display:none">Mount Haemus</span> Battle of Mount Haemus \|<span style="display:none">.</span>Getae, Thracians \|Battle \| Bulgaria \|King <span style="display:none">⁂</span> \|- \|{{yes2}}Victory !scope"row"\|<span style"display:none">335-12</span> December 335 BC \|style="background:#ACBECF"\|Balkan Campaign \|<span style="display:none">Pelium</span> Siege of Pelium \|<span style="display:none">.</span>Illyrians \|Siege \|Albania \|King <span style="display:none">⁂</span> \|- \|{{yes2}}Victory !scope"row"\|<span style"display:none">335-12</span> December 335 BC \|style="background:#ACBECF"\|Balkan Campaign \|<span style="display:none">Pelium</span> Battle of Thebes \|<span style="display:none">.</span>Thebans \|Battle \|Greece \|King <span style="display:none">⁂</span> \|- \|{{yes2}}Victory !scope"row"\|<span style"display:none">334-05</span> May 334 BC \|style="background:#ACBECF"\|Persian Campaign \|<span style="display:none">Granicus</span> Battle of the Granicus \|<span style="display:none">.</span>Achaemenid Empire \|Battle \| Turkey \|King <span style="display:none">⁂</span> \|- \|{{yes2}}Victory !scope"row"\|<span style"display:none">334</span> 334 BC \|style="background:#ACBECF"\|Persian Campaign \|<span style="display:none">Miletus</span> Siege of Miletus \|<span style="display:none">.</span>Achaemenid Empire, Milesians \|Siege \| Turkey \|King <span style="display:none">⁂</span> \|- \|{{yes2}}Victory !scope"row"\|<span style"display:none">334</span> 334 BC \|style="background:#ACBECF"\|Persian Campaign \|<span style="display:none">Halicarnassus</span> Siege of Halicarnassus \|<span style="display:none">.</span>Achaemenid Empire \|Siege \|Turkey \|King <span style="display:none">⁂</span> \|- \|{{yes2}}Victory !scope"row"\|<span style"display:none">333-11-05</span> 5 November 333 BC \|style="background:#ACBECF"\|Persian Campaign \|<span style="display:none">Issus</span> Battle of Issus \|<span style="display:none">.</span>Achaemenid Empire \|Battle \| Turkey \|King <span style="display:none">⁂</span> \|- \|{{yes2}}Victory !scope"row"\|<span style"display:none">332</span> January–July 332 BC \|style="background:#ACBECF"\|Persian Campaign \|<span style="display:none">Tyre</span> Siege of Tyre \|<span style="display:none">.</span>Achaemenid Empire, Tyrians \|Siege \| Lebanon \|King <span style="display:none">⁂</span> \|- \|{{yes2}}Victory !scope"row"\|<span style"display:none">332-10</span> October 332 BC \|style="background:#ACBECF"\|Persian Campaign \|<span style="display:none">Tyre</span> Siege of Gaza \|<span style="display:none">.</span>Achaemenid Empire \|Siege \| Palestine \|King <span style="display:none">⁂</span> \|- \|{{yes2}}Victory !scope"row"\|<span style"display:none">331-10-01</span> 1 October 331 BC \|style="background:#ACBECF"\|Persian Campaign \|<span style="display:none">Gaugamela</span> Battle of Gaugamela \|<span style="display:none">.</span>Achaemenid Empire \|Battle \| Iraq \|King <span style="display:none">⁂</span> \|- \|{{yes2}}Victory !scope"row"\|<span style"display:none">331-12</span> December 331 BC \|style="background:#ACBECF"\|Persian Campaign \|<span style="display:none">Uxian Defile</span> Battle of the Uxian Defile \|<span style="display:none">.</span>Uxians \|Battle \| Iran \|King <span style="display:none">⁂</span> \|- \|{{yes2}}Victory !scope"row"\|<span style"display:none">330-01-20</span> 20 January 330 BC \|style="background:#ACBECF"\|Persian Campaign \|<span style="display:none">Persian Gate</span> Battle of the Persian Gate \|<span style="display:none">.</span>Achaemenid Empire \|Battle \| Iran \|King <span style="display:none">⁂</span> \|- \|{{yes2}}Victory !scope"row"\|<span style"display:none">329</span> 329 BC \|style="background:#ACBECF"\|Persian Campaign \|<span style="display:none">Cyropolis</span> Siege of Cyropolis \|<span style="display:none">.</span>Sogdians \|Siege \| Turkmenistan \|King <span style="display:none">⁂</span> \|- \|{{yes2}}Victory !scope"row"\|<span style"display:none">329-10</span> October 329 BC \|style="background:#ACBECF"\|Persian Campaign \|<span style="display:none">Jaxartes</span> Battle of Jaxartes \|<span style="display:none">.</span>Scythians \|Battle \| Uzbekistan \|King <span style="display:none">⁂</span> \|- \|{{yes2}}Victory !scope"row"\|<span style"display:none">327</span> 327 BC \|style="background:#ACBECF"\|Persian Campaign \|<span style="display:none">Sogdian Rock</span> Siege of the Sogdian Rock \|<span style="display:none">.</span>Sogdians \|Siege \| Uzbekistan \|King <span style="display:none">⁂</span> \|- \|{{yes2}}Victory !scope"row"\|<span style"display:none">327</span> May 327 – March 326 BC \|style="background:#ACBECF"\|Indian Campaign \|<span style="display:none">Cophen</span> Cophen campaign \|<span style="display:none">.</span>Aspasians \|Expedition \| Afghanistan and Pakistan \|King <span style="display:none">⁂</span> \|- \|{{yes2}}Victory !scope"row"\|<span style"display:none">326-04</span> April 326 BC \|style="background:#ACBECF"\|Indian Campaign \|<span style="display:none">Aornos</span> Siege of Aornos \|<span style="display:none">.</span>Aśvaka \|Siege \| Pakistan \|King <span style="display:none">⁂</span> \|- \|{{yes2}}Victory !scope"row"\|<span style"display:none">326-05</span> May 326 BC \|style="background:#ACBECF"\|Indian Campaign \|<span style="display:none">Hydaspes</span> Battle of the Hydaspes \|<span style="display:none">.</span>Porus \|Battle \|Pakistan \|King <span style="display:none">⁂</span> \|- \|{{yes2}}Victory !scope"row"\|<span style"display:none">325</span> November 326 – February 325 BC \|style="background:#ACBECF"\|Indian Campaign \|<span style="display:none">Aornos</span> Siege of Multan \|<span style="display:none">.</span>Malli \|Siege \| Pakistan \|King <span style="display:none">⁂</span> \|} Legacy Alexander's legacy extended beyond his military conquests, and his reign marked a turning point in European and Asian history.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia\|titleAlexander the Great's Achievements\|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica\|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/summary/Alexander-the-Greats-Achievements\|access-date19 August 2021\|archive-date2 July 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210702234248/https://www.britannica.com/summary/Alexander-the-Greats-Achievements\|url-statuslive}}</ref> His campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade between East and West, and vast areas to the east were significantly exposed to Greek civilization and influence.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p186}} Some of the cities he founded became major cultural centers, many surviving into the 21st century. His chroniclers recorded valuable information about the areas through which he marched, while the Greeks themselves got a sense of belonging to a world beyond the Mediterranean.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p186}}Hellenistic kingdoms {{Main\|Hellenistic period}} world view: world map by Eratosthenes (276–194&nbsp;BC), using information from the campaigns of Alexander and his successors<ref>{{cite web \|titleWorld map according to Eratosthenes (194 B.C.) \|publisherHenry Davis Consulting \|workhenry-davis.com \|urlhttp://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancient%20Web%20Pages/112.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/19981205015304/http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancient%20Web%20Pages/112.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-date5 December 1998 \|access-date16 December 2011 }}</ref>]] Alexander's most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia. At the time of his death, Alexander's empire covered some {{convert\|5200000\|km2\|sqmi\|abbron}},<ref name"uconn">Peter Turchin, Thomas D. Hall and Jonathan M. Adams, "[http://jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol12/number2/pdf/jwsr-v12n2-tah.pdf East-West Orientation of Historical Empires] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070222011511/http://jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol12/number2/pdf/jwsr-v12n2-tah.pdf \|date22 February 2007 }}", Journal of World-Systems Research Vol. 12 (no. 2), pp. 219–29 (2006).</ref> and was the largest state of its time. Many of these areas remained in Macedonian hands or under Greek influence for the next 200–300 years. The successor states that emerged were, at least initially, dominant forces, and these 300&nbsp;years are often referred to as the Hellenistic period.{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|pp=xii–xix}} The eastern borders of Alexander's empire began to collapse even during his lifetime.{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|pp24–26}} However, the power vacuum he left in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent directly gave rise to one of the most powerful Indian dynasties in history, the Maurya Empire. Taking advantage of this power vacuum, Chandragupta Maurya (referred to in Greek sources as "Sandrokottos"), of relatively humble origin, took control of the Punjab, and with that power base proceeded to conquer the Nanda Empire.{{sfn\|Keay\|2001\|pp82–85}} Founding of cities {{Main\|List of cities founded by Alexander the Great}} Over the course of his conquests, Alexander founded many cities that bore his name, most of them east of the Tigris.{{sfn\|Morkot\|1996\|p111}}<ref name"livius">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_z2.html \|titleAlexander the Great: his towns \|publisherlivius.org \|access-date13 December 2009 \|archive-date3 May 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150503150242/http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_z2.html \|url-statusdead }}</ref> The first, and greatest, was Alexandria in Egypt, which would become one of the leading Mediterranean cities.{{sfn\|Morkot\|1996\|p111}} The cities' locations reflected trade routes as well as defensive positions. At first, the cities must have been inhospitable, little more than defensive garrisons.{{sfn\|Morkot\|1996\|p111}} Following Alexander's death, many Greeks who had settled there tried to return to Greece.{{sfn\|Morkot\|1996\|p111}}<ref name"livius" /> However, a century or so after Alexander's death, many of the Alexandrias were thriving, with elaborate public buildings and substantial populations that included both Greek and local peoples.{{sfn\|Morkot\|1996\|p111}} Funding of temples at Priene, now housed in the British Museum<ref name="Burn"/>]] In 334 BC, Alexander the Great donated funds for the completion of the new temple of Athena Polias in Priene, in modern-day western Turkey.<ref name"BritishMuseum">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId437260&partId1&searchTextathena+polias&people72426&page1 \|titleCollection online \|publisherBritish Museum \|access-date15 December 2017 \|archive-date15 December 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171215221426/http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId437260&partId1&searchTextathena+polias&people72426&page1 \|url-statuslive }} "Marble wall block from the temple of Athena at Priene, inscribed on two sides. The inscription on the front records the gift of funds from Alexander the Great to complete the temple."</ref> An inscription from the temple, now housed in the British Museum, declares: "King Alexander dedicated [this temple] to Athena Polias."<ref name"Burn">{{cite book \|lastBurn \|firstLucilla \|date2004 \|titleHellenistic Art: From Alexander the Great to Augustus \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTmhjC_AdoNsC&pgPA10 \|locationLondon \|publisherThe British Museum Press \|isbn978-0-89236-776-4 \|pages10–11 \|access-date15 December 2017}}</ref> This inscription is one of the few independent archaeological discoveries confirming an episode from Alexander's life.<ref name"Burn"/> The temple was designed by Pytheos, one of the architects of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.<ref name"Burn"/><ref name"BritishMuseum"/><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details/collection_image_gallery.aspx?partid1&assetid457544001&objectid437260 \|titlePriene Inscription \|publisherBritish Museum \|access-date15 December 2017 \|archive-date15 December 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171215221617/http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details/collection_image_gallery.aspx?partid1&assetid457544001&objectid437260 \|url-status=live }} "Marble wall block from the temple of Athena at Priene, inscribed. Part of the marble wall of the temple of Athena at Priene. Above: "King Alexander dedicated the temple to Athena Polias."</ref> Libanius wrote that Alexander founded the temple of Zeus Bottiaios ({{langx\|grc\|Βοττιαίου Δῖός}}), in the place where later the city of Antioch was built.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://cts.perseids.org/read/greekLit/tlg2200/tlg00411/opp-grc1/88\|titleCapitains Nemo\|websitects.perseids.org\|access-date23 May 2020\|archive-date15 August 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200815194836/http://cts.perseids.org/read/greekLit/tlg2200/tlg00411/opp-grc1/88\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Downey \|first1Glanville \|chapterII The City of Seleucus the Conqueror \|pages27–44 \|id{{Project MUSE\|1708741\|typechapter}} \|titleAncient Antioch \|date2015 \|publisherPrinceton University Press \|isbn=978-1-4008-7671-6 }}</ref> Suda wrote that Alexander built a big temple to Sarapis.<ref>{{cite web\| url https://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/sigma/117\| title Suda, sigma, 117\| access-date 12 August 2021\| archive-date 14 October 2021\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20211014070448/https://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/sigma/117\| url-status live}}</ref> In 2023, British Museum experts have suggested the possibility that a Greek temple at Girsu in Iraq, was founded by Alexander. According to the researchers, recent discoveries suggest that "this site honours Zeus and two divine sons. The sons are Heracles and Alexander."<ref>{{cite news\| url https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2023/11/18/ancient-iraqi-civilisation-worshipped-alexander-the-great/\| title Ancient Iraqis may have worshipped Alexander the Great, says British Museum\| newspaper The Telegraph\| date 18 November 2023\| access-date 18 November 2023\| archive-date 21 November 2023\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20231121225300/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2023/11/18/ancient-iraqi-civilisation-worshipped-alexander-the-great/\| url-status live\| last1 Simpson\| first1 Craig}}</ref> Hellenization {{Main\|Hellenization}} Hellenization was coined by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen to denote the spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander's conquest.{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|ppxii–xix}} This process can be seen in such great Hellenistic cities as Alexandria, Antioch{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|pp56–59}} and Seleucia (south of modern Baghdad).<ref>{{cite web \|last1Waterman \|first1Leroy \|last2McDowell \|first2Robert H. \|last3Hopkins \|first3Clark \|titleSeleucia on the Tigris, Iraq \|publisherThe Kelsey Online \|year1998 \|urlhttp://www.umich.edu/~kelseydb/Excavation/Seleucia.html \|workumich.edu \|access-date16 December 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120104113121/http://www.umich.edu/~kelseydb/Excavation/Seleucia.html \|archive-date4 January 2012 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Alexander sought to insert Greek elements into Persian culture and to hybridize Greek and Persian culture, homogenizing the populations of Asia and Europe. Although his successors explicitly rejected such policies, Hellenization occurred throughout the region, accompanied by a distinct and opposite 'Orientalization' of the successor states.{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|pp21, 56–59}} The core of the Hellenistic culture promulgated by the conquests was essentially Athenian.<ref>{{harvnb\|Green\|2007\|pp56–59}}, {{harvnb\|McCarty\|2004\|p17}}</ref> The close association of men from across Greece in Alexander's army directly led to the emergence of the largely Attic-based "koine", or "common" Greek dialect.{{sfn\|Harrison\|1971\|p51}} Koine spread throughout the Hellenistic world, becoming the lingua franca of Hellenistic lands, and eventually the ancestor of modern Greek.{{sfn\|Harrison\|1971\|p51}} Furthermore, town planning, education, local government, and art current in the Hellenistic period were all based on Classical Greek ideals, evolving into distinct new forms commonly grouped as Hellenistic. Also, the New Testament was written in the Koine Greek language.{{sfn\|Green\|2007\|pp56–59}} Aspects of Hellenistic culture were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century.<ref>{{harvnb\|Baynes\|2007\|p170}}, {{harvnb\|Gabriel\|2002\|p277}}</ref> Hellenization in South and Central Asia {{Main\|Indo-Greek Kingdom\|Indo-Greek art\|Greco-Buddhism}} , in Greco-Buddhist style, 1st to 2nd century AD, Gandhara, northern Pakistan. Tokyo National Museum.]] Some of the most pronounced effects of Hellenization can be seen in Afghanistan and India, in the region of the relatively late-rising Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (250–125 BC) (in modern Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Tajikistan) and the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BC – 10 AD) in modern Afghanistan and India.{{sfn\|Keay\|2001\|pp101–109}} On the Silk Road trade routes, Hellenistic culture hybridized with Iranian and Buddhist cultures. The cosmopolitan art and mythology of Gandhara (a region spanning the upper confluence of the Indus, Swat and Kabul rivers in modern Pakistan) of the ~3rd century BC to the ~5th century AD are most evident of the direct contact between Hellenistic civilization and South Asia, as are the Edicts of Ashoka, which directly mention the Greeks within Ashoka's dominion as converting to Buddhism and the reception of Buddhist emissaries by Ashoka's contemporaries in the Hellenistic world.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleThe Buddhist Heritage of Pakistan: Art of Gandhara \|lastProser \|firstAdriana \|publisherAsia Society \|year2011 \|isbn978-0-87848-112-5 }}</ref> The resulting syncretism known as Greco-Buddhism influenced the development of Buddhism<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://neosalexandria.org/syncretism/greco-buddhism-a-brief-history/ \|titleGreco-Buddhism: A Brief History \|websiteNeosalexandria \|date11 November 2010 \|access-date19 March 2021 \|archive-date26 February 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210226133605/https://neosalexandria.org/syncretism/greco-buddhism-a-brief-history/ \|url-status=live }}</ref> and created a culture of Greco-Buddhist art. These Greco-Buddhist kingdoms sent some of the first Buddhist missionaries to China, Sri Lanka and Hellenistic Asia and Europe (Greco-Buddhist monasticism). Some of the first and most influential figurative portrayals of The Buddha appeared at this time, perhaps modelled on Greek statues of Apollo in the Greco-Buddhist style.{{sfn\|Keay\|2001\|pp101–09}} Several Buddhist traditions may have been influenced by the ancient Greek religion: the concept of Boddhisatvas is reminiscent of Greek divine heroes,<ref>{{harvnb\|Luniya\|1978\|p312}}</ref> and some Mahayana ceremonial practices (burning incense, gifts of flowers, and food placed on altars) are similar to those practised by the ancient Greeks; however, similar practices were also observed amongst the native Indic culture. One Greek king, Menander I, probably became Buddhist, and was immortalized in Buddhist literature as 'Milinda'.{{sfn\|Keay\|2001\|pp101–09}} The process of Hellenization also spurred trade between the east and west.<ref name"Pingree (1978), 533, 554f.">{{harvnb\|Pingree\|1978\|pp533, 554ff}}</ref> For example, Greek astronomical instruments dating to the 3rd century BC were found in the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai Khanoum in modern-day Afghanistan,<ref>{{cite book \|first1Pierre \|last1Cambon \|first2Jean-François \|last2Jarrige \|year2006 \|languagefr \|titleAfghanistan, les trésors retrouvés: Collections du Musée national de Kaboul \|trans-titleAfghanistan, the treasures found: collections of the Kabul national museum \|publisherRéunion des musées nationaux \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idxJFtQgAACAAJ \|page269 \|isbn978-2-7118-5218-5 \|access-date5 September 2020}}</ref> while the Greek concept of a spherical Earth surrounded by the spheres of planets eventually supplanted the long-standing Indian cosmological belief of a disc consisting of four continents grouped around a central mountain (Mount Meru) like the petals of a flower.<ref name"Pingree (1978), 533, 554f." /><ref>{{harvnb\|Glick\|Livesey\|Wallis\|2005\|p463}}</ref><ref name"Hayashi08Aryabhata">Hayashi (2008), Aryabhata I</ref> The Yavanajataka ({{Lit\|Greek astronomical treatise}}) and Paulisa Siddhanta texts depict the influence of Greek astronomical ideas on Indian astronomy. Following the conquests of Alexander the Great in the east, Hellenistic influence on Indian art was far-reaching. In architecture, a few examples of the Ionic order can be found as far as Pakistan with the Jandial temple near Taxila. Several examples of capitals displaying Ionic influences can be seen as far as Patna, especially with the Pataliputra capital, dated to the 3rd century BC.<ref>{{cite book \|page438 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7DX-CAAAQBAJ&pgPA438 \|titleA Companion to Asian Art and Architecture \|isbn978-1-119-01953-4 \|last1Brown \|first1Rebecca M. \|last2Hutton \|first2Deborah S. \|year2015 \| publisherJohn Wiley & Sons \|access-date3 February 2017}}</ref> The Corinthian order is also heavily represented in the art of Gandhara, especially through Indo-Corinthian capitals.Influence on Rome , demonstrating the influence of Alexander's memory. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.]] Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals, who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements.<ref name"Asirvatham">{{harvnb\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|locChapter 6, p. 114}}</ref> Polybius began his Histories by reminding Romans of Alexander's achievements, and thereafter Roman leaders saw him as a role model. Pompey the Great adopted the epithet "Magnus" and even Alexander's anastole-type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of the east for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of greatness.<ref name"Asirvatham" /> Julius Caesar dedicated a Lysippean equestrian bronze statue, but replaced Alexander's head with his own, while Octavian visited Alexander's tomb in Alexandria and temporarily changed his seal from a sphinx to Alexander's profile.<ref name"Asirvatham" /> The emperor Trajan also admired Alexander, as did Nero and Caracalla.<ref name"Asirvatham" /> The Macriani, a Roman family that in the person of Macrinus briefly ascended to the imperial throne, kept images of Alexander on their persons, either on jewellery or embroidered into their clothes.{{sfn\|Holt\|2003\|p3}} On the other hand, some Roman writers, particularly Republican figures, used Alexander as a cautionary tale of how autocratic tendencies can be kept in check by the values of the Roman Republic.<ref name"Asirvatham2">{{harvnb\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|locChapter 6, p. 115}}</ref> Alexander was used by these writers as an example of ruler values such as {{lang\|la\|amicitia}} (friendship) and {{lang\|la\|clementia}} (clemency), but also {{lang\|la\|iracundia}} (anger) and {{lang\|la\|cupiditas gloriae}} (over-desire for glory).<ref name="Asirvatham2" /> Emperor Julian in his satire called "The Caesars", describes a contest between the previous Roman emperors, with Alexander the Great called in as an extra contestant, in the presence of the assembled gods.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.attalus.org/translate/caesars.html\|titleJulian: Caesars – translation\|websiteattalus.org\|access-date29 March 2020\|archive-date26 February 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200226035227/http://www.attalus.org/translate/caesars.html\|url-status=live}}</ref> The Itinerarium Alexandri is a 4th-century Latin description of Alexander the Great's campaigns. Julius Caesar went to serve his quaestorship in Hispania after his wife's funeral, in the spring or early summer of 69 BC. While there, he encountered a statue of Alexander the Great, and realised with dissatisfaction that he was now at an age when Alexander had the world at his feet, while he had achieved comparatively little.<ref>Goldsworthy, 100</ref><ref>Plutarch 1919, XI, 2</ref> Pompey posed as the "new Alexander" since he was his boyhood hero.<ref>Leach, John. Pompey the Great. p. 29.</ref> After Caracalla concluded his campaign against the Alamanni, it became evident that he was inordinately preoccupied with Alexander the Great.<ref name":02">{{Cite book\|lastGoldsworthy\|firstAdrian\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/howromefelldeath0000gold/page/74\|titleHow Rome Fell: death of a superpower\|publisherNew Haven: Yale University Press\|year2009\|isbn978-0-300-16426-8\|pages[https://archive.org/details/howromefelldeath0000gold/page/74 74]}}</ref><ref name":92">{{Cite book\|lastBrauer\|firstG.\|titleThe Decadent Emperors: Power and Depravity in Third-Century Rome\|year1967\|pages75}}</ref> He began openly mimicking Alexander in his personal style. In planning his invasion of the Parthian Empire, Caracalla decided to arrange 16,000 of his men in Macedonian-style phalanxes, despite the Roman army having made the phalanx an obsolete tactical formation.<ref name":02" /><ref name":92" /><ref name":292">{{Cite book\|lastChristopher\|firstMatthew\|titleAn Invincible Beast: Understanding the Hellenistic Pike Phalanx in Action\|publisherCasemate Publishers\|year2015\|pages403}}</ref> The historian Christopher Matthew mentions that the term Phalangarii has two possible meanings, both with military connotations. The first refers merely to the Roman battle line and does not specifically mean that the men were armed with pikes, and the second bears similarity to the 'Marian Mules' of the late Roman Republic who carried their equipment suspended from a long pole, which were in use until at least the 2nd century AD.<ref name":292" /> As a consequence, the Phalangarii of Legio II Parthica may not have been pikemen, but rather standard battle line troops or possibly Triarii.<ref name":292" /> Caracalla's mania for Alexander went so far that Caracalla visited Alexandria while preparing for his Persian invasion and persecuted philosophers of the Aristotelian school based on a legend that Aristotle had poisoned Alexander. This was a sign of Caracalla's increasingly erratic behaviour. But this mania for Alexander, strange as it was, was overshadowed by subsequent events in Alexandria.<ref name=":92" /> In AD 39, Caligula performed a spectacular stunt by ordering a temporary floating bridge to be built using ships as pontoons, stretching for over two miles from the resort of Baiae to the neighbouring port of Puteoli.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Wardle \|first1David \|titleCaligula's Bridge of Boats – AD 39 or 40? \|journalHistoria \|date2007 \|volume56 \|issue1 \|pages118–120 \|doi10.25162/historia-2007-0009 \|jstor25598379 \|s2cid164017284 }}</ref><ref name"seutonius-calig-19">Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Caligula.html#19 19].</ref> It was said that the bridge was to rival the Persian king Xerxes' pontoon bridge crossing of the Hellespont.<ref name"seutonius-calig-19" /> Caligula, who could not swim,<ref>Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Caligula.html#54 54].</ref> then proceeded to ride his favourite horse Incitatus across, wearing the breastplate of Alexander the Great.<ref name"seutonius-calig-19" /> This act was in defiance of a prediction by Tiberius's soothsayer Thrasyllus of Mendes that Caligula had "no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Bay of Baiae".<ref name="seutonius-calig-19" /> The diffusion of Greek culture and language cemented by Alexander's conquests in West Asia and North Africa served as a "precondition" for the later Roman expansion into these territories and entire basis for the Byzantine Empire, according to Errington.<ref>{{harvnb\|Errington\|1990\|p249}}.</ref>Letters {{main\|Letters of Alexander the Great}} Alexander wrote and received numerous letters, but no originals survive. A few official letters addressed to the Greek cities survive in copies inscribed in stone and the content of others is sometimes reported in historical sources. These only occasionally quote the letters and it is an open question how reliable such quotations are. Several fictitious letters, some perhaps based on actual letters, made their way into the Romance tradition.<ref nameLICP>{{cite journal \|last1Pearson \|first1Lionel \|titleThe Diary and the Letters of Alexander the Great \|journalHistoria \|date1955 \|volume3 \|issue4 \|pages429–455 \|jstor4434421 }}</ref> In legend {{Main\|Alexander the Great in legend}} Many of the legends about Alexander derive from his own lifetime, probably encouraged by Alexander himself.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p187}} His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in Cilicia as drawing back from him in proskynesis. Writing shortly after Alexander's death, Onesicritus invented a tryst between Alexander and Thalestris, queen of the mythical Amazons. He reportedly read this passage to his patron King Lysimachus, who had been one of Alexander's generals and who quipped, "I wonder where I was at the time."<ref name"PA46" /> In the first centuries after Alexander's death, probably in Alexandria, a quantity of the legendary material coalesced into a text known as the Alexander Romance, later falsely ascribed to Callisthenes and therefore known as Pseudo-Callisthenes. This text underwent over one hundred recensions, translations, and derivations throughout the Islamic and European worlds in premodern times,<ref>{{harvnb\|Stoneman\|1996\|locpassim}}</ref> containing many dubious stories,{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p187}} and was translated into twenty-five languages,{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p117}} for example Middle Persian, Syriac and Arabic.<ref>{{harvnb\|Darvishi\|2022\|loc117–152}}</ref><ref name"auto"/>In ancient and modern culture {{Main\|Cultural depictions of Alexander the Great\|Alexander the Great in Islamic tradition\|Alexander the Great in the Quran}} Alexander the Great's accomplishments and legacy have been depicted in many cultures. Alexander has featured in both high and popular culture, beginning from his own era to the present day. The Alexander Romance, in particular, has had a significant impact on portrayals of Alexander in later cultures, from Persian to medieval European, to modern Greek.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p=117}} Alexander features prominently in modern Greek folklore, more than any other ancient figure.<ref name"Fermor">{{harvnb\|Fermor\|2006\|page215}}</ref> The colloquial form of his name in modern Greek ("O Megalexandros") is a household name, and he is the only ancient hero to appear in the Karagiozis shadow play.<ref name"Fermor" /> One well-known fable among Greek seamen involves a solitary mermaid who would grasp a ship's prow during a storm and ask the captain, "Is King Alexander alive?" The answer should be "He is alive and well and rules the world!" causing the mermaid to vanish and the sea to calm. Any other answer would cause the mermaid to turn into a raging Gorgon who would drag the ship to the bottom of the sea, all hands aboard.<ref name"Fermor" /> showing Alexander praying at the Kaaba, mid-16th century]] In pre-Islamic Middle Persian (Zoroastrian) literature, Alexander is referred to by the epithet gujastak, meaning "accursed", and is accused of destroying temples and burning the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism.<ref>{{harvnb\|Curtis\|Tallis\|Andre-Salvini\|2005\|p154}}</ref> In Islamic Persia, under the influence of the Alexander Romance (in {{langx\|fa\|اسکندرنامه}} Iskandarnameh''), a more positive portrayal of Alexander emerges.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p120}} Firdausi's Shahnameh ("The Book of Kings") includes Alexander in a line of legitimate Persian shahs, a mythical figure who explored the far reaches of the world in search of the Fountain of Youth.<ref>{{harvnb\|Fischer\|2004\|p66}}</ref> In the Shahnameh, Alexander's first journey is to Mecca to pray at the Kaaba.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastKennedy\|firstHugh\|titleHajj : journey to the heart of Islam\|publisherThe British Museum\|year2012\|isbn978-0-674-06218-4\|editor-lastPorter\|editor-firstVenetia\|locationCambridge, Mass.\|pages131\|chapterJourney to Mecca: A History\|oclc709670348}}</ref> Alexander was depicted as performing a Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) many times in subsequent Islamic art and literature.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastWebb\|firstPeter\|titleThe Hajj : collected essays\|publisherThe British Museum\|year2013\|isbn978-0-86159-193-0\|editor-lastPorter\|editor-firstVenetia\|locationLondon\|pages14 footnote 72\|chapterThe Hajj before Muhammad: Journeys to Mecca in Muslim Narratives of Pre-Islamic History\|oclc857109543\|editor2-lastSaif\|editor2-firstLiana}}</ref> Later Persian writers associate him with philosophy, portraying him at a symposium with figures such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, in search of immortality.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p120}} depicting Alexander being lowered in a glass submersible]] The figure of Dhu al-Qarnayn (Arabic: ذو القرنين; {{Lit\|The Two-Horned One}}) is believed by the majority of modern researchers of the Qur'an as well as Islamic commentators to be a reference to Alexander.<ref name":1">{{cite journal \|last1Griffith \|first1Sidney \|titleNarratives of 'the Companions of the Cave,' Moses and His Servant, and Dhū 'l-Qarnayn in Sūrat al-Kahf: Late Antique Lore within the Purview of the Qurʾān \|journalJournal of the International Qur'anic Studies Association \|date15 March 2022 \|volume6 \|issue1 \|doi10.5913/jiqsa.6.2021.a005 \|s2cid251486595 }}</ref> The figure is also believed by scholars to be based on later legends of Alexander.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p120}} In this tradition, he was a heroic figure who built a wall to defend against the nations of Gog and Magog.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p122}} He also travelled the known world in search of the Water of Life and Immortality, eventually becoming a prophet.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p=122}} The Syriac version of the Alexander Romance portrays him as an ideal Christian world conqueror who prayed to "the one true God".{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p120}} In Egypt, Alexander was portrayed as the son of Nectanebo II, the last pharaoh before the Persian conquest.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p122}} His defeat of Darius was depicted as Egypt's salvation, "proving" Egypt was still ruled by an Egyptian.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p=120}} According to Josephus, Alexander was shown the Book of Daniel when he entered Jerusalem, which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire. This is cited as a reason for sparing Jerusalem.<ref>Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, XI, 337 [http://lexundria.com/j_aj/11.304-12.0/wst viii, 5]</ref> , ''Les faits et conquêtes d'Alexandre le Grand, 1448–1449]] In Hindi and Urdu, the name "Sikandar", derived from the Persian name for Alexander, denotes a rising young talent, and the Delhi Sultanate ruler Alauddin Khalji stylized himself as "Sikandar-i-Sani" (the Second Alexander the Great).<ref>{{harvnb\|Connerney\|2009\|p68}}</ref> In medieval India, Turkic and Afghan sovereigns from the Iranian-cultured region of Central Asia brought positive cultural connotations of Alexander to the Indian subcontinent, resulting in the efflorescence of Sikandernameh (Alexander Romances) written by Indo-Persian poets such as Amir Khusrau and the prominence of Alexander the Great as a popular subject in Mughal-era Persian miniatures.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastDonde \|firstDipanwita \|date2014 \|titleThe Mughal Sikander: Influence of the Romance of Alexander on Mughal Manuscript Painting \|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/6097802 \|journalInternational Conference of Greek Studies: An Asian Perspective \|viaAcademia \|access-date19 April 2019 \|archive-date12 August 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210812151906/https://www.academia.edu/6097802 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In medieval Europe, Alexander the Great was revered as a member of the Nine Worthies; a group of heroes whose lives were believed to encapsulate all the ideal qualities of chivalry.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Noll \|first1Thomas \|articleThe Visual Image of Alexander the Great \|titleAlexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives \|editor-lastStock \|editor-firstMarkus \|translator-lastBoettcher \|translator-firstSusan \|date2016 \|publisherUniversity of Toronto Press \|locationToronto \|isbn978-1-4426-4466-3 \|page258 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2nqMCwAAQBAJ&pgPA258 \|access-date=21 November 2017}}</ref> During the first Italian campaign of the French Revolutionary Wars, in a question from Bourrienne, asking whether he gave his preference to Alexander or Caesar, Napoleon said that he places Alexander The Great in the first rank, the main reason being his campaign on Asia.<ref>Louis Antoine Fauvelet de Bourrienne, Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte, pp 158</ref> In the Greek Anthology'', there are poems referring to Alexander.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://topostext.org/work/534#9.699\|titleToposText\|websitetopostext.org\|access-date18 August 2019\|archive-date1 February 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210201022239/https://topostext.org/work/534#9.699\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://topostext.org/work/748#122\|titleToposText\|websitetopostext.org\|access-date18 August 2019\|archive-date1 February 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210201022206/https://topostext.org/work/748#122\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Historiography {{Main\|Historiography of Alexander the Great}} Apart from a few inscriptions and fragments, texts written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered information from men who served with Alexander were all lost.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p186}} Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life included Alexander's campaign historian Callisthenes, Alexander's generals; Ptolemy and Nearchus, Aristobulus, a junior officer on the campaigns, and Onesicritus, Alexander's chief helmsman. Their works are lost, but later works based on these original sources have survived. The earliest of these is Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC), followed by Quintus Curtius Rufus (mid-to-late 1st century AD), Arrian (1st to 2nd century AD), the biographer Plutarch (1st to 2nd century AD), and finally Justin, whose work dated as late as the 4th century.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p186}} Of these, Arrian is generally considered the most reliable, given that he used Ptolemy and Aristobulus as his sources, closely followed by Diodorus.{{sfn\|Roisman\|Worthington\|2010\|p186}}See also {{Portal\|History\|Greece\|Iran\|Egypt}} * Alexander the Great in Islamic tradition * Ancient Macedonian army * Bucephalus * Chronology of European exploration of Asia * Horns of Alexander * List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources * List of people known as The Great * Gates of Alexander * Military tactics of Alexander the Great * Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great * Theories about Alexander the Great in the Quran References Notes {{Cnote2 Begin\|liststyle=upper-alpha}} {{Cnote2\|a\| Heracles was Alexander's alleged illegitimate son.}} {{Cnote2\|b\| The name {{lang\|grc\|Ἀλέξανδρος}} derives from the Greek verb {{lang\|grc\|ἀλέξω}} ({{transliteration\|grc\|aléxō}}, {{Literal translation\|ward off, avert, defend\|lkon}}){{Sfn \|Plutarch\|1919\|loc [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29le%2Fcw IV, 57] \| ps: '{{lang\|grc\|ἀλέξω}}'.}}{{Sfn \| Liddell \| Scott \| 1940}} and {{lang\|grc\|ἀνδρ-}} ({{transliteration\|grc\|andr-}}), the stem of {{lang\|grc\|ἀνήρ}} ({{transliteration\|grc\|anḗr}}, {{Literal translation\|man}}),{{Sfn \|Plutarch\|1919\|loc [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29nh%2Fr IV, 57] \| ps : '{{lang\|grc\|ἀνήρ}}'.}}{{Sfn \|Liddell\|Scott\|1940}} and means "protector of men".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia \|access-date11 December 2009 \|urlhttp://www.etymonline.com/index.php?searchAlexander&searchmodenone \|titleAlexander \|dictionaryOnline Etymology Dictionary \|archive-date20 September 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090920175420/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?searchAlexander&searchmodenone \|url-statuslive }}</ref> }} {{Cnote2\|c\|The first known person to call Alexander "the Great" was a Roman playwright named Plautus (254–184 BC) in his play Mostellaria.<ref>{{Cite book\|authorDiana Spencer\|titleOxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics\|year2019\|chapterAlexander the Great, reception of\|chapter-urlhttps://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-8048\|seriesOxford Research Encyclopedias\|doi10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.8048\|isbn978-0-19-938113-5\|access-date9 November 2021\|quoteAlexander enjoys the epithet the Great for the first time in Plautus's Roman comedy Mostellaria (775–777).\|archive-date10 November 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211110030827/https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-8048\|url-status=live}}</ref>}} {{Cnote2\|d\|Macedon was an Ancient Greek polity; the Macedonians were a Greek tribe.<ref name"Macedonians">{{harvnb\|Hornblower\|2008\|pp55–58}}; {{harvnb\|Joint Association of Classical Teachers\|1984\|pp50–51}}; {{harvnb\|Errington\|1990\|pp3–4}}; {{harvnb\|Fine\|1983\|pp607–08}}; {{harvnb\|Hammond\|Walbank\|2001\|p11}}; {{harvnb\|Jones\|2001\|p21}}; {{harvnb\|Osborne\|2004\|p127}}; {{harvnb\|Hammond\|1989\|pp12–13}}; {{harvnb\|Hammond\|1993\|p97}}; {{harvnb\|Starr\|1991\|pp260, 367}}; {{harvnb\|Toynbee\|1981\|p67}}; {{harvnb\|Worthington\|2008\|pp8, 219}}; {{harvnb\|Cawkwell\|1978\|p22}}; {{harvnb\|Perlman\|1973\|p78}}; {{harvnb\|Hamilton\|1974\|p23}}; {{harvnb\|Bryant\|1996\|p306}}; {{harvnb\|O'Brien\|1994\|p25}}.</ref>}} {{Cnote2\|e\| By the time of his death, he had conquered the entire Achaemenid Persian Empire, adding it to Macedon's European territories; according to some modern writers, this was most of the world then known to the ancient Greeks (the 'Ecumene').{{sfn\|Danforth\|1997\|pp38, 49, 167}}{{sfn\|Stoneman\|2004\|p2}} An approximate view of the world known to Alexander can be seen in Hecataeus of Miletus's map; see Hecataeus world map. }} {{Cnote2\|f\| For instance, Hannibal supposedly ranked Alexander as the greatest general;{{Sfn \| Goldsworthy \|2003\|pp327–28}} Julius Caesar wept on seeing a statue of Alexander, since he had achieved so little by the same age;<ref name"Plutarch, Caesar, 11" /> Pompey and Alauddin Khalji consciously posed as the 'new Alexander';{{sfn\|Holland\|2003\|pp176–83}} the young Napoleon Bonaparte also encouraged comparisons with Alexander. Napoleon also placed Alexander in the first rank.{{sfn\|Barnett\|1997\|p45}} Caracalla believed himself to be the actual reincarnation of Alexander.<ref>Ronald H. Fritze, Egyptomania: A History of Fascination, Obsession and Fantasy, p. 103.</ref><ref>Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell: death of a superpower. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 74. {{ISBN\|978-0-300-16426-8}}.</ref><ref>Brauer, G. (1967). The Decadent Emperors: Power and Depravity in Third-Century Rome. p. 75.</ref> Caligula wore the breastplate of Alexander in order to show his power.<ref>Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 19.</ref><ref>Geoff W. Adams, The Roman Emperor Gaius "Caligula" and His Hellenistic Aspirations, pp 46</ref> Fidel Castro's hero was Alexander the Great, whose Spanish equivalent Alejandro he adopted as his nom de guerre.<ref>Leycester Coltman, The Real Fidel Castro, p 220.</ref> Among Ottoman sultans, Mehmed II's heroes were Alexander and Achilles.<ref>Nicolle, David (2000). Constantinople 1453: The End of Byzantium. Osprey Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-1-84176-091-9}}.</ref> In a letter to his rival, Selim I, while equating himself with Alexander, compares Ismail I as "Darius of our days".<ref>{{cite book\|titleImperial Citizen: Marriage and Citizenship in the Ottoman Frontier Provinces of Iraq\|page39\|year2011\|authorKaren M. Kern}}</ref> In his poetry, however, Shah Ismail identified himself with Alexander. Paolo Giovio, in a work written for Charles V, says that Selim holds Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar in the highest esteem above all the generals of old.<ref>{{cite book\|authorDonald Presgrave Little\|year1976\|page227\|titleEssays on Islamic civilization presented to Niyazi Berkes}}</ref>}} {{Cnote2\|g\|In ancient historiography, the Argead dynasty was traditionally regarded as having originated from Argos. The Argeads themselves claimed Argive Greek descent from the hero Temenus. Through his parents' genealogy, ancient authors traced Alexander's descent back to heroes and other legendary figures from Greek mythology, such as Heracles and Achilles.<ref>Diodorus, Bibliotheca Historica [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docDiod.+17+1.5&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084 17.1.5], [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docDiod.+17.4&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084 17.4]; Plutarch, Life of Alexander [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPlut.+Alex.+2.1&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243 2.1]; Pausanias, Description of Greece [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+1.9.8&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 1.9.8], [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D11%3Asection%3D1 1.11.1], [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPaus.+7.8.9&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 7.8.9]; Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander [https://archive.org/details/L236ArrianIAnabasisOfAlexander14/page/148/mode/2up?viewtheater 2.7.4]; Herodotus, Histories [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docHdt.+5.22.1&fromdocPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 5.22.1], [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D5%3Achapter%3D22%3Asection%3D2 5.22.2]; Isocrates, To Philip [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:abo:tlg,0010,020:32 32]; Thucydides, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0200%3Abook%3D2%3Achapter%3D99%3Asection%3D3 2.99,3]</ref><ref>{{harvnb\|Errington\|1990\|p3}}; {{harvnb\|Hornblower\|2008\|pp=55–58}}</ref>}} {{Cnote2\|h\| There have been, since the time, many suspicions that Pausanias was actually hired to murder Philip. Suspicion has fallen upon Alexander, Olympias and even the newly crowned Persian Emperor, Darius III. All three of these people had motive to have Philip murdered.{{sfn\|Lane Fox\|1980\|pp=72–73}} }} {{Cnote2\|i\| However, Arrian, who used Ptolemy as a source, said that Alexander crossed with more than 5,000 horse and 30,000 foot; Diodorus quoted the same totals, but listed 5,100 horse and 32,000 foot. Diodorus also referred to an advance force already present in Asia, which Polyaenus, in his Stratagems of War (5.44.4), said numbered 10,000 men.}} {{Cnote2 End}} {{notelist}} Citations {{reflist\|refs = <!-- List of named references in alphabetic order (grouped by 1st letter) --> <ref name"Aelian">{{Citation \|lastAelian \| chapter-url http://penelope.uchicago.edu/aelian/varhist12.xhtml#chap64 \|titleVaria Historia \|volumeXII \|chapter64}}</ref> <ref name"AelXII7">{{Citation \|lastAelian \|titleVaria Historia \| chapter-url http://penelope.uchicago.edu/aelian/varhist12.xhtml#chap7 \|volumeXII \|chapter7}}</ref> <ref name"AIII16">{{harvnb\|Arrian\|1976\|loc [http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book3b.asp III, 16]}}</ref> <ref name"AMD">{{cite journal \|last1Oldach \|first1DW \|last2Richard \|first2RE \|last3Borza \|first3EN \|last4Benitez \|first4RM \|titleA mysterious death \|journalN. Engl. J. Med. \|volume338 \|issue24 \|pages1764–69 \|dateJune 1998 \|pmid9625631 \|doi=10.1056/NEJM199806113382411}}</ref> <!--<ref name"appian">{{Citation \|lastAppian \|titleHistory of the Syrian Wars \|at§10 and §11 \|urlhttps://www.livius.org/ap-ark/appian/appian_syriaca_02.html \|publisherLivius}}.</ref>--> <ref name"ashrafian">{{cite journal \|lastAshrafian \|firstH \|titleThe death of Alexander the Great – a spinal twist of fate \|journalJ Hist Neurosci \|volume13 \|pages138–42 \|year2004 \|doi10.1080/0964704049052157 \|pmid15370319 \|issue2 \|s2cid36601180}}</ref> <ref name"AVI27">{{harvnb\|Arrian\|1976\|loc [http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book6b.asp VI, 27]}}</ref> <ref name"AVI29">{{harvnb\|Arrian\|1976\|loc [http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book6b.asp II, 29]}}</ref> <ref name"AVII11">{{harvnb\|Arrian\|1976\|loc [http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book7a.asp VII, 11]}}</ref> <ref name"AVII14">{{harvnb\|Arrian\|1976\|loc [http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book7a.asp VII, 14]}}</ref> <ref name"AVII19">{{harvnb\|Arrian\|1976\|loc [http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book7b.asp VII, 19]}}</ref> <ref name"AVII27">{{harvnb\|Arrian\|1976\|loc [http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book7b.asp VII, 27]}}</ref> <ref name"AVII29">{{harvnb\|Arrian\|1976\|loc [http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book7b.asp VII, 29]}}</ref> <ref name"AVII4">{{harvnb\|Arrian\|1976\|loc [http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book7a.asp VII, 4]}}</ref> <ref name"Depuydt">{{Cite journal \|lastDepuydt \|firstLeo \|date1997 \|titleThe Time of Death of Alexander the Great: 11 June 323 B.C. (–322), ca. 4:00–5:00 PM \|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/25683643 \|journalDie Welt des Orients \|volume28 \|pages117–135 \|jstor25683643 \|issn=0043-2547}}</ref> <ref name"DiodXVI">{{harvnb\|Diodorus Siculus\|1989\|loc [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Diod.+16.86 XVI, 86]}}</ref> <ref name"DSXVII77">{{harvnb\|Diodorus Siculus\|1989\|loc [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Diod.+17.77.1 XVII, 77]}}</ref> <ref name"DSXVII114">{{harvnb\|Diodorus Siculus\|1989\|loc [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Diod.+17.114.1 XVII, 114]}}</ref> <ref name"DSXVII117">{{harvnb\|Diodorus Siculus\|1989\|loc [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Diod.+17.117.1 XVII, 117]}}</ref> <ref name"DSXVII118">{{harvnb\|Diodorus Siculus\|1989\|loc [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Diod.+17.118.1 XVII, 118]}}</ref> <ref name"DSXVIII4">{{harvnb\|Diodorus Siculus\|1989\|loc 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name"PA62">{{harvnb\|Plutarch\|1919\|loc [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.01.0243:chapter62&highlight=ganges LXII, 1]}}</ref> <ref name"PA46">{{harvnb\|Plutarch\|1919\|loc [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.01.0243:chapter46&highlight=lysimachus%2Conesicritus LXVI, 1]}}</ref> <ref name"PA77">{{harvnb\|Plutarch\|1919\|loc [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.01.0243:chapter77&highlight=poisoning LXXVII, 1]}}</ref> <ref name"PA45">{{harvnb\|Plutarch\|1919\|loc [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243%3Achapter%3D45 LXV, 1]}}</ref> <ref name"Plutarch, Caesar, 11">{{harvnb\|Plutarch\|1919\|loc [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.01.0244:chapter11&highlight=alexander XI, 2]}}</ref> <ref name"ref1">{{cite journal \|last1Marr \|first1John S\|author2-linkCharles Calisher \|last2Calisher \|first2Charles H \|year2003 \|titleAlexander the Great and West Nile Virus Encephalitis \|journalEmerging Infectious Diseases \|volume9 \|issue12 \|pages1599–1603 \|doi10.3201/eid0912.030288 \|pmc3034319 \|pmid=14725285}}</ref> <ref name"sarco1">{{cite web \|lastKosmetatou \|firstElizabeth \|titleThe Location of the Tomb: Facts and Speculation \|workHellenic Electronic Center \|year1998 \|publisherGreece.org \|urlhttp://www.greece.org/alexandria/alexander/pages/location.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20040531025749/http://www.greece.org/alexandria/alexander/pages/location.html \|archive-date31 May 2004 \|access-date=16 December 2011}}</ref> <ref name"sarco2">{{cite web \|lastKosmetatou \|firstElizabeth \|titleThe Aftermath: The Burial of Alexander the Great \|workHellenic Electronic Center \|year1998 \|publisherGreece.org \|urlhttp://www.greece.org/alexandria/alexander/pages/aftermath.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20040827134332/http://www.greece.org/alexandria/alexander/pages/aftermath.html \|archive-date27 August 2004 \|access-date=16 December 2011}}</ref> }} Sources Primary sources {{refbegin\|30em}} * {{cite book \|isbn978-0-14-044253-3 \|author-linkArrian \|lastArrian \|titleAnabasis Alexandri (The Campaigns of Alexander) \|editor1-firstAubrey \|editor1-lastde Sélincourt \|editor1-linkAubrey de Sélincourt \|year1976 \|publisherPenguin Books \|title-linkAnabasis Alexandri}} * {{cite book \|urlhttp://www.attalus.org/info/curtius.html \|titleHistory of Alexander \|editor-firstJohn \|editor-lastRolfe \|chapterQuintus Curtius Rufus \|year1946 \|publisherLoeb Classical Library \|access-date28 April 2015 \|archive-date23 September 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150923180024/http://www.attalus.org/info/curtius.html \|url-status=live}} * {{cite web \|lastSiculus \|firstDiodorus \|author-linkDiodorus Siculus \|urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docurn:cts:greekLit:tlg0060.tlg001.perseus-grc2:18.4.4 \|titleLibrary of History \|publisherPerseus Project \|access-date14 November 2009 \|year1989 \|ref{{SfnRef\|Diodorus Siculus\|1989}} \|othersCH Oldfather, translator \|archive-date24 September 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150924214821/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docurn:cts:greekLit:tlg0060.tlg001.perseus-grc2:18.4.4 \|url-status=live}} * {{cite book \|urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.01.0243 \|titlePlutarch, Alexander \|editor-firstBernadotte \|editor-lastPerrin \|lastPlutarch \|year1919 \|publisherPerseus Project \|access-date6 December 2011 \|archive-date21 October 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111021034907/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3atext%3a1999.01.0243 \|url-status=live}} * {{cite book \|urlhttps://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Fortuna_Alexandri/ \|titleOn the Fortune of Alexander \|lastPlutarch \|publisherLoeb Classical Library \|editor-firstFrank Cole \|editor-lastBabbitt \|access-date26 November 2011 \|volumeIV \|year1936 \|pages379–487}} {{cite web \|firstPompeius \|lastTrogus \|year1853 \|urlhttp://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/ \|editor-lastJustin \|titleEpitome of the Philippic History \|access-date14 November 2009 \|websiteCorpus Scriptorum Latinorum \|othersRev. John Selby Watson, translator \|archive-date8 November 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131108235820/http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/ \|url-statususurped}} {{refend}} Secondary sources {{refbegin\|30em}} * {{cite book \|lastBarnett \|firstC. \|titleBonaparte \|publisherWordsworth \|year1997 \|isbn978-1-85326-678-2}} * {{cite book \|lastBaynes \|firstNorman G \|year2007 \|titleByzantium: An Introduction to East Roman Civilization \|publisherBaynes \|page170 \|chapterByzantine art \|isbn978-1-4067-5659-3 \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHdHiVlZ3ErIC \|access-date=5 September 2020}} * {{cite book \|lastBerkley \|firstGrant \|year2006 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idN7mj2NhCGNYC \|titleMoses in the Hieroglyphs \|publisherTrafford \|isbn978-1-4120-5600-7 \|access-date=13 January 2011}} * {{cite book \|lastBose \|firstPartha \|titleAlexander the Great's Art of Strategy \|publisherAllen & Unwin \|locationCrows Nest, NSW \|isbn978-1-74114-113-9 \|year=2003}} * {{cite book \|lastBosworth \|firstA. B. \|year1988 \|titleConquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/conquestempire00abbo \|url-accessregistration \|locationNew York \|publisherCambridge University Press}} * {{Encyclopaedia Iranica\|lastBriant\|firstP.\|author-linkPierre Briant\|titleALEXANDER THE GREAT\|volume1\|fascicle8\|urlhttps://iranicaonline.org/articles/alexander-the-great-356-23-bc\|pages827–830}} * {{cite book \|lastBryant \|firstJoseph M. \|year1996 \|titleMoral Codes and Social Structure in Ancient Greece: A Sociology of Greek Ethics from Homer to the Epicureans and Stoics \|publisherState University of New York Press \|locationAlbany, NY \|isbn978-0-7914-3042-2 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbCM9D9fyCoQC \|access-date3 October 2020 \|archive-date9 November 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201109042906/https://books.google.com/books?idbCM9D9fyCoQC \|url-statuslive}} * {{cite book \|lastCawkwell \|firstGeorge \|author-linkGeorge Cawkwell \|year1978 \|titlePhilip of Macedon \|publisherFaber and Faber \|locationLondon \|isbn978-0-571-10958-6 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idk-mUQgAACAAJ \|access-date3 October 2020 \|archive-date17 September 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200917114805/https://books.google.com/books?idk-mUQgAACAAJ \|url-status=live}} * {{cite book \|lastCawthorne \|firstNigel \|year2004 \|titleAlexander the Great \|publisherHaus \|isbn978-1-904341-56-7}} * {{EB1911 \|wstitle Ptolemies \|volume 22 \|pages = 616–618 }} <!-- Chisholm 1911 --> * {{cite book \|lastConnerney \|firstR. D. \|year2009 \|titleThe upside-down tree: India's changing culture \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4WadcncjsRUC \|publisherAlgora \|isbn978-0-87586-649-9 \|page214 \|access-date5 September 2020}} * {{cite book \|last1Curtis \|first1J. \|last2Tallis \|first2N \|last3Andre-Salvini \|first3B \|year2005 \|titleForgotten empire: the world of ancient Persia \|page154 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkJnaKu9DdNEC \|publisherUniversity of California Press \|isbn978-0-520-24731-4 \|access-date20 June 2015}} * {{cite book \|lastDahmen \|firstKarsten \|year2007 \|titleThe Legend of Alexander the Great on Greek and Roman Coins \|publisherTaylor & Francis \|isbn978-0-415-39451-2}} * {{cite book \|lastDanforth \|firstLoring M. \|year1997 \|titleThe Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World \|publisherPrinceton University Press \|isbn978-0-691-04356-2}} * {{cite book \|lastDarvishi \|firstDariush \|year2022 \|titleThe Alexander Romance \|publisherNegah-e Moaser \|locationTehran \|isbn978-622-290-118-9 \|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/95955711 \|access-date=5 May 2023}} * {{cite book \|lastDillon \|firstJohn M. \|year2004 \|titleMorality and custom in ancient Greece \|publisherIndiana University Press \|isbn978-0-253-34526-4}} * {{cite book \|lastDurant \|firstWill \|author-linkWill Durant \|year1966 \|titleThe Story of Civilization: The Life of Greece \|publisherSimon & Schuster \|isbn978-0-671-41800-7 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/lifeofgreece02dura}} * {{cite book \|lastErrington \|firstRobert Malcolm \|author-linkRobert Malcolm Errington \|year1990 \|titleA History of Macedonia \|publisherUniversity of California Press \|locationBerkeley \|translatorCatherine Errington \|isbn978-0-520-06319-8 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/bub_gb_PYgkqP_s1PQC}} * {{cite book \|lastFine \|firstJohn Van Antwerp \|year1983 \|titleThe Ancient Greeks: A Critical History \|publisherHarvard University Press \|locationCambridge, MA \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/ancientgreeks00john \|url-accessregistration \|isbn=978-0-674-03314-6}} * {{cite book \|lastFermor \|firstPatrick Leigh \|year2006 \|titleMani: Travels in the Southern Peloponnese \|publisherNew York Book Review \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8V5QBkD7IIYC \|isbn978-1-59017-188-2 \|page358 \|access-date5 September 2020}} * {{cite book \|lastFischer \|firstM. M. J. \|year2004 \|titleMute dreams, blind owls, and dispersed knowledges: Persian poesis in the transnational circuitry \|page66 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKibBH6cI8BgC \|publisherDuke University Press \|isbn978-0-8223-3298-5 \|access-date5 September 2020}} * {{cite book \|lastFletcher \|firstJoann \|author-linkJoann Fletcher \|year2008 \|titleCleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend \|publisherHarper \|locationNew York \|isbn978-0-06-058558-7 \|url=https://archive.org/details/cleopatragreatwo00flet}} * {{cite book \|lastForeman \|firstLaura \|year2004 \|titleAlexander the conqueror: the epic story of the warrior king \|publisherDa Capo Press \|page217 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrVEa4nzLkT4C \|isbn978-0-306-81293-4 \|access-date20 June 2015}} * {{cite book \|lastGabriel \|firstRichard A \|year2002 \|titleThe Great Armies of Antiquity \|publisherGreenwood \|page277 \|chapterThe army of Byzantium \|isbn978-0-275-97809-9 \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idy1ngxn_xTOIC \|access-date=5 September 2020}} * {{cite book \|editor-lastGergel \|editor-firstTania \|year2004 \|titleThe Brief Life and Towering Exploits of History's Greatest Conqueror as Told By His Original Biographers \|publisherPenguin \|isbn978-0-14-200140-0 \|url=https://archive.org/details/alexandergreatse00gerg}} * {{cite book \|last1Gerin \|first1Dominique \|last2Grandjean \|first2Catherine \|last3Amandry \|first3Michel \|author-link3Michel Amandry \|last4de Callatay \|first4François \|author-link4François de Callataÿ \|titleLa monnaie grecque \|date2001 \|edition=Ellipse, "L'Antiquité : une histoire"}} * {{cite book \|editor1-lastGlick \|editor1-firstThomas F. \|editor2-lastLivesey \|editor2-firstSteven John \|editor3-lastWallis \|editor3-firstFaith \|year2005 \|titleMedieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia \|publisherRoutledge \|locationNew York \|isbn=978-0-415-96930-7}} * {{cite book \|lastGoldsworthy \|firstA. \|year2003 \|titleThe Fall of Carthage \|publisherCassel \|isbn978-0-304-36642-2}} * {{cite book \|first1Anthony \|last1Grafton \|year2010 \|editor1-lastMost \|editor1-firstGlenn W \|editor2-lastSettis \|editor2-firstSalvatore \|titleThe Classical Tradition \|publisherHarvard University Press \|isbn978-0-674-03572-0}} * {{cite book \|lastGreen \|firstPeter \|author-linkPeter Green (historian) \|year2007 \|titleAlexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age \|publisherPhoenix \|locationLondon \|isbn978-0-7538-2413-9}} * {{cite book \|lastGunther \|firstJohn \|year2007 \|titleAlexander the Great \|publisherSterling \|isbn978-1-4027-4519-5}} * {{cite book \|lastHamilton \|firstJ.R. \|year1974 \|titleAlexander the Great \|publisherUniversity of Pittsburgh Press \|locationPittsburgh \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqi0iL6r7v2IC \|isbn=978-0-8229-6084-3}} * {{cite book \|author-linkN. G. L. Hammond \|lastHammond \|firstNGL \|year1983 \|titleSources for Alexander the Great \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn978-0-521-71471-6 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgay_i14p9oEC \|access-date5 September 2020}} * {{cite book \|lastHammond \|firstNicholas Geoffrey Lemprière \|year1986 \|titleA History of Greece to 323 BC \|publisherCambridge University \|author-linkN. G. L. Hammond \|author-mask=3}} * {{cite book \|lastHammond \|firstNicholas Geoffrey Lemprière \|year1993 \|titleStudies concerning Epirus and Macedonia before Alexander \|publisherHakkert \|locationAmsterdam \|isbn978-90-256-1050-0 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTWwiAQAAIAAJ \|access-date3 October 2020}} * {{cite book \|last1Hammond \|first1Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière \|author-link1N. G. L. Hammond \|last2Walbank \|first2Frank William \|author-link2F. W. Walbank \|year2001 \|titleA History of Macedonia: 336–167 B.C. \|volume3 \|editionreprint \|publisherClarendon Press of the Oxford University Press \|locationOxford \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqpb3JdwuDQIC \|isbn978-0-19-814815-9 \|access-date3 October 2020}} * {{cite book \|lastHarrison \|firstE. F. \|year1971 \|titleThe language of the New Testament \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqh7b4o6JQpIC \|publisherWm B Eerdmans \|page508 \|isbn978-0-8028-4786-7 \|access-date5 September 2020 \|archive-date14 April 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210414133402/https://books.google.com/books?idqh7b4o6JQpIC \|url-statuslive}} * {{cite book \|editor1-lastHeckel \|editor1-firstWaldemar \|editor2-firstLawrence A \|editor2-lastTritle \|year2009 \|titleAlexander the Great: A New History \|publisherWiley-Blackwell \|isbn978-1-4051-3082-0 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjbaPwpvt8ZQC \|access-date=5 September 2020}} * {{cite book \|lastHolland \|firstTom \|titleRubicon: Triumph and Tragedy in the Roman Republic \|year2003 \|publisherAbacus \|isbn978-0-349-11563-4}} * {{cite book \|lastHolt \|firstFrank Lee \|titleAlexander the Great and The Mystery of the Elephant Medallions \|year2003 \|publisherUniversity of California Press \|isbn978-0-520-23881-7}} * {{cite book \|lastHornblower \|firstSimon \|chapterGreek Identity in the Archaic and Classical Periods \|titleHellenisms: Culture, Identity and Ethnicity from Antiquity to Modernity \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/hellenismscultur00zach \|url-accesslimited \|pages[https://archive.org/details/hellenismscultur00zach/page/n53 37]–58 \|editor-lastZacharia \|editor-firstK. \|publisherAshgate \|isbn978-0-7546-6525-0 \|year2008}} {{cite book\|lastJoint Association of Classical Teachers\|titleThe World of Athens: An Introduction to Classical Athenian Culture\|locationCambridge, UK \|publisherCambridge University Press \|year1984\|isbn0-521-27389-7\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVgDKeqi4or8C}} {{cite book \|lastJones \|firstArcher \|year2001 \|titleThe Art of War in the Western World \|publisherUniversity of Illinois Press \|locationChampaign \|isbn978-0-252-06966-6 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idz2FRzcz2W0oC \|access-date3 October 2020}} * {{cite book \|lastKeay \|firstJohn \|titleIndia: A History \|publisherGrove Press \|year2001 \|isbn978-0-8021-3797-5}} * {{cite book \|lastKosmin \|firstPaul J. \|author-linkPaul J. Kosmin \|titleThe Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9UWdAwAAQBAJ \|publisherHarvard University Press \|date2014 \|isbn978-0-674-72882-0 \|access-date24 August 2017}} * {{cite book \|lastLane Fox \|firstRobin \|year1980 \|titleThe Search for Alexander \|publisherLittle Brown & Co \|placeBoston \|isbn978-0-316-29108-8 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/searchforalexand00lane}} * {{cite book \|lastLane Fox \|firstRobin \|author-linkRobin Lane Fox \|year2006 \|titleAlexander the Great \|publisherePenguin \|asinB002RI9DYW \|author-mask3}} * {{cite book \|last1LE RIDER \|first1George \|titleAlexandre le Grand : Monnaie, finances et politique \|date2003 \|publisherPUF \|pageChapter V \|edition=Histoire}} * {{cite book \|last1Liddell \|first1Henry George \|first2Robert \|last2Scott \|titleA Greek-English Lexicon on Perseus Digital Library \|editor1-firstSir Henry Stuart \|editor1-lastJones \|editor2-firstRoderick \|editor2-lastMcKenzie \|locationOxford \|publisherClarendon Press \|year1940}} * {{cite book \|lastLuniya \|firstBhanwarlal Nathuram \|titleLife and Culture in Ancient India: From the Earliest Times to 1000 AD \|year1978 \|publisherLakshmi Narain Agarwal \|lccn78907043}} * {{cite book \|lastMcCarty \|firstNick \|titleAlexander the Great \|publisherPenguin \|locationCamberwell, Victoria \|year2004 \|isbn=978-0-670-04268-5}} * {{cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlMoOAAAAQAAJ \|titleOutsiders in the Greek cities in the fourth century BC \|lastMcKechnie \|firstPaul \|page54 \|publisherTaylor & Francis \|year1989 \|isbn978-0-415-00340-7 \|access-date20 June 2015}} * {{cite book \|lastMorkot \|firstRobert \|titleThe Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Greece \|publisherPenguin \|year=1996}} * {{cite book \|lastNarain \|firstA. K. \|titleAlexander the Great: Greece and Rome–12 \|year1965}} * {{cite book \|lastOgden \|firstDaniel \|chapterAlexander's Sex Life \|titleAlexander the Great: A New History \|editor1-firstAlice \|editor1-lastHeckel \|editor2-firstWaldemar \|editor2-lastHeckel \|editor3-firstLawrence A \|editor3-lastTritle \|publisherWiley-Blackwell \|year2009 \|isbn=978-1-4051-3082-0}} {{cite book\|lastOsborne\|firstRobin\|titleGreek History\|locationNew York, New York and London, UK \|publisherRoutledge\|year2004\|isbn0-415-31717-7\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=jXve_I_7u8QC}} {{cite book \|lastPerlman \|firstSamuel \|year1973 \|titlePhilip and Athens \|publisherHeffer \|locationCambridge \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ids5sgAAAAMAAJ \|isbn=978-0-85270-076-1}} * {{cite book \|lastPingree \|firstD. \|volume15 \|year1978 \|pages533–633 \|chapterHistory of Mathematical Astronomy in India \|title=Dictionary of Scientific Biography}} * {{cite book \|lastPratt \|firstJames Bissett \|titleThe Pilgrimage of Buddhism and a Buddhist Pilgrimage \|year1996 \|publisherLaurier Books \|isbn978-81-206-1196-2}} * {{cite book \|last1Rebuffat \|first1Françoise \|titleLa monnaie dans l'Antiquité \|date1996 \|publisher=Picard}} <!-- Both version are in use, d not remove either until the reference are all corrected --> * {{cite book \|lastRenault \|firstMary \|titleThe Nature of Alexander the Great \|publisherPenguin \|year2001 \|isbn978-0-14-139076-5}} * {{cite book \|lastRenault \|firstMary \|titleThe Nature of Alexander \|publisherOpen Road Media \|year2013 \|isbn978-1480432949}} * {{cite book \|editor1-lastRing \|editor1-firstTrudy \|editor2-lastSalkin \|editor2-firstRobert M \|editor3-lastBerney \|editor3-firstKA \|editor4-lastSchellinger \|editor4-firstPaul E \|titleInternational dictionary of historic places \|year1994 \|isbn978-1-884964-04-6 \|locationChicago \|publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn, 1994–1996}} * {{cite book \|last1Roisman \|first1Joseph \|last2Worthington \|first2Ian \|titleA Companion to Ancient Macedonia \|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons \|year2010 \|isbn978-1-4051-7936-2 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlkYFVJ3U-BIC \|access-date=20 June 2015}} * {{cite book \|last1Sabin \|first1P \|last2van Wees \|first2H \|last3Whitby \|first3M \|titleThe Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare: Greece, the Hellenistic World and the Rise of Rome \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn978-0-521-78273-9 \|year2007}} * {{cite book \|lastSacks \|firstDavid \|titleEncyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World \|publisherConstable & Co \|isbn978-0-09-475270-2 \|year1995}} * {{cite book \|lastStarr \|firstChester G. \|year1991 \|titleA History of the Ancient World \|publisherOxford University Press \|locationNew York \|isbn978-0-19-506628-9 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbA3kgtZU1iMC \|access-date3 October 2020}} * {{cite book \|lastStoneman \|firstRichard \|titleAlexander the Great \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/alexandergreat0000ston \|url-accessregistration \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn978-0-415-31932-4 \|year2004}} * {{cite book \|lastStoneman \|firstRichard \|titleThe Novel in the Ancient World \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/novelancientworl00schm \|url-accesslimited \|editor-lastSchmeling \|editor-firstGareth L \|chapterThe Metamorphoses of Alexander Romance \|pages[https://archive.org/details/novelancientworl00schm/page/n602 601]–12 \|publisherBrill \|year1996 \|isbn978-90-04-09630-1}} * {{cite journal \|lastStudniczka \|firstFranz \|titleÜber die Grundlagen der geschichtlichen Erklärung der Sidonischen Sarkophage \|journal{{ill\|Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts\|de}} \|pages204–244 \|volume9 \|year=1894}} * {{cite book \|lastTripathi \|firstRama Shankar \|titleHistory of Ancient India \|year1999 \|publisherMotilal Banarsidass Publ. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWbrcVcT-GbUC \|isbn978-81-208-0018-2 \|access-date=5 September 2020}} * {{cite book \|lastToynbee \|firstArnold Joseph \|year1981 \|titleThe Greeks and Their Heritages \|publisherOxford University Press \|locationOxford \|isbn978-0-19-215256-5 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/greekstheirheri00toyn \|url-access=registration}} * {{cite book \|lastWood \|firstMichael \|year2001 \|titleIn the Footsteps of Alexander the Great: A Journey from Greece to Asia \|publisherUniversity of California Press \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5wDWn1dL6HMC \|isbn978-0-520-23192-4 \|access-date=5 September 2020}} * {{cite book \|lastWorthington \|firstIan \|year2003 \|titleAlexander the Great: A Reader \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idOiM51I7_A1gC \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn978-0-415-29187-3 \|page332 \|access-date5 September 2020}} * {{cite book \|lastWorthington \|firstIan \|year2008 \|titlePhilip II of Macedonia \|publisherYale University Press \|locationNew Haven, CT \|isbn978-0-300-12079-0 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCZsTAQAAIAAJ \|access-date20 June 2015}} * {{cite book \|lastYenne \|firstBill \|year2010 \|titleAlexander the Great: Lessons From History's Undefeated General \|publisherPalgrave MacMillan \|isbn978-0-230-61915-9}} {{refend}} Further reading {{refbegin\|30em}} * {{cite journal \|lastBadian \|firstErnst \|author-linkErnst Badian \|year1958 \|titleAlexander the Great and the Unity of Mankind \|journalHistoria \|volume=7}} * {{cite book \|last1Beazley \|first1JD \|author1-linkJ. D. Beazley \|last2Ashmole \|first2B \|author2-linkBernard Ashmole \|year1932 \|titleGreek Sculpture and Painting \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn978-0-521-04131-7}} * {{cite book \|lastBowra \|firstMaurice \|author-linkMaurice Bowra \|year1994 \|titleThe Greek Experience \|publisherPhoenix \|isbn=978-1-85799-122-2}} * {{cite book \|lastBoardman \|firstJohn \|author-linkJohn Boardman (art historian) \|year2019 \|titleAlexander the Great: From His Death to the Present Day \|publisherPrinceton University Press \|isbn=978-0-691-18175-2}} * {{cite book \|lastBurn \|firstAR \|year1951 \|titleAlexander the Great and the Hellenistic Empire \|edition2nd \|locationLondon \|publisher=English Universities Press}} * {{cite web \|languagela \|urlhttps://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Curtius/home.html \|lastRufus \|firstQuintus Curtius \|titleQuintus Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander the Great \|publisherU Chicago \|access-date=16 November 2009}} * {{cite book \|lastCartledge \|firstPaul \|author-linkPaul Cartledge \|year2004 \|titleAlexander the Great \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/alexandergreatth00cart \|url-accessregistration \|publisherOverlook \|isbn=978-1-58567-565-4}} * {{cite book \|lastDoherty \|firstPaul \|author-linkPaul C. Doherty \|year2004 \|titleThe Death of Alexander the Great \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/isbn_9780786713400 \|url-accessregistration \|publisherCarroll & Graf \|isbn=978-0-7867-1340-0}} * {{cite book \|lastEngels \|firstDonald W \|year1978 \|titleAlexander the Great and the Logistics of the Macedonian Army \|locationBerkeley \|publisherUniversity of California Press}} * {{cite book \|editor-lastFawcett \|editor-firstBill \|year2006 \|titleHow To Lose A Battle: Foolish Plans and Great Military Blunders \|publisherHarper \|isbn978-0-06-076024-3 \|url-accessregistration \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/howtolosebattlef0000unse}} * {{cite book \|lastFuller \|firstJFC \|author-linkJ. F. C. Fuller \|year1958 \|titleThe Generalship of Alexander the Great \|locationLondon \|publisherEyre & Spottiswoode \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idq3M0NE2RJgYC \|isbn978-0-306-80371-0 \|access-date=20 June 2015}} * {{cite book \|lastGoldsworthy \|firstAdrian \|author-linkAdrian Goldsworthy \|titlePhilip and Alexander: Kings and Conquerors \|publisherHead of Zeus \|date2020 \|locationLondon \|isbn978-1-78497-869-3}} * {{cite book \|lastGreen \|firstPeter \|author-linkPeter Green (historian) \|year1992 \|titleAlexander of Macedon: 356–323 BC. A Historical Biography \|publisherUniversity of California Press \|isbn978-0-520-07166-7 \|url-accessregistration \|url=https://archive.org/details/alexanderofmaced0000gree}} * {{cite book \|lastGreene \|firstRobert \|author-linkRobert Greene (American author) \|year2000 \|titleThe 48 Laws of Power \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/isbn_9780670881468 \|url-accessregistration \|publisherPenguin \|page[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780670881468/page/351 351] \|isbn978-0-14-028019-7}} * {{cite book \|lastHammond \|firstNGL \|author-linkN. G. L. Hammond \|year1989 \|titleThe Macedonian State: Origins, Institutions, and History \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-814883-8}} * {{cite book \|lastHammond \|firstNGL \|year1994 \|titleAlexander the Great: King, Commander, and Statesman \|edition3rd \|locationLondon \|publisher=Bristol Classical Press}} * {{cite book \|lastHammond \|firstNGL \|year1997 \|titleThe Genius of Alexander the Great \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/geniusofalexande00nglh \|url-accessregistration \|locationChapel Hill \|publisherUniversity of North Carolina Press}} * {{cite book \|lastLane Fox \|firstRobin \|author-linkRobin Lane Fox \|year1973 \|titleAlexander the Great \|locationLondon \|publisherAllen Lane \|isbn978-0-14-008878-6}}, also (1974) New York: E. P. Dutton and (1986) London: Penguin Books. * {{cite book \|lastMercer \|firstCharles \|year1962 \|titleThe Way of Alexander the Great \|locationBoston \|publisherAmerican Heritage Inc.}} * {{cite book \|lastMcCrindle \|firstJ. W. \|year1893 \|titleThe Invasion of India by Alexander the Great as Described by Arrian, Q Curtius, Diodorus, Plutarch, and Justin \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idA9YNAAAAIAAJ \|locationWestminster \|publisherArchibald Constable & Co \|isbn978-0-404-04119-9 \|access-date20 June 2015}} * {{cite book \|last1Monti \|first1Giustina \|titleAlexander the Great: letters: a selection \|date2023 \|publisherLiverpool University Press \|locationLiverpool \|isbn=9781800348622}} * {{cite book \|last1Murphy \|first1James Jerome \|last2Katula \|first2Richard A \|last3Hill \|first3Forbes I \|last4Ochs \|first4Donovan J \|year2003 \|titleA Synoptic History of Classical Rhetoric \|publisherLawrence Erlbaum Associates \|page17 \|isbn=978-1-880393-35-2}} * {{cite book \|last1Nandan \|first1Y \|last2Bhavan \|first2BV \|year2003 \|titleBritish Death March Under Asiatic Impulse: Epic of Anglo-Indian Tragedy in Afghanistan \|isbn978-81-7276-301-5 \|publisherBharatiya Vidya Bhavan \|location=Mumbai}} * {{cite book \|lastO'Brien \|firstJohn Maxwell \|year1992 \|titleAlexander the Great: The Invisible Enemy \|locationLondon \|publisherRoutledge}} * {{cite book \|last1Pomeroy \|first1S \|last2Burstein \|first2S \|last3Dolan \|first3W \|last4Roberts \|first4J \|year1998 \|titleAncient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-19-509742-9 \|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientgreecepol00sara}} * {{cite book \|lastPrevas \|firstJohn \|author-linkJohn Prevas \|year2004 \|titleEnvy of the Gods: Alexander the Great's Ill-Fated Journey Across Asia \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/envyofgodsalexan00prev \|url-accessregistration \|edition3rd \|publisherDa Capo Press \|isbn978-0-306-81268-2}} * {{cite book \|editor-lastRoisman \|editor-firstJoseph \|year1995 \|titleAlexander the Great Ancient and Modern Perspectives \|seriesProblems in European Civilization \|locationLexington, MA \|publisher=DC Heath}} {{cite book \|lastRowson \|firstAlex \|year2022 \|titleThe Young Alexander: The Making of Alexander the Great \|locationLondon \|publisherWilliam Collins \|typeHardcover \|isbn978-0-00-828439-8}} {{cite book \|lastSavill \|firstAgnes \|author-linkl \|year1959 \|titleAlexander the Great and His Time \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/alexandergreathi0000savi_n3m7 \|url-accessregistration \|edition3rd \|locationLondon \|publisherBarrie & Rockliff}} * {{cite book \|lastStewart \|firstAndrew \|year1993 \|seriesHellenistic Culture and Society \|titleFaces of Power: Alexander's Image and Hellenistic Politics \|volume11 \|locationBerkeley \|publisherUniversity of California Press}} * {{cite book \|lastStoneman \|firstRichard \|year2008 \|titleAlexander the Great: A Life in Legend \|publisherYale University Press \|isbn978-0-300-11203-0 \|url=https://archive.org/details/alexandergreatli00ston}} * {{cite book \|lastTarn \|firstWW \|author-linkWilliam Woodthorpe Tarn \|year1948 \|titleAlexander the Great \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.499219 \|locationCambridge \|publisherCambridge University Press}} * {{cite book \|lastWheeler \|firstBenjamin Ide \|author-linkBenjamin Ide Wheeler \|year1900 \|titleAlexander the Great; the merging of East and West in universal history \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.173405 \|locationNew York \|publisherGP Putnam's sons}} * {{cite book \|lastWilcken \|firstUlrich \|year1997 \|author-linkUlrich Wilcken \|orig-year1932 \|titleAlexander the Great \|locationNew York \|publisherWW Norton & Co \|isbn978-0-393-00381-9 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/alexandergreat00wilc}} * {{cite book \|lastWorthington \|firstIan \|year2004 \|titleAlexander the Great: Man And God \|publisherPearson \|isbn978-1-4058-0162-1}} {{refend}} External links {{Sister project links \|sAuthor:Alexander III of Macedon \|nno \|voy=On the trail of Alexander the Great}} {{Library resources box \|byno \|onlinebooksyes \|othersyes \|aboutyes \|label=Alexander the Great \|viaf\|lccn \|lcheading\|wikititle }} * {{cite map \|urlhttp://www.wdl.org/en/item/11738/ \|titleThe Empire and Expeditions of Alexander the Great \|firstFélix \|lastDelamarche \|author-linkFélix Delamarche \|year1833}} * {{cite news \|titleTwo Great Historians on Alexander the Great \|typeconversations \|first1James \|last1Romm \|first2Paul \|last2Cartledge \|author2-linkPaul Cartledge \|newspaperForbes}} [https://blogs.forbes.com/booked/2010/12/12/two-great-historians-on-alexander-the-great-part-one/ Part 1], [https://blogs.forbes.com/booked/2010/12/17/two-great-historians-on-alexander-the-great-part-two/ Part 2], [https://blogs.forbes.com/booked/2010/12/20/two-historians-talk-alexander-the-great-part-3/ Part 3], [https://www.forbes.com/sites/booked/2011/01/03/two-great-historians-talk-alexander-the-great-part-4/ Part 4], [https://blogs.forbes.com/booked/2011/01/10/how-great-a-general-was-alexander/ Part 5], [https://blogs.forbes.com/booked/2011/01/28/two-great-historians-talk-alexander-the-great-part-6/ Part 6]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20161204170928/http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_z1b.html Alexander the Great: An annotated list of primary sources]. Livius. Archived from [http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_z1b.html the original] on 4 December 2016. Retrieved 26 March 2020. * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b06d9bkx In Our Time: "Alexander the Great"]{{snd}}BBC discussion with Paul Cartledge, Diana Spencer and Rachel Mairs hosted by Melvyn Bragg, first broadcast 1 October 2015. {{S-start}} {{S-hou\|Argead dynasty\|\|356&nbsp;BC\|\|323&nbsp;BC}} {{s-reg}} {{S-bef\|before=Philip II}} {{S-ttl\|titleKing of Macedon\|years336–323&nbsp;BC}} {{S-aft\|rows4\|afterPhilip III\|after2=Alexander IV}} {{S-bef\|rows2\|beforeDarius III}} {{S-ttl\|titleKing of Persia\|years330–323&nbsp;BC}} {{S-break}} {{S-ttl\|titlePharaoh of Egypt\|years332–323&nbsp;BC}} {{S-new\|creation}} {{S-ttl\|titleLord of Asia\|years331–323&nbsp;BC}} {{S-end}} {{Kings of Macedon}} {{Hellenistic rulers}} {{Pharaohs \|late}} {{Babylonian kings\|state=collapsed}} {{Authority control}} Category:356 BC births Category:323 BC deaths Category:4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs Category:4th-century BC pharaohs Category:Ancient Macedonian generals Category:Ancient Pellaeans Category:Argead kings of Macedonia Category:City founders Category:Characters in the Divine Comedy Category:Deified Greek people Category:Deified male monarchs Category:Hellenistic-era people Category:Historical figures with ambiguous or disputed sexuality Category:Kayanians Category:Monarchs of Persia Category:People in the deuterocanonical books Category:Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty Category:Shahnameh characters Category:Temple of Artemis	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great	2025-04-05T18:25:22.110011
784	Alfred Korzybski	{{Short description\|Polish-American scholar and philosopher (1879–1950)}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox philosopher \| name = Alfred Korzybski \| image = Alfred Korzybski.jpg \|birth_name=Alfred Habdank Skarbek Korzybski \| birth_date {{birth date\|1879\|7\|3\|mfy}} \| birth_place = Warsaw, Vistula Country, Russian Empire \| death_date {{death date and age\|1950\|3\|1\|1879\|7\|3\|mfy}} \| death_place = Lakeville, Connecticut, U.S. \| alma_mater = Warsaw University of Technology \| main_interests = {{flatlist\| * Engineering * Logic * Mathematics * Philosophy * Semantics }} \| spouse = {{marriage\|Mira Edgerly\|1919}} \| institutions = Institute of General Semantics \| notable_ideas = General semantics<br>The map is not the territory \| known_for = Science and Sanity (1933) \| era = Modern philosophy * 20th-century philosophy \| region = Western philosophy * American philosophy * Polish philosophy }} Alfred Habdank Skarbek Korzybski ({{IPAc-en\|k\|ɔːr\|ˈ\|z\|ɪ\|b\|s\|k\|i\|,_\|k\|ə\|ˈ\|ʒ\|ɪ\|p\|s\|k\|i}};<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/korzybski\|titleKorzybski\|workCollins English Dictionary\|publisherHarperCollins\|access-date27 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster\|Korzybski\|access-date27 August 2019}}</ref> {{IPA\|pl\|ˈalfrɛt kɔˈʐɨpskʲi\|lang}}; July 3, 1879 &ndash; March 1, 1950) was a Polish-American independent scholar who developed a field called general semantics, which he viewed as both distinct from, and more encompassing than, the field of semantics. He argued that human knowledge of the world is limited both by the human nervous system and the languages humans have developed, and thus no one can have direct access to reality, given that the most we can know is that which is filtered through the brain's responses to reality. His best known dictum is "The map is not the territory". Early life and career ).]] Born in Warsaw, Vistula Country, which was then part of the Russian Empire, Korzybski belonged to an aristocratic Polish family whose members had worked as mathematicians, scientists, and engineers for generations. He learned the Polish language at home and the Russian language in schools, and having a French and German governess, he became fluent in four languages as a child.<ref>{{cite book \|lastKodish \|firstBruce I. \|titleKorzybski: A Biography \|publisherExtensional Publishing \|locationPasadena, CA \|year2011 \|page31 \|isbn978-0-9700664-0-4}}</ref> Korzybski studied engineering at the Warsaw University of Technology. During the First World War (1914–1918) Korzybski served as an intelligence officer in the Russian Army. After being wounded in a leg and suffering other injuries, he moved to North America in 1916 (first to Canada, then to the United States) to coordinate the shipment of artillery to Russia. He also lectured to Polish-American audiences about the conflict, promoting the sale of war bonds. After the war he decided to remain in the United States, becoming a naturalized citizen in 1940. He met Mira Edgerly,<ref> {{cite web \|author= Don Shelton \|url= http://american-miniatures20c.blogspot.com/2007/06/edgerly-mira-portrait-of-three-sisters.html \|title= 20C - American Miniature Portraits: Korzybska, Mira Edgerly - portrait of three sisters or a triptych? \|website= American-miniatures20c.blogspot.com \|date1954-07-13 \|access-date 2016-06-28 }} </ref> a painter of portraits on ivory, shortly after the 1918 Armistice; They married in January 1919; the marriage lasted until his death. E. P. Dutton published Korzybski's first book, Manhood of Humanity, in 1921. In this work he proposed and explained in detail a new theory of humankind: mankind as a "time-binding" class of life (humans perform time binding by the transmission of knowledge and abstractions through time which become accreted in cultures). In 1925 and 1926, Korzybski observed psychiatric patients at St. Elizabeth's hospital in D.C. under the supervision of William Alanson White.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastKorzybski \|firstAlfred \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLiup07h3fbIC&pgPR23 \|titleCollected Writings, 1920-1950 \|date1990 \|publisherInstitute of GS \|isbn978-0-910780-08-7 \|languageen}}</ref> General semantics Korzybski's work culminated in the initiation of a discipline that he named general semantics (GS). This should not be confused with semantics. The basic principles of general semantics, which include time-binding, are described in the book Science and Sanity, published in 1933. In 1938, Korzybski founded the Institute of General Semantics in Chicago.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.generalsemantics.org/about-us/history/ \|titleThe Institute of General Semantics » History \|websiteGeneralsemantics.org \|access-date2016-06-28}}</ref> The post-World War II housing shortage in Chicago cost him the institute's building lease, so in 1946 he moved the institute to Lakeville, Connecticut, U.S., where he directed it until his death in 1950. Korzybski maintained that humans are limited in what they know by (1) the structure of their nervous systems, and (2) the structure of their languages. Humans cannot experience the world directly, but only through their "abstractions" (nonverbal impressions or "gleanings" derived from the nervous system, and verbal indicators expressed and derived from language). These sometimes mislead us about what is the truth. Our understanding sometimes lacks similarity of structure with what is actually happening.<ref>{{cite book \| lastKorzybski \| firstAlfred \| titleScience and Sanity: An Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and General Semantics \| edition6 \| year2023 \| orig-year1933 \| page57 \| publisherInstitute of General Semantics \| isbn=9781970164220}}</ref> He sought to train our awareness of abstracting, using techniques he had derived from his study of mathematics and science. He called this awareness, this goal of his system, "consciousness of abstracting". His system included the promotion of attitudes such as "I don't know; let's see," in order that we may better discover or reflect on its realities as revealed by modern science. Another technique involved becoming inwardly and outwardly quiet, an experience he termed, "silence on the objective levels".<ref>{{cite book \| lastKorzybski \| firstAlfred \| titleScience and Sanity: An Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and General Semantics \| edition6 \| year2023 \| orig-year1933 \| page34 \| publisherInstitute of General Semantics \| isbn9781970164220}}</ref>"To be" Many devotees and critics of Korzybski reduced his rather complex system to a simple matter of what he said about the verb form "is" of the general verb "to be."<ref>Alfred Korzybski, Selections from Science and Sanity, 2010.</ref> His system, however, is based primarily on such terminology as the different "orders of abstraction," and formulations such as "consciousness of abstracting." The contention that Korzybski opposed the use of the verb "to be" would be a profound exaggeration. He thought that certain uses of the verb "to be", called the "is of identity" and the "is of predication", were faulty in structure, e.g., a statement such as, "Elizabeth is a fool" (said of a person named "Elizabeth" who has done something that we regard as foolish). In Korzybski's system, one's assessment of Elizabeth belongs to a higher order of abstraction than Elizabeth herself. Korzybski's remedy was to deny identity; in this example, to be aware continually that "Elizabeth" is not what we call her. We find Elizabeth not in the verbal domain, the world of words, but the nonverbal domain (the two, he said, amount to different orders of abstraction). This was expressed by Korzybski's most famous premise, "the map is not the territory". Note that this premise uses the phrase "is not", a form of "to be"; this and many other examples show that he did not intend to abandon "to be" as such. In fact, he said explicitly<ref>{{cite journal \| lastKorzybski \| firstAlfred \| titleThe Role of Language in the Perceptual Process \| journalAlfred Korzybski Collected Writings 1920–1950 \| year1951 \| page698 \| publisherInstitute of General Semantics}}</ref> that there were no structural problems with the verb "to be" when used as an auxiliary verb or when used to state existence or location. It was even acceptable at times to use the faulty forms of the verb "to be," as long as one was aware of their structural limitations.Anecdotes One day, Korzybski was giving a lecture to a group of students, and he interrupted the lesson suddenly in order to retrieve a packet of biscuits, wrapped in white paper, from his briefcase. He muttered that he just had to eat something, and he asked the students on the seats in the front row if they would also like a biscuit. A few students took a biscuit. "Nice biscuit, don't you think," said Korzybski, while he took a second one. The students were chewing vigorously. Then he tore the white paper from the biscuits, in order to reveal the original packaging. On it was a big picture of a dog's head and the words "Dog Cookies." The students looked at the package, and were shocked. Two of them wanted to vomit, put their hands in front of their mouths, and ran out of the lecture hall to the toilet. "You see," Korzybski remarked, "I have just demonstrated that people don't just eat food, but also words, and that the taste of the former is often outdone by the taste of the latter."<ref>R. Diekstra, Haarlemmer Dagblad, 1993, cited by L. Derks & J. Hollander, Essenties van NLP (Utrecht: Servire, 1996), p. 58.</ref> William Burroughs went to a Korzybski workshop in the autumn of 1939. He was 25 years old, and paid $40. His fellow students—there were 38 in all—included young Samuel I. Hayakawa (later to become a Republican member of the U.S. Senate) and Wendell Johnson (founder of the Monster Study).<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://nakedlunch.org/naked-lunch/space-time-travel/naked-lunch-and-chicago/seminal-semantics-antics/ \|titleNaked Lunch @ 50 » Seminal Semantics Antics \|access-dateDecember 21, 2011 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111007204146/http://nakedlunch.org/naked-lunch/space-time-travel/naked-lunch-and-chicago/seminal-semantics-antics/ \|archive-dateOctober 7, 2011 }}</ref> Influence Korzybski's work had a positive reception from a variety of persons in the 1940s and 1950s.<ref>{{cite web\|titleNotable Individuals Influenced by General Semantics\|urlhttp://www.generalsemantics.org/the-general-semantics-learning-center/overview-of-general-semantics/notable-individuals/\|publisherThe Institute of General Semantics\|access-dateSeptember 3, 2012\|archive-dateMarch 19, 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140319195937/http://www.generalsemantics.org/the-general-semantics-learning-center/overview-of-general-semantics/notable-individuals/\|url-status=dead}}</ref> Robert A. Heinlein named a character after him in his 1940 short story "Blowups Happen". The science fiction writer A. E. van Vogt based his novel The World of Null-A, published in 1948, on ideas from General Semantics. On March 8, 1949, fellow science-fiction author L. Ron Hubbard wrote to Heinlein referencing Korzybski as an influence on what would become Dianetics: {{Blockquote\|Well, you didn't specify in your book what actual reformation took place in the society to make supermen. Got to thinking about it other day. The system is Excalibur. It makes nul A's.<ref>{{Cite web \| urlhttps://tonyortega.org/2014/11/08/the-heinlein-letters-what-l-ron-hubbards-close-friends-really-thought-of-him/ \| titleThe Heinlein Letters: What L. Ron Hubbard's close friends really thought of him &#124; the Underground Bunker }}</ref> }} Korzybski's ideas influenced philosopher Alan Watts and physicist Fritjof Capra who used his phrase "the map is not the territory" in lectures and writings [https://openlibrary.org/books/OL25151915M/The_tao_of_physics "The Tao of Physics", 35th Anniversary Edition]. Writer Robert Anton Wilson was also deeply influenced by Korzybski's ideas. The third edition of Science and Sanity states that in World War II the United States Army used Korzybski's system to treat battle fatigue in Europe, under the supervision of Dr. Douglas M. Kelley,<ref>{{cite book \| lastKorzybski \| firstAlfred \| titleScience and Sanity: An Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and General Semantics \| edition6 \| year2023 \| orig-year1933 \| pageliii \| publisherInstitute of General Semantics \| isbn=9781970164220}}</ref> who went on to become the psychiatrist in charge of the Nazi war criminals at Nuremberg. Some of the General Semantics tradition was continued by Samuel I. Hayakawa. Publications * {{cite book\|year1921\|titleManhood of Humanity: The Science and Art of Human Engineering\|publisherE.P. Dutton\|locationNew York\|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/25457/25457-0.txt}} * Science and Sanity: An Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and General Semantics. Lancaster, Pennsylvania: Science Press Printing Co. 1933. See also {{div col}} * {{annotated link\|Alfred Korzybski Memorial Lecture}} * {{annotated link\|Concept and object}} * {{annotated link\|E-Prime}} * {{annotated link\|Robert Pula}} * {{annotated link\|Structural differential}} {{div col end}} References {{Reflist}} Further reading * Kodish, Bruce. 2011. Korzybski: A Biography. Pasadena, CA: Extensional Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-0-9700664-0-4}} softcover, 978-09700664-28 hardcover. * Kodish, Bruce and Susan Presby Kodish. 2011. Drive Yourself Sane: Using the Uncommon Sense of General Semantics, Third Edition. Pasadena, CA: Extensional Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-0-9700664-1-1}} * Alfred Korzybski, [https://web.archive.org/web/20110811091339/http://www.generalsemantics.org/store/all-books/57-manhood-of-humanity.html Manhood of Humanity], foreword by Edward Kasner, notes by M. Kendig, Institute of General Semantics, 1950, hardcover, 2nd edition, 391 pages, {{ISBN\|0-937298-00-X}}. ([https://archive.org/details/manhoodofhumanit00korziala Copy of the first edition].) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110811061133/http://www.generalsemantics.org/store/all-books/56-science-and-sanity-an-introduction-to-non-aristotelian-systems-and-general-semantics.html Science and Sanity: An Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and General Semantics], Alfred Korzybski, preface by Robert P. Pula, Institute of General Semantics, 1994, hardcover, 5th edition, {{ISBN\|0-937298-01-8}}. ([http://esgs.free.fr/uk/art/sands.htm Full text online].) * Alfred Korzybski, [https://web.archive.org/web/20171210202807/http://www.generalsemantics.org/store/all-books/58-alfred-korzybski-collected-writings-1920-1950.html Collected Writings 1920-1950], Institute of General Semantics, 1990, hardcover, {{ISBN\|0-685-40616-4}} * Montagu, M. F. A. (1953). Time-binding and the concept of culture. The Scientific Monthly, Vol. 77, No. 3 (Sep., 1953), pp.&nbsp;148–155. * Murray, E. (1950). In memoriam: Alfred H. Korzybski. Sociometry, Vol. 13, No. 1 (Feb., 1950), pp.&nbsp;76–77. {{cite journal \| lastRead \| firstCharlotte \| titleAlfred Korzybski: His contributions and their historical development \| journalThe Polish Review \| publisherUniversity of Illinois Press \| volume13 \| issue2 \| year1968 \| issn00322970 \| jstor25776770 \| pages5–13 \| urlhttp://www.jstor.org/stable/25776770 \| access-date=2025-01-01}} {{cite journal \| lastRapoport \| firstAnatol \| titleALFRED KORZYBSKI JULY 3, 1879 – MARCH 1, 1950 BIOGRAPHICAL SUMMARY \| journalETC: A Review of General Semantics \| publisherInstitute of General Semantics \| volume74 \| issue1/2 \| year2017 \| issn0014164X \| jstor48617411 \| pages86–92 \| urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/48617411 \| access-date=2025-01-09}} {{cite journal \| lastPostman \| firstNeil \| titleALFRED KORZYBSKI \| journalETC: A Review of General Semantics \| publisherInstitute of General Semantics \| volume60 \| issue4 \| year2003 \| issn0014164X \| jstor42578329 \| pages354–361 \| urlhttp://www.jstor.org/stable/42578329 \| access-date=2025-01-09}} {{cite journal \| lastKodish \| firstBruce I. \| titleYOUNG ALFRED KORZYBSKI \| journalETC: A Review of General Semantics \| publisherInstitute of General Semantics \| volume74 \| issue3/4 \| year2017 \| issn0014164X \| jstor48617467 \| pages536–554 \| urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/48617467 \| access-date2025-01-09}}External links {{wikiquote}} * {{Gutenberg author \| id31349\| nameAlfred Korzybski}} * {{Internet Archive author \|sname=Alfred Korzybski}} * [http://www.gestalt.org/alfred.htm Alfred Korzybski and Gestalt Therapy Website] * [http://www.ags.org.au Australian General Semantics Society] * [http://www.generalsemantics.org Institute of General Semantics] * [https://findingaids.library.columbia.edu/ead/nnc-rb/ldpd_4078999 Finding aid to Alfred Korzybski papers at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library.] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Korzybski, Alfred}} Category:1879 births Category:1950 deaths Category:Writers from Warsaw Category:Clan Abdank Category:Polish emigrants to the United States Category:Polish engineers Category:20th-century Polish philosophers Category:Polish mathematicians Category:Linguists from Poland Category:General semantics Category:People from Lakeville, Connecticut	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Korzybski	2025-04-05T18:25:22.121302
785	Asteroids (video game)	{{Short description\|1979 video game}} {{good article}} {{Use mdy dates\|dateMay 2012}}{{Use American English\|dateDecember 2024}} {{Infobox video game \| title = Asteroids \| image = Asteroids-arcadegame.jpg \| caption = Arcade flyer \| alt = An arcade cabinet over a background of asteroids in rings around a planet. The Asteroids logo and details about the game are seen at the bottom of the flyer. \| developer = Atari \| publisher Arcade {{vgrelease\|NA/EU\|Atari\|JP\|Taito/Sega<ref>{{cite book \|last1Akagi \|first1Masumi \|titleアーケードTVゲームリスト国内•海外編(1971-2005) \|trans-titleArcade TV Game List: Domestic • Overseas Edition (1971-2005) \|date13 October 2006 \|publisherAmusement News Agency \|languageja \|locationJapan \|isbn978-4990251215 \|pages34–5, 40–1 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/ArcadeGameList1971-2005/page/n35/mode/2up}}</ref>}} Atari 7800<br/>Atari Corporation \| designer = Lyle Rains<br/>Ed Logg \| released Arcade{{vgrelease\|NA\|November 1979\|EU\|1979<ref>{{cite web \|titleVideo Game Flyers: Asteroids, Atari, Inc. (UK) \|urlhttps://flyers.arcade-museum.com/?pageflyer&dbvideodb&id3773&image1 \|websiteThe Arcade Flyer Archive \|publisherKiller List of Videogames \|access-date22 March 2021}}</ref>\|JP\|January 1980<ref>{{cite book \|last1Akagi \|first1Masumi \|titleアーケードTVゲームリスト国内•海外編(1971-2005) \|trans-titleArcade TV Game List: Domestic • Overseas Edition (1971-2005) \|date13 October 2006 \|publisherAmusement News Agency \|languageja \|locationJapan \|isbn978-4990251215 \|pages40–1 \|url=https://archive.org/details/ArcadeGameList1971-2005/page/n41/mode/2up}}</ref>}} Atari 2600{{vgrelease\|NA\|July 1981}}Atari 8-bit{{vgrelease\|NA\|1981}}Atari 7800{{vgrelease\|NA\|1986}}Game Boy{{vgrelease\|NA\|1992}} \| genre = Multidirectional shooter \| modes = Single-player, multiplayer \| platforms = Arcade, Atari 2600, Atari 7800, Atari 8-bit, Game Boy }} Asteroids is a multidirectional shooter video game developed and published by Atari for arcades. It was designed by Lyle Rains and Ed Logg.<ref name"atari_production99">{{cite web\|titleProduction Numbers\|urlhttp://www.atarigames.com/atarinumbers90s.pdf\|publisherAtari\|access-dateMarch 19, 2012\|year1999\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130120084729/http://www.atarigames.com/atarinumbers90s.pdf\|archive-dateJanuary 20, 2013\|url-statuslive\|dfmdy-all}}</ref> The player controls a single spaceship in an asteroid field which is periodically traversed by flying saucers. The object of the game is to shoot and destroy the asteroids and saucers, while not colliding with either, or being hit by the saucers' counter-fire. The game becomes more difficult as the number of asteroids increases. Asteroids was conceived during a meeting between Logg and Rains, who decided to use hardware developed by Wendi Allen (then known as Howard Delman) previously used for Lunar Lander. Asteroids was based on an unfinished game titled Cosmos; its physics model, control scheme, and gameplay elements were derived from Spacewar!, Computer Space, and Space Invaders and refined through trial and error. The game is rendered on a vector display in a two-dimensional view that wraps around both screen axes. Asteroids was one of the first major hits of the golden age of arcade games; the game sold 47,840 upright cabinets and 8,725 cocktail cabinets and proved both popular with players and influential with developers. In the 1980s it was ported to Atari's home systems, and the Atari VCS version sold over three million copies.<ref name"RacingTheBeam"/> The game was widely imitated, and it directly influenced Defender,<ref name"RG-55">{{cite magazine \| magazineRetro Gamer \| publisher Imagine Publishing \| title The Making of Defender \| issue 55 \| pages 34–39 \| dateOctober 2008}}</ref> Gravitar, and many other video games. Gameplay The objective of Asteroids is to destroy asteroids and saucers. The player controls a triangular ship that can rotate left and right, fire shots straight forward, and thrust forward.<ref name"WiredEdLogg">{{cite magazine \|urlhttps://www.wired.com/gamelife/2011/11/ed-logg-pioneer-award/ \|authorChris Kohler \|titleAsteroids Designer Ed Logg Honored With Pioneer Award \|magazineWired \|publisherCondé Nast Publications \|dateNovember 17, 2011 \|access-dateDecember 28, 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131208141237/http://www.wired.com/gamelife/2011/11/ed-logg-pioneer-award/ \|archive-dateDecember 8, 2013 \|url-statuslive \|dfmdy-all}}</ref> Once the ship begins moving in a direction, it will continue in that direction for a time without player intervention unless the player applies thrust in a different direction. The ship eventually comes to a stop when not thrusting. The player can also send the ship into hyperspace, causing it to disappear and reappear in a random location on the screen, at the risk of self-destructing or appearing on top of an asteroid.<ref name"RetroGamerAsteroids">{{cite magazine \|magazineRetro Gamer \|issue68 \|publisherImagine Publishing \|year2009 \|urlhttp://www.rawbw.com/~delman/pdf/making_of_Asteroids.pdf \|titleThe Making of Asteroids \|access-dateDecember 18, 2013 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131219041721/http://www.rawbw.com/~delman/pdf/making_of_Asteroids.pdf \|archive-dateDecember 19, 2013 \|dfmdy-all}}</ref> Each level starts with multiple large asteroids drifting across the screen. Objects wrap around screen edges; an asteroid that drifts off the top edge of the screen reappears at the bottom and continues moving in the same direction.<ref name"RulesOfPlay">{{cite book \|last1Salen \|first1Katie \|last2Zimmerman \|first2Eric \|titleRules of Play: Game Design Fundamentals \|publisherMIT Press \|year2004 \|isbn0-262-24045-9 \|name-list-styleamp}}</ref> As the player shoots asteroids, they break into smaller asteroids that move faster and are more difficult to hit. Smaller asteroids are also worth more points. Two flying saucers appear periodically on the screen; the "big saucer" shoots randomly and poorly, while the "small saucer" fires frequently at the ship. After reaching a score of 40,000, only the small saucer appears. As the player's score increases, the angle range of the shots from the small saucer diminishes until the saucer fires extremely accurately.<ref name"EdgeAsteroids">{{cite magazine \|urlhttp://www.edge-online.com/features/making-asteroids/ \|magazineEdge \|issue117 \|titleThe Making of Asteroids \|authorEdge Staff \|publisherFuture plc \|access-dateJanuary 4, 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140104211104/http://www.edge-online.com/features/making-asteroids/ \|archive-dateJanuary 4, 2014 \|url-statusdead \|dfmdy-all}}</ref> Once the screen has been cleared of all asteroids and flying saucers, a new set of large asteroids appears, thus starting the next level. The game gets harder as the number of asteroids increases until after the score reaches a range between 40,000 and 60,000.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Bjork \|first1Staffan \|last2Holopainen \|first2Jussi \|titlePatterns in Game Design \|publisherCharles River Media \|year2005 \|page60 \|isbn1-58450-354-8 \|name-list-styleamp}}</ref> The player starts with 3–5 lives upon game start and gains an extra life per 10,000 points.<ref name"EsquireAsteroids">{{Cite magazine \| urlhttp://www.gamearchive.com/General/Articles/ClassicNews/1981/Esquire2-81-pg62.htm \| magazineEsquire \| volume2 \| issue81 \| titleInvasion of the Asteroids \| authorDavid Owen \| publisherHearst Corporation \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080622053948/http://www.gamearchive.com/General/Articles/ClassicNews/1981/Esquire2-81-pg62.htm \|archive-dateJune 22, 2008}}</ref> Play continues to the last ship lost, which ends the game. The machine "turns over" at 99,990 points, which is the maximum high score that can be achieved. Lurking exploit In the original game design, saucers were supposed to begin shooting as soon as they appeared, but this was changed.<ref name"EdgeAsteroids"/> Additionally, saucers can only aim at the player's ship on-screen; they are not capable of aiming across a screen boundary. These behaviors allow a "lurking" strategy, in which the player stays near the edge of the screen opposite the saucer. By keeping just one or two rocks in play, a player can shoot across the boundary and destroy saucers to accumulate points indefinitely with little risk of being destroyed.<ref name"EsquireAsteroids"/><ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?nid2206&dat19820319&id0IEmAAAAIBAJ&pg2751,2833371 \|newspaperThe Miami News \|titleBeating the Video Games: Lurking on an Asteroid \|authorMichael Blanchet \|dateMarch 19, 1982 \|access-dateJanuary 4, 2014 }}{{Dead link\|dateAugust 2024 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> Arcade operators began to complain about losing revenue due to this exploit. In response, Atari issued a patched EPROM and, due to the impact of this exploit, Atari (and other companies) changed their development and testing policies to try to prevent future games from having such exploits.<ref name"EdgeAsteroids"/> Development Asteroids was conceived by Lyle Rains and programmed by Ed Logg with collaborations from other Atari staff.<ref name"allgame">{{Cite web \| urlhttp://www.allgame.com/game.php?id15438 \| workallgame \| publisherMacrovision \| titleAsteroids \| authorBrett Alan Weiss \| access-dateJune 6, 2009 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090308030532/http://www.allgame.com/game.php?id15438 \| archive-dateMarch 8, 2009}}</ref> Logg was impressed with the Atari Video Computer System (later called the Atari 2600), and he joined Atari's coin-op division to work on Dirt Bike, which was never released due to an unsuccessful field test. Paul Mancuso joined the development team as Asteroids{{'}} technician and engineer Wendi Allen contributed to the hardware.<ref name"EdgeAsteroids"/> During a meeting in April 1979, Rains discussed Planet Grab, a multiplayer arcade game later renamed to Cosmos. The unfinished game featured a giant, indestructible asteroid.<ref name"RetroGamerAsteroids"/> Logg did play Cosmos and remembered shooting the indestructible asteroid to no effect. So Rains asked Logg: "Well, why don't we have a game where you shoot the rocks and blow them up?" In response, Logg described a similar concept where the player selectively shoots at rocks that break into smaller pieces.<ref name"ClassicGamingAsteroids">{{cite web\|urlhttp://classicgaming.gamespy.com/View.php?viewGameMuseum.Detail&id25 \|titleAsteroids \|authorWilliam Cassidy \|workClassicGaming \|publisherIGN \|access-dateJanuary 6, 2014 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121029030926/http://classicgaming.gamespy.com/View.php?viewGameMuseum.Detail&id25 \|archive-dateOctober 29, 2012 \|dfmdy}}</ref> Thus combining the two-dimensional approach of Space War with Space Invaders{{'}} addictive gameplay of "completion" and "eliminate all threats".<ref name"RetroGamerAsteroids"/> Both agreed on the concept.<ref name"RetroGamerAsteroids"/> Hardware Asteroids was implemented on hardware developed by Allen and is a vector game, in which the graphics are composed of lines drawn on a vector monitor.<ref name"allgame"/> Rains initially wanted the game done in raster graphics, but Logg, experienced in vector graphics, suggested an XY monitor because the high image quality would permit precise aiming.<ref name"RetroGamerAsteroids"/><ref name"EdgeAsteroids"/> The hardware is chiefly a MOS 6502 executing the game program,<ref name"RacingTheBeam">{{cite book \|last1Monfort \|first1Nick \|last2Bogost \|first2Ian \|titleRacing the Beam \|publisherMIT Press \|year2009 \|name-list-styleamp\|title-linkRacing the Beam\|isbn 9780262261524}}</ref> and QuadraScan, a high-resolution vector graphics processor developed by Atari and referred to as an "XY display system" and the "Digital Vector Generator (DVG)".<ref name"WiredEdLogg"/><ref>{{cite book \|lastDillion \|firstRoberto \|titleThe Golden Age of Video Games: The Birth of a Multibillion Dollar Industry \|publisherCRC Press \|year2011 \|page58 \|chapterPart 1: Games That Pushed Boundaries \|isbn978-1-4398-7323-6}}</ref><ref name"asteroidsflyer">Asteroids Flyer, 1979, Atari, Inc.</ref> The original design concepts for QuadraScan came out of Cyan Engineering, Atari's off-campus research lab in Grass Valley, California, in 1978. Cyan gave it to Wendi Allen, who finished the design and first used it for Lunar Lander. Logg received Allen's modified board with five buttons, 13 sound effects, and additional RAM, and he used it to develop Asteroids. The size of the board was 4 by 4 inches, and it was "linked up" to a monitor.<ref name"WiredEdLogg"/><ref name"RetroGamerAsteroids"/> Implementation Logg modeled the player's ship, the five-button control scheme, and the game physics after Spacewar!, which he had played as a student at the University of California, Berkeley, but made several changes to improve playability. The ship was programmed into the hardware and rendered by the monitor, and it was configured to move with thrust and inertia.<ref name"WiredEdLogg"/><ref name"RetroGamerAsteroids"/><ref name"RulesOfPlay"/> The hyperspace button was not placed near Logg's right thumb, which he was dissatisfied with, as he had a problem "tak[ing] his hand off the thrust button".<ref name"RetroGamerAsteroids"/> Drawings of asteroids in various shapes were incorporated into the game.<ref name"EdgeAsteroids"/> Logg copied the idea of a high score table with initials from Exidy's Star Fire.<ref name"RetroGamerAsteroids"/> The two saucers were formulated to be different from each other. A steadily decreasing timer shortens intervals between saucer attacks to keep the player from not shooting asteroids and saucers.<ref name"RetroGamerAsteroids"/> A "heartbeat" soundtrack quickens as the game progresses.<ref name"AtariIncBIF">{{Cite book \|last1Vendel \|first1Curt \|last2Goldberg \|first2Marty \|titleAtari Inc.: Business Is Fun \|publisherSyzygy Company Press \|dateNovember 2012 \|orig-year1st. Pub. 2012\|page515 \|chapterChapter 8 \|isbn9780985597405 \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3FwGMtRafrAC&qasteroids+heartbeat&pgPA515 \|name-list-styleamp}}</ref> The game does not have a sound chip. Allen created a hardware circuit for 13 sound effects by hand which was wired onto the board.<ref name="RetroGamerAsteroids"/> A prototype of Asteroids was well received by several Atari staff and engineers, who "wander[ed] between labs, passing comment and stopping to play as they went". Logg was often asked when he would be leaving by employees eager to play the prototype, so he created a second prototype for staff to play.<ref name"RetroGamerAsteroids"/><ref name"ClassicGamingAsteroids"/> Atari tested the game in arcades in Sacramento, California, and also observed players during focus group sessions at Atari. Players used to Spacewar! struggled to maintain grip on the thrust button and requested a joystick; players accustomed to Space Invaders noted they get no break in the game. Logg and other engineers observed proceedings and documented comments in four pages.<ref name="RetroGamerAsteroids"/> <!-- HIDDEN BECAUSE OF NO EASY RELIABLE SOURCE: Asteroids uses 6 KB of ROM code. Another 2 KB of vector ROM contains the descriptions of the main graphical elements (rocks, saucer, player's ship, explosion pictures, letters, and digits) in the form of DVG commands. For each picture frame, the 6502 writes graphics commands for the DVG into a defined area of RAM (the vector RAM) and then asks the DVG to draw the corresponding vector image on the screen. The DVG reads the commands and generates appropriate signals for the vector monitor. There are DVG commands for positioning the cathode ray, for drawing a line to a specified destination, calling a subroutine with further commands, and so on. It features various sound effects, each of which is implemented by its own circuitry. There are seven distinct audio circuits designed by Delman. The CPU activates these audio circuits (and other hardware components) by writing to special memory addresses (memory mapped ports). The inputs from the player's controls (buttons) are also mapped into the CPU address space. --> Quirks Asteroids slows down as the player gains 50–100 lives, because there is no limit to the number of lives displayed. The game's code continues trying to draw them even if they fall outside the boundaries of the screen. After more than 250 lives are collected, the game slows down enough that the watchdog timer thinks it has crashed and reboots the hardware.<ref name="EdgeAsteroids"/> There is limit of 26 asteroids. If there are already that many, shooting a large asteroid turns it into a single medium one, rather than two as per normal. Similarly, a medium asteroid turns into a single small one instead of splitting.<ref name"ArcadeHistory">{{cite web \| url https://www.arcade-history.com/?nasteroids-upright-model&pagedetail&id126 \| title Asteroids [Upright model], the Arcade Video game \| author Arcade-History/Gaming-history \| date 2025 \| access-date 2 Jan 2025 \| language en \| quote The game program only allows 26 asteroids on the screen at any one time. … \| at "Tips and Tricks" section}}</ref> <!-- HIDDEN BECAUSE OF LACK OF RELIABLE SOURCE: On some early versions of the game, it was also possible to hide the ship in the score area indefinitely without being hit by asteroids.<ref>[http://www.atari800xl.org/asteroids/ Atari 800XL]</ref> --> Ports Asteroids was released for the Atari VCS (later renamed Atari 2600) and Atari 8-bit computers in 1981. Programmers Brad Stewart and Bob Smith were unable to fit the Atari VCS port into a 4 KB cartridge. It became the first game for the console to use bank switching, a technique that increases ROM size from 4 KB to 8 KB.<ref name"DPInterviewsBradStewart">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.digitpress.com/library/interviews/interview_brad_stewart.html\|authorScott Stilphen\|titleDP Interviews... Brad Stewart\|workDigital Press\|year2001\|access-dateJanuary 9, 2014}}</ref> A port for the Atari 5200, identical to the Atari 8-bit version, was in development in 1982, but was not published.<ref>{{cite web \|lastReichert \|firstMatt \|titleAsteroids \|websiteAtariProtos.com \|urlhttp://www.atariprotos.com/5200/software/asteroids/asteroids.htm \|access-date=September 19, 2014}}</ref> An Atari 7800 version was published in 1986 with the official launch of the console. It includes cooperative play and colorful bitmapped graphics.<ref name"allgameAsteroids7800">{{Cite web \| urlhttp://www.allgame.com/game.php?id8372 \| workallgame \| publisherMacrovision \| titleAsteroids (Atari 7800) \| authorBrett Alan Weiss \| access-dateJanuary 7, 2014 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141114095534/http://www.allgame.com/game.php?id8372 \| archive-dateNovember 14, 2014}}</ref> <!-- HIDDEN BECAUSE OF APPARENTLY NO EASILY SEARCHABLE RELIABLE SOURCES: It was the built in game for European Atari 7800 models. -->ReceptionAsteroids was immediately successful upon release. It displaced Space Invaders by popularity in the United States and became Atari's best selling arcade game of all time, with over 70,000 units sold.<ref name"allgame"/><ref name"VGExplosion">{{cite book\|lastWolf\|firstMark J.P.\|titleThe video game explosion: A history from Pong to Playstation and beyond\|year2008\|publisherGreenwood Press\|isbn978-0-313-33868-7}}</ref> Atari earned an estimated $150 million in sales from the game, and arcade operators earned a further $500 million from coin drops.<ref name"RetroGamerAsteroids"/> Atari had been in the process of manufacturing another vector game, Lunar Lander, but demand for Asteroids was so high "that several hundred Asteroids games were shipped in Lunar Lander cabinets".<ref> {{cite book \| last1 = Demaria \| first1 = Russel \| last2 = Wilson \| first2 = Johnny I. \| title = High Score! The Illustrated History of Electronic Games \| year = 2004 \| edition = 2nd \| publisher McGraw-Hill/Osborne}}</ref> Asteroids was so popular that some video arcade operators had to install large boxes to hold the number of coins spent by players,<ref name"ClassicGamingAsteroids"/> and Atari assembly line workers that ignored other games they built played finished Asteroids machines awaiting shipping.{{r\|EsquireAsteroids}} It replaced Space Invaders at the top of the US RePlay amusement arcade charts in April 1980, though Space Invaders remained the top game at street locations.<ref>{{cite magazine \|lastAdlum \|firstEddie \|titleThe Replay Years: Reflections from Eddie Adlum \|magazineRePlay \|dateNovember 1985 \|volume11 \|issue2 \|pages134–175 (160) \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/re-play-volume-11-issue-no.-2-november-1985-600DPI/RePlay%20-%20Volume%2011%2C%20Issue%20No.%202%20-%20November%201985/page/160}}</ref> Asteroids went on to become the highest-grossing arcade video game of 1980 in the United States, dethroning Space Invaders.<ref>{{cite magazine \|titleVideo Games \|magazineRePlay \|dateNovember 1980}}</ref><ref name"Kubey">{{cite book \|last1Kubey \|first1Craig \|titleThe Winners' Book of Video Games \|date1982 \|publisherNew York: Warner Books \|isbn978-0-446-37115-5 \|page13 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/Winners_Book_of_Video_Games/page/n29}}</ref> It shipped 70,000 arcade units worldwide in 1980,<ref>{{cite book \|last1Kepos \|first1Paula \|last2Derdak \|first2Thomas \|titleInternational Directory of Company Histories \|date1994 \|volume9 \|page45 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idb_YkAQAAMAAJ \|publisherSt. James Press \|isbn9781558623248 \|quoteIn 1980, the company introduced Asteroids to compete with the Space Invaders arcade game, which was produced by another company. Atari's version proved to be a popular alternative. By the end of the year, 70,000 of the units had been shipped.}}</ref> including over 60,000 sold in the United States that year,<ref name"Kubey"/> and grossed about {{US$\|700 million\|longno}} worldwide ({{US$\|{{Inflation\|US\|0.700\|1980}} billion\|longno}} adjusted for inflation) by 1980.<ref name"Kubey"/> The game remained at the top of the US RePlay charts through March 1981.<ref>{{cite magazine \|titleRePlay: The Players' Choice \|magazineRePlay \|dateMarch 1981}}</ref> The game did not perform as well overseas in Europe and Asia. It sold 30,000 arcade units overseas, for a total of 100,000 arcade units sold worldwide.<ref name"kent_asteroids">{{cite book \|titleThe ultimate history of video games: from Pong to Pokémon and beyond: the story behind the craze that touched our lives and changed the world\|authorSteve L. Kent\|authorlinkSteven L. Kent \|publisherPrima\|year2001\|isbn0-7615-3643-4\|page132\|quoteAtari sold more than 70,000 Asteroids machines in the United States. The game did not do as well in Europe and Asia, however. Only about 30,000 units were sold overseas.}}</ref> Atari manufactured 76,312 units from its US and Ireland plants, including 21,394 Asteroids Deluxe units.<ref name"atari_production99"/> It was a commercial failure in Japan when it released there in 1980, partly due to its complex controls and partly due to the Japanese market beginning to lose interest in space shoot 'em ups at the time.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Bloom \|first1Steve \|titleVideo Invaders \|date1982 \|publisherArco Publishing \|isbn978-0668055208 \|page39 \|url=https://archive.org/details/book_video_invaders/page/n59}}</ref> Asteroids received positive reviews from video game critics and has been regarded as Logg's magnum opus.<ref name"Retro54"/> Richard A. Edwards reviewed the 1981 Asteroids home cartridge in The Space Gamer No. 46.<ref name"SG">{{cite journal\|lastEdwards \|firstRichard A. \|dateDecember 1981 \|titleCapsule Reviews\|journalThe Space Gamer\|publisherSteve Jackson Games\|issue46\|pages36}}</ref> Edwards commented that "this home cartridge is a virtual duplicate of the ever-popular Atari arcade game. [...] If blasting asteroids is the thing you want to do then this is the game, but at this price I can't wholeheartedly recommend it".<ref name"SG"/> Video Games Player magazine reviewed the Atari VCS version, rating the graphics and sound a B, while giving the game an overall B+ rating.<ref>{{cite magazine \|titleSoftware Report Card \|magazineVideo Games Player \|dateSeptember 1982 \|volume1 \|issue1 \|publisherCarnegie Publications \|locationUnited States \|pages62–3 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/Video_Games_Player_Vol_1_No_1_1982-09_Carnegie_Publications_US/page/n61/mode/2up}}</ref> Electronic Fun with Computers & Games magazine gave the Atari VCS version an A rating.<ref>{{cite magazine \|titleVideo Game Explosion! We rate every game in the world \|magazineElectronic Fun with Computers & Games \|dateDecember 1982 \|volume1 \|issue2 \|pages12–7 \|url=https://archive.org/details/Electronic_Fun_with_Computer_Games_Vol_01_No_02_1982-12_Fun_Games_Publishing_US/page/n11/mode/2up}}</ref> William Cassidy, writing for GameSpy's "Classic Gaming", noticed its innovations, including being one of the first video games to track initials and allow players to enter their initials for appearing in the top 10 high scores, and commented that "the vector graphics fit the futuristic outer space theme very well".<ref name"ClassicGamingAsteroids"/> In 1995, Flux magazine ranked the arcade version 11th on their "Top 100 Video Games".<ref>{{Cite journal \|dateApril 1995 \|titleTop 100 Video Games \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/flux-issue-4/page/n25/mode/2up \|journalFlux \|publisherHarris Publications \|issue4 \|pages27}}</ref> In 1996, Next Generation listed it as number 39 on their "Top 100 Games of All Time", particularly lauding the control dynamics which require "the constant juggling of speed, positioning, and direction".<ref>{{cite magazine\|titleTop 100 Games of All Time \|magazineNext Generation\|issue21 \|publisherImagine Media \|dateSeptember 1996\|page56}}</ref> In 1999, Next Generation listed Asteroids as number 29 on their "Top 50 Games of All Time", commenting that "Asteroids was a classic the day it was released, and it has never lost any of its appeal".<ref>{{cite magazine\|titleTop 50 Games of All Time \|magazineNext Generation\|issue50 \|publisherImagine Media \|dateFebruary 1999\|page76}}</ref> Asteroids was ranked fourth on Retro Gamer{{'}}s list of "Top 25 Arcade Games"; the Retro Gamer staff cited its simplicity and the lack of a proper ending as allowances of revisiting the game.<ref name"Retro54">{{cite magazine \| magazine Retro Gamer \| publisher Imagine Publishing \| issue 54 \| page 68 \| title Top 25 Arcade Games \| url http://www.freegamemanuals.com/pdfmagazines/RetroGamer054.pdf \| author Retro Gamer Staff \| date September 2008 \| access-date January 22, 2014 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20140201211526/http://www.freegamemanuals.com/pdfmagazines/RetroGamer054.pdf \| archive-date February 1, 2014 \| url-status live \| df mdy-all}}</ref> In 2012, Asteroids was listed on Time{{'s}} All-Time 100 greatest video games list.<ref>{{cite magazine\|last1Grossman\|first1Lev\|titleAll-Time 100 Video Games\|urlhttps://techland.time.com/2012/11/15/all-time-100-video-games/slide/asteroids-1979/\|magazineTime \|access-dateSeptember 28, 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121118053317/http://techland.time.com/2012/11/15/all-time-100-video-games/slide/asteroids-1979\|archive-dateNovember 18, 2012\|url-statuslive\|dateNovember 15, 2012}}</ref> Entertainment Weekly named Asteroids one of the top ten games for the Atari 2600 in 2013.<ref nameew>{{cite magazine \| urlhttp://www.ew.com/article/2013/01/25/the-10-best-atari-games \| firstAaron \| lastMorales \| titleThe 10 best Atari games \| magazineEntertainment Weekly \| dateJanuary 25, 2013 \| access-dateApril 17, 2016 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180115174334/http://ew.com/article/2013/01/25/the-10-best-atari-games/ \| archive-dateJanuary 15, 2018 \| url-statuslive \| dfmdy-all}}</ref> It was added to the Museum of Modern Art's collection of video games.<ref name"MoMA+7VGArtCollection">{{Cite magazine \| urlhttps://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2421168,00.asp \| magazinePC Magazine \| titleMoMA Adds Seven Video Games to Art Collection \| authorStephanie Mlot \| dateJune 28, 2013 \| access-dateJanuary 17, 2014 \| publisherZiff Davis \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140201100354/http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2421168,00.asp \| archive-dateFebruary 1, 2014 \| url-statuslive \| dfmdy-all}}</ref> In 2021, The Guardian listed Asteroids as the second greatest video game of the 1970s, just below Galaxian (1979).<ref>{{cite news \|titleThe 15 greatest video games of the 70s – ranked! \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/games/2021/may/13/15-greatest-video-games-of-the-70s-ranked \|access-date23 May 2021 \|workThe Guardian \|date13 May 2021}}</ref> By contrast, in March 1983 the Atari 8-bit port of Asteroids won sixth place in Softline{{'}}s Dog of the Year awards "for badness in computer games", Atari division, based on reader submissions.<ref name"softline198303">{{cite news \| urlhttp://www.cgwmuseum.org/galleries/index.php?year1983&pub6&id10 \| titleEverybody Doesn't Like Something \| workSoftline \| dateMarch 1983 \| access-date28 July 2014 \| pages22–23 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140729044509/http://www.cgwmuseum.org/galleries/index.php?year1983&pub6&id10 \| archive-dateJuly 29, 2014 \| url-statuslive \| dfmdy-all}}</ref> Usage of the names of Saturday Night Live characters "Mr. Bill" and "Sluggo" to refer to the saucers in an Esquire article about the game led to Logg receiving a cease and desist letter from a lawyer with the "Mr. Bill Trademark".<ref name"AtariIncBIF"/>LegacyArcade sequelsReleased in 1981, Asteroids Deluxe was the first sequel to Asteroids.<!-- <ref name"atari_production99">{{cite web\|titleProduction Numbers\|urlhttp://www.atarigames.com/atarinumbers90s.pdf\|publisherAtari\|access-dateMarch 19, 2012\|year1999}}</ref> --> Dave Shepperd edited the code and made enhancements to the game without Logg's involvement. The onscreen objects are tinted blue, and hyperspace is replaced by a shield that depletes when used. The asteroids rotate, and new "killer satellite" enemies break into smaller ships that home in on the player's position.<ref name"RetroGamerAsteroids"/> The arcade machine's monitor displays vector graphics overlaying a holographic backdrop.<ref>{{cite book \|lastKohler \|firstChris \|publisherO'Reilly Media \|titleRetro Gaming Hacks \|year2005 \|chapterChapter 3, Playing Arcade Games on Your Computer \|edition1st \|isbn0-596-00917-8}}</ref> The game is more difficult than the original and enables saucers to shoot across the screen boundary, eliminating the lurking strategy for high scores in the original. Space Duel, released in arcades in 1982, replaces the rocks with colorful geometric shapes and adds cooperative two-player gameplay. 1987's Blasteroids includes power-ups, ship morphing, branching levels, bosses, and the ability to dock ships in multiplayer for added firepower.<ref name"RetroGamerAsteroids"/> Blasteroids uses raster graphics instead of vectors.Re-releasesThe game is half of the Atari Lynx pairing Super Asteroids & Missile Command<ref name"IGNReviewSA&MC">{{cite web \| url http://www.ign.com/articles/1999/07/07/super-asteroids-missile-command \| author Robert A. Jung \| title Super Asteroids & Missile Command \| work IGN \| publisher Ziff Davis \| date July 6, 1999 \| access-date January 8, 2014 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20140223050633/http://www.ign.com/articles/1999/07/07/super-asteroids-missile-command \| archive-date February 23, 2014 \| url-status live \| df mdy-all}}</ref> and included in the 1993 Microsoft Arcade compilation.<ref>{{Cite magazine\|urlhttps://ew.com/article/1994/11/11/pc-game-review-microsoft-arcade/\|authorChris Nashawaty\|magazineEntertainment Weekly\|issue248\|titlePC Game Review: 'Microsoft Arcade'\|dateNovember 11, 1994\|publisherTime Inc.\|access-date=January 8, 2014}}</ref> Activision published an enhanced version of Asteroids for the PlayStation (1998), Nintendo 64 (1999), Microsoft Windows (1998), Game Boy Color (1999), and Mac (2000).<ref>{{Cite web \| urlhttp://www.ign.com/articles/1998/11/14/asteroids-3 \| workIGN \| titleAsteroids \| authorDoug Perry \| dateNovember 13, 1998 \| access-dateDecember 27, 2013 \| publisherZiff Davis \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140222211817/http://www.ign.com/articles/1998/11/14/asteroids-3 \| archive-dateFebruary 22, 2014 \| url-statuslive}}</ref> The Atari Flashback series of dedicated video game consoles have included both the 2600 and the arcade versions of Asteroids.<ref>{{Cite magazine \| urlhttps://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,1887136,00.asp \| magazinePC Magazine \| titleAtari Flashback 2 \| authorLance Ulanoff \| dateNovember 16, 2005 \| access-dateJanuary 3, 2014 \| publisherZiff Davis \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140103144945/http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,1887136,00.asp \| archive-dateJanuary 3, 2014 \| url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \| urlhttp://www.polygon.com/2012/11/12/3637034/atari-flashback-4-channels-2600-nostalgia-with-a-75-game-bundle \| workPolygon \| titleAtari Flashback 4 channels 2600 nostalgia with a 75 game bundle \| authorDave Tach \| dateNovember 12, 2012 \| access-dateDecember 27, 2013 \| publisherVox Media \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131227130303/http://www.polygon.com/2012/11/12/3637034/atari-flashback-4-channels-2600-nostalgia-with-a-75-game-bundle \| archive-dateDecember 27, 2013 \| url-statuslive}}</ref> Asteroids Hyper 64 made the ship and asteroids 3D, and added new weapons and a multiplayer mode. It was developed by Syrox Developments and published by Crave Entertainment for the Nintendo 64.<ref>{{Cite web \| urlhttp://www.ign.com/articles/1999/12/18/asteroids-hyper-64 \| workIGN \| titleAsteroids Hyper 64 \| authorMatt Casamassina \| dateDecember 18, 1998 \| access-dateDecember 26, 2013 \| publisherZiff Davis \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140222211820/http://www.ign.com/articles/1999/12/18/asteroids-hyper-64 \| archive-dateFebruary 22, 2014 \| url-statuslive}}</ref> A technical demo of Asteroids was developed by iThink for the Atari Jaguar but was never released. Unofficially referred to as Asteroids 2000, it was demonstrated at E-JagFest 2000.<ref>{{cite web\|lastTurner\|firstRichard \|urlhttp://justclaws.atari.org:80/devcats/protos/ithink/\|titleAsteroids by iThink\|websitejustclaws.atari.org\|access-date2018-08-04\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070915094500/http://justclaws.atari.org/devcats/protos/ithink/\|archive-dateSeptember 15, 2007\|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|lastHieronymus\|firstLars\|urlhttp://www.e-jagfest.de:80/english/ejf2000/pics_2000.html\|titlePhotos of the first €-JagFest\|websitee-jagfest.de\|dateNovember 12, 2000\|access-date2018-08-04\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050923123359/http://www.e-jagfest.de/english/ejf2000/pics_2000.html\|archive-dateSeptember 23, 2005\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|lastBaranski\|firstBjörn\|urlhttp://ejagfest.de/european-atari-jaguar-festival-2000/?langen\|titleEuropean Atari Jaguar Festival 2000\|websiteejagfest.de\|dateMarch 25, 2015\|access-date2018-08-04\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180618075657/http://ejagfest.de/european-atari-jaguar-festival-2000/?langen\|archive-dateJune 18, 2018\|url-statuslive}}</ref> An updated version of the game was announced in 2018 for the Intellivision Amico.<ref>{{cite web \|dateOctober 22, 2018 \|titleIntellivision Reveals Initial Details For The Upcoming Amico Home Video Game Console! \|urlhttps://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/intellivision-reveals-initial-details-for-the-upcoming-amico-home-video-game-console-300734998.html \|website=PR Newswire}}</ref> Different versions of Asteroids were included in several Atari games compilations, such as Atari Anniversary Edition (2001) for the Dreamcast, PlayStation, and Microsoft Windows, Atari Anthology (2003) for both Xbox and PlayStation 2,<ref>{{Cite web \|authorKristan Reed \|dateJanuary 26, 2005 \|titleAtari Anthology Review \|urlhttp://www.eurogamer.net/articles/r_atarianthology_x \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140108094253/http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/r_atarianthology_x \|archive-dateJanuary 8, 2014 \|access-dateJanuary 8, 2014 \|workEurogamer \|publisherGamer Network}}</ref> Atari Greatest Hits Volume 1 (2010) for the Nintendo DS,<ref name"IGN review">{{cite web \|authorCraig Harris \|dateNovember 8, 2010 \|titleAtari Greatest Hits Volume 1 Review - IGN \|urlhttp://www.ign.com/articles/2010/11/09/atari-greatest-hits-volume-1-review \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140223050533/http://www.ign.com/articles/2010/11/09/atari-greatest-hits-volume-1-review \|archive-dateFebruary 23, 2014 \|access-dateJanuary 7, 2014 \|workIGN \|publisherZiff Davis \|dfmdy-all}}</ref> Atari Collection 1 and 2 in 2020 for the Evercade, and Atari 50 (2022) for the Atari VCS, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Windows, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X/S. Released in November 2007, the Xbox Live Arcade port of Asteroids has revamped HD graphics along with an added intense "throttle monkey" mode.<ref>{{Cite web \| urlhttp://gamerscoreblog.com/team/archive/2007/11/26/554786.aspx \| workGamerscore Blog \| titleAsteroids and Asteroids Deluxe on Xbox LIVE Arcade \| authorTom Eberspecher \| dateNovember 26, 2007 \| access-dateJune 7, 2009 \| publisherMicrosoft Games Global Marketing team \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090602224018/http://gamerscoreblog.com/team/archive/2007/11/26/554786.aspx \| archive-dateJune 2, 2009 \| url-statusdead}}</ref> The arcade and 2600 versions were made available through Microsoft{{'}}s Game Room service in 2010.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.microsoft.com/en-us/news/features/2010/jan10/01-08xboxclassics.aspx\|titleClassic Arcade Games Make a Comeback on Xbox\|dateJanuary 8, 2010\|access-dateJanuary 8, 2014\|publisherMicrosoft}}</ref> Glu Mobile released an enhanced mobile phone port.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.pocket-lint.com/news/82811-asteroids-launches-game-for-mobiles \|publisherPocket-lint Ltd. \|workPocket-lint \|titleAsteroids \|authorAmy-Mae Elliott \|dateSeptember 4, 2007 \|access-dateJanuary 3, 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140103231419/http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/82811-asteroids-launches-game-for-mobiles \|archive-dateJanuary 3, 2014 \|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2005 Asteroids was released for the Game Boy Advance with Pong and ''Yars' Revenge also being included on the same package. A remake, Asteroids: Recharged'', was released in December 2021 for the Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Windows, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X/S, developed by Adamvision Studios and SneakyBox and published by Atari.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Cunningham \|first1James \|titleReview: Asteroids: Recharged \|urlhttps://hardcoregamer.com/reviews/review-asteroids-recharged/416279/ \|websiteHardcore Gamer \|access-date26 September 2023 \|date13 December 2021 \|archive-dateSeptember 26, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230926092047/https://hardcoregamer.com/reviews/review-asteroids-recharged/416279/ \|url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|last1Musgrave \|first1Shaun \|titleSwitchArcade Round-Up: Reviews Featuring 'Asteroids: Recharged' and 'Clockwork Aquario', Plus News, Sales, and New Releases \|urlhttps://toucharcade.com/2021/12/15/switcharcade-round-up-reviews-featuring-asteroids-recharged-and-clockwork-aquario-plus-news-sales-and-new-releases/ \|websiteTouchArcade \|access-date26 September 2023 \|date=15 December 2021}}</ref> In November 2024, Alan-1 Inc. released an official coin-op arcade version of Asteroids Recharged. The game won the first place in Best New Product of the category Games and Devices of the IAAPA 2024 Brass Ring Awards.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Harding \|first1Matt \|title=Alan-1 Wins Brass Ring \|url=https://www.replaymag.com/alan-1-wins-brass-ring/ \|websiteRePlay Magazine \|access-date14 January 2025 \|date19 November 2024}}</ref>Clones Quality Software's Asteroids in Space (1980) was one of the best selling games for the Apple II and voted one of the most popular software titles of 1978–80 by Softalk magazine.<ref>{{cite magazine \|url = http://apple2history.org/history/appy/aha78.html \|title = Most Popular Software of 1978-80 \|access-date = November 5, 2008 \|year = 1980 \|magazine = Softalk \|url-status = dead \|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081210184310/http://apple2history.org/history/appy/aha78.html \|archive-date = December 10, 2008 \|df mdy-all}}</ref> In December 1981, Byte reviewed eight Asteroids clones for home computers.<ref name"williams198112">{{cite news \| urlhttps://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1981-12/1981_12_BYTE_06-12_Computer_Games#page/n163/mode/2up \| titleBattle of the Asteroids \| workByte \| dateDecember 1981 \| access-date12 August 2015 \| authorWilliams, Gregg \| pages163–165 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160517115420/https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1981-12/1981_12_BYTE_06-12_Computer_Games#page/n163/mode/2up \| archive-dateMay 17, 2016 \| url-statuslive \| dfmdy-all}}</ref> Three clones for the Apple II were reviewed together in the 1982 Creative Computing Software Buyers Guide: The Asteroid Field, Asteron, and Apple-Oids.<ref name"ahl">{{cite journal \|last1Ahl \|first1David \|last2Staples \|first2Betsy \|titleGames for Clods \|journalCreative Computing Software Buyers Guide 1982 \|date1982 \|page80 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/CreativeComputingSoftwareBuyersGuide1982/page/n83}}</ref> In the last of these, the asteroids are in the shape of apples. Two independent clones, Asteroid for the Apple II and Fasteroids for TRS-80, were renamed to Planetoids and sold by Adventure International. Others clones include Acornsoft's Meteors, Moons of Jupiter for the VIC-20, MineStorm for the Vectrex,<ref name"RetroGamerAsteroids"/> and Quicksilva's Meteor Storm for the ZX Spectrum which uses speech synthesis. A poorly implemented Asteroids clone for the VIC-20, published by Bug-Byte, motivated Jeff Minter to found Llamasoft.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Hague \|first1James \|titleHalcyon Days: Interviews with Classic Computer and Video Game Programmers \|date1997 \|publisherDadgum Games \|urlhttps://dadgum.com/halcyon/BOOK/MINTER.HTM}}</ref> The Intellivision game Meteor! was cancelled to avoid a lawsuit for being too similar to Asteroids and was reworked as Astrosmash. The game borrows elements from Asteroids and Space Invaders.<ref name"RG-55"/><ref name"WeissCHVG"> {{cite book \| last = Weiss \| first = Brett \| title = Classic Home Video Games, 1972-1984: A Complete Reference Guide \| year = 2007 \| edition = 1st \| publisher McFarland}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://classicgaming.gamespy.com/View.php?viewConsoleMuseum.Detail&id17&game9 \|titleMattel Intellivision - 1980-1984 \|workClassicGaming \|publisherIGN \|access-dateMay 16, 2008 \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080623232114/http://classicgaming.gamespy.com/View.php?viewConsoleMuseum.Detail&id17&game9 \|archive-dateJune 23, 2008\|url-statuslive}}</ref>Proposed film adaptationIn July 2009, Universal Pictures offered Roland Emmerich the option to direct the film adaptation of Asteroids, with Matt Lopez writing the script and Lorenzo di Bonaventura producing the film adaptation.<ref>{{cite news\|firstBorys\|lastKit\|titleRoland Emmerich May Direct the Movie Version of Asteroids\|urlhttps://www.hollywoodreporter.com/business/business-news/asteroids-lands-universal-86073/#!\|dateJuly 2, 2009\|websiteThe Hollywood Reporter\|access-dateApril 4, 2023}}</ref> Lopez and di Bonaventura were still attached to write and produce the film adaptation, respectively,<ref>{{cite news\|firstClaude\|lastBrodesser-Akner\|titleRoland Emmerich May Direct the Movie Version of Asteroids\|urlhttps://www.vulture.com/2011/06/roland_emmerich_has_been_offer.html\|dateJune 8, 2011\|websiteVulture\|access-dateApril 4, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|firstMatt\|lastGoldberg\|titleRoland Emmerich Offered Director's Chair for ASTEROIDS\|urlhttps://collider.com/roland-emmerich-asteroids/\|dateJune 8, 2011\|websiteCollider\|access-dateApril 4, 2023}}</ref> but Emmerich passed on directing, while Evan Spiliotopoulos and F. Scott Frazier were hired to rewrite the screenplay.<ref>{{cite news\|firstJay\|lastFernandez\|titleUniversal's 'Asteroids' to Be Written By 'Snow White' Scribe (Exclusive)\|urlhttps://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-features/asteroids-evan-spoiliotopoulos-259437/\|dateNovember 9, 2011\|websiteThe Hollywood Reporter\|access-dateApril 4, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|firstBorys\|lastKit\|title'Asteroids' Getting Rewrite From 'Autobahn' Writer (Exclusive)\|urlhttps://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/asteroids-getting-rewrite-autobahn-writer-770691/#!\|dateFebruary 5, 2015\|websiteThe Hollywood Reporter\|access-dateApril 4, 2023}}</ref> In other media The game has made cameo appearances in a number of films and music videos.<ref>{{cite web \| url https://www.arcade-history.com/?nasteroids-upright-model&pagedetail&id126 \| title Asteroids [Upright model], the Arcade Video game \| author Arcade-History/Gaming-history \| date 2025 \| access-date 2 Jan 2025 \| language en}}</ref> An Asteroids machine appears in the music video for 38 Special's song Caught Up in You,<ref>{{cite web \| url https://www.youtube.com/watch?vzg21Rkew874 \| title 38 Special - Caught Up In You (Official Music Video) \| date 24 Dec 2009 \| access-date 1 Jan 2025 \| language en \| at 3:22}}</ref> and one is also briefly seen in the movie ''Pee-Wee's Big Adventure''.<ref>{{cite web \| url https://www.youtube.com/watch?vJv08vnIlnIw \| title Large Marge \| date 11 Jan 2014 \| access-date 1 Jan 2025 \| language en \| at 2:24}}</ref>World recordsOn February 6, 1982, Leo Daniels of Carolina Beach, North Carolina, set a world record score of 40,101,910 points. On November 13 of the same year, 15-year-old Scott Safran of Cherry Hill, New Jersey, set a new record at 41,336,440 points. In 1998, to congratulate Safran on his accomplishment, the Twin Galaxies Intergalactic Scoreboard searched for him for four years until 2002, when it was discovered that he had died in an accident in 1989.<ref name"twin">{{Cite magazine \| urlhttps://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2008/11/dayintech_1113 \| titleNov. 13, 1982: Teen Sets Asteroids Record in 3-Day Marathon \| publisherConde Nast Publications \| magazineWired \| dateNovember 13, 2008 \| access-dateJune 7, 2009 \| authorChris Kohler \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090712123602/http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2008/11/dayintech_1113 \| archive-dateJuly 12, 2009 \| url-statuslive \| dfmdy-all}}</ref> In a ceremony in Philadelphia on April 27, 2002, Walter Day of Twin Galaxies presented an award to the surviving members of Safran's family, commemorating his achievement.<ref name"SafranAsteroids2002Award">{{cite news \| authorChris Gray \| titleAfter 20 years, master gamester finally honored \| urlhttp://articles.philly.com/2002-04-28/news/25338220_1_samson-carpal-tunnel-syndrome-official-video-game \| workThe Philadelphia Inquirer \| dateApril 28, 2002 \| access-dateJanuary 8, 2014 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304062621/http://articles.philly.com/2002-04-28/news/25338220_1_samson-carpal-tunnel-syndrome-official-video-game \| archive-dateMarch 4, 2016 \| url-statusdead \| dfmdy-all}}</ref> On April 5, 2010, John McAllister broke Safran's record with a high score of 41,838,740 in a 58-hour Internet livestream.<ref>{{Cite magazine \| urlhttps://www.wired.com/gamelife/2010/04/asteroids-record/ \| authorChris Kohler \| titleAsteroids Player Smashes 27-Year-Old High Score \| magazineWired \| publisherCondé Nast Publications \| dateApril 5, 2010 \| access-dateApril 6, 2010 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20100407043933/http://www.wired.com/gamelife/2010/04/asteroids-record/ \| archive-dateApril 7, 2010 \| url-status live}}</ref> References {{Reflist}} External links {{Commons category\|Asteroids (video game)}} {{Portal\|Video games}} * {{official website\|http://atari.com/arcade#!/arcade/asteroids/}} at Atari * {{KLOV game\|id6939\|nameAsteroids}} * {{Coinop game\|id100005\|nameAsteroids}} * {{cite web \|urlhttp://www.ataritimes.com/article.php?showarticle174 \|titleAll About Asteroids \|work Atari Times \|firstGregory D. \|last George \|dateSep 7, 2001 \|url-status dead \|archive-dateSeptember 27, 2007 \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20070927230614/http://www.ataritimes.com/article.php?showarticle=174}} * {{cite web \|urlhttp://thedoteaters.com/?bitstoryasteroids \|publisherThe Dot Eaters \|title Asteroids - Rockin' the Arcade \|url-statuslive \|archive-date October 23, 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131023233640/http://thedoteaters.com/?bitstoryasteroids}} * {{cite web \|urlhttp://www.next-gen.biz/features/making-asteroids \|publisherEdge \|titleThe Making Of: Asteroids \|date May 29, 2009 \|url-statususurped \|archive-date November 4, 2011 \|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111104165601/http://www.next-gen.biz/features/making-asteroids}} {{Asteroids series}} {{1970s Atari arcade games}} {{Authority control}} Category:1979 video games Category:Arcade video games Category:Atari 2600 games Category:Atari 7800 games Category:Atari 8-bit computer games Category:Atari arcade games Category:Atari Lynx games Category:Cancelled Atari 5200 games Category:Cancelled Atari Jaguar games Category:Ed Logg games Category:Fiction about asteroids Category:Game Boy games Category:Game Boy Color games Category:Multidirectional shooters Category:Multiplayer and single-player video games Category:Science fiction video games Category:Sega arcade games Category:Taito arcade games Category:Xbox 360 games Category:Xbox 360 Live Arcade games Category:Vector arcade video games Category:Video games developed in the United States Category:World Video Game Hall of Fame	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroids_(video_game)	2025-04-05T18:25:22.170959
786	Asparagales	{{Short description\|Order of monocot flowering plants}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=November 2019}} {{CS1 config\|mode=cs2}} {{Use shortened footnotes\|date=November 2022}} {{Automatic taxobox \| fossil_range = {{fossil range\|Upper Cretaceous\| Recent}} \| image = Asperge in bloei Asparagus officinalis.jpg \| image_caption = Garden asparagus (Asparagus officinalis) \| taxon = Asparagales \| authority Link{{sfn\|psnone\|Stevens\|2016\|loc[http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/orders/asparagalesweb.htm#Asparagales Asparagales]}}{{sfn\|psnone\|Tropicos\|2015}} \| type_genus = Asparagus \| type_genus_authority = L. \| subdivision_ranks = Families \| subdivision = {{Collapsible list \| title = Families \| Amaryllidaceae 74 \| Asparagaceae 75 \| Asphodelaceae 73 \| Asteliaceae 65 \| Blandfordiaceae 64 \| Boryaceae 63 \| Doryanthaceae 69 \| Hypoxidaceae 67 \| Iridaceae 71 \| Ixioliriaceae 70 \| Lanariaceae 66 \| Orchidaceae 62 \| Tecophilaeaceae 68 \| Xeronemataceae 72<br> sensu LAPG{{sfn\|LAPGIII\|2009}}}} \| synonyms * Asparagales <small>Bromhead</small>{{sfn\|psnone\|Bromhead\|1838\|loc=p.&nbsp;132}} * Iridales <small>Dumort.</small> }} Asparagales (asparagoid lilies) are a diverse order of flowering plants in the monocots. Under the APG IV system of flowering plant classification, Asparagales are the largest order of monocots with 14 families,<ref nameAPGIV2016>{{Cite journal \|lastAngiosperm Phylogeny Group \|year2016 \|titleAn update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV \|journalBotanical Journal of the Linnean Society \|volume181 \|issue1 \|pages1–20 \|doi10.1111/boj.12385 \|doi-accessfree }}</ref> 1,122 genera, and about 36,000 species, with members as varied as asparagus, orchids, yuccas, irises, onions, garlic, leeks, and other Alliums, daffodils, snowdrops, amaryllis, agaves, butcher's broom, Agapanthus, Solomon's seal, hyacinths, bluebells, spider plants, grasstrees, aloe, freesias, gladioli, crocuses, and saffron. Most species of Asparagales are herbaceous perennials, although some are climbers and some are trees or shrubs. The order also contains many geophytes (bulbs, corms, and various kinds of tuber). The leaves of almost all species form a tight rosette, either at the base of the plant or at the end of the stem, but occasionally along the stem. The flowers are not particularly distinctive, being 'lily type', with six tepals and up to six stamina. One of the defining characteristics (synapomorphies) of the order is the presence of phytomelanin, a black pigment present in the seed coat, creating a dark crust. Phytomelanin is found in most families of the Asparagales (although not in Orchidaceae, thought to be the sister-group of the rest of the order). The order Asparagales takes its name from the type family Asparagaceae and has only recently been recognized in classification systems. The order is clearly circumscribed on the basis of molecular phylogenetics, but it is difficult to define morphologically since its members are structurally diverse. The order was first put forward by Huber in 1977 and later taken up in the Dahlgren system of 1985 and then the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group systems. Before this, many of its families were assigned to the old order Liliales, which was redistributed over three orders, Liliales, Asparagales, and Dioscoreales, based on molecular phylogenetics. The boundaries of the Asparagales and of its families have undergone a series of changes in recent years; future research may lead to further changes and ultimately greater stability. The order is thought to have first diverged from other related monocots some 120–130 million years ago (early in the Cretaceous period), although given the difficulty in classifying the families involved, estimates are likely to be uncertain. From an economic point of view, the order Asparagales is second in importance within the monocots only to the order Poales (which includes grasses and cereals). Species are used as food and flavourings (e.g. onion, garlic, leek, asparagus, vanilla, saffron), in medicinal or cosmetic applications (Aloe), as cut flowers (e.g. freesia, gladiolus, iris, orchids), and as garden ornamentals (e.g. day lilies, lily of the valley, Agapanthus). {{TOC limit\|3}} Description s of Hippeastrum with dark phytomelan-containing coat]] created by secondary thickening in Beaucarnea recurvata]] Although most species in the order are herbaceous, some no more than 15&nbsp;cm high, there are a number of climbers (e.g., some species of Asparagus), as well as several genera forming trees (e.g. Agave, Cordyline, Yucca, Dracaena, Aloidendron ), which can exceed 10&nbsp;m in height. Succulent genera occur in several families (e.g. Aloe). Almost all species have a tight cluster of leaves (a rosette), either at the base of the plant or at the end of a more-or-less woody stem as with Yucca. In some cases, the leaves are produced along the stem. The flowers are in the main not particularly distinctive, being of a general 'lily type', with six tepals, either free or fused from the base and up to six stamina. They are frequently clustered at the end of the plant stem. The Asparagales are generally distinguished from the Liliales by the lack of markings on the tepals, the presence of septal nectaries in the ovaries, rather than the bases of the tepals or stamen filaments, and the presence of secondary growth. They are generally geophytes, but with linear leaves, and a lack of fine reticular venation. The seeds characteristically have the external epidermis either obliterated (in most species bearing fleshy fruit), or if present, have a layer of black carbonaceous phytomelanin in species with dry fruits (nuts). The inner part of the seed coat is generally collapsed, in contrast to Liliales whose seeds have a well developed outer epidermis, lack phytomelanin, and usually display a cellular inner layer. The orders which have been separated from the old Liliales are difficult to characterize. No single morphological character appears to be diagnostic of the order Asparagales. * The flowers of Asparagales are of a general type among the lilioid monocots. Compared to Liliales, they usually have plain tepals without markings in the form of dots. If nectaries are present, they are in the septa of the ovaries rather than at the base of the tepals or stamens. * Those species which have relatively large dry seeds have a dark, crust-like (crustose) outer layer containing the pigment phytomelan. However, some species with hairy seeds (e.g. Eriospermum, family Asparagaceae s.l.), berries (e.g. Maianthemum, family Asparagaceae s.l.), or highly reduced seeds (e.g. orchids) lack this dark pigment in their seed coats. Phytomelan is not unique to Asparagales (i.e. it is not a synapomorphy) but it is common within the order and rare outside it.{{sfn\|psnone\|Chase\|2004}} The inner portion of the seed coat is usually completely collapsed. In contrast, the morphologically similar seeds of Liliales have no phytomelan, and usually retain a cellular structure in the inner portion of the seed coat.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastJudd \|firstWalter S. \|date1997 \|titleThe Asphodelaceae in the Southeastern United States \|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/41761540 \|journalHarvard Papers in Botany \|volume2 \|issue1 \|pages109–123 \|jstor41761540 \|issn1043-4534}}</ref> * Most monocots are unable to thicken their stems once they have formed, since they lack the cylindrical meristem present in other angiosperm groups. Asparagales have a method of secondary thickening which is otherwise only found in Dioscorea (in the monocot order Disoscoreales). In a process called 'anomalous secondary growth', they are able to create new vascular bundles around which thickening growth occurs.{{sfn\|psnone\|Rudall\|1995}} Agave, Yucca, Aloidendron, Dracaena, Nolina and Cordyline can become massive trees, albeit not of the height of the tallest dicots, and with less branching.{{sfn\|psnone\|Chase\|2004}} Other genera in the order, such as Lomandra and Aphyllanthes, have the same type of secondary growth but confined to their underground stems. * Microsporogenesis (part of pollen formation) distinguishes some members of Asparagales from Liliales. Microsporogenesis involves a cell dividing twice (meiotically) to form four daughter cells. There are two kinds of microsporogenesis: successive and simultaneous (although intermediates exist). In successive microsporogenesis, walls are laid down separating the daughter cells after each division. In simultaneous microsporogenesis, there is no wall formation until all four cell nuclei are present. Liliales all have successive microsporogenesis, which is thought to be the primitive condition in monocots. It seems that when the Asparagales first diverged they developed simultaneous microsporogenesis, which the 'lower' Asparagales families retain. However, the 'core' Asparagales (see Phylogenetics ) have reverted to successive microsporogenesis.{{sfn\|ps=none\|Furness\|Rudall\|1999}} * The Asparagales appear to be unified by a mutation affecting their telomeres (a region of repetitive DNA at the end of a chromosome). The typical 'Arabidopsis-type' sequence of bases has been fully or partially replaced by other sequences, with the 'human-type' predominating.{{sfn\|ps=none\|Sýkorová\|Lim\|Kunicka\|Chase\|2003}} * Other apomorphic characters of the order according to Stevens are: the presence of chelidonic acid, anthers longer than wide, tapetal cells bi- to tetra-nuclear, tegmen not persistent, endosperm helobial, and loss of mitochondrial gene sdh3.{{sfn\|psnone\|Stevens\|2016\|loc[http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/orders/asparagalesweb.htm#Asparagales Asparagales]}} According to telomere sequence, at least two evolutionary switch-points happened within the order. The basal sequence is formed by TTTAGGG like in the majority of higher plants. Basal motif was changed to vertebrate-like TTAGGG and finally, the most divergent motif CTCGGTTATGGG appears in Allium. Taxonomy As circumscribed within the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system Asparagales is the largest order within the monocotyledons, with 14 families, 1,122 genera and about 25,000–42,000 species, thus accounting for about 50% of all monocots and 10–15% of the flowering plants (angiosperms).{{sfn\|psnone\|Chase et al\|2009}}{{sfn\|psnone\|Chen et al.\|2013}} The attribution of botanical authority for the name Asparagales belongs to Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link (1767–1851) who coined the word 'Asparaginae' in 1829 for a higher order taxon that included Asparagus{{sfn\|psnone\|Link\|1829\|loc[http://dfg-viewer.de/show/?tx_dlf%5Bpage%5D284&tx_dlf%5Bid%5Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fdigital.ub.uni-duesseldorf.de%2Foai%2F%3Fverb%3DGetRecord%26metadataPrefix%3Dmets%26identifier%3D4977424&tx_dlf%5Bdouble%5D0&cHashf5dbe8ce043ae62413d782a48664c9d3 Asparaginae I: 272]}} although Adanson and Jussieau had also done so earlier (see History). Earlier circumscriptions of Asparagales attributed the name to Bromhead (1838), who had been the first to use the term 'Asparagales'.{{sfn\|psnone\|Bromhead\|1838\|locp.&nbsp;132}} History Pre-Darwinian The type genus, Asparagus, from which the name of the order is derived, was described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, with ten species.{{sfn\|psnone\|Linnaeus\|1753\|loc[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13829#page/325/mode/1up Aparagus vol.&nbsp;i p.&nbsp;325]}} He placed Asparagus within the Hexandria Monogynia (six stamens, one carpel) in his sexual classification in the Species Plantarum.{{sfn\|psnone\|Linnaeus\|1753\|loc[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/358106#page/285/mode/1up Hexandria monogynia vol.&nbsp;i pp.&nbsp; 285–352]}} The majority of taxa now considered to constitute Asparagales have historically been placed within the very large and diverse family, Liliaceae. The family Liliaceae was first described by Michel Adanson in 1763,{{sfn\|psnone\|Lobstein\|2013}} and in his taxonomic scheme he created eight sections within it, including the Asparagi with Asparagus and three other genera.{{sfn\|psnone\|Adanson\|1763\|loc[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/6958#page/596/mode/1up Liliaceae: V Asparagi pp.&nbsp;51–52]}} The system of organising genera into families is generally credited to Antoine Laurent de Jussieu who formally described both the Liliaceae and the type family of Asparagales, the Asparagaceae, as Lilia and Asparagi, respectively, in 1789.{{sfn\|psnone\|Jussieu\|1789}} Jussieu established the hierarchical system of taxonomy (phylogeny), placing Asparagus and related genera within a division of Monocotyledons, a class (III) of Stamina Perigynia{{sfn\|psnone\|Jussieu\|1789\|loc[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/7125#page/130/mode/1up Stamina Perigynia p.&nbsp;35]}} and 'order' Asparagi, divided into three subfamilies.{{sfn\|psnone\|Jussieu\|1789\|loc[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/7125#page/135/mode/1up Asparagi pp.&nbsp;40–43]}} The use of the term Ordo (order) at that time was closer to what we now understand as Family, rather than Order.{{sfn\|psnone\|ICN\|2011\|loc[http://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php?pageart18 Names of families and subfamilies, tribes and subtribes p.&nbsp;18.2]}}{{sfn\|psnone\|de Candolle\|1813\|loc[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/88297#page/204/mode/1up Des familles et des tribus pp.&nbsp;192–195]}} In creating his scheme he used a modified form of Linnaeus' sexual classification but using the respective topography of stamens to carpels rather than just their numbers. While De Jussieu's Stamina Perigynia also included a number of 'orders' that would eventually form families within the Asparagales such as the Asphodeli (Asphodelaceae), Narcissi (Amaryllidaceae) and Irides (Iridaceae), the remainder are now allocated to other orders. Jussieu's Asparagi soon came to be referred to as Asparagacées in the French literature (Latin: Asparagaceae).{{sfn\|psnone\|Privat-Deschanel\|Focillon\|1870\|loc[https://books.google.com/books?id6gFLAAAAYAAJ&pgPA291 Asparagi p.&nbsp;291]}} Meanwhile, the 'Narcissi' had been renamed as the 'Amaryllidées' (Amaryllideae) in 1805, by Jean Henri Jaume Saint-Hilaire, using Amaryllis as the type species rather than Narcissus, and thus has the authority attribution for Amaryllidaceae.{{sfn\|psnone\|Jaume Saint-Hilaire\|1805\|loc[https://books.google.com/books?idVEQAAAAAQAAJ&pgRA1-PA130 Amaryllidées vol. 1. pp.&nbsp;134–142]}} In 1810, Brown proposed that a subgroup of Liliaceae be distinguished on the basis of the position of the ovaries and be referred to as Amaryllideae{{sfn\|psnone\|Brown\|1810\|loc[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/21871#page/164/mode/1up Prodromus. Amaryllideae p.&nbsp;296]}} and in 1813 de Candolle described Liliacées Juss. and Amaryllidées Brown as two quite separate families.{{sfn\|psnone\|de Candolle\|1813\|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/88297#page/231/mode/1up Théorie élémentaire de la botanique] p.&nbsp;219 }} The literature on the organisation of genera into families and higher ranks became available in the English language with Samuel Frederick Gray's A natural arrangement of British plants (1821).{{sfn\|psnone\|Gray\|1821}} Gray used a combination of Linnaeus' sexual classification and Jussieu's natural classification to group together a number of families having in common six equal stamens, a single style and a perianth that was simple and petaloid, but did not use formal names for these higher ranks. Within the grouping he separated families by the characteristics of their fruit and seed. He treated groups of genera with these characteristics as separate families, such as Amaryllideae, Liliaceae, Asphodeleae and Asparageae.{{sfn\|psnone\|Gray\|1821\|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/95185#page/10/mode/1up p.vi]}} L. John Lindley, Vegetable Kingdom 1846]] The circumscription of Asparagales has been a source of difficulty for many botanists from the time of John Lindley (1846), the other important British taxonomist of the early nineteenth century. In his first taxonomic work, An Introduction to the Natural System of Botany'' (1830){{sfn\|psnone\|Lindley\|1830}} he partly followed Jussieu by describing a subclass he called Endogenae, or Monocotyledonous Plants (preserving de Candolle's Endogenæ phanerogamæ){{sfn\|psnone\|Lindley\|1830\|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/31944#page/319/mode/1up Endogenae, or Monocotyledonous Plants p.&nbsp;251]}} divided into two tribes, the Petaloidea and Glumaceae. He divided the former, often referred to as petaloid monocots, into 32 orders, including the Liliaceae (defined narrowly), but also most of the families considered to make up the Asparagales today, including the Amaryllideae. By 1846, in his final scheme{{sfn\|psnone\|Lindley\|1846}} Lindley had greatly expanded and refined the treatment of the monocots, introducing both an intermediate ranking (Alliances) and tribes within orders (i.e. families). Lindley placed the Liliaceae within the Liliales, but saw it as a paraphyletic ("catch-all") family, being all Liliales not included in the other orders, but hoped that the future would reveal some characteristic that would group them better. The order Liliales was very large and included almost all monocotyledons with colourful tepals and without starch in their endosperm (the lilioid monocots). The Liliales was difficult to divide into families because morphological characters were not present in patterns that clearly demarcated groups. This kept the Liliaceae separate from the Amaryllidaceae (Narcissales). Of these, Liliaceae{{sfn\|psnone\|Lindley\|1846\|loc[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/32198#page/274/mode/1up Liliaceae – Lilyworts p.&nbsp;200]}} was divided into eleven tribes (with 133 genera) and Amaryllidaceae{{sfn\|psnone\|Lindley\|1846\|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/32198#page/229/mode/1up Amaryllidaceae – Amaryllids p.&nbsp;155]}} into four tribes (with 68 genera), yet both contained many genera that would eventually segregate to each other's contemporary orders (Liliales and Asparagales respectively). The Liliaceae would be reduced to a small 'core' represented by the tribe Tulipae, while large groups such Scilleae and Asparagae would become part of Asparagales either as part of the Amaryllidaceae or as separate families. While of the Amaryllidaceae, the Agaveae would be part of Asparagaceae but the Alstroemeriae would become a family within the Liliales. The number of known genera (and species) continued to grow and by the time of the next major British classification, that of the Bentham & Hooker system in 1883 (published in Latin) several of Lindley's other families had been absorbed into the Liliaceae.{{sfn\|psnone\|Bentham\|Hooker\|1883}} They used the term 'series' to indicate suprafamilial rank, with seven series of monocotyledons (including Glumaceae), but did not use Lindley's terms for these. However, they did place the Liliaceous and Amaryllidaceous genera into separate series. The Liliaceae{{sfn\|psnone\|Bentham\|Hooker\|1883\|loc[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/14690#page/309/mode/1up Liliaceae p.&nbsp;748]}} were placed in series Coronariae, while the Amaryllideae{{sfn\|psnone\|Bentham\|Hooker\|1883\|loc[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/14690#page/272/mode/1up Amaryllideae p.&nbsp;711]}} were placed in series Epigynae. The Liliaceae now consisted of twenty tribes (including Tulipeae, Scilleae and Asparageae), and the Amaryllideae of five (including Agaveae and Alstroemerieae). An important addition to the treatment of the Liliaceae was the recognition of the Allieae{{sfn\|psnone\|Bentham\|Hooker\|1883\|loc[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/14690#page/309/mode/1up Allieae p.&nbsp;798]}} as a distinct tribe that would eventually find its way to the Asparagales as the subfamily Allioideae of the Amaryllidaceae. Post-Darwinian The appearance of Charles Darwin's Origin of Species in 1859 changed the way that taxonomists considered plant classification, incorporating evolutionary information into their schemata. The Darwinian approach led to the concept of phylogeny (tree-like structure) in assembling classification systems, starting with Eichler.{{sfn\|psnone\|Stuessy\|2009\|loc[https://books.google.com/books?idb9Q2EOkw7toC&pgPA47 Phyletic (evolutionary) classification p.&nbsp;47]}} Eichler, having established a hierarchical system in which the flowering plants (angiosperms) were divided into monocotyledons and dicotyledons, further divided into former into seven orders. Within the Liliiflorae were seven families, including Liliaceae and Amaryllidaceae. Liliaceae included Allium and Ornithogalum (modern Allioideae) and Asparagus.{{sfn\|psnone\|Eichler\|1886\|loc[https://books.google.com/books?idXE0bAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA34 Liliiflorae p.&nbsp;34]}} Engler, in his system developed Eichler's ideas into a much more elaborate scheme which he treated in a number of works including Die Natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien (Engler and Prantl 1888){{sfn\|psnone\|Engler\|Prantl\|1888}} and Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (1892–1924).{{sfn\|psnone\|Engler\|1903}} In his treatment of Liliiflorae the Liliineae were a suborder which included both families Liliaceae and Amaryllidaceae. The Liliaceae{{sfn\|psnone\|Engler\|Prantl\|1888\|loc[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/56456#page/672/mode/1up Liliaceae II(5) pp.&nbsp;10–91]}} had eight subfamilies and the Amaryllidaceae{{sfn\|psnone\|Engler\|Prantl\|1888\|loc[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/56456#page/759/mode/1up Amaryllidaceae II(5) pp.&nbsp;97–124]}} four. In this rearrangement of Liliaceae, with fewer subdivisions, the core Liliales were represented as subfamily Lilioideae (with Tulipae and Scilleae as tribes), the Asparagae were represented as Asparagoideae and the Allioideae was preserved, representing the alliaceous genera. Allieae, Agapantheae and Gilliesieae were the three tribes within this subfamily.{{sfn\|psnone\|Engler\|1903\|loc[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/63778#page/130/mode/1up Subfamily Allioideae p.&nbsp;96]}} In the Amaryllidaceae, there was little change from the Bentham & Hooker. A similar approach was adopted by Wettstein.{{sfn\|psnone\|Wettstein\|1924\|loc[http://biolib.mpipz.mpg.de/wettstein/botanik/high/IMG_5926.html Liliiflorae p.&nbsp;862]}} Twentieth century , R Wettstein Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik'' 1901–1924]]In the twentieth century the Wettstein system (1901–1935) placed many of the taxa in an order called 'Liliiflorae'.{{sfn\|psnone\|Wettstein\|1924\|locp.862}} Next Johannes Paulus Lotsy (1911) proposed dividing the Liliiflorae into a number of smaller families including Asparagaceae.{{sfn\|psnone\|Lotsy\|1907–1911\|loc[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/68460#page/749/mode/1up Liliifloren: Asparaginaceae p.&nbsp;743]}} Then Herbert Huber (1969, 1977), following Lotsy's example, proposed that the Liliiflorae be split into four groups including the 'Asparagoid' Liliiflorae.{{sfn\|psnone\|Huber\|1969\|loc[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/52263#page/724/mode/1up Die asparagoiden Liliifloren p.&nbsp;304]}}{{sfn\|ps=none\|Huber\|1977}} The widely used Cronquist system (1968–1988){{sfn\|psnone\|Cronquist\|1968}}{{sfn\|psnone\|Cronquist\|1981}}{{sfn\|ps=none\|Cronquist\|1988}} used the very broadly defined order Liliales. These various proposals to separate small groups of genera into more homogeneous families made little impact till that of Dahlgren (1985) incorporating new information including synapomorphy. Dahlgren developed Huber's ideas further and popularised them, with a major deconstruction of existing families into smaller units. They created a new order, calling it Asparagales. This was one of five orders within the superorder Liliiflorae.{{sfn\|psnone\|Dahlgren\|Clifford\|Yeo\|1985\|loc[https://books.google.com/books?id3iGndTFY0skC&pgPA129 Order Asparagales]}} Where Cronquist saw one family, Dahlgren saw forty distributed over three orders (predominantly Liliales and Asparagales).{{sfn\|psnone\|Walters\|Keil\|1996}}{{sfn\|psnone\|Kelch\|2002}} Over the 1980s, in the context of a more general review of the classification of angiosperms, the Liliaceae were subjected to more intense scrutiny. By the end of that decade, the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, the British Museum of Natural History and the Edinburgh Botanical Gardens formed a committee to examine the possibility of separating the family at least for the organization of their herbaria. That committee finally recommended that 24 new families be created in the place of the original broad Liliaceae, largely by elevating subfamilies to the rank of separate families.{{sfn\|psnone\|Mathew\|1989}} Phylogenetics <!-- prior text links to this - do not change title without adjusting links to it --> The order Asparagales as currently circumscribed has only recently been recognized in classification systems, through the advent of phylogenetics. The 1990s saw considerable progress in plant phylogeny and phylogenetic theory, enabling a phylogenetic tree to be constructed for all of the flowering plants. The establishment of major new clades necessitated a departure from the older but widely used classifications such as Cronquist and Thorne based largely on morphology rather than genetic data. This complicated the discussion about plant evolution and necessitated a major restructuring.{{sfn\|psnone\|Angiosperm Phylogeny Group II\|2003}} rbcL gene sequencing and cladistic analysis of monocots had redefined the Liliales in 1995.{{sfn\|Chase et al.\| 1995a}}<ref>{{Harvtxt\|Rudall\|Cribb\|Cutler\|Humphries\|1995}}.</ref> from four morphological orders sensu Dahlgren. The largest clade representing the Liliaceae, all previously included in Liliales, but including both the Calochortaceae and Liliaceae sensu Tamura. This redefined family, that became referred to as core Liliales, but corresponded to the emerging circumscription of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (1998).{{sfn\|psnone\|Patterson\|Givnish\|2002}} Phylogeny and APG system The 2009 revision of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system, APG III, places the order in the clade monocots.{{sfn\|ps=none\|Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III\|2009}} From the Dahlgren system of 1985 onwards, studies based mainly on morphology had identified the Asparagales as a distinct group, but had also included groups now located in Liliales, Pandanales and Zingiberales.{{sfn\|psnone\|Dahlgren\|Clifford\|Yeo\|1985}} Research in the 21st century has supported the monophyly of Asparagales, based on morphology, 18S rDNA, and other DNA sequences,{{sfn\|psnone\|Rudall\|2002a}}{{sfn\|psnone\|Davis\|Stevenson\|Petersen\|Seberg\|2004}}{{sfn\|psnone\|Chase\|Fay\|Devey\|Maurin\|2006}}{{sfn\|psnone\|Graham\|Zgurski\|McPherson\|Cherniawsky\|2006}}{{sfn\|psnone\|Pires\|Maureira\|Givnish\|Sytsma\|2006}} although some phylogenetic reconstructions based on molecular data have suggested that Asparagales may be paraphyletic, with Orchidaceae separated from the rest.{{sfn\|psnone\|Hilu\|Borsch\|Muller\|Soltis\|2003}} Within the monocots, Asparagales is the sister group of the commelinid clade.{{sfn\|psnone\|Angiosperm Phylogeny Group II\|2003}} This cladogram shows the placement of Asparagales within the orders of Lilianae sensu Chase & Reveal (monocots) based on molecular phylogenetic evidence.{{sfn\|psnone\|Chase\|Reveal\|2009}}{{sfn\|psnone\|Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III\|2009}}{{sfn\|psnone\|Davis et al.\|2013}}{{sfn\|psnone\|Hertwick et al.\|2015}} The lilioid monocot orders are bracketed, namely Petrosaviales, Dioscoreales, Pandanales, Liliales and Asparagales.{{sfn\|psnone\|RBG\|2010}} These constitute a paraphyletic assemblage, that is groups with a common ancestor that do not include all direct descendants (in this case commelinids as the sister group to Asparagales); to form a clade, all the groups joined by thick lines would need to be included. While Acorales and Alismatales have been collectively referred to as "alismatid monocots" (basal or early branching monocots), the remaining clades (lilioid and commelinid monocots) have been referred to as the "core monocots".{{sfn\|Hedges\|Kumar\|2009\|loc[https://books.google.com/books?id9rt1c1hl49MC&pgPA205 p.&nbsp;205]}} The relationship between the orders (with the exception of the two sister orders) is pectinate, that is diverging in succession from the line that leads to the commelinids.{{sfn\|psnone\|Davis et al.\|2013}} Numbers indicate crown group (most recent common ancestor of the sampled species of the clade of interest) divergence times in mya (million years ago).{{sfn\|psnone\|Hertwick et al.\|2015}} {{barlabel\|size12\|at15\|label1Lilioid monocots 122\|bar1purple\|\|stylefont-size:100%;line-height:125%;width:400px;\|cladogram {{clade \| align=center \|label1Lilianae sensu Chase & Reveal (monocots) 131{{sfn\|psnone\|Chase\|Reveal\|2009}} \|1={{clade \| 1={{clade \| 1={{clade \|label1\| 1 Acorales \| 2= {{clade \|label1\| 1 Alismatales \|label2=122 \| 2{{clade\| thickness3 \| 1Petrosaviales \| barbegin1purple \|label1\| 2{{clade\| thickness=3 \|label1=120 \| 1{{clade\| thickness3 \| 1Dioscoreales 115\| bar1purple \| 2Pandanales 91 \| bar2purple }} \| 2{{clade \|thickness3 \| 1Liliales 121\| bar1purple \|label2=121 \| 2{{clade \|thickness3 \| 1Asparagales 120\| barend1purple \|label2=commelinids 118 \| 2= {{clade \|1 = Dasypogonaceae \|label1\|2 Arecales \|3 = Poales \|4 = {{clade \| 1= Zingiberales \| 2= Commelinales \|label1= }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} {{clear}} Subdivision A phylogenetic tree for the Asparagales, generally to family level, but including groups which were recently and widely treated as families but which are now reduced to subfamily rank, is shown below.{{sfn\|psnone\|Chase et al\|2009}}{{sfn\|psnone\|Stevens\|2016\|loc=[http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/orders/asparagalesweb.htm#Asparagales Asparagales]}} {{clade \| label1=Asparagales \| 1={{clade \| 1=Orchidaceae \| 2={{clade \| 1={{clade \| 1=Boryaceae \| label2=Hypoxidaceae s.l. \| 2={{clade \| 1=Blandfordiaceae \| 2={{clade \| 1=Lanariaceae \| 2={{clade \| 1=Asteliaceae \| 2=Hypoxidaceae }} }} }} }} \| 2={{clade \| 1={{clade \| 1=Ixioliriaceae \| 2=Tecophilaeaceae }} \| 2={{clade \| 1=Doryanthaceae \| 2={{clade \| 1=Iridaceae \| 2={{clade \| 1=Xeronemataceae \| 2={{clade \| label1=Asphodelaceae \| 1={{clade \| 1Hemerocallidoideae ( Hemerocallidaceae) \| 2={{clade \| 1Asphodeloideae ( Asphodelaceae) \| 2Xanthorrhoeoideae ( Xanthorrhoeaceae s.s.) }} }} \| label2='core' Asparagales \| 2={{clade \| label1=Amaryllidaceae s.l. \| 1={{clade \| 1Agapanthoideae ( Agapanthaceae) \| 2={{clade \| 1Allioideae ( Alliaceae s.s.) \| 2Amaryllidoideae ( Amaryllidaceae s.s.) }} }} \| label2=Asparagaceae s.l. \| 2={{clade \| 1={{clade \| 1Lomandroideae ( Laxmanniaceae) \| 2={{clade \| 1Asparagoideae ( Asparagaceae s.s.) \| 2Nolinoideae ( Ruscaceae) }} }} \| 2={{clade \| 1Agavoideae ( Agavaceae) \| 2={{clade \| 1Aphyllanthoideae ( Aphyllanthaceae) \| 2={{clade \| 1Brodiaeoideae ( Themidaceae) \| 2Scilloideae ( Hyacinthaceae) }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} The tree shown above can be divided into a basal paraphyletic group, the 'lower Asparagales (asparagoids)', from Orchidaceae to Asphodelaceae,{{sfn\|psnone\|Rudall\|Furness\|Chase\|Fay\|1997}} and a well-supported monophyletic group of 'core Asparagales' (higher asparagoids), comprising the two largest families, Amaryllidaceae sensu lato and Asparagaceae sensu lato.{{sfn\|psnone\|Stevens\|2016\|loc=[http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/orders/asparagalesweb.htm#Asparagales Asparagales]}} Two differences between these two groups (although with exceptions) are: the mode of microsporogenesis and the position of the ovary. The 'lower Asparagales' typically have simultaneous microsporogenesis (i.e. cell walls develop only after both meiotic divisions), which appears to be an apomorphy within the monocots, whereas the 'core Asparagales' have reverted to successive microsporogenesis (i.e. cell walls develop after each division).{{sfn\|psnone\|Rudall\|2002a}} The 'lower Asparagales' typically have an inferior ovary, whereas the 'core Asparagales' have reverted to a superior ovary. A 2002 morphological study by Rudall treated possessing an inferior ovary as a synapomorphy of the Asparagales, stating that reversions to a superior ovary in the 'core Asparagales' could be associated with the presence of nectaries below the ovaries.{{sfn\|psnone\|Rudall\|2002b}} However, Stevens notes that superior ovaries are distributed among the 'lower Asparagales' in such a way that it is not clear where to place the evolution of different ovary morphologies. The position of the ovary seems a much more flexible character (here and in other angiosperms) than previously thought.{{sfn\|psnone\|Stevens\|2016\|loc[http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/orders/asparagalesweb.htm#Asparagales Asparagales]}} Changes to family structure in APG III The APG III system when it was published in 2009, greatly expanded the families Xanthorrhoeaceae, Amaryllidaceae, and Asparagaceae.{{sfn\|psnone\|Chase et al\|2009}} Thirteen of the families of the earlier APG II system were thereby reduced to subfamilies within these three families. The expanded Xanthorrhoeaceae is now called "Asphodelaceae".<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastThe Angiosperm Phylogeny Group \|last2Chase \|first2M. W. \|last3Christenhusz \|first3M. J. M. \|last4Fay \|first4M. F. \|last5Byng \|first5J. W. \|last6Judd \|first6W. S. \|last7Soltis \|first7D. E. \|last8Mabberley \|first8D. J. \|last9Sennikov \|first9A. N. \|last10Soltis \|first10P. S. \|last11Stevens \|first11P. F. \|date2016-05-01 \|titleAn update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV \|urlhttps://academic.oup.com/botlinnean/article-abstract/181/1/1/2416499?redirectedFromfulltext \|journalBotanical Journal of the Linnean Society \|volume181 \|issue1 \|pages1–20 \|doi10.1111/boj.12385 \|issn0024-4074}}</ref> The APG II families (left) and their equivalent APG III subfamilies (right) are as follows: {\| border="0" \|- \| valign="top" \| ;Asphodelaceae * Hemerocallidaceae=Hemerocallidoideae * Xanthorrhoeaceae=Xanthorrhoeoideae * Asphodelaceae=Asphodeloideae \| valign="top" \| ;Amaryllidaceae * Agapanthaceae=Agapanthoideae * Alliaceae =Allioideae * Amaryllidaceae=Amaryllidoideae \| valign="top" \| ;Asparagaceae * Aphyllanthaceae = Aphyllanthoideae * Laxmanniaceae = Lomandroideae * Asparagaceae = Asparagoideae * Ruscaceae = Nolinoideae * Agavaceae = Agavoideae * Themidaceae = Brodiaeoideae * Hyacinthaceae = Scilloideae \|} Structure of Asparagales Orchid clade Orchidaceae is possibly the largest family of all angiosperms (only Asteraceae might – or might not – be more speciose) and hence by far the largest in the order. The Dahlgren system recognized three families of orchids, but DNA sequence analysis later showed that these families are polyphyletic and so should be combined. Several studies suggest (with high bootstrap support) that Orchidaceae is the sister of the rest of the Asparagales.{{sfn\|psnone\|Chase\|Fay\|Devey\|Maurin\|2006}}{{sfn\|psnone\|Graham\|Zgurski\|McPherson\|Cherniawsky\|2006}}{{sfn\|psnone\|Pires\|Maureira\|Givnish\|Sytsma\|2006}}{{sfn\|psnone\|Givnish\|Pires\|Graham\|McPherson\|2006}} Other studies have placed the orchids differently in the phylogenetic tree, generally among the Boryaceae-Hypoxidaceae clade.{{sfn\|psnone\|Janssen\|Bremer\|2004}}{{sfn\|psnone\|Rudall\|2002a}}{{sfn\|Chase et al.\| 1995a}}{{sfn\|psnone\|McPherson\|Graham\|2001}}{{sfn\|psnone\|Li\|Zhou\|2007}} The position of Orchidaceae shown above seems the best current hypothesis,{{sfn\|psnone\|Stevens\|2016\|loc[http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/orders/asparagalesweb.htm#Asparagales Asparagales]}} but cannot be taken as confirmed. Orchids have simultaneous microsporogenesis and inferior ovaries, two characters that are typical of the 'lower Asparagales'. However, their nectaries are rarely in the septa of the ovaries, and most orchids have dust-like seeds, atypical of the rest of the order. (Some members of Vanilloideae and Cypripedioideae have crustose seeds, probably associated with dispersal by birds and mammals that are attracted by fermenting fleshy fruit releasing fragrant compounds, e.g. vanilla.) In terms of the number of species, Orchidaceae diversification is remarkable, with recent estimations suggesting that despite the old origin of the family dating back to the late cretaceous,<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Givnish \|first1Thomas J. \|last2Spalink \|first2Daniel \|last3Ames \|first3Mercedes \|last4Lyon \|first4Stephanie P. \|last5Hunter \|first5Steven J. \|last6Zuluaga \|first6Alejandro \|last7Iles \|first7William J. D. \|last8Clements \|first8Mark A. \|last9Arroyo \|first9Mary T. K. \|last10Leebens-Mack \|first10James \|last11Endara \|first11Lorena \|last12Kriebel \|first12Ricardo \|last13Neubig \|first13Kurt M. \|last14Whitten \|first14W. Mark \|last15Williams \|first15Norris H. \|date2015-09-07 \|titleOrchid phylogenomics and multiple drivers of their extraordinary diversification \|journalProceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences \|languageen \|volume282 \|issue1814 \|pages20151553 \|doi10.1098/rspb.2015.1553 \|issn0962-8452 \|pmc4571710 \|pmid26311671}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Serna-Sánchez \|first1Maria Alejandra \|last2Pérez-Escobar \|first2Oscar A. \|last3Bogarín \|first3Diego \|last4Torres-Jimenez \|first4María Fernanda \|last5Alvarez-Yela \|first5Astrid Catalina \|last6Arcila-Galvis \|first6Juliana E. \|last7Hall \|first7Climbie F. \|last8de Barros \|first8Fábio \|last9Pinheiro \|first9Fábio \|last10Dodsworth \|first10Steven \|last11Chase \|first11Mark W. \|last12Antonelli \|first12Alexandre \|last13Arias \|first13Tatiana \|date2021-03-25 \|titlePlastid phylogenomics resolves ambiguous relationships within the orchid family and provides a solid timeframe for biogeography and macroevolution \|journalScientific Reports \|languageen \|volume11 \|issue1 \|pages6858 \|doi10.1038/s41598-021-83664-5 \|pmid33767214 \|pmc7994851 \|bibcode2021NatSR..11.6858S \|issn2045-2322}}</ref> modern orchid diversity originated mostly during the last 5 million years.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Pérez-Escobar \|first1Oscar A. \|last2Bogarín \|first2Diego \|last3Przelomska \|first3Natalia A. S. \|last4Ackerman \|first4James D. \|last5Balbuena \|first5Juan A. \|last6Bellot \|first6Sidonie \|last7Bühlmann \|first7Roland P. \|last8Cabrera \|first8Betsaida \|last9Cano \|first9Jose Aguilar \|last10Charitonidou \|first10Martha \|last11Chomicki \|first11Guillaume \|last12Clements \|first12Mark A. \|last13Cribb \|first13Phillip \|last14Fernández \|first14Melania \|last15Flanagan \|first15Nicola S. \|dateApril 2024 \|titleThe origin and speciation of orchids \|urlhttps://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.19580 \|journalNew Phytologist \|languageen \|volume242 \|issue2 \|pages700–716 \|doi10.1111/nph.19580 \|pmid38382573 \|issn0028-646X\|hdl10550/97112 \|hdl-accessfree }}</ref> However, although the other Asparagales may be less rich in species, they are more variable morphologically, including tree-like forms. Boryaceae to Hypoxidaceae The four families excluding Boryaceae form a well-supported clade in studies based on DNA sequence analysis. All four contain relatively few species, and it has been suggested that they be combined into one family under the name Hypoxidaceae sensu lato.{{sfn\|psnone\|Soltis\|Soltis\|Endress\|Chase\|2005}} The relationship between Boryaceae (which includes only two genera, Borya and Alania), and other Asparagales has remained unclear for a long time. The Boryaceae are mycorrhizal, but not in the same way as orchids. Morphological studies have suggested a close relationship between Boryaceae and Blandfordiaceae.{{sfn\|psnone\|Rudall\|2002a}} There is relatively low support for the position of Boryaceae in the tree shown above.{{sfn\|psnone\|Chase\|Fay\|Devey\|Maurin\|2006}}Ixioliriaceae to XeronemataceaeThe relationship shown between Ixioliriaceae and Tecophilaeaceae is still unclear. Some studies have supported a clade of these two families,{{sfn\|psnone\|Chase\|Fay\|Devey\|Maurin\|2006}} others have not.{{sfn\|psnone\|Janssen\|Bremer\|2004}} The position of Doryanthaceae has also varied, with support for the position shown above,{{sfn\|psnone\|Graham\|Zgurski\|McPherson\|Cherniawsky\|2006}} but also support for other positions.{{sfn\|ps=none\|Chase\|Fay\|Devey\|Maurin\|2006}} The clade from Iridaceae upwards appears to have stronger support. All have some genetic characteristics in common, having lost Arabidopsis-type telomeres.{{sfn\|ps=none\|Fay et al\|2000}} Iridaceae is distinctive among the Asparagales in the unique structure of the inflorescence (a rhipidium), the combination of an inferior ovary and three stamens, and the common occurrence of unifacial leaves whereas bifacial leaves are the norm in other Asparagales. Members of the clade from Iridaceae upwards have infra-locular septal nectaries, which Rudall interpreted as a driver towards secondarily superior ovaries.{{sfn\|psnone\|Rudall\|2002b}}Asphodelaceae + 'core Asparagales'The next node in the tree (Xanthorrhoeaceae sensu lato + the 'core Asparagales') has strong support.{{sfn\|psnone\|Chase\|De Bruijn\|Cox\|Reeves\|2000}} 'Anomalous' secondary thickening occurs among this clade, e.g. in Xanthorrhoea (family Asphodelaceae) and Dracaena (family Asparagaceae sensu lato), with species reaching tree-like proportions. The 'core Asparagales', comprising Amaryllidaceae sensu lato and Asparagaceae sensu lato, are a strongly supported clade,{{sfn\|psnone\|Graham\|Zgurski\|McPherson\|Cherniawsky\|2006}} as are clades for each of the families. Relationships within these broadly defined families appear less clear, particularly within the Asparagaceae sensu lato. Stevens notes that most of its subfamilies are difficult to recognize, and that significantly different divisions have been used in the past, so that the use of a broadly defined family to refer to the entire clade is justified.{{sfn\|psnone\|Stevens\|2016\|loc[http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/orders/asparagalesweb.htm#Asparagales Asparagales]}} Thus the relationships among subfamilies shown above, based on APWeb {{as of\|2010\|December\|lcyes}}, is somewhat uncertain. Evolution Several studies have attempted to date the evolution of the Asparagales, based on phylogenetic evidence. Earlier studies{{sfn\|psnone\|Eguiarte\|1995}}{{sfn\|psnone\|Wikström\|Savolainen\|Chase\|2001}} generally give younger dates than more recent studies,{{sfn\|psnone\|Janssen\|Bremer\|2004}}{{sfn\|psnone\|Magallón\|Castillo\|2009}} which have been preferred in the table below. {\| class="wikitable" \|+ ! Approx. date in<br />Millions of Years Ago !! Event \|- \| style"text-align: center;"\| 133-120 \|\| Origin of Asparagales, i.e. first divergence from other monocots{{sfn\|psnone\|Janssen\|Bremer\|2004}}{{sfn\|ps=none\|Magallón\|Castillo\|2009}} \|- \| style"text-align: center;"\| 93 \|\| Split between Asphodelaceae and the 'core group' Asparagales{{sfn\|psnone\|Janssen\|Bremer\|2004}} \|- \| style"text-align: center;"\| 91–89 \|\| Origin of Alliodeae and Asparagoideae{{sfn\|psnone\|Janssen\|Bremer\|2004}} \|- \| style"text-align: center;"\| 47 \|\| Divergence of Agavoideae and Nolinoideae{{sfn\|psnone\|Eguiarte\|1995}} \|} A 2009 study suggests that the Asparagales have the highest diversification rate in the monocots, about the same as the order Poales, although in both orders the rate is little over half that of the eudicot order Lamiales, the clade with the highest rate.{{sfn\|psnone\|Magallón\|Castillo\|2009}} Comparison of family structures {{main\|Families of Asparagales}} <!-- daughter page created - reduction to follow --> The taxonomic diversity of the monocotyledons is described in detail by Kubitzki.{{sfn\|psnone\|Kubitzki\|1998}}{{sfn\|psnone\|Kubitzki\|2006}} Up-to-date information on the Asparagales can be found on the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website.{{sfn\|psnone\|Stevens\|2016\|loc[http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/orders/asparagalesweb.htm#Asparagales Asparagales]}} The APG III system's family circumscriptions are being used as the basis of the Kew-hosted World Checklist of Selected Plant Families.{{sfn\|psnone\|WCSP\|2010}} With this circumscription, the order consists of 14 families (Dahlgren had 31){{sfn\|psnone\|Dahlgren\|Clifford\|Yeo\|1985\|loc[https://books.google.com/books?id3iGndTFY0skC&pgPA129 Order Asparagales]}} with approximately 1120 genera and 26000 species.{{sfn\|psnone\|Stevens\|2016\|loc=[http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/orders/asparagalesweb.htm#Asparagales Asparagales]}} Order Asparagales <small>Link</small> * Family Amaryllidaceae <small>J.St.-Hil.</small> (including Agapanthaceae <small>F.Voigt</small>, Alliaceae <small>Borkh.</small>)<ref group=notes>The name 'Alliaceae' has also been used for the expanded family comprising the Alliaceae sensu stricto, Amaryllidaceae and Agapanthaceae (e.g. in the APG II system). 'Amaryllidaceae' is used as a conserved name in APG III.</ref> * Family Asparagaceae <small>Juss.</small> (including Agavaceae <small>Dumort.</small> <nowiki>[which includes Anemarrhenaceae, Anthericaceae, Behniaceae and Herreriaceae]</nowiki>, Aphyllanthaceae <small>Burnett</small>, Hesperocallidaceae <small>Traub</small>, Hyacinthaceae <small>Batsch ex Borkh.</small>, Laxmanniaceae <small>Bubani</small>, Ruscaceae <small>M.Roem.</small> <nowiki>[which includes Convallariaceae]</nowiki> and Themidaceae <small>Salisb.</small>) * Family Asteliaceae <small>Dumort.</small> * Family Blandfordiaceae <small>R.Dahlgren & Clifford</small> * Family Boryaceae <small>M.W. Chase, Rudall & Conran</small> * Family Doryanthaceae <small>R.Dahlgren & Clifford</small> * Family Hypoxidaceae <small>R.Br.</small> * Family Iridaceae <small>Juss.</small> * Family Ixioliriaceae <small>Nakai</small> * Family Lanariaceae <small>R.Dahlgren & A.E.van Wyk</small> * Family Orchidaceae <small>Juss.</small> * Family Tecophilaeaceae <small>Leyb.</small> * Family Xanthorrhoeaceae <small>Dumort.</small> (including Asphodelaceae <small>Juss.</small> and Hemerocallidaceae <small>R.Br.</small>), now Asphodelaceae <small>Juss.</small> * Family Xeronemataceae <small>M.W.Chase, Rudall & M.F.Fay</small> The earlier 2003 version, APG II, allowed 'bracketed' families, i.e. families which could either be segregated from more comprehensive families or could be included in them. These are the families given under "including" in the list above. APG III does not allow bracketed families, requiring the use of the more comprehensive family; otherwise the circumscription of the Asparagales is unchanged. A separate paper accompanying the publication of the 2009 APG III system provided subfamilies to accommodate the families which were discontinued.{{sfn\|ps=none\|Chase\|Reveal\|Fay\|2009}} The first APG system of 1998 contained some extra families, included in square brackets in the list above. Two older systems which use the order Asparagales are the Dahlgren system{{sfn\|psnone\|Dahlgren\|Clifford\|Yeo\|1985}} and the Kubitzki system.{{sfn\|psnone\|Kubitzki\|1998}} The families included in the circumscriptions of the order in these two systems are shown in the first and second columns of the table below. The equivalent family in the modern APG III system (see below) is shown in the third column. Note that although these systems may use the same name for a family, the genera which it includes may be different, so the equivalence between systems is only approximate in some cases. {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Families included in Asparagales in three systems which use this order ! Dahlgren system !! Kubitzki system !! APG III system \|- \| – \|\| Agapanthaceae \|\| Amaryllidaceae: Agapanthoideae \|- \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Agavaceae \|\| Asparagaceae: Agavoideae \|- \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Alliaceae \|\| Amaryllidaceae: Allioideae \|- \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Amaryllidaceae \|\| Amaryllidaceae: Amaryllidoideae \|- \| – \|\| Anemarrhenaceae \|\| Asparagaceae: Agavoideae \|- \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Anthericaceae \|\| Asparagaceae: Agavoideae \|- \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Aphyllanthaceae \|\| Asparagaceae: Aphyllanthoideae \|- \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Asparagaceae \|\| Asparagaceae: Asparagoideae \|- \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Asphodelaceae \|\| Asphodelaceae: Asphodeloideae \|- \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Asteliaceae \|\| Asteliaceae \|- \| – \|\| Behniaceae \|\| Asparagaceae: Agavoideae \|- \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Blandfordiaceae \|\| Blandfordiaceae \|- \| – \|\| Boryaceae \|\| Boryaceae \|- \| Calectasiaceae \|\| —\|\| Not in Asparagales (family Dasypogonaceae, unplaced as to order, clade commelinids) \|- \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Convallariaceae \|\| Asparagaceae: Nolinoideae \|- \| Cyanastraceae \|\| – \|\| Tecophilaeaceae \|- \| Dasypogonaceae \|\| – \|\| Not in Asparagales (family Dasypogonaceae, unplaced as to order, clade commelinids) \|- \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Doryanthaceae \|\| Doryanthaceae \|- \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Dracaenaceae \|\| Asparagaceae: Nolinoideae \|- \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Eriospermaceae \|\| Asparagaceae: Nolinoideae \|- \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Hemerocallidaceae \|\| Asphodelaceae: Hemerocallidoideae \|- \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Herreriaceae \|\| Asparagaceae: Agavoideae \|- \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Hostaceae \|\| Asparagaceae: Agavoideae \|- \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Hyacinthaceae \|\| Asparagaceae: Scilloideae \|- \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Hypoxidaceae \|\| Hypoxidaceae \|- \| – \|\| Iridaceae \|\| Iridaceae \|- \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Ixioliriaceae \|\| Ixioliriaceae \|- \| – \|\| Johnsoniaceae \|\| Asphodelaceae: Hemerocallidoideae \|- \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Lanariaceae \|\| Lanariaceae \|- \| Luzuriagaceae \|\| – \|\| Not in Asparagales (family Alstroemeriaceae, order Liliales) \|- \| – \|\| Lomandraceae \|\| Asparagaceae: Lomandroideae \|- \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Nolinaceae \|\| Asparagaceae: Nolinoideae \|- \| – \|\| Orchidaceae \|\| Orchidaceae \|- \| Philesiaceae \|\| – \|\| Not in Asparagales (family Philesiaceae, order Liliales) \|- \| Phormiaceae \|\| – \|\| Asphodelaceae: Hemerocallidoideae \|- \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Ruscaceae \|\| Asparagaceae: Nolinoideae \|- \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Tecophilaeaceae \|\| Tecophilaeaceae \|- \| – \|\| Themidaceae \|\| Asparagaceae: Brodiaeoideae \|- \| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| Xanthorrhoeaceae \|\| Asphodelaceae: Xanthorrhoeoideae \|} Uses The Asparagales include many important crop plants and ornamental plants. Crops include Allium, Asparagus and Vanilla, while ornamentals include irises, hyacinths and orchids.{{sfn\|psnone\|Chen et al.\|2013}} See also * Taxonomy of Liliaceae Notes {{Reflist\|groupnotes}} References {{Reflist\|20em}} Bibliography {{Refbegin\|30em}} Books * {{Citation\|editor1-lastColumbus\|editor1-firstJ. T.\|editor2-lastFriar\|editor2-firstE. A.\|editor3-lastPorter\|editor3-firstJ. M.\|editor4-lastPrince\|editor4-firstL. M.\|editor5-lastSimpson\|editor5-firstM. G.\|titleSymposium issue: Monocots: comparative biology and evolution (excluding Poales). 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Society\|date2009\|volume161\|issue2\|pages122–127\|urlhttp://reflora.jbrj.gov.br/downloads/APG2.pdf\|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://reflora.jbrj.gov.br/downloads/APG2.pdf\|archive-date2022-10-09\|url-statuslive\|access-date21 April 2015\|doi10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.01002.x\|doi-access=free}} * {{Citation \|first1Mark W. \|last1Chase \|first2James L. \|last2Reveal \|first3Michael F. \|last3Fay \|author-linkMark Chase\|titleA subfamilial classification for the expanded asparagalean families Amaryllidaceae, Asparagaceae and Xanthorrhoeaceae \|journalBotanical Journal of the Linnean Society \|volume161 \|issue2 \|pages132–136 \|year2009\|doi10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00999.x\|ref{{harvid\|Chase et al\|2009}}\|doi-accessfree }} * {{citation \|last1Haston\|first1Elspeth \|last2Richardson \|first2James E. \|last3Stevens \|first3Peter F. \|last4Chase \|first4Mark W. \|last5Harris \|first5David J. \|author-link3Peter F Stevens\|author-link4Mark W Chase\|titleThe 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787	Alismatales	{{Short description\|Order of herbaceous flowering plants of marshy and aquatic habitats}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=September 2021}} {{Automatic taxobox \|image = AlismaPlant1.jpg \|image_caption = Alisma plantago-aquatica \|taxon = Alismatales \|authority R.Br. ex Bercht. & J.Presl<ref name"apgiii">{{Citation \|lastAngiosperm Phylogeny Group \|year2009 \|titleAn update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III \|journalBotanical Journal of the Linnean Society \|volume161 \|issue2 \|pages105–121 \|doi10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x \|doi-accessfree \|hdl10654/18083 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> \|subdivision_ranks = Families \|subdivision = See Taxonomy }} ) of family Araceae in Crete, Greece.]] from family Hydrocharitaceae in Hyderabad, India.]] The Alismatales (alismatids) are an order of flowering plants including about 4,500 species. Plants assigned to this order are mostly tropical or aquatic. Some grow in fresh water, some in marine habitats. Perhaps the most important food crop in the order is the taro plant, Colocasia esculenta. Description The Alismatales comprise herbaceous flowering plants of often aquatic and marshy habitats, and the only monocots known to have green embryos other than the Amaryllidaceae. They also include the only marine angiosperms growing completely submerged, the seagrasses.<ref nameStevens>{{cite web\|lastStevens \| firstP.F. \| year2022 \| version14 \| access-date 28 October 2022 \| titleAlismatales\|urlhttp://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/orders/alismatalesweb.htm#Alismatales\|websiteAngiosperm Phylogeny Website\|publisherMissouri Botanical Garden}}</ref> The flowers are usually arranged in inflorescences, and the mature seeds lack endosperm. Both marine and freshwater forms include those with staminate flowers that detach from the parent plant and float to the surface. There they can pollinate carpellate flowers floating on the surface via long pedicels.<ref nameSullTitu96>{{Citation \|modecs1 \|last1Sullivan \|first1G. \|last2Titus \|first2J.E. \|date1996 \|titlePhysical site characteristics limit pollination and fruit set in the dioecious hydrophilous species, Vallisneria americana \|journalOecologia \|volume108 \|issue2 \|pages285–292 \|doi10.1007/BF00334653 \|pmid28307841 \|bibcode1996Oecol.108..285S \|s2cid13369438 \|name-list-styleamp }}</ref> In others, pollination occurs underwater, where pollen may form elongated strands, increasing chance of success. Most aquatic species have a totally submerged juvenile phase, and flowers are either floating or emerge above the water's surface. Vegetation may be totally submersed, have floating leaves, or protrude from the water. Collectively, they are commonly known as "water plantain".<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.eeb.uconn.edu/people/les/Manuscript_Files/Encyclopedia_Life_Sciences.pdf \|title-Alismatales (Water Plantains) \|access-date27 May 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100612013757/http://www.eeb.uconn.edu/people/les/Manuscript_Files/Encyclopedia_Life_Sciences.pdf \|archive-date12 June 2010 \|url-statusdead }}</ref>TaxonomyThe Alismatales contain about 165 genera in 13 families, with a cosmopolitan distribution. Phylogenetically, they are basal monocots, diverging early in evolution relative to the lilioid and commelinid monocot lineages.{{sfn\|Wilkin\|Mayo\|2013}} Together with the Acorales, the Alismatales are referred to informally as the alismatid monocots.{{sfn\|RBG\|2010}}Early systemsThe Cronquist system (1981) places the Alismatales in subclass Alismatidae, class Liliopsida [ monocotyledons] and includes only three families as shown: * Alismataceae * Butomaceae * Limnocharitaceae Cronquist's subclass Alismatidae conformed fairly closely to the order Alismatales as defined by APG, minus the Araceae. The Dahlgren system places the Alismatales in the superorder Alismatanae in the subclass Liliidae [monocotyledons] in the class Magnoliopsida [ angiosperms] with the following families included: * Alismataceae * Aponogetonaceae * Butomaceae * Hydrocharitaceae * Limnocharitaceae In Tahktajan's classification (1997), the order Alismatales contains only the Alismataceae and Limnocharitaceae, making it equivalent to the Alismataceae as revised in APG-III. Other families included in the Alismatates as currently defined are here distributed among 10 additional orders, all of which are assigned, with the following exception, to the Subclass Alismatidae. Araceae in Tahktajan 1997 is assigned to the Arales and placed in the Subclass Aridae; Tofieldiaceae to the Melanthiales and placed in the Liliidae.<ref>{{cite web\| url http://botany.csdl.tamu.edu/FLORA/newgate/cronang.htm\| title -Flowering Plant Gateway\| access-date 27 May 2010\| archive-date 6 October 2011\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20111006041129/http://botany.csdl.tamu.edu/FLORA/newgate/cronang.htm\| url-status dead}}</ref> Angiosperm Phylogeny Group The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system (APG) of 1998 and APG II (2003) assigned the Alismatales to the monocots, which may be thought of as an unranked clade containing the families listed below. The biggest departure from earlier systems (see below) is the inclusion of family Araceae. By its inclusion, the order has grown enormously in number of species. The family Araceae alone accounts for about a hundred genera, totaling over two thousand species. The rest of the families together contain only about five hundred species, many of which are in very small families.{{sfn\|APG IV\|2016}} The APG III system (2009) differs only in that the Limnocharitaceae are combined with the Alismataceae; it was also suggested that the genus Maundia (of the Juncaginaceae) could be separated into a monogeneric family, the Maundiaceae, but the authors noted that more study was necessary before the Maundiaceae could be recognized.<ref name="apgiii" /> * order Alismatales sensu APG III : family Alismataceae (including Limnocharitaceae) : family Aponogetonaceae : family Araceae : family Butomaceae <!-- monogeneric family --> : family Cymodoceaceae : family Hydrocharitaceae : family Juncaginaceae : family Posidoniaceae : family Potamogetonaceae : family Ruppiaceae : family Scheuchzeriaceae : family Tofieldiaceae : family Zosteraceae In APG IV (2016), it was decided that evidence was sufficient to elevate Maundia to family level as the monogeneric Maundiaceae.{{sfn\|APG IV\|2016}} The authors considered including a number of the smaller orders within the Juncaginaceae, but an online survey of botanists and other users found little support for this "lumping" approach.{{sfnp\|ps=none\|Christenhusz\|Vorontsova\|Fay\|Chase\|2015}} Consequently, the family structure for APG IV is: {{cladogram \|titleCladogram of Alismatales<ref nameStevens /> \|{{clade\|style=font-size:80%;line-height:100%;width:300px; \|label1=Alismatales \|1={{clade \|1=Araceae \|2={{clade \|1=Tofieldiaceae \|2={{clade \|1={{clade \|1=Alismataceae \|2={{clade \|1=Butomaceae \|2=Hydrocharitaceae }} }} \|2={{clade \|1=Aponogetonaceae \|2={{clade \|1=Scheuchzeriaceae \|2={{clade \|1=Juncaginaceae \|2={{clade \|1=Maundiaceae \|2={{clade \|1={{clade \|1=Potamogetonaceae \|2=Zosteraceae }} \|2={{clade \|1=Posidoniaceae \|2={{clade \|1=Cymodoceaceae \|2=Ruppiaceae }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} : family Alismataceae (including Limnocharitaceae) : family Aponogetonaceae : family Araceae : family Butomaceae <!-- monogeneric family --> : family Cymodoceaceae : family Hydrocharitaceae : family Juncaginaceae : family Maundiaceae : family Posidoniaceae : family Potamogetonaceae : family Ruppiaceae : family Scheuchzeriaceae : family Tofieldiaceae : family Zosteraceae Phylogeny Cladogram showing the orders of monocots (Lilianae sensu Chase & Reveal){{sfn\|Chase\|Reveal\|2009}} based on molecular phylogenetic evidence: {{barlabel\|size12\|at15\|label1Lilioid monocots \|bar1purple\|at20.5\|label2Alismatid monocots\|bar2green\|stylefont-size:100%;line-height:125%;width:400px;\|cladogram= {{clade \|align=center \|label1= Lilianae sensu Chase & Reveal{{sfn\|Chase\|Reveal\|2009}} \|1={{clade \| 1{{clade\|thickness3 \| 1Acorales\|barbegin1green \| 2{{clade\|thickness3 \|label1\| 1 Alismatales \|barend1=green \| 2={{clade \| 1Petrosaviales \|barbegin1purple \|2={{clade \|1={{clade \|1Dioscoreales\|bar1purple \|2Pandanales \|bar2purple }} \| 2={{clade \|1Liliales \|bar1purple \|2={{clade \|1Asparagales \|barend1purple \|label2=commelinids \|2={{clade \|1=Dasypogonaceae \|2=Arecales \|3=Poales \|4={{clade \|1=Zingiberales \|2=Commelinales }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} {{clear}} References {{Reflist\|2}} Further reading {{Refbegin\|30em}} B. C. J. du Mortier 1829. Analyse des Familles de Plantes : avec l'indication des principaux genres qui s'y rattachent. Imprimerie de J. Casterman, Tournay * W. S. Judd, C. S. Campbell, E. A. Kellogg, P. F. Stevens, M. J. Donoghue, 2002. Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach, 2nd edition. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts {{ISBN\|0-87893-403-0}}. * {{cite book\|editor1-lastWilkin\|editor1-firstPaul\|editor2-lastMayo\|editor2-firstSimon J\|titleEarly events in monocot evolution\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsEfKwaRHQj4C\|date2013\|publisherCambridge University Press\|locationCambridge\|isbn978-1-107-01276-9\|access-date9 December 2015}} * {{Citation \|lastRoyal Botanic Gardens, Kew \|author-linkRoyal Botanic Gardens, Kew \|titleMonocots I: General Alismatids & Lilioids \|urlhttp://www.kew.org/science/directory/teams/MonocotsI/index.html \|date2016 \|ref{{harvid\|RBG\|2010}} \|access-date26 January 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150914163722/http://www.kew.org/science/directory/teams/MonocotsI/index.html \|archive-date14 September 2015 \|url-statusdead }} * {{citation\|last1Chase\|first1Mark W\|last2Reveal\|first2James L\|author-link1Mark W Chase\|author-link2James L Reveal\|titleA phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III\|journalBotanical Journal of the Linnean Society\|date2009\|volume161\|issue2\|pages122–127\|urlhttp://reflora.jbrj.gov.br/downloads/APG2.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://reflora.jbrj.gov.br/downloads/APG2.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|doi10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.01002.x\|doi-accessfree}} * {{cite book\|last1Les\|first1Donald H\|last2Tippery\|first2Nicholas P\|titleIn time and with water ... the systematics of alismatid monocotyledons\|pages118–164\|urlhttp://hydrodictyon.eeb.uconn.edu/people/les/Manuscript_Files/Early_Events.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://hydrodictyon.eeb.uconn.edu/people/les/Manuscript_Files/Early_Events.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive}}, in {{harvtxt\|Wilkin\|Mayo\|2013}} * {{Cite journal \|lastAngiosperm Phylogeny Group \|author-linkAngiosperm Phylogeny Group\|year2016 \|titleAn update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV \|journalBotanical Journal of the Linnean Society \|volume181 \|issue1 \|pages1–20 \|doi10.1111/boj.12385\|ref{{harvid\|APG IV\|2016}} \|doi-access=free }} * {{citation \|last1Christenhusz\|first1Maarten J.M.\|last2Vorontsova\|first2Maria S.\|author2-linkMaria Vorontsova (botanist)\|last3Fay\|first3Michael F.\|last4Chase\|first4Mark W.\|author-link3Michael Francis Fay\|author-link4Mark Chase\|titleResults from an online survey of family delimitation in angiosperms and ferns: recommendations to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group for thorny problems in plant classification\|journalBotanical Journal of the Linnean Society\|dateAugust 2015\|volume178\|issue4\|pages501–528\|doi10.1111/boj.12285 \|name-list-styleamp\|doi-accessfree}} {{Refend}} External links * {{Wikispecies-inline\|Alismatales}} * {{Commons category-inline\|Alismatales}} {{Monocotyledons}} {{Taxonbar\|from=Q27341}} {{Authority control}} Category:Angiosperm orders	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alismatales	2025-04-05T18:25:22.255153
788	Apiales	{{Short description\|Order of eudicot flowering plants in the asterid group}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=June 2020}} {{Automatic taxobox \| image = Umbella.jpg \| image_caption = Inflorescence of a wild carrot, Daucus carota, in the family Apiaceae. \| taxon = Apiales \| authority Nakai<ref nameAPGIII2009>{{Cite journal \|lastAngiosperm Phylogeny Group \|year2009 \|titleAn update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III \|journalBotanical Journal of the Linnean Society \|volume161 \|issue2 \|pages105–121 \|doi10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x \|doi-accessfree \|hdl10654/18083 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> \| subdivision_ranks = Families \| subdivision_ref <ref nameAPGIII2009/> \| subdivision = * Apiaceae (carrot family) * Araliaceae (ginseng family) * Griseliniaceae * Myodocarpaceae * Pennantiaceae * Pittosporaceae * Torricelliaceae }} The Apiales are an order of flowering plants, included in the asterid group of dicotyledons. Well-known members of Apiales include carrots, celery, coriander, parsley, parsnips, poison hemlock, ginseng, ivies, and pittosporums. Apiales consist of nine families, with the type family being the celery, carrot or parsley family, Apiaceae. Taxonomy There are nine accepted families within the Apiales, though there is some slight variation and in particular, the Torriceliaceae may also be divided.<ref name"plunkett2004">{{cite journal \| last1 Plunkett \| first1 Gregory M. \| last2 Chandler \| first2 Gregory T. \| last3 Lowry \| first3 Porter P. \| last4 Pinney \| first4 Steven M. \| last5 Sprenkle \| first5 Taylor S. \| year 2004 \| title Recent advances in understanding Apiales and a revised classification \| journal South African Journal of Botany \| volume 70 \| issue 3\| pages 371–381 \| doi10.1016/s0254-6299(15)30220-9\| doi-access = free }}</ref> * Apiaceae (carrot family) * Araliaceae (ginseng family) * Griseliniaceae * Myodocarpaceae * Pennantiaceae * Pittosporaceae * Torricelliaceae The present understanding of the Apiales is fairly recent and is based upon comparison of DNA sequences by phylogenetic methods.<ref name"gregory2004">{{Cite journal\| last1 Chandler \| first1 G. T.\| last2 Plunkett \| first2 G. M.\| title Evolution in Apiales: nuclear and chloroplast markers together in (almost) perfect harmony\| journal Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society\| volume 144\| issue 2\| pages 123\| year 2004\| doi 10.1111/j.1095-8339.2003.00247.x\| doi-access free}}</ref> The circumscriptions of some of the families have changed. In 2009, one of the subfamilies of Araliaceae was shown to be polyphyletic.<ref name"nicolas2009">{{Cite journal \| last1 Nicolas \| first1 A. N. \| last2 Plunkett \| first2 G. M. \| title The demise of subfamily Hydrocotyloideae (Apiaceae) and the re-alignment of its genera across the entire order Apiales \| journal Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution \| volume 53 \| issue 1 \| pages 134–151 \| year 2009 \| doi 10.1016/j.ympev.2009.06.010 \| pmid19549570}}</ref> The order Apiales is placed within the asterid group of eudicots as circumscribed by the APG III system.<ref nameAPGIII2009/> Within the asterids, Apiales belongs to an unranked group called the campanulids,<ref name"winkworth2008">{{cite journal \| last1 Winkworth \| first1 Richard C. \| last2 Lundberg \| first2 Johannes \| last3 Donoghue \| first3 Michael J. \| year 2008 \| title Toward a resolution of Campanulid phylogeny, with special reference to the placement of Dipsacales \| journal Taxon \| volume 57 \| issue 1\| pages 53–65 }}</ref> and within the campanulids, it belongs to a clade known in phylogenetic nomenclature as Apiidae.<ref name"cantino2007">{{cite journal \|author1Philip D. Cantino \|author2James A. Doyle \|author3Sean W. Graham \|author4Walter S. Judd \|author5Richard G. Olmstead \|author6Douglas E. Soltis \|author-link6Douglas E. Soltis \|author7Pamela S. Soltis \|author-link7 Pamela S. Soltis\|author8Michael J. Donoghue \| year 2007 \| title Towards a phylogenetic nomenclature of Tracheophyta \| journal Taxon \| volume 56 \| issue 3 \| pages 822–846 \| url http://www.phylodiversity.net/donoghue/publications/MJD_papers/2007/164_Cantino_Taxon07.pdf \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080705223344/http://www.phylodiversity.net/donoghue/publications/MJD_papers/2007/164_Cantino_Taxon07.pdf \| url-status usurped \| archive-date 5 July 2008 \| doi 10.2307/25065865\|jstor25065865 }}</ref> In 2010, a subclade of Apiidae named Dipsapiidae was defined to consist of the three orders: Apiales, Paracryphiales, and Dipsacales.<ref name"tank2010">{{Cite journal \| last1 Tank \| first1 D. C. \| last2 Donoghue \| first2 M. J. \| title = Phylogeny and Phylogenetic Nomenclature of the Campanulidae based on an Expanded Sample of Genes and Taxa \| journal = Systematic Botany \| volume = 35 \| issue = 2 \| pages = 425 \| year = 2010 \| doi = 10.1600/036364410791638306 \| s2cid = 27856073 }}</ref> Under the Cronquist system, only the Apiaceae and Araliaceae were included here, and the restricted order was placed among the rosids rather than the asterids. The Pittosporaceae were placed within the Rosales, and many of the other forms within the family Cornaceae. Pennantia was in the family Icacinaceae. In the classification system of Dahlgren the families Apiaceae and Araliaceae were placed in the order Ariales, in the superorder Araliiflorae (also called Aralianae). Gynoecia The largest and obviously closely related families of Apiales are Araliaceae, Myodocarpaceae and Apiaceae, which resemble each other in the structure of their gynoecia. In this respect however, the Pittosporaceae is notably distinct from them.<ref name"osk">{{cite journal\|last1Oskolski \|first1Alexei A. \|last2Sokoloff \|first2Dmitry D. \|last3Van Wyk \|first3Ben-Erik \|titleFalse paracarpy in Seemannaralia (Araliaceae): from bilocular ovary to unilocular fruit \|journalAnnals of Botany \|volume106 \|date2010 \|issue1 \|pages29–36 \|doi10.1093/aob/mcq084\|urlhttp://ben-erikvanwyk.com/239%20-%202010,%20Oskolski,%20Sokoloff,%20Van%20Wyk,%20False%20paracarpy%20in%20Seemannaralia.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://ben-erikvanwyk.com/239%20-%202010,%20Oskolski,%20Sokoloff,%20Van%20Wyk,%20False%20paracarpy%20in%20Seemannaralia.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|access-date28 April 2017\|pmc2889795 \|pmid=20462851}}</ref> Typical syncarpous gynoecia exhibit four vertical zones, determined by the extent of fusion of the carpels. In most plants, the synascidiate (i.e. "united bottle-shaped") and symplicate zones are fertile and bear the ovules.<ref name"pan">{{cite book \|last1Pankhurst \|first1R. J. \|titleMorphology of flowers and inflorescences \|date1992 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|locationCambridge, England \|isbn9780521438322 \|pages153–155 \|edition1st pbk.}}</ref> Each of the first three families possess mainly bi- or multilocular ovaries in a gynoecium with a long synascidiate, but very short symplicate zone, where the ovules are inserted at their transition, the so-called cross-zone (or "Querzone").<ref name="osk"/> In gynoecia of the Pittosporaceae, the symplicate is much longer than the synascidiate zone, and the ovules are arranged along the first. Members of the latter family consequently have unilocular ovaries with a single cavity between adjacent carpels.<ref name"osk"/>References{{Commons category\|positionleft}} {{Wikispecies\|position=left}} {{Reflist\|30em}} {{Angiosperm orders}} {{Taxonbar\|from=Q21138}} {{Authority control}} Category:Angiosperm orders Category:Taxa named by Takenoshin Nakai	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apiales	2025-04-05T18:25:22.260437
789	Asterales	{{Short description\|Large order of flowering plants}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=April 2020}} {{More footnotes needed\|date=February 2012}} {{Automatic taxobox \| image = A_sunflower.jpg \| image_caption = Sunflower, Helianthus annuus \| taxon = Asterales \| authority Link<ref nameAPGIII2009>{{Cite journal \|lastAngiosperm Phylogeny Group \|year2009 \|titleAn update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III \|journalBotanical Journal of the Linnean Society \|volume161 \|issue2 \|pages105–121 \|doi10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x \|doi-accessfree \|hdl10654/18083 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> \| subdivision_ranks = Families \| subdivision = Alseuosmiaceae Argophyllaceae Asteraceae - Asters Calyceraceae Campanulaceae (incl. Lobeliaceae) - Bellflowers Goodeniaceae (incl. Brunoniaceae) Menyanthaceae Pentaphragmataceae Phellinaceae Rousseaceae (incl. Carpodetaceae) Stylidiaceae (incl. Donatiaceae) }} Asterales ({{IPAc-en\|ˌ\|æ\|s\|t\|ə\|ˈ\|r\|eɪ\|l\|iː\|z}} {{respell\|ASS\|tər\|RAY\|leez}})<ref name"Stearn">{{cite encyclopedia \|last1Stearn \|first1William Thomas \|titleBotanical Latin \|date2004 \|publisherTimber Press \|isbn978-0-88192-627-9 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idw0hZvTFJUioC \|access-date14 April 2020}}</ref> is an order of dicotyledonous flowering plants that includes the large family Asteraceae (or Compositae) known for composite flowers made of florets, and ten families related to the Asteraceae.<ref name"Kubitzki">{{cite book \|last1Kubitzki \|first1K. \|titleThe Families and Genera of Vascular Plants: Flowering Plants, Eudicots: Asterales \|date1990 \|publisherSpringer \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idS4MQxwEACAAJ \|access-date14 April 2020 \|languageen}}</ref> While asterids in general are characterized by fused petals, composite flowers consisting of many florets create the false appearance of separate petals (as found in the rosids). The order is cosmopolitan (plants found throughout most of the world including desert and frigid zones), and includes mostly herbaceous species, although a small number of trees (such as the Lobelia deckenii, the giant lobelia, and Dendrosenecio, giant groundsels) and shrubs are also present. Asterales are organisms that seem to have evolved from one common ancestor. Asterales share characteristics on morphological and biochemical levels. Synapomorphies (a character that is shared by two or more groups through evolutionary development) include the presence in the plants of oligosaccharide inulin, a nutrient storage molecule used instead of starch; and unique stamen morphology. The stamens are usually found around the style, either aggregated densely or fused into a tube, probably an adaptation in association with the plunger (brush; or secondary) pollination that is common among the families of the order, wherein pollen is collected and stored on the length of the pistil. Taxonomy The name and order Asterales is botanically venerable, dating back to at least 1926 in the Hutchinson system of plant taxonomy when it contained only five families, of which only two are retained in the APG III classification. Under the Cronquist system of taxonomic classification of flowering plants, Asteraceae was the only family in the group, but newer systems (such as APG II and APG III) have expanded it to 11. In the classification system of Rolf Dahlgren the Asterales were in the superorder Asteriflorae (also called Asteranae). The order Asterales currently includes 11 families, the largest of which are the Asteraceae, with about 25,000 species, and the Campanulaceae (bellflowers), with about 2,000 species. The remaining families count together for less than 1500 species. The two large families are cosmopolitan, with many of their species found in the Northern Hemisphere, and the smaller families are usually confined to Australia and the adjacent areas, or sometimes South America. Only the Asteraceae have composite flower heads; the other families do not, but share other characteristics such as storage of inulin that define the 11 families as more closely related to each other than to other plant families or orders such as the rosids. The phylogenetic tree according to APG III for the Campanulid clade is as below.<ref nameapweb>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.mobot.org/mobot/research/apweb/ \|titleAngiosperm Phylogeny Website \|publisherMobot.org \|access-date=2012-06-12}}</ref> {{Clade \|label1=Campanulid clade (similar to Euasterids II in APG II) \|1={{Clade \|1=Aquifoliales \|2={{Clade \|1={{Clade \|1=Bruniales \|2={{Clade \|1={{Clade \|1=Paracryphiales \|2=Dipsacales }} \|2=Apiales }} }} \|2=Escalloniales \|3=Asterales }} }} }} Phylogeny Although most extant species of Asteraceae are herbaceous, the examination of the basal members in the family suggests that the common ancestor of the family was an arborescent plant, a tree or shrub, perhaps adapted to dry conditions, radiating from South America. Less can be said about the Asterales themselves with certainty, although since several families in Asterales contain trees, the ancestral member is most likely to have been a tree or shrub. Because all clades are represented in the Southern Hemisphere but many not in the Northern Hemisphere, it is natural to conjecture that there is a common southern origin to them. Asterales belong to angiosperms or flowering plants, a clade that appeared about 140 million years ago.{{Citation needed\|dateSeptember 2024\|reasonDifferent sources estimate different dates of the origin of angiosperms}} The Asterales order probably originated in the Cretaceous (145 – 66 Mya) on the supercontinent Gondwana which broke up from 184 – 80 Mya, forming the area that is now Australia, South America, Africa, India and Antarctica. Asterales contain about 14% of eudicot diversity. From an analysis of relationships and diversities within the Asterales and with their superorders, estimates of the age of the beginning of the Asterales have been made, which range from 116 Mya to 82Mya.<ref name="apweb" /> However few fossils have been found, of the Menyanthaceae-Asteraceae clade in the Oligocene, about 29 Mya. Fossil evidence of the Asterales is rare and belongs to rather recent epochs, so the precise estimation of the order's age is quite difficult. An Oligocene (34 – 23 Mya) pollen is known for Asteraceae and Goodeniaceae, and seeds from Oligocene and Miocene (23 – 5.3 Mya) are known for Menyanthaceae and Campanulaceae respectively.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Bremer \|first1K. \|last2Gustafsson \|first2M. H. G. \|year1997 \|titleEast Gondwana ancestry of the sunflower alliance of families \|journalProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \|volume94 \|issue17 \|pages9188–9190 \|bibcode1997PNAS...94.9188B \|doi10.1073/pnas.94.17.9188 \|pmc23106 \|pmid9256457 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> According to molecular clock calculations, the lineage that led to Asterales split from other plants about 112 million years ago<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Bremer\|first1K.\|last2Friis\|first2E. M.\|last3Bremer\|first3B.\|date2004\|titleMolecular phylogenetic dating of asterid flowering plants shows early Cretaceous diversification\|journalSystematic Biology\|volume53\|issue3\|pages496–505\|issn1063-5157\|pmid15503676\|doi10.1080/10635150490445913\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> or 94 million years ago.<ref name"magallon2009">{{citation \|author1Susana Magallón \|author2Amanda Castillo \|name-list-styleamp \| year 2009 \| title Angiosperm diversification through time \| journal American Journal of Botany \| volume 96 \| issue 1 \| pages 349–365 \| doi 10.3732/ajb.0800060 \| pmid 21628193 }}</ref>Biogeography The core Asterales are Stylidiaceae (six genera), APA clade (Alseuosmiaceae, Phellinaceae and Argophyllaceae, together seven genera), MGCA clade (Menyanthaceae, Goodeniaceae, Calyceraceae, in total twenty genera), and Asteraceae (about sixteen hundred genera). Other Asterales are Rousseaceae (four genera), Campanulaceae (eighty-four genera) and Pentaphragmataceae (one genus). All Asterales families are represented in the Southern Hemisphere; however, Asteraceae and Campanulaceae are cosmopolitan and Menyanthaceae nearly so.<ref name"Lundberg">{{cite book \|last1Lundberg \|first1Johannes \|editor1-lastFunk \|editor1-firstVicki A. \|titleSystematics, Evolution, and Biogeography of Compositae \|date2009 \|publisherInternational Association for Plant Taxonomy \|isbn978-3-9501754-3-1 \|urlhttp://www.johanneslundberg.se/publications/pdfs/Chapter10_from_Compositae.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.johanneslundberg.se/publications/pdfs/Chapter10_from_Compositae.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|access-date14 April 2020\|pages157–169}}</ref>UsesThe Asterales, by dint of being a super-set of the family Asteraceae, include some species grown for food, including the sunflower (Helianthus annuus), lettuce (Lactuca sativa) and chicory (Cichorium).<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://compositdb.ucdavis.edu/compositae_overview.php \|access-date14 April 2020 \|titleA Brief Overview of the Compositae, Lettuce and Sunflower \|date=28 October 2015}}</ref> Many are also used as spices and traditional medicines. Asterales are common plants and have many known uses. For example, pyrethrum (derived from Old World members of the genus Chrysanthemum) is a natural insecticide with minimal environmental impact.<ref name"BCE">{{cite encyclopedia \|editor1-lastWolff \|editor1-firstAnita \|titleBritannica Concise Encyclopedia \|date2008 \|publisherEncyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. \|isbn978-1-59339-492-9 \|page403 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idea-bAAAAQBAJ&q%22Britannica+Concise+Encyclopedia%22+pyrethrum&pgPA403 \|access-date14 April 2020}}</ref> Wormwood, derived from a genus that includes the sagebrush, is used as a source of flavoring for absinthe, a bitter classical liquor of European origin.<ref name"5best">{{cite news \|lastWondrich \|firstDavid \|urlhttp://www.esquire.com/food-drink/drinks/a4816/absinthe-0808/ \|titleThe Five Best Bottles of Absinthe \|workEsquire \|date2008-08-05 }}</ref> References {{Reflist}} Further reading W. S. Judd, C. S. Campbell, E. A. Kellogg, P. F. Stevens, M. J. Donoghue (2002). Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach, 2nd edition. pp.&nbsp;476–486 (Asterales). Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts. {{ISBN\|0-87893-403-0}}. * {{cite book \|last1Lindley \|first1John \|titleNixus plantarum \|date1833 \|publisherApud Ridgway et Filios \|locationLondon \|urlhttps://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/idurl/1/15686 \|access-date14 April 2020 \|language=es}} * {{cite journal \|last1Smissen \|first1Rob D. \|titleAsterales (Sunflower) \|journaleLS \|date2003 \|doi10.1038/npg.els.0003736 \|publisherAmerican Cancer Society\|isbn0470016175 }} * {{cite web \|last1Berry \|first1Paul E. \|titleAsterales {{!}} plant order \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/plant/Asterales \|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica \|publisherEncyclopædia Britannica, inc. \|access-date14 April 2020 \|languageen \|date=June 21, 2013}} *{{cite web \|titleDefinition of ASTERALES \|urlhttps://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Asterales \|websiteMerriam Webster.com \|publisherMerriam-Webster, Incorporated \|access-date14 April 2020}}External links {{Commons category\|Asterales\|Asterales (category)}} {{Wikispecies\|Asterales}} {{Angiosperm orders}} {{Taxonbar\|from=Q21730}} {{Authority control}} Category:Angiosperm orders	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asterales	2025-04-05T18:25:22.285288
791	Asteroid	{{Short description\|Minor planets found within the inner Solar System}} {{hatnote group\| {{About\|the type of celestial bodies}} {{Distinguish\|Astroid}} }} {{Use dmy dates\|date=May 2024}} {{Multiple image \| perrow = 2 \| total_width = 315 \| image1 = Eros_-_PIA02923_(color).jpg \| alt1 = 433 Eros photographed by NEAR Shoemaker \| image2 = 243 ida crop.jpg \| alt2 = Galileo image of 243 Ida (the dot to the right is its moon Dactyl) \| image3 = Ceres - RC3 - Haulani Crater (22381131691) (cropped).jpg \| alt3 = Dawn image of the dwarf planet Ceres \| image4 = Bennu_mosaic_OSIRIS-REx_(square).png \| alt4 = OSIRIS-REx image of 101955 Bennu, a rubble-pile asteroid \| footer = Images of visited asteroids illustrating their differences: (top row) 433 Eros and 243 Ida with its moon Dactyl, (bottom row) Ceres and 101955 Bennu. Sizes are not to scale. }} An asteroid is a minor planet—an object larger than a meteoroid that is neither a planet nor an identified comet—that orbits within the inner Solar System or is co-orbital with Jupiter (Trojan asteroids). Asteroids are rocky, metallic, or icy bodies with no atmosphere, and are broadly classified into C-type (carbonaceous), M-type (metallic), or S-type (silicaceous). The size and shape of asteroids vary significantly, ranging from small rubble piles under a kilometer across to Ceres, a dwarf planet almost 1000&nbsp;km in diameter. A body is classified as a comet, not an asteroid, if it shows a coma (tail) when warmed by solar radiation, although recent observations suggest a continuum between these types of bodies.<ref name":0" /><ref name":1" /> Of the roughly one million known asteroids,<ref>{{citation-attribution\|1{{cite web \|titleAsteroids \|date26 October 2017 \|urlhttps://solarsystem.nasa.gov/asteroids-comets-and-meteors/asteroids/overview/ \|publisherNASA Solar System Exploration \|access-date29 March 2022}} }}</ref> the greatest number are located between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, approximately 2 to 4 AU from the Sun, in a region known as the main asteroid belt. The total mass of all the asteroids combined is only 3% that of Earth's Moon. The majority of main belt asteroids follow slightly elliptical, stable orbits, revolving in the same direction as the Earth and taking from three to six years to complete a full circuit of the Sun.<ref name"press-kit">{{citation-attribution\|1{{cite web \|titleAsteroids (from the NEAR press kit) \|urlhttps://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/text/asteroids.txt \|websitenssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov \|access-date29 March 2022}} }}</ref> Asteroids have historically been observed from Earth. The first close-up observation of an asteroid was made by the Galileo spacecraft. Several dedicated missions to asteroids were subsequently launched by NASA and JAXA, with plans for other missions in progress. NASA's NEAR Shoemaker studied Eros, and Dawn observed Vesta and Ceres. JAXA's missions Hayabusa and Hayabusa2 studied and returned samples of Itokawa and Ryugu, respectively. OSIRIS-REx studied Bennu, collecting a sample in 2020 which was delivered back to Earth in 2023. NASA's Lucy, launched in 2021, is tasked with studying ten different asteroids, two from the main belt and eight Jupiter trojans. Psyche, launched October 2023, aims to study the metallic asteroid Psyche. Near-Earth asteroids have the potential for catastrophic consequences if they strike Earth, with a notable example being the Chicxulub impact, widely thought to have induced the Cretaceous–Paleogene mass extinction. As an experiment to meet this danger, in September 2022 the Double Asteroid Redirection Test spacecraft successfully altered the orbit of the non-threatening asteroid Dimorphos by crashing into it. Terminology{{anchor\|Terminology}}<!-- Linked from "Comet" --> {{Multiple image \| direction = vertical \| image1 = Asteroidsscale.jpg \| caption1 = A composite image, to the same scale, of the asteroids imaged at high resolution prior to 2012. They are, from largest to smallest: 4 Vesta, 21 Lutetia, 253 Mathilde, 243 Ida and its moon Dactyl, 433 Eros, 951 Gaspra, 2867 Šteins, 25143 Itokawa. \| image2 = Ceres and Vesta, Moon size comparison.jpg \| caption2 = Vesta (left), with Ceres (center) and the Moon (right) shown to scale \| align = right }} In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) introduced the currently preferred broad term small Solar System body, defined as an object in the Solar System that is neither a planet, a dwarf planet, nor a natural satellite; this includes asteroids, comets, and more recently discovered classes.<ref>{{cite web \|titleResolution B5 Definition of a Planet in the Solar System \|urlhttps://www.iau.org/static/resolutions/Resolution_GA26-5-6.pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.iau.org/static/resolutions/Resolution_GA26-5-6.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|access-date30 April 2022 \|publisherThe Minor Planet Center \|quoteAll other objects (These currently include most of the Solar System asteroids, most Trans-Neptunian Objects (TNOs), comets, and other small bodies.), except satellites, orbiting the Sun shall be referred to collectively as "Small Solar System Bodies".}}</ref> According to IAU, "the term 'minor planet' may still be used, but generally, 'Small Solar System Body' will be preferred."<ref>{{cite web \|titlePluto \|urlhttp://www.iau.org/public/themes/pluto/ \|seriesQuestions and Answers on Planets \|publisherInternational Astrophysical Union}}</ref> Historically, the first discovered asteroid, Ceres, was at first considered a new planet.{{efn\|Ceres is the largest asteroid and now classified as a dwarf planet. All other asteroids are now classified as small Solar System bodies along with comets, centaurs, and the smaller trans-Neptunian objects.}} It was followed by the discovery of other similar bodies, which with the equipment of the time appeared to be points of light like stars, showing little or no planetary disc, though readily distinguishable from stars due to their apparent motions. This prompted the astronomer Sir William Herschel to propose the term asteroid,{{efn\|In an oral presentation,<ref>{{cite conference \|titleHADII Abstracts \|conferenceHAD Meeting with DPS \|placeDenver, CO \|dateOctober 2013 \|urlhttp://had.aas.org/meetings/2013bAbstracts.html#HADII \|url-statusdead \|access-date14 October 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140901143955/http://had.aas.org/meetings/2013bAbstracts.html#HADII \|archive-date1 September 2014}}</ref> Clifford Cunningham presented his finding that the word was coined by Charles Burney, Jr., the son of a friend of Herschel.<ref>{{cite news \|firstRobert \|lastNolin \|date8 October 2013 \|titleLocal expert reveals who really coined the word 'asteroid' \|newspaperSun-Sentinel \|urlhttp://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/broward/fl-asteroid-word-origin-20131008,0,501498,full.story \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20141130155012/http://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/broward/fl-asteroid-word-origin-20131008,0,501498,full.story \|url-statusdead \|archive-date30 November 2014 \|access-date10 October 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleWho really invented the word 'Asteroid' for space rocks? \|lastWall \|firstMike \|websiteSpace.com \|date10 January 2011 \|urlhttp://www.space.com/10593-post-william-herschel-coin-term-asteroid.html \|access-date10 October 2013}}</ref>}} coined in Greek as ἀστεροειδής, or asteroeidēs, meaning 'star-like, star-shaped', and derived from the Ancient Greek {{lang\|grc\|ἀστήρ}} astēr 'star, planet'. In the early second half of the 19th century, the terms asteroid and planet (not always qualified as "minor") were still used interchangeably.{{efn\|For example, the Annual of Scientific Discovery: "Professor J. Watson has been awarded by the Paris Academy of Sciences, the astronomical prize, Lalande foundation, for the discovery of eight new asteroids in one year. The planet Lydia (No. 110), discovered by M. Borelly at the Marseilles Observatory [...] M. Borelly had previously discovered two planets bearing the numbers 91 and 99 in the system of asteroids revolving between Mars and Jupiter".<ref>{{cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNAMAAAAAMAAJ&pgPA316 \|viaGoogle Books \|titleAnnual of Scientific Discovery \|year1871 \|page=316}}</ref><br />The Universal English Dictionary (John Craig, 1869) lists the asteroids (and gives their pronunciations) up to 64 Angelina, along with the definition "one of the recently-discovered planets." At this time it was common to anglicize the spellings of the names, e.g. "Aglaia" for 47 Aglaja and "Atalanta" for 36 Atalante.}} Traditionally, small bodies orbiting the Sun were classified as comets, asteroids, or meteoroids, with anything smaller than one meter across being called a meteoroid. The term asteroid, never officially defined,<ref>{{cite book \|editor1-lastBottke \|editor1-firstWilliam F. \|editor1-linkWilliam F. Bottke \|editor2-lastCellino \|editor2-firstAlberto \|editor3-lastPaolicchi \|editor3-firstPaolo \|editor4-lastBinzel \|editor4-firstRichard P. \|editor4-linkRichard P. Binzel \|titleAsteroids III \|date2002 \|publisherUniversity of Arizona Press \|locationTucson \|isbn978-0-8165-4651-0 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJwHTyO6IHh8C&pgPA670 \|access-date30 March 2022\| page[https://books.google.com/books?idJwHTyO6IHh8C&pgPA670 670] \|quoteSince no formal definitions of comets and asteroids exist...}}</ref> can be informally used to mean "an irregularly shaped rocky body orbiting the Sun that does not qualify as a planet or a dwarf planet under the IAU definitions".<ref>{{cite book \|last1Harris \|first1Alan W. \|titleEncyclopedia of Astrobiology \|chapterAsteroid \|date2011 \|pages102–112 \|doi10.1007/978-3-642-11274-4_116\|isbn978-3-642-11271-3 }}</ref> The main difference between an asteroid and a comet is that a comet shows a coma (tail) due to sublimation of its near-surface ices by solar radiation. A few objects were first classified as minor planets but later showed evidence of cometary activity. Conversely, some (perhaps all) comets are eventually depleted of their surface volatile ices and become asteroid-like. A further distinction is that comets typically have more eccentric orbits than most asteroids; highly eccentric asteroids are probably dormant or extinct comets.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Weissman \|first1Paul R. \|last2Bottke \|first2William F. Jr. \|last3Levinson \|first3Harold F. \|titleEvolution of Comets into Asteroids \|publisherSouthwest Research Institute \|departmentPlanetary Science Directorate \|date2002 \|urlhttp://www.boulder.swri.edu/~hal/PDF/asteroids3.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.boulder.swri.edu/~hal/PDF/asteroids3.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|access-date 3 August 2010}}</ref> The minor planets beyond Jupiter's orbit are sometimes also called "asteroids", especially in popular presentations.{{efn\|For instance, a joint NASA–JPL public-outreach website states: {{blockquote\|We include Trojans (bodies captured in Jupiter's 4th and 5th Lagrange points), Centaurs (bodies in orbit between Jupiter and Neptune), and trans-Neptunian objects (orbiting beyond Neptune) in our definition of "asteroid" as used on this site, even though they may more correctly be called "minor planets" instead of asteroids.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAsteroids \|urlhttps://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?asteroids \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060614184348/https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?asteroids \|archive-date14 June 2006 \|departmentSolar System Dynamics \|publisherJet Propulsion Laboratory \|access-date8 December 2021}}</ref>}}}} However, it is becoming increasingly common for the term asteroid to be restricted to minor planets of the inner Solar System.<ref name"KBOasteroids" /> Therefore, this article will restrict itself for the most part to the classical asteroids: objects of the asteroid belt, Jupiter trojans, and near-Earth objects. For almost two centuries after the discovery of Ceres in 1801, all known asteroids spent most of their time at or within the orbit of Jupiter, though a few, such as 944 Hidalgo, ventured farther for part of their orbit. Starting in 1977 with 2060 Chiron, astronomers discovered small bodies that permanently resided further out than Jupiter, now called centaurs. In 1992, 15760 Albion was discovered, the first object beyond the orbit of Neptune (other than Pluto); soon large numbers of similar objects were observed, now called trans-Neptunian object. Further out are Kuiper-belt objects, scattered-disc objects, and the much more distant Oort cloud, hypothesized to be the main reservoir of dormant comets. They inhabit the cold outer reaches of the Solar System where ices remain solid and comet-like bodies exhibit little cometary activity; if centaurs or trans-Neptunian objects were to venture close to the Sun, their volatile ices would sublimate, and traditional approaches would classify them as comets. The Kuiper-belt bodies are called "objects" partly to avoid the need to classify them as asteroids or comets.<ref name"KBOasteroids">{{cite web \|titleAre Kuiper Belt objects asteroids? \|websiteAsk an astronomer \|publisherCornell University \|urlhttp://curious.astro.cornell.edu/question.php?number601 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090103110110/http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/question.php?number601 \|archive-date3 January 2009}}</ref> They are thought to be predominantly comet-like in composition, though some may be more akin to asteroids.<ref>{{cite web \| firstNicholas M. Sr. \|lastShort \|titleAsteroids and Comets \|publisherNASA \|departmentGoddard Space Flight Center \|urlhttp://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect19/Sect19_22.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080925014037/http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov///Sect19/Sect19_22.html \|archive-date25 September 2008}}</ref> Most do not have the highly eccentric orbits associated with comets, and the ones so far discovered are larger than traditional comet nuclei. Other recent observations, such as the analysis of the cometary dust collected by the Stardust probe, are increasingly blurring the distinction between comets and asteroids,<ref name":0">{{cite AV media \|titleComet dust seems more 'asteroidy' \|mediumaudio podcast \|magazineScientific American \|date25 January 2008 \|urlhttp://www.sciam.com/podcast/episode.cfm?idADD0878B-D6C3-3B70-7B5BC373545BB82D}}</ref> suggesting "a continuum between asteroids and comets" rather than a sharp dividing line.<ref name":1">{{cite magazine \|titleComet samples are surprisingly asteroid-like \|magazineNew Scientist \|date24 January 2008 \|url=https://www.newscientist.com/channel/solar-system/comets-asteroids/dn13224-comet-samples-are-surprisingly-asteroidlike.html}}</ref> In 2006, the IAU created the class of dwarf planets for the largest minor planets—those massive enough to have become ellipsoidal under their own gravity. Only the largest object in the asteroid belt has been placed in this category: Ceres, at about {{cvt\|975\|km\|0}} across.<ref namedwarf1>{{Cite web \|titlePluto and the Developing Landscape of Our Solar System \|urlhttps://www.iau.org/public/themes/pluto/ \|access-date2022-04-13 \|websiteInternational Astronomical Union}}</ref><ref namedwarf2>{{Cite web \|date26 June 2019 \|titleExploration: Ceres \|urlhttps://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/dwarf-planets/ceres/exploration \|access-date12 April 2022 \|websiteNASA Science: Solar System Exploration}}</ref> History of observations Despite their large numbers, asteroids are a relatively recent discovery, with the first one—Ceres—only being identified in 1801.<ref name"cunningham2001"/> Only one asteroid, 4 Vesta, which has a relatively reflective surface, is normally visible to the naked eye in dark skies when it is favorably positioned. Rarely, small asteroids passing close to Earth may be briefly visible to the naked eye.<ref nameSPACE-2004-02-04/> {{As of\|2022\|4}}, the Minor Planet Center had data on 1,199,224 minor planets in the inner and outer Solar System, of which about 614,690 had enough information to be given numbered designations.<ref nameMPCcount/> Discovery of Ceres In 1772, German astronomer Johann Elert Bode, citing Johann Daniel Titius, published a numerical procession known as the Titius–Bode law (now discredited). Except for an unexplained gap between Mars and Jupiter, Bode's formula seemed to predict the orbits of the known planets.<ref name"hoskin" /><ref name"Hogg1948">{{cite journal \|lastHogg \|firstHelen Sawyer \|titleThe Titius-Bode Law and the Discovery of Ceres \|journalJournal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada \|volume242 \|pages241–246 \|year1948 \|bibcode1948JRASC..42..241S \|urlhttp://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1948JRASC..42..241S/0000244.000.html \|access-date18 July 2021 \|archive-date18 July 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210718191659/http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1948JRASC..42..241S/0000244.000.html \|url-status=live }}</ref> He wrote the following explanation for the existence of a "missing planet": <blockquote>This latter point seems in particular to follow from the astonishing relation which the known six planets observe in their distances from the Sun. Let the distance from the Sun to Saturn be taken as 100, then Mercury is separated by 4 such parts from the Sun. Venus is 4 + 3 7. The Earth 4 + 6 10. Mars 4 + 12 16. Now comes a gap in this so orderly progression. After Mars there follows a space of 4 + 24 28 parts, in which no planet has yet been seen. Can one believe that the Founder of the universe had left this space empty? Certainly not. From here we come to the distance of Jupiter by 4 + 48 52 parts, and finally to that of Saturn by 4 + 96 100 parts.<ref namediscovery>{{cite book \|last1Foderà Serio \|first1G. \|last2Manara \|first2A. \|last3Sicoli \|first3P. \|chapterGiuseppe Piazzi and the Discovery of Ceres \|chapter-urlhttps://www.lpi.usra.edu/books/AsteroidsIII/pdf/3027.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/books/AsteroidsIII/pdf/3027.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|pages17–24 \|bibcode2002aste.book...17F \|editor1W. F. Bottke Jr. \|editor2A. Cellino \|editor3P. Paolicchi \|editor4R. P. Binzel \|titleAsteroids III \|date2002 \|publisherUniversity of Arizona Press \|locationTucson \|isbn=978-0-8165-4651-0}}</ref></blockquote> Bode's formula predicted another planet would be found with an orbital radius near 2.8 astronomical units (AU), or 420&nbsp;million&nbsp;km, from the Sun.<ref name"Hogg1948" /> The Titius–Bode law got a boost with William Herschel's discovery of Uranus near the predicted distance for a planet beyond Saturn.<ref name"hoskin" /> In 1800, a group headed by Franz Xaver von Zach, editor of the German astronomical journal Monatliche Correspondenz (Monthly Correspondence), sent requests to 24 experienced astronomers (whom he dubbed the "celestial police"),<ref name"Hogg1948" /> asking that they combine their efforts and begin a methodical search for the expected planet.<ref name"Hogg1948" /> Although they did not discover Ceres, they later found the asteroids 2 Pallas, 3 Juno and 4 Vesta.<ref name="Hogg1948" /> One of the astronomers selected for the search was Giuseppe Piazzi, a Catholic priest at the Academy of Palermo, Sicily. Before receiving his invitation to join the group, Piazzi discovered Ceres on 1 January 1801.<ref name"NASA-20160126">{{cite web \|lastLandau \|firstElizabeth \|titleCeres: Keeping Well-Guarded Secrets for 215 Years \|urlhttp://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature4824 \|date26 January 2016 \|workNASA \|access-date26 January 2016 \|archive-date24 May 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190524043553/https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature4824 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> He was searching for "the 87th [star] of the Catalogue of the Zodiacal stars of Mr la Caille",<ref name"hoskin"/> but found that "it was preceded by another".<ref name"hoskin">{{cite web\|lastHoskin \|firstMichael \|date26 June 1992 \|urlhttp://www.astropa.unipa.it/HISTORY/hoskin.html \|titleBode's Law and the Discovery of Ceres \|publisherObservatorio Astronomico di Palermo "Giuseppe S. Vaiana" \|access-date5 July 2007 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071116022100/http://www.astropa.unipa.it/HISTORY/hoskin.html \|archive-date16 November 2007 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Instead of a star, Piazzi had found a moving star-like object, which he first thought was a comet:<ref name"Forbes1971">{{cite journal \|lastForbes \|firstEric G. \|titleGauss and the Discovery of Ceres \|journalJournal for the History of Astronomy \|volume2 \|issue3 \|pages195–199 \|year1971 \|bibcode1971JHA.....2..195F \|doi10.1177/002182867100200305 \|s2cid125888612 \|urlhttp://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1971JHA.....2..195F \|access-date18 July 2021 \|archive-date18 July 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210718200510/http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1971JHA.....2..195F \|url-statuslive }}</ref> <blockquote>The light was a little faint, and of the colour of Jupiter, but similar to many others which generally are reckoned of the eighth magnitude. Therefore I had no doubt of its being any other than a fixed star. [...] The evening of the third, my suspicion was converted into certainty, being assured it was not a fixed star. Nevertheless before I made it known, I waited till the evening of the fourth, when I had the satisfaction to see it had moved at the same rate as on the preceding days.<ref name="hoskin"/></blockquote> Piazzi observed Ceres a total of 24 times, the final time on 11 February 1801, when illness interrupted his work. He announced his discovery on 24 January 1801 in letters to only two fellow astronomers, his compatriot Barnaba Oriani of Milan and Bode in Berlin.<ref name"cunningham2001">{{cite book \|firstClifford J. \|lastCunningham \|titleThe first asteroid: Ceres, 1801–2001 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCXdMPwAACAAJ \|year2001 \|publisherStar Lab Press \|isbn978-0-9708162-1-4 \|access-date23 October 2015 \|archive-date29 May 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160529144326/https://books.google.com/books?idCXdMPwAACAAJ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> He reported it as a comet but "since its movement is so slow and rather uniform, it has occurred to me several times that it might be something better than a comet".<ref name"hoskin" /> In April, Piazzi sent his complete observations to Oriani, Bode, and French astronomer Jérôme Lalande. The information was published in the September 1801 issue of the Monatliche Correspondenz.<ref name"Forbes1971" /> By this time, the apparent position of Ceres had changed (mostly due to Earth's motion around the Sun), and was too close to the Sun's glare for other astronomers to confirm Piazzi's observations. Toward the end of the year, Ceres should have been visible again, but after such a long time it was difficult to predict its exact position. To recover Ceres, mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss, then 24 years old, developed an efficient method of orbit determination.<ref name"Forbes1971" /> In a few weeks, he predicted the path of Ceres and sent his results to von Zach. On 31 December 1801, von Zach and fellow celestial policeman Heinrich W. M. Olbers found Ceres near the predicted position and thus recovered it.<ref name"Forbes1971" /> At 2.8 AU from the Sun, Ceres appeared to fit the Titius–Bode law almost perfectly; however, Neptune, once discovered in 1846, was 8 AU closer than predicted, leading most astronomers to conclude that the law was a coincidence.<ref>{{cite book\|titleThe Titius-Bode Law of Planetary Distances: Its History and Theory\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNneoBQAAQBAJ&qbode+law+neptune+coincidence+1846&pgPP1\|publisherPergamon Press\|year1972\|authorMichael Martin Nieto\|isbn 978-1-4831-5936-2\|access-date23 September 2021\|archive-date29 September 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210929081229/https://books.google.co.uk/books?hlen&lr&idNneoBQAAQBAJ&oifnd&pgPP1&dqbode+law+neptune+coincidence+1846&otsLIplNAOXco&sigqAF2y5xXTivecmSP_fjGCDA9Sx4&redir_escy\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Piazzi named the newly discovered object Ceres Ferdinandea, "in honor of the patron goddess of Sicily and of King Ferdinand of Bourbon".<ref namediscovery/>Further searchThree other asteroids (2 Pallas, 3 Juno, and 4 Vesta) were discovered by von Zach's group over the next few years, with Vesta found in 1807.<ref name"Hogg1948" /> No new asteroids were discovered until 1845. Amateur astronomer Karl Ludwig Hencke started his searches of new asteroids in 1830, and fifteen years later, while looking for Vesta, he found the asteroid later named 5 Astraea. It was the first new asteroid discovery in 38 years. Carl Friedrich Gauss was given the honor of naming the asteroid. After this, other astronomers joined; 15 asteroids were found by the end of 1851. In 1868, when James Craig Watson discovered the 100th asteroid, the French Academy of Sciences engraved the faces of Karl Theodor Robert Luther, John Russell Hind, and Hermann Goldschmidt, the three most successful asteroid-hunters at that time, on a commemorative medallion marking the event.<ref name"dawn-community">{{citation-attribution\|1{{cite web \|titleDawn Community \|urlhttp://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov/DawnCommunity/flashbacks/fb_09.asp \|websitejpl.nasa.gov \|publisherJPL NASA \|access-date8 April 2022 \|date21 May 2009\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090521235728/http://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov/DawnCommunity/flashbacks/fb_09.asp \|archive-date21 May 2009 }} }}</ref> In 1891, Max Wolf pioneered the use of astrophotography to detect asteroids, which appeared as short streaks on long-exposure photographic plates.<ref name"dawn-community"/> This dramatically increased the rate of detection compared with earlier visual methods: Wolf alone discovered 248&nbsp;asteroids, beginning with 323 Brucia,<ref>{{cite web \|titleDawn Classrooms – Biographies \|urlhttp://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov/DawnClassrooms/1_hist_dawn/bio.asp#wolf \|websitedawn.jpl.nasa.gov \|publisherJPL NASA \|access-date8 April 2022 \|date18 June 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090618143655/http://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov/DawnClassrooms/1_hist_dawn/bio.asp#wolf \|archive-date18 June 2009 \|url-statusdead}}</ref> whereas only slightly more than 300 had been discovered up to that point. It was known that there were many more, but most astronomers did not bother with them, some calling them "vermin of the skies",<ref>{{cite web \|lastFriedman \|firstLou \|titleVermin of the Sky \|websiteThe Planetary Society \|urlhttp://www.planetary.org/blogs/guest-blogs/lou-friedman/20130219-vermin-of-the-sky.html}}</ref> a phrase variously attributed to Eduard Suess<ref>{{cite magazine \|lastHale \|firstGeorge E. \|author-linkGeorge Ellery Hale \|seriesAddress at the semi-centennial of the Dearborn Observatory \|titleSome Reflections on the Progress of Astrophysics \|magazinePopular Astronomy \|date1916 \|volume24 \|pages550–558 [555] \|bibcode1916PA.....24..550H \|bibcode-accessfree}}</ref> and Edmund Weiss.<ref>{{cite journal \|lastSeares \|firstFrederick H. \|titleAddress of the Retiring President of the Society in Awarding the Bruce Medal to Professor Max Wolf \|journalPublications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific \|year1930 \|volume42 \|issue245 \| pages5–22 [10] \|bibcode1930PASP...42....5S \|bibcode-accessfree \|doi10.1086/123986 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Even a century later, only a few thousand asteroids were identified, numbered and named. 19th and 20th centuries In the past, asteroids were discovered by a four-step process. First, a region of the sky was photographed by a wide-field telescope or astrograph. Pairs of photographs were taken, typically one hour apart. Multiple pairs could be taken over a series of days. Second, the two films or plates of the same region were viewed under a stereoscope. A body in orbit around the Sun would move slightly between the pair of films. Under the stereoscope, the image of the body would seem to float slightly above the background of stars. Third, once a moving body was identified, its location would be measured precisely using a digitizing microscope. The location would be measured relative to known star locations.<ref>{{cite web \|lastChapman \|firstMary G. \|date17 May 1992 \|titleCarolyn Shoemaker, planetary astronomer and most successful 'comet hunter' to date \|publisherUSGS \|departmentAstrogeology \|urlhttps://astrogeology.usgs.gov/About/People/CarolynShoemaker \|access-date15 April 2008 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080302124131/http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/About/People/CarolynShoemaker/ \|archive-date=2008-03-02}}</ref> These first three steps do not constitute asteroid discovery: the observer has only found an apparition, which gets a provisional designation, made up of the year of discovery, a letter representing the half-month of discovery, and finally a letter and a number indicating the discovery's sequential number (example: {{mp\|1998 FJ\|74}}). The last step is sending the locations and time of observations to the Minor Planet Center, where computer programs determine whether an apparition ties together earlier apparitions into a single orbit. If so, the object receives a catalogue number and the observer of the first apparition with a calculated orbit is declared the discoverer, and granted the honor of naming the object subject to the approval of the International Astronomical Union.<ref>{{cite web \|titleESA Science & Technology – Asteroid numbers and names \|urlhttps://sci.esa.int/web/home/-/30244-asteroid-numbers-and-names \|websitesci.esa.int \|access-date13 April 2022}}</ref> Naming {{Main\|Minor planet#Naming}} , shown here in radar images, has a provisional designation]] By 1851, the Royal Astronomical Society decided that asteroids were being discovered at such a rapid rate that a different system was needed to categorize or name asteroids. In 1852, when de Gasparis discovered the twentieth asteroid, Benjamin Valz gave it a name and a number designating its rank among asteroid discoveries, 20 Massalia. Sometimes asteroids were discovered and not seen again. So, starting in 1892, new asteroids were listed by the year and a capital letter indicating the order in which the asteroid's orbit was calculated and registered within that specific year. For example, the first two asteroids discovered in 1892 were labeled 1892A and 1892B. However, there were not enough letters in the alphabet for all of the asteroids discovered in 1893, so 1893Z was followed by 1893AA. A number of variations of these methods were tried, including designations that included year plus a Greek letter in 1914. A simple chronological numbering system was established in 1925.<ref name"dawn-community"/><ref>{{cite web \|titleNew- And Old-Style Minor Planet Designations \|urlhttp://www.cfa.harvard.edu/iau/info/OldDesDoc.html \|websitecfa.harvard.edu \|publisherHarvard \|access-date8 April 2022 \|date22 August 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090822195033/http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/iau/info/OldDesDoc.html \|archive-date22 August 2009 \|url-statusdead}}</ref> Currently all newly discovered asteroids receive a provisional designation (such as {{mpl\|2002 AT\|4}}) consisting of the year of discovery and an alphanumeric code indicating the half-month of discovery and the sequence within that half-month. Once an asteroid's orbit has been confirmed, it is given a number, and later may also be given a name (e.g. {{nowrap\|433 Eros}}). The formal naming convention uses parentheses around the number—e.g. (433)&nbsp;Eros—but dropping the parentheses is quite common. Informally, it is also common to drop the number altogether, or to drop it after the first mention when a name is repeated in running text.<ref nameOpenUNamingAstrds/> In addition, names can be proposed by the asteroid's discoverer, within guidelines established by the International Astronomical Union.<ref namePlanSocNameGuides/> Symbols {{Main\|Astronomical symbols}} The first asteroids to be discovered were assigned iconic symbols like the ones traditionally used to designate the planets. By 1852 there were two dozen asteroid symbols, which often occurred in multiple variants.<ref name=Gould-1852/> In 1851, after the fifteenth asteroid, Eunomia, had been discovered, Johann Franz Encke made a major change in the upcoming 1854 edition of the Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch (BAJ, Berlin Astronomical Yearbook). He introduced a disk (circle), a traditional symbol for a star, as the generic symbol for an asteroid. The circle was then numbered in order of discovery to indicate a specific asteroid. The numbered-circle convention was quickly adopted by astronomers, and the next asteroid to be discovered (16 Psyche, in 1852) was the first to be designated in that way at the time of its discovery. However, Psyche was given an iconic symbol as well, as were a few other asteroids discovered over the next few years. 20 Massalia was the first asteroid that was not assigned an iconic symbol, and no iconic symbols were created after the 1855 discovery of 37 Fides.{{efn\|Except for Pluto, 99942 Apophis and, in the astrological community, for a few outer bodies such as 2060 Chiron.}}<ref nameHilton-2011-a/> Formation {{Main\|Origin of the asteroid belt}} Many asteroids are the shattered remnants of planetesimals, bodies within the young Sun's solar nebula that never grew large enough to become planets.<ref nameCNEOS-FAQ/> It is thought that planetesimals in the asteroid belt evolved much like the rest of objects in the solar nebula until Jupiter neared its current mass, at which point excitation from orbital resonances with Jupiter ejected over 99% of planetesimals in the belt. Simulations and a discontinuity in spin rate and spectral properties suggest that asteroids larger than approximately {{cvt\|120\|km\|0}} in diameter accreted during that early era, whereas smaller bodies are fragments from collisions between asteroids during or after the Jovian disruption.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Bottke \| first1William F. Jr. \|last2Durda \|first2Daniel D. \|last3Nesvorny \|first3David \|last4Jedicke \|first4Robert \|last5Morbidelli \|first5Alessandro \|last6Vokrouhlicky \|first6David \|last7Levison \|first7Hal \|year2005 \|titleThe fossilized size distribution of the main asteroid belt \|journalIcarus \|volume175 \|issue1 \|page111 \|doi10.1016/j.icarus.2004.10.026 \|bibcode2005Icar..175..111B \|urlhttp://astro.mff.cuni.cz/davok/papers/fossil05.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://astro.mff.cuni.cz/davok/papers/fossil05.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Ceres and Vesta grew large enough to melt and differentiate, with heavy metallic elements sinking to the core, leaving rocky minerals in the crust.<ref nameACM>{{cite book \|titleAsteroids, Comets, and Meteors \|lastKerrod \|firstRobin \|year2000 \|publisherLerner Publications Co. \|isbn978-0-585-31763-2 \|url-accessregistration \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/asteroidscometsm00robi}}</ref> In the Nice model, many Kuiper-belt objects are captured in the outer asteroid belt, at distances greater than 2.6&nbsp;AU. Most were later ejected by Jupiter, but those that remained may be the D-type asteroids, and possibly include Ceres.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1McKinnon \|first1William \|first2B. \|last2McKinnon \|year2008 \|titleOn The Possibility of Large KBOs Being Injected into The Outer Asteroid Belt \|journalBulletin of the American Astronomical Society \|volume40 \|page464 \|bibcode2008DPS....40.3803M}}</ref> Distribution within the Solar System {{See also\|List of minor-planet groups\|List of notable asteroids\|List of minor planets}} Various dynamical groups of asteroids have been discovered orbiting in the inner Solar System. Their orbits are perturbed by the gravity of other bodies in the Solar System and by the Yarkovsky effect. Significant populations include: Asteroid belt {{Main\|Asteroid belt}} The majority of known asteroids orbit within the asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, generally in relatively low-eccentricity (i.e. not very elongated) orbits. This belt is estimated to contain between 1.1 and 1.9&nbsp;million asteroids larger than {{cvt\|1\|km\|1}} in diameter,<ref>{{cite press release \| first1=Edward \| last1=Tedesco \| last2=Metcalfe \| first2=Leo \| date=4 April 2002 \| title=New study reveals twice as many asteroids as previously believed \| publisher=European Space Agency \| urlhttp://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid7925 \| access-date=21 February 2008 \| archive-date=6 March 2023 \| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306222828/https://spaceref.com/press-release/new-study-reveals-twice-as-many-asteroids-as-previously-believed/ \| url-status=dead }}</ref> and millions of smaller ones. These asteroids may be remnants of the protoplanetary disk, and in this region the accretion of planetesimals into planets during the formative period of the Solar System was prevented by large gravitational perturbations by Jupiter. Contrary to popular imagery, the asteroid belt is mostly empty. The asteroids are spread over such a large volume that reaching an asteroid without aiming carefully would be improbable. Nonetheless, hundreds of thousands of asteroids are currently known, and the total number ranges in the millions or more, depending on the lower size cutoff. Over 200 asteroids are known to be larger than 100&nbsp;km,<ref>{{cite web \| last = Yeomans \| first = Donald K. \| date = 26 April 2007 \| url = http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb_query.cgi \| title = JPL Small-Body Database Search Engine \| publisher = NASA JPL \| access-date = 2007-04-26 \| at = Search for asteroids in the main belt regions with a diameter&nbsp;>100}}</ref> and a survey in the infrared wavelengths has shown that the asteroid belt has between 700,000 and 1.7&nbsp;million asteroids with a diameter of 1&nbsp;km or more.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Tedesco \|first1 E. F.\|last2Desert \|first2 F.-X.\|name-list-styleamp\| titleThe Infrared Space Observatory Deep Asteroid Search \| journal=The Astronomical Journal \| date=2002 \| volume=123 \| issue=4 \| pages=2070–2082 \| bibcode2002AJ....123.2070T\| doi 10.1086/339482 \| doi-access=free }}</ref> The absolute magnitudes of most of the known asteroids are between 11 and 19, with the median at about 16.<ref name="mpc">{{cite web \| last = Williams \| first = Gareth \|date=25 September 2010 \| url = http://www.minorplanetcenter.org/iau/lists/MPDistribution.html \| title = Distribution of the Minor Planets \| publisher = Minor Planet Center \| access-date = 2010-10-27 }}</ref> The total mass of the asteroid belt is estimated to be {{val\|2.39e21}} kg, which is just 3% of the mass of the Moon; the mass of the Kuiper Belt and Scattered Disk is over 100 times as large.<ref name"Pitjeva2018">{{cite journal\|lastPitjeva\|firstE. V.\|author-linkElena V. Pitjeva\|titleMasses of the Main Asteroid Belt and the Kuiper Belt from the Motions of Planets and Spacecraft\|journalSolar System Research\|volume44\|issue8–9\|pages554–566\|date2018\|arxiv1811.05191\|doi10.1134/S1063773718090050\|bibcode2018AstL...44..554P\|s2cid119404378}}</ref> The four largest objects, Ceres, Vesta, Pallas, and Hygiea, account for maybe 62% of the belt's total mass, with 39% accounted for by Ceres alone. Trojans {{Main\|Trojan (celestial body)}} Trojans are populations that share an orbit with a larger planet or moon, but do not collide with it because they orbit in one of the two Lagrangian points of stability, {{L4\|nolinkyes}} and {{L5\|nolinkyes}}, which lie 60° ahead of and behind the larger body. In the Solar System, most known trojans share the orbit of Jupiter. They are divided into the Greek camp at {{L4\|nolinkyes}} (ahead of Jupiter) and the Trojan camp at {{L5\|nolinkyes}} (trailing Jupiter). More than a million Jupiter trojans larger than one kilometer are thought to exist,<ref name=Yoshida2006>{{cite journal \|last1Yoshida \|first1F. \|last2Nakamura \|first2T. \|title=Size Distribution of Faint Jovian L4 Trojan Asteroids \|doi=10.1086/497571 \|journal=The Astronomical Journal \|volume130 \|issue6 \|pages=2900–2911 \|date=Dec 2005 \|bibcode=2005AJ....130.2900Y \|doi-access=free }}</ref> of which more than 7,000 are currently catalogued. In other planetary orbits only nine Mars trojans, 28 Neptune trojans, two Uranus trojans, and two Earth trojans, have been found to date. A temporary Venus trojan is also known. Numerical orbital dynamics stability simulations indicate that Saturn and Uranus probably do not have any primordial trojans.<ref name"sheppard2006">{{cite journal \|last1Sheppard \|first1Scott S. \|last2Trujillo \|first2Chadwick A. \|dateJune 2006 \|titleA Thick Cloud of Neptune Trojans and their Colors \|urlhttp://www.dtm.ciw.edu/users/sheppard/pub/Sheppard06NepTroj.pdf \|url-statusdead \|journalScience \|volume313 \|issue5786 \|pages511–514 \|bibcode2006Sci...313..511S \|doi10.1126/science.1127173 \|pmid16778021 \|s2cid35721399 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120220141846/http://www.dtm.ciw.edu/users/sheppard/pub/Sheppard06NepTroj.pdf \|archive-date20 February 2012 \|access-date15 April 2022 }}</ref> Near-Earth asteroids {{Main\|Near-Earth object#Near-Earth asteroids\|l1=Near-Earth asteroids}} Near-Earth asteroids, or NEAs, are asteroids that have orbits that pass close to that of Earth. Asteroids that actually cross Earth's orbital path are known as Earth-crossers. {{As of\|2022\|04}}, a total of 28,772&nbsp;near-Earth asteroids were known; 878 have a diameter of one kilometer or larger.<ref namenasa_neo>{{cite web \|titleDiscovery Statistics \|urlhttps://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/stats/totals.html \|websiteCNEOS \|access-date=14 April 2022}}</ref> A small number of NEAs are extinct comets that have lost their volatile surface materials, although having a faint or intermittent comet-like tail does not necessarily result in a classification as a near-Earth comet, making the boundaries somewhat fuzzy. The rest of the near-Earth asteroids are driven out of the asteroid belt by gravitational interactions with Jupiter.<ref name "MorbidelliAstIII" /><ref>{{cite journal \|titleWhat the physical properties of near-Earth asteroids tell us about sources of their origin? \|authorD.F. Lupishko \|author2M. di Martino \|author3T.A. Lupishko \|name-list-styleamp \|journalKinematika I Fizika Nebesnykh Tel Supplimen \|volume3 \|issue3 \|pages213–216 \|dateSeptember 2000 \|bibcode2000KFNTS...3..213L}}</ref> Many asteroids have natural satellites (minor-planet moons). {{As of\|2021\|10\|dfUS}}, there were 85 NEAs known to have at least one moon, including three known to have two moons.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAsteroids with Satellites \|publisherJohnston's Archive \|urlhttp://www.johnstonsarchive.net/astro/asteroidmoons.html \|access-date2018-03-17}}</ref> The asteroid 3122 Florence, one of the largest potentially hazardous asteroids with a diameter of {{convert\|4.5\|km\|mi\|abbron}}, has two moons measuring {{convert\|100–300\|m\|ft\|abbron}} across, which were discovered by radar imaging during the asteroid's 2017 approach to Earth.<ref name"Florence-moons">{{cite news \|author1Lance Benner \|author2Shantanu Naidu \|author3Marina Brozovic \|author4Paul Chodas \|titleRadar Reveals Two Moons Orbiting Asteroid Florence \|workNews \|publisherNASA/JPL CNEOS \|date1 September 2017 \|urlhttps://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news199.html \|access-date2018-01-19 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170903060914/https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news199.html \|archive-date=2017-09-03 }}</ref> Near-Earth asteroids are divided into groups based on their semi-major axis (a), perihelion distance (q), and aphelion distance (Q):<ref name"NEO-groups">{{cite web \|titleNEO Basics. NEO Groups \|publisherNASA/JPL CNEOS \|urlhttp://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/neo/groups.html \|access-date2017-11-09}}</ref><ref name"MorbidelliAstIII">{{cite book \|urlhttp://www.boulder.swri.edu/~bottke/Reprints/Morbidelli-etal_2002_AstIII_NEOs.pdf \|contributionOrigin and Evolution of Near-Earth Objects \|first1Alessandro \|last1Morbidelli \|first2William F. Jr. \|last2Bottke \|first3Christiane \|last3Froeschlé \|first4Patrick \|last4Michel \|titleAsteroids III \|editorW. F. Bottke Jr. \|editor2A. Cellino \|editor3P. Paolicchi \|editor4R. P. Binzel \|pages409–422 \|dateJanuary 2002 \|doi10.2307/j.ctv1v7zdn4.33 \|bibcode2002aste.book..409M \|access-date2017-11-09 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170809014123/http://www.boulder.swri.edu/%7Ebottke/Reprints/Morbidelli-etal_2002_AstIII_NEOs.pdf \|archive-date=2017-08-09 }}</ref> * The Atiras or Apoheles have orbits strictly inside Earth's orbit: an Atira asteroid's aphelion distance (Q) is smaller than Earth's perihelion distance (0.983&nbsp;AU). That is, {{nowrap\|Q < 0.983 AU}}, which implies that the asteroid's semi-major axis is also less than 0.983 AU.<ref name="atiras">{{cite journal \|last1de la Fuente Marcos \|first1Carlos \|last2de la Fuente Marcos \|first2Raúl \|date=1 August 2019 \|title=Understanding the evolution of Atira-class asteroid 2019 AQ<sub>3</sub>, a major step towards the future discovery of the Vatira population \|journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society \|volume= 487 \|issue= 2 \|pages= 2742–2752 \|arxiv=1905.08695 \|bibcode=2019MNRAS.487.2742D \|doi10.1093/mnras/stz1437\|doi-accessfree \|s2cid=160009327 }}</ref> * The Atens have a semi-major axis of less than 1&nbsp;AU and cross Earth's orbit. Mathematically, {{nowrap\|a < 1.0 AU}} and {{nowrap\|Q > 0.983 AU}}. (0.983 AU is Earth's perihelion distance.) * The Apollos have a semi-major axis of more than 1&nbsp;AU and cross Earth's orbit. Mathematically, {{nowrap\|a > 1.0 AU}} and {{nowrap\|q < 1.017 AU}}. (1.017&nbsp;AU is Earth's aphelion distance.) * The Amors have orbits strictly outside Earth's orbit: an Amor asteroid's perihelion distance (q) is greater than Earth's aphelion distance (1.017&nbsp;AU). Amor asteroids are also near-earth objects so {{nowrap\|q < 1.3 AU}}. In summary, {{nowrap\|1.017 AU < q < 1.3 AU}}. (This implies that the asteroid's semi-major axis (a) is also larger than 1.017&nbsp;AU.) Some Amor asteroid orbits cross the orbit of Mars. Martian moons {{Main\|Moons of Mars\|Phobos (moon)\|Deimos (moon)}} {{Multiple image \| direction = horizontal \| total_width = 300px \| image1 = Phobos_colour_2008.jpg \| caption1 = Phobos \| image2 = Deimos-MRO.jpg \| caption2 = Deimos \| align = }} It is unclear whether Martian moons Phobos and Deimos are captured asteroids or were formed due to impact event on Mars.<ref name"burns">Burns, Joseph A. (1992). "Contradictory Clues as to the Origin of the Martian Moons" in Mars, H. H. Kieffer et al., eds., Tucson: University of Arizona Press, Tucson {{page needed\|dateOctober 2022}}</ref> Phobos and Deimos both have much in common with carbonaceous C-type asteroids, with spectra, albedo, and density very similar to those of C- or D-type asteroids.<ref name"c-type">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/MRO/multimedia/20071127-caption.html \|titleViews of Phobos and Deimos \|workNASA \|date27 November 2007 \|access-date19 July 2021 \|archive-date4 May 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160504234224/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/MRO/multimedia/20071127-caption.html \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Based on their similarity, one hypothesis is that both moons may be captured main-belt asteroids.<ref>{{cite web \|titleClose Inspection for Phobos \|urlhttp://sci.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid31031 \|quoteOne idea is that Phobos and Deimos, Mars's other moon, are captured asteroids. }}</ref><ref name"landis">Landis, Geoffrey A.; "Origin of Martian Moons from Binary Asteroid Dissociation", American Association for the Advancement of Science Annual Meeting; Boston, MA, 2001, [https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R946501&id8&qsNo%3D70&N%3D4294808501 abstract]</ref> Both moons have very circular orbits which lie almost exactly in Mars's equatorial plane, and hence a capture origin requires a mechanism for circularizing the initially highly eccentric orbit, and adjusting its inclination into the equatorial plane, most probably by a combination of atmospheric drag and tidal forces,<ref name"cazenave">{{Cite journal \|last1Cazenave \|first1Anny \|author-linkAnny Cazenave \|last2Dobrovolskis \|first2Anthony R. \|last3Lago \|first3Bernard \|date1980 \|titleOrbital history of the Martian satellites with inferences on their origin \|journalIcarus \|volume44 \|issue3 \|pages730–744 \|doi10.1016/0019-1035(80)90140-2 \|bibcode1980Icar...44..730C }}</ref> although it is not clear whether sufficient time was available for this to occur for Deimos.<ref name"burns" /> Capture also requires dissipation of energy. The current Martian atmosphere is too thin to capture a Phobos-sized object by atmospheric braking.<ref name"burns" /> Geoffrey A. Landis has pointed out that the capture could have occurred if the original body was a binary asteroid that separated under tidal forces.<ref name"landis" /><ref>{{cite journal \| last Canup \| first Robin \| author-link Robin Canup \| title Origin of Phobos and Deimos by the impact of a Vesta-to-Ceres sized body with Mars \| date 2018-04-18 \| journal Science Advances \| volume 4 \| issue 4 \| pageeaar6887 \| doi 10.1126/sciadv.aar6887\| pmid 29675470 \| pmc 5906076 \| bibcode 2018SciA....4.6887C \| doi-access free }}</ref> Phobos could be a second-generation Solar System object that coalesced in orbit after Mars formed, rather than forming concurrently out of the same birth cloud as Mars.<ref name"ESA2010">{{cite web \|first1Martin \|last1Pätzold \|first2Olivier \|last2Witasse \|name-list-styleamp \|urlhttps://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Mars_Express/Phobos_flyby_success \|titlePhobos Flyby Success \|publisherESA \|date4 March 2010 \|access-date=4 March 2010}}</ref> Another hypothesis is that Mars was once surrounded by many Phobos- and Deimos-sized bodies, perhaps ejected into orbit around it by a collision with a large planetesimal.<ref name"Craddock">Craddock, Robert A.; (1994); "The Origin of Phobos and Deimos", Abstracts of the 25th Annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, held in Houston, TX, 14–18 March 1994, p. 293</ref> The high porosity of the interior of Phobos (based on the density of 1.88 g/cm<sup>3</sup>, voids are estimated to comprise 25 to 35 percent of Phobos's volume) is inconsistent with an asteroidal origin.<ref name"Andert">{{Cite journal \|last1Andert \|first1Thomas P. \|display-authors4 \|last2Rosenblatt \|first2Pascal \|last3Pätzold \|first3Martin \|last4Häusler \|first4Bernd \|last5Dehant \|first5Véronique M. \|last6Tyler \|first6George Leonard \|last7Marty \|first7Jean-Charles \|titlePrecise mass determination and the nature of Phobos \|journalGeophysical Research Letters \|volume37 \|issue9 \|pageL09202 \|date 7 May 2010 \|doi10.1029/2009GL041829 \|bibcode2010GeoRL..37.9202A \|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Observations of Phobos in the thermal infrared suggest a composition containing mainly phyllosilicates, which are well known from the surface of Mars. The spectra are distinct from those of all classes of chondrite meteorites, again pointing away from an asteroidal origin.<ref name"Giuranna">{{Cite conference \|first1Marco \|last1Giuranna \|display-authors4 \|last2Roush \|first2Ted L. \|last3Duxbury \|first3Thomas \|last4Hogan \|first4Robert C. \|last5Geminale \|first5Anna \|last6Formisano \|first6Vittorio \|titleCompositional Interpretation of PFS/MEx and TES/MGS Thermal Infrared Spectra of Phobos \|book-titleEuropean Planetary Science Congress Abstracts, Vol. 5 \|date2010 \|urlhttp://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EPSC2010/EPSC2010-211.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EPSC2010/EPSC2010-211.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|access-date1 October 2010 }}</ref> Both sets of findings support an origin of Phobos from material ejected by an impact on Mars that reaccreted in Martian orbit,<ref name"Blast">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.space.com/9201-mars-moon-phobos-forged-catastrophic-blast.html \|titleMars Moon Phobos Likely Forged by Catastrophic Blast \|workSpace.com \|date27 September 2010 \|access-date1 October 2010}}</ref> similar to the prevailing theory for the origin of Earth's moon. Characteristics Size distribution {{image frame \|width=256 \| content = {{Graph:Chart \| width=75 \| height=75 \| type=pie \| legend\| xCeres,Vesta,Pallas,Hygiea,Interamnia,Eunomia,other \| y1=938,259,204,87,35,30,841<!--total 2394x18kg--> \| showValues=angle:0,format:.0f }} \| caption = The masses of the largest asteroids in the main belt: 1 Ceres (blue), 4 Vesta, 2 Pallas, 10 Hygiea, 704 Interamnia, 15 Eunomia and the remainder of the Main Belt (pink). The unit of mass is {{e\|18}} kg.}} Asteroids vary greatly in size, from almost {{val\|1000\|ukm}} for the largest down to rocks just 1&nbsp;meter across, below which an object is classified as a meteoroid.{{efn\|The definition in the 1995 paper (Beech and Steel) has been updated by a 2010 paper (Rubin and Grossman) and the discovery of 1&nbsp;meter asteroids.}} The three largest are very much like miniature planets: they are roughly spherical, have at least partly differentiated interiors,<ref nameSchmidt2007>{{cite journal \|titleHubble Space Telescope Observations of 2&nbsp;Pallas \|journalBulletin of the American Astronomical Society \|volume39 \|page485 \|date2007 \|display-authors6 \|last1Schmidt \|first1 B. \|last2Russell \|first2 C.T. \|last3Bauer \|first3 J.M. \|last4Li \|first4 J. \|last5McFadden \|first5 L.A. \|last6Mutchler \|first6 M. \|last7Parker \|first7 J.W. \|last8Rivkin \|first8 A.S. \|last9Stern \|first9 S.A. \|author10Thomas, P.C. \|bibcode2007DPS....39.3519S}}</ref> and are thought to be surviving protoplanets. The vast majority, however, are much smaller and are irregularly shaped; they are thought to be either battered planetesimals or fragments of larger bodies. The dwarf planet Ceres is by far the largest asteroid, with a diameter of {{cvt\|940\|km\|-1}}. The next largest are 4 Vesta and 2 Pallas, both with diameters of just over {{cvt\|500\|km\|-2}}. Vesta is the brightest of the four main-belt asteroids that can, on occasion, be visible to the naked eye.<ref>{{cite book \| titleThe Observer's Guide to Astronomy \| volume1 \| seriesPractical Astronomy Handbooks \| editor-firstPatrick \| editor-lastMartinez \| translator-last1Dunlop \| translator-first1Storm \| publisherCambridge University Press \| date1994 \| isbn978-0-521-37945-8 \| page297 \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idk5iUVz7iFTQC&pgPA297 }}</ref> On some rare occasions, a near-Earth asteroid may briefly become visible without technical aid; see 99942 Apophis. The mass of all the objects of the asteroid belt, lying between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, is estimated to be {{val\|2394\|6\|e18\|ukg}}, ≈&thinsp;3.25% of the mass of the Moon. Of this, Ceres comprises {{val\|938\|e18\|ukg}}, about 40% of the total. Adding in the next three most massive objects, Vesta (11%), Pallas (8.5%), and Hygiea (3–4%), brings this figure up to a bit over 60%, whereas the next seven most-massive asteroids bring the total up to 70%.<ref name="Pitjeva2018"/> The number of asteroids increases rapidly as their individual masses decrease. The number of asteroids decreases markedly with increasing size. Although the size distribution generally follows a power law, there are 'bumps' at about {{val\|5\|ukm}} and {{val\|100\|ukm}}, where more asteroids than expected from such a curve are found. Most asteroids larger than approximately 120&nbsp;km in diameter are primordial (surviving from the accretion epoch), whereas most smaller asteroids are products of fragmentation of primordial asteroids. The primordial population of the main belt was probably 200 times what it is today.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Bottkejr \|first1W \|last2Durda \|first2D \|last3Nesvorny \|first3D \|last4Jedicke \|first4R \|last5Morbidelli \|first5A \|last6Vokrouhlicky \|first6D \|last7Levison \|first7H \|dateMay 2005 \|titleThe fossilized size distribution of the main asteroid belt \|urlhttps://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0019103504003811 \|journalIcarus\|volume175 \|issue1 \|pages111–140 \|doi10.1016/j.icarus.2004.10.026\|bibcode2005Icar..175..111B }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1O'Brien \|first1David P. \|last2Sykes \|first2Mark V. \|dateDecember 2011 \|titleThe Origin and Evolution of the Asteroid Belt{{snd}}Implications for Vesta and Ceres \|urlhttp://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11214-011-9808-6 \|journalSpace Science Reviews\|volume163 \|issue1–4 \|pages41–61 \|doi10.1007/s11214-011-9808-6 \|bibcode2011SSRv..163...41O \|s2cid121856071 \|issn0038-6308}}</ref> Largest asteroids {{See also\|Largest asteroids}} {{Multiple image \| direction = vertical \| image1 = 42 of the largest objects in the asteroid belt.jpg \| caption1 = 42 of the largest objects in the asteroid belt captured by ESO's Very Large Telescope \| image2 = Eros, Vesta and Ceres size comparison.jpg \| caption2 = Eros, Vesta and Ceres size comparison \| total_width = 250 }} Three largest objects in the asteroid belt, Ceres, Vesta, and Pallas, are intact protoplanets that share many characteristics common to planets, and are atypical compared to the majority of irregularly shaped asteroids. The fourth-largest asteroid, Hygiea, appears nearly spherical although it may have an undifferentiated interior,<ref>{{Cite web\|titleAsteroids {{!}} Imaging the Universe\|urlhttp://astro.physics.uiowa.edu/ITU/labs/general-astronomy/asteroids/\|access-date2021-08-31\|websiteastro.physics.uiowa.edu\|archive-date31 August 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210831200522/http://astro.physics.uiowa.edu/ITU/labs/general-astronomy/asteroids/\|url-status=dead}}</ref> like the majority of asteroids. The four largest asteroids constitute half the mass of the asteroid belt. Ceres is the only asteroid that appears to have a plastic shape under its own gravity and hence the only one that is a dwarf planet.<ref nameIAU-2006/> It has a much higher absolute magnitude than the other asteroids, of around 3.32,<ref nameAstJ-2002-v123-p549/> and may possess a surface layer of ice.<ref name"planetary"/> Like the planets, Ceres is differentiated: it has a crust, a mantle and a core.<ref name"planetary"/> No meteorites from Ceres have been found on Earth.<ref name=satellites/> Vesta, too, has a differentiated interior, though it formed inside the Solar System's frost line, and so is devoid of water;<ref>{{cite press release \|titleAsteroid or mini-planet? Hubble maps the ancient surface of Vesta \|date19 April 1995 \|idSTScI-1995-20 \|urlhttp://hubblesite.org/news_release/news/1995-20 \|websiteHubble Space Telescope \|publisherSpace Telescope Science Institute \|access-date16 December 2017}}<br />{{cite press release \|titleKey stages in the evolution of the asteroid Vesta \|websiteHubble Space Telescope \|publisherSpace Telescope Science Institute \|date19 April 1995 \|urlhttp://hubblesite.org/newscenter/newsdesk/archive/releases/1995/20/image/c \|access-date20 October 2007 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080907192327/http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/newsdesk/archive/releases/1995/20/image/c \|archive-date7 September 2008}}</ref><ref> {{cite journal \|last1Russel \|first1C. \|last2Raymond \|first2C. \|last3Fraschetti \|first3T. \|last4Rayman \|first4M. \|last5Polanskey \|first5C. \|last6Schimmels \|first6K. \|last7Joy \|first7S. \|year2005 \|titleDawn mission and operations \|journalProceedings of the International Astronomical Union \|volume1 \|issueS229 \|pages97–119 \|bibcode2006IAUS..229...97R \|doi10.1017/S1743921305006691 \|doi-accessfree }}</ref> its composition is mainly of basaltic rock with minerals such as olivine.<ref>{{cite journal \|lastBurbine \|firstT.H. \|dateJuly 1994 \|titleWhere are the olivine asteroids in the main belt? \|journalMeteoritics \|volume29 \|issue4 \|page453 \|bibcode-accessfree \|bibcode=1994Metic..29..453B}}</ref> Aside from the large crater at its southern pole, Rheasilvia, Vesta also has an ellipsoidal shape. Vesta is the parent body of the Vestian family and other V-type asteroids, and is the source of the HED meteorites, which constitute 5% of all meteorites on Earth. Pallas is unusual in that, like Uranus, it rotates on its side, with its axis of rotation tilted at high angles to its orbital plane.<ref name"Torppa1996"/> Its composition is similar to that of Ceres: high in carbon and silicon, and perhaps partially differentiated.<ref nameIcarus-1983-v56-p398/> Pallas is the parent body of the Palladian family of asteroids. Hygiea is the largest carbonaceous asteroid<ref nameIcarus-2002-156-p202/> and, unlike the other largest asteroids, lies relatively close to the plane of the ecliptic. It is the largest member and presumed parent body of the Hygiean family of asteroids. Because there is no sufficiently large crater on the surface to be the source of that family, as there is on Vesta, it is thought that Hygiea may have been completely disrupted in the collision that formed the Hygiean family and recoalesced after losing a bit less than 2% of its mass. Observations taken with the Very Large Telescope's SPHERE imager in 2017 and 2018, revealed that Hygiea has a nearly spherical shape, which is consistent both with it being in hydrostatic equilibrium, or formerly being in hydrostatic equilibrium, or with being disrupted and recoalescing.<ref nameNatAstr-2019-10-28/><ref name=Strickland2019/> Internal differentiation of large asteroids is possibly related to their lack of natural satellites, as satellites of main belt asteroids are mostly believed to form from collisional disruption, creating a rubble pile structure.<ref namesatellites>{{cite journal\|titleDawn mission's search for satellites of Ceres: Intact protoplanets don't have satellites\|journalIcarus\|volume316\|dateDecember 2018\|pages191–204\|author1-firstLucy A.\|author1-lastMcFadden \|author2-firstDavid R. \|author2-lastSkillman \|author3-firstN \|author3-lastMemarsadeghi \|doi10.1016/j.icarus.2018.02.017\|bibcode2018Icar..316..191M \|s2cid125181684 \|quoteExamination of the physical properties of the 41 largest and most massive main belt asteroids suggests that large asteroids without satellites are intact and their interiors have internal strength. This is consistent with results from the Dawn mission at both Vesta and Ceres. Ceres' volatile-rich composition also is a likely contributor to both the absence of satellites at Ceres and of Ceres meteorites at Earth. These results suggest that collisional disruption creating rubble pile structure is a necessary condition for formation of satellites around main belt asteroids.}}</ref> {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Attributes of largest asteroids \|- style="font-size: smaller;" !Name !Orbital<br />radius<br />(AU) !Orbital<br />period<br />(years) !Inclination<br />to ecliptic !Orbital<br />eccentricity ! Diameter<br />(km) ! Diameter<br />(% of Moon) ! Mass<br />({{e\|18}} kg) ! Mass<br />(% of Ceres) ! Density<br />(g/cm<sup>3</sup>) ! Rotation<br />period<br />(hr) \|- style="text-align:center;" ! style="text-align:left;"\| Ceres \| 2.77 \| 4.60 \| 10.6° \| 0.079 \| 964×964×892<br />(mean 939.4) \| 27% \| 938 \| 100% \| 2.16±0.01 \| 9.07 \|- style="text-align:center;" ! style="text-align:left;"\| Vesta \| 2.36 \| 3.63 \| 7.1° \| 0.089 \| 573×557×446<br />(mean 525.4) \| 15% \| 259 \| 28% \| 3.46 ± 0.04 \| 5.34 \|- style="text-align:center;" ! style="text-align:left;"\| Pallas \| 2.77 \| 4.62 \| 34.8° \| 0.231 \| 550×516×476<br />(mean 511±4) \| 15% \| 204±3 \| 21% \| 2.92±0.08 \| 7.81 \|- style="text-align:center;" ! style="text-align:left;"\| Hygiea \| 3.14 \| 5.56 \| 3.8° \| 0.117 \| 450×430×424<br />(mean 433±8) \| 12% \| 87±7 \| 9% \| 2.06±0.20 \| 13.8 \|} Rotation {{Further\|List of fast rotators (minor planets)\|List of slow rotators (minor planets)}} Measurements of the rotation rates of large asteroids in the asteroid belt show that there is an upper limit. Very few asteroids with a diameter larger than 100 meters have a rotation period less than 2.2&nbsp;hours.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAbout Lightcurves \|seriesAsteroid Lightcurve Photometry Database \|websiteALCDEF \|date4 December 2018 \|urlhttp://alcdef.org/ \|access-date27 December 2018}}</ref> For asteroids rotating faster than approximately this rate, the inertial force at the surface is greater than the gravitational force, so any loose surface material would be flung out. However, a solid object should be able to rotate much more rapidly. This suggests that most asteroids with a diameter over 100 meters are rubble piles formed through the accumulation of debris after collisions between asteroids.<ref nameRossi-2004/> Color Asteroids become darker and redder with age due to space weathering.<ref name"UHi2005-05-19" /> However evidence suggests most of the color change occurs rapidly, in the first hundred thousand years, limiting the usefulness of spectral measurement for determining the age of asteroids.<ref name"Courtland-2009" /> Surface features Except for the "big four" (Ceres, Pallas, Vesta, and Hygiea), asteroids are likely to be broadly similar in appearance, if irregular in shape. {{convert\|50\|km\|mi\|abbron}} 253 Mathilde is a rubble pile saturated with craters with diameters the size of the asteroid's radius. Earth-based observations of {{convert\|300\|km\|mi\|abbron}} 511 Davida, one of the largest asteroids after the big four, reveal a similarly angular profile, suggesting it is also saturated with radius-size craters.<ref name"Icarus-2007-v191-p616" /> Medium-sized asteroids such as Mathilde and 243 Ida, that have been observed up close, also reveal a deep regolith covering the surface. Of the big four, Pallas and Hygiea are practically unknown. Vesta has compression fractures encircling a radius-size crater at its south pole but is otherwise a spheroid. Dawn spacecraft revealed that Ceres has a heavily cratered surface, but with fewer large craters than expected.<ref name"marchi">{{cite journal \|last1Marchi \|first1S. \|last2Ermakov \|first2A. I. \|last3Raymond \|first3C. A. \|last4Fu \|first4R. R. \|last5O'Brien \|first5D. P. \|last6Bland \|first6M. T. \|last7Ammannito \|first7E. \|last8De Sanctis \|first8M. C. \|last9Bowling \|first9T. \|last10Schenk \|first10P. \|last11Scully \|first11J. E. C. \|date26 July 2016 \|titleThe missing large impact craters on Ceres \|journalNature Communications \|volume7 \|pages12257 \|bibcode2016NatCo...712257M \|doi10.1038/ncomms12257 \|pmc4963536 \|pmid27459197 \|last12Buczkowski \|first12D. L. \|last13Williams \|first13D. A. \|last14Hiesinger \|first14H. \|last15Russell \|first15C. T.}}</ref> Models based on the formation of the current asteroid belt had suggested Ceres should possess 10 to 15 craters larger than {{convert\|400\|km\|mi\|abbron}} in diameter.<ref name"marchi" /> The largest confirmed crater on Ceres, Kerwan Basin, is {{convert\|284\|km\|mi\|abbron}} across.<ref>{{cite journal \|lastDavid A. Williams \|firstT. Kneiss \|dateDecember 2018 \|titleThe geology of the Kerwan quadrangle of dwarf planet Ceres: Investigating Ceres' oldest, largest impact basin \|urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019103516305632 \|url-statuslive \|journalIcarus \|volume316 \|pages99–113 \|bibcode2018Icar..316...99W \|doi10.1016/j.icarus.2017.08.015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210816123323/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019103516305632?via%3Dihub \|archive-date16 August 2021 \|access-date16 August 2021 \|s2cid85539501}}</ref> The most likely reason for this is viscous relaxation of the crust slowly flattening out larger impacts.<ref name"marchi" /> Composition Asteroids are classified by their characteristic emission spectra, with the majority falling into three main groups: C-type, M-type, and S-type. These describe carbonaceous (carbon-rich), metallic, and silicaceous (stony) compositions, respectively. The physical composition of asteroids is varied and in most cases poorly understood. Ceres appears to be composed of a rocky core covered by an icy mantle; Vesta is thought to have a nickel-iron core, olivine mantle, and basaltic crust.<ref name"Hubble-Vespa-1995-04-19" /> Thought to be the largest undifferentiated asteroid, 10 Hygiea seems to have a uniformly primitive composition of carbonaceous chondrite, but it may actually be a differentiated asteroid that was globally disrupted by an impact and then reassembled. Other asteroids appear to be the remnant cores or mantles of proto-planets, high in rock and metal. Most small asteroids are believed to be piles of rubble held together loosely by gravity, although the largest are probably solid. Some asteroids have moons or are co-orbiting binaries: rubble piles, moons, binaries, and scattered asteroid families are thought to be the results of collisions that disrupted a parent asteroid, or possibly a planet.<ref name="ARX-20060816" /> In the main asteroid belt, there appear to be two primary populations of asteroid: a dark, volatile-rich population, consisting of the C-type and P-type asteroids, with albedos less than 0.10 and densities under {{val\|2.2\|ug/cm3}}, and a dense, volatile-poor population, consisting of the S-type and M-type asteroids, with albedos over 0.15 and densities greater than 2.7. Within these populations, larger asteroids are denser, presumably due to compression. There appears to be minimal macro-porosity (interstitial vacuum) in the score of asteroids with masses greater than {{val\|10\|e18\|ukg}}.<ref name"VLT">P. Vernazza et al. (2021) VLT/SPHERE imaging survey of the largest main-belt asteroids: Final results and synthesis. Astronomy & Astrophysics 54, A56</ref> Composition is calculated from three primary sources: albedo, surface spectrum, and density. The last can only be determined accurately by observing the orbits of moons the asteroid might have. So far, every asteroid with moons has turned out to be a rubble pile, a loose conglomeration of rock and metal that may be half empty space by volume. The investigated asteroids are as large as 280&nbsp;km in diameter, and include 121 Hermione (268×186×183&nbsp;km), and 87 Sylvia (384×262×232&nbsp;km). Few asteroids are larger than 87&nbsp;Sylvia, none of them have moons. The fact that such large asteroids as Sylvia may be rubble piles, presumably due to disruptive impacts, has important consequences for the formation of the Solar System: computer simulations of collisions involving solid bodies show them destroying each other as often as merging, but colliding rubble piles are more likely to merge. This means that the cores of the planets could have formed relatively quickly.<ref name"Icarus-2011-02-p1022" /> Water {{Main\|Asteroidal water}} Scientists hypothesize that some of the first water brought to Earth was delivered by asteroid impacts after the collision that produced the Moon.<ref name"Campins2010" /> In 2009, the presence of water ice was confirmed on the surface of 24 Themis using NASA's Infrared Telescope Facility. The surface of the asteroid appears completely covered in ice. As this ice layer is sublimating, it may be getting replenished by a reservoir of ice under the surface. Organic compounds were also detected on the surface.<ref name"Cowen-2009" /><ref name"Atkinson-2009" /><ref name"Campins2010" /><ref name"RivkinEmery2010" /> The presence of ice on 24 Themis makes the initial theory plausible.<ref name"Campins2010" /> In October 2013, water was detected on an extrasolar body for the first time, on an asteroid orbiting the white dwarf GD 61.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://keckobservatory.org/watery_asteroid_discovered_in_dying_star_points_to_habitable_exoplanets/\|titleWatery Asteroid Discovered in Dying Star Points to Habitable Exoplanets – W. M. Keck Observatory\|date10 October 2013 }}</ref> On 22&nbsp;January 2014, European Space Agency (ESA) scientists reported the detection, for the first definitive time, of water vapor on Ceres, the largest object in the asteroid belt.<ref name"KüppersO'Rourke2014" /> The detection was made by using the far-infrared abilities of the Herschel Space Observatory.<ref name"NASA-20140122" /> The finding is unexpected because comets, not asteroids, are typically considered to "sprout jets and plumes". According to one of the scientists, "The lines are becoming more and more blurred between comets and asteroids."<ref name"NASA-20140122" /> Findings have shown that solar winds can react with the oxygen in the upper layer of the asteroids and create water. It has been estimated that "every cubic metre of irradiated rock could contain up to 20 litres"; study was conducted using an atom probe tomography, numbers are given for the Itokawa S-type asteroid.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Daly \|first1Luke \|last2Lee \|first2Martin R. \|last3Hallis \|first3Lydia J. \|last4Ishii \|first4Hope A. \|last5Bradley \|first5John P. \|last6Bland \|first6Phillip A. \|last7Saxey \|first7David W. \|last8Fougerouse \|first8Denis \|last9Rickard \|first9William D. A. \|last10Forman \|first10Lucy V. \|last11Timms \|first11Nicholas E. \|last12Jourdan \|first12Fred \|last13Reddy \|first13Steven M. \|last14Salge \|first14Tobias \|last15Quadir \|first15Zakaria \|last16Christou \|first16Evangelos \|last17Cox \|first17Morgan A. \|last18Aguiar \|first18Jeffrey A. \|last19Hattar \|first19Khalid \|last20Monterrosa \|first20Anthony \|last21Keller \|first21Lindsay P. \|last22Christoffersen \|first22Roy \|last23Dukes \|first23Catherine A. \|last24Loeffler \|first24Mark J. \|last25Thompson \|first25Michelle S. \|titleSolar wind contributions to Earth's oceans \|journalNature Astronomy \|dateDecember 2021 \|volume5 \|issue12 \|pages1275–1285 \|doi10.1038/s41550-021-01487-w \|bibcode2021NatAs...5.1275D \|osti1834330 \|s2cid244744492 \|urlhttps://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-021-01487-w \|access-date30 March 2022\|issn2397-3366}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleEarth's water may have been formed by solar winds \|urlhttps://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/news/2021/december/earth-s-water-may-have-been-formed-by-solar-winds.html \|websitenhm.ac.uk \|access-date=30 March 2022}}</ref> Acfer 049, a meteorite discovered in Algeria in 1990, was shown in 2019 to have an ultraporous lithology (UPL): porous texture that could be formed by removal of ice that filled these pores, this suggests that UPL "represent fossils of primordial ice".<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Matsumoto \|first1Megumi \|last2Tsuchiyama \|first2Akira \|last3Nakato \|first3Aiko \|last4Matsuno \|first4Junya \|last5Miyake \|first5Akira \|last6Kataoka \|first6Akimasa \|last7Ito \|first7Motoo \|last8Tomioka \|first8Naotaka \|last9Kodama \|first9Yu \|last10Uesugi \|first10Kentaro \|last11Takeuchi \|first11Akihisa \|last12Nakano \|first12Tsukasa \|last13Vaccaro \|first13Epifanio \|titleDiscovery of fossil asteroidal ice in primitive meteorite Acfer 094 \|journalScience Advances \|dateNovember 2019 \|volume5 \|issue11 \|pageseaax5078 \|doi10.1126/sciadv.aax5078\|pmid31799392 \|pmc6867873 \|bibcode2019SciA....5.5078M }}</ref> Organic compounds Asteroids contain traces of amino acids and other organic compounds, and some speculate that asteroid impacts may have seeded the early Earth with the chemicals necessary to initiate life, or may have even brought life itself to Earth (an event called "panspermia").<ref name"SPACE-2001-12-19" /><ref name"Reuell-2019" /> In August&nbsp;2011, a report, based on NASA studies with meteorites found on Earth, was published suggesting DNA and RNA components (adenine, guanine and related organic molecules) may have been formed on asteroids and comets in outer space.<ref name"Callahan" /><ref name"Steigerwald" /><ref name="DNA" /> In November 2019, scientists reported detecting, for the first time, sugar molecules, including ribose, in meteorites, suggesting that chemical processes on asteroids can produce some fundamentally essential bio-ingredients important to life, and supporting the notion of an RNA world prior to a DNA-based origin of life on Earth, and possibly, as well, the notion of panspermia.<ref name"NASA-20191118" /><ref name"PNAS-20191118" /><ref>{{Cite web \|lastSteigerwald \|firstBill \|date2022-03-31 \|titleCould the Blueprint for Life Have Been Generated in Asteroids? \|urlhttp://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2022/life-blueprint-in-asteroids \|access-date2022-07-06 \|websiteNASA}}</ref> Classification Asteroids are commonly categorized according to two criteria: the characteristics of their orbits, and features of their reflectance spectrum. Orbital classification {{Main\|Asteroid group\|Asteroid family}} }}]] Many asteroids have been placed in groups and families based on their orbital characteristics. Apart from the broadest divisions, it is customary to name a group of asteroids after the first member of that group to be discovered. Groups are relatively loose dynamical associations, whereas families are tighter and result from the catastrophic break-up of a large parent asteroid sometime in the past.<ref nameAstFams-Icarus-1995/> Families are more common and easier to identify within the main asteroid belt, but several small families have been reported among the Jupiter trojans.<ref name"JewittEtal2004"/> Main belt families were first recognized by Kiyotsugu Hirayama in 1918 and are often called Hirayama families in his honor. About 30–35% of the bodies in the asteroid belt belong to dynamical families, each thought to have a common origin in a past collision between asteroids. A family has also been associated with the plutoid dwarf planet {{dp\|Haumea}}. Some asteroids have unusual horseshoe orbits that are co-orbital with Earth or another planet. Examples are 3753 Cruithne and {{mpl\|2002 AA\|29}}. The first instance of this type of orbital arrangement was discovered between Saturn's moons Epimetheus and Janus. Sometimes these horseshoe objects temporarily become quasi-satellites for a few decades or a few hundred years, before returning to their earlier status. Both Earth and Venus are known to have quasi-satellites. Such objects, if associated with Earth or Venus or even hypothetically Mercury, are a special class of Aten asteroids. However, such objects could be associated with the outer planets as well. Spectral classification {{Main\|Asteroid spectral types}} In 1975, an asteroid taxonomic system based on color, albedo, and spectral shape was developed by Chapman, Morrison, and Zellner.<ref name=CMZ-1975-Icarus/> These properties are thought to correspond to the composition of the asteroid's surface material. The original classification system had three categories: C-types for dark carbonaceous objects (75% of known asteroids), S-types for stony (silicaceous) objects (17% of known asteroids) and U for those that did not fit into either C or S. This classification has since been expanded to include many other asteroid types. The number of types continues to grow as more asteroids are studied. The two most widely used taxonomies now used are the Tholen classification and SMASS classification. The former was proposed in 1984 by David J. Tholen, and was based on data collected from an eight-color asteroid survey performed in the 1980s. This resulted in 14&nbsp;asteroid categories.<ref nameTholen-1989/> In 2002, the Small Main-Belt Asteroid Spectroscopic Survey resulted in a modified version of the Tholen taxonomy with 24&nbsp;different types. Both systems have three broad categories of C, S, and X asteroids, where X consists of mostly metallic asteroids, such as the M-type. There are also several smaller classes.<ref nameBus-2002/> The proportion of known asteroids falling into the various spectral types does not necessarily reflect the proportion of all asteroids that are of that type; some types are easier to detect than others, biasing the totals. Problems Originally, spectral designations were based on inferences of an asteroid's composition.<ref nameMcSween-1999/> However, the correspondence between spectral class and composition is not always very good, and a variety of classifications are in use. This has led to significant confusion. Although asteroids of different spectral classifications are likely to be composed of different materials, there are no assurances that asteroids within the same taxonomic class are composed of the same (or similar) materials. Active asteroids {{Main\|Active asteroid}}]] Active asteroids are objects that have asteroid-like orbits but show comet-like visual characteristics. That is, they show comae, tails, or other visual evidence of mass-loss (like a comet), but their orbit remains within Jupiter's orbit (like an asteroid).<ref name"Jewitt" /><ref name"JHA15">{{cite book\|chapterThe Active Asteroids\|first1David\|last1Jewitt\|first2Henry\|last2Hsieh\|first3Jessica\|last3Agarwal\|year2015\|titleAsteroids IV\|pages221–241\| editor1-last Michel\| editor1-first P. \| editor2-last others\| display-editors 1 \| publisherUniversity of Arizona\|doi 10.2458/azu_uapress_9780816532131-ch012 \|arxiv1502.02361\|bibcode2015aste.book..221J\|isbn978-0-8165-3213-1\|s2cid119209764\| chapter-urlhttp://www2.ess.ucla.edu/~jewitt/papers/2015/JHA15.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www2.ess.ucla.edu/~jewitt/papers/2015/JHA15.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|access-date2020-01-30}}</ref> These bodies were originally designated main-belt comets (MBCs) in 2006 by astronomers David Jewitt and Henry Hsieh, but this name implies they are necessarily icy in composition like a comet and that they only exist within the main-belt, whereas the growing population of active asteroids shows that this is not always the case.<ref name"Jewitt">{{cite web \|titleThe Active Asteroids \|publisherUCLA, Department of Earth and Space Sciences \|authorDavid Jewitt \|urlhttp://www2.ess.ucla.edu/~jewitt/mbc.html \|access-date2020-01-26\|author-linkDavid Jewitt }}</ref><ref name"NYT-20190319">{{cite news \|last1Chang \|first1Kenneth \|last2Stirone \|first2Shannon \|titleThe Asteroid Was Shooting Rocks Into Space. 'Were We Safe in Orbit?' – NASA's Osiris-Rex and Japan's Hayabusa2 spacecraft reached the space rocks they are surveying last year, and scientists from both teams announced early findings on Tuesday (03/19/2019) \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/19/science/bennu-ryugu-asteroids.html \|date19 March 2019 \|workThe New York Times \|access-date21 March 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleHubble Observes Six Tails from an Unusual Asteroid\|date14 November 2013 \|publisherSpace Telescope Science Institute (STScI), official YouTube channel for the Hubble Space Telescope\|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vCGgRNWUFfZ0 \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/CGgRNWUFfZ0 \|archive-date2021-12-22 \|url-statuslive\|access-date=2014-11-15}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The first active asteroid discovered is 7968 Elst–Pizarro. It was discovered (as an asteroid) in 1979 but then was found to have a tail by Eric Elst and Guido Pizarro in 1996 and given the cometary designation 133P/Elst-Pizarro.<ref name"Jewitt"/><ref nameHH133P>{{cite web\|lastHsieh\|firstHenry\|title133P/Elst-Pizarro\|urlhttp://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/~hsieh/elstpiz.shtml\|publisherUH Institute for Astronomy\|access-date22 June 2012\|date20 January 2004\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111026205338/http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/~hsieh/elstpiz.shtml\|archive-date26 October 2011}}</ref> Another notable object is 311P/PanSTARRS: observations made by the Hubble Space Telescope revealed that it had six comet-like tails.<ref name"hubblesite">{{cite web\|titleNASA's Hubble Sees Asteroid Spouting Six Comet-Like Tails\|urlhttp://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2013/52/text/\|publisherHubblesite\|date7 November 2013}}</ref> The tails are suspected to be streams of material ejected by the asteroid as a result of a rubble pile asteroid spinning fast enough to remove material from it.<ref nameJewitt2013>{{cite journal \|last1Jewitt \|first1D. \|last2Agarwal \|first2J. \|last3Weaver \|first3H. \|last4Mutchler \|first4M. \|last5Larson \|first5S. \|year=2013 \|title=The Extraordinary Multi-Tailed Main-Belt Comet P/2013 P5 \|journal=The Astronomical Journal \|volume778\|issue 1\|pages=L21 \|arxiv=1311.1483 \|bibcode=2013ApJ...778L..21J \|doi=10.1088/2041-8205/778/1/L21 \|s2cid=67795816 }}</ref> By smashing into the asteroid Dimorphos, NASA's Double Asteroid Redirection Test spacecraft made it an active asteroid. Scientists had proposed that some active asteroids are the result of impact events, but no one had ever observed the activation of an asteroid. The DART mission activated Dimorphos under precisely known and carefully observed impact conditions, enabling the detailed study of the formation of an active asteroid for the first time.<ref name"nasa-march2023">{{cite web \|last1Furfaro \|first1Emily \|titleNASA's DART Data Validates Kinetic Impact as Planetary Defense Method \|urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-dart-data-validates-kinetic-impact-as-planetary-defense-method \|websiteNASA \|access-date9 March 2023 \|date28 February 2023}} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Li \|first1Jian-Yang \|last2Hirabayashi \|first2Masatoshi \|last3Farnham \|first3Tony L. \|last4Sunshine \|first4Jessica M. \|last5Knight \|first5Matthew M. \|last6Tancredi \|first6Gonzalo \|last7Moreno \|first7Fernando \|last8Murphy \|first8Brian \|last9Opitom \|first9Cyrielle \|last10Chesley \|first10Steve \|last11Scheeres \|first11Daniel J. \|last12Thomas \|first12Cristina A. \|last13Fahnestock \|first13Eugene G. \|last14Cheng \|first14Andrew F. \|last15Dressel \|first15Linda \|last16Ernst \|first16Carolyn M. \|last17Ferrari \|first17Fabio \|last18Fitzsimmons \|first18Alan \|last19Ieva \|first19Simone \|last20Ivanovski \|first20Stavro L. \|last21Kareta \|first21Teddy \|last22Kolokolova \|first22Ludmilla \|last23Lister \|first23Tim \|last24Raducan \|first24Sabina D. \|last25Rivkin \|first25Andrew S. \|last26Rossi \|first26Alessandro \|last27Soldini \|first27Stefania \|last28Stickle \|first28Angela M. \|last29Vick \|first29Alison \|last30Vincent \|first30Jean-Baptiste \|last31Weaver \|first31Harold A. \|last32Bagnulo \|first32Stefano \|last33Bannister \|first33Michele T. \|last34Cambioni \|first34Saverio \|last35Bagatin \|first35Adriano Campo \|last36Chabot \|first36Nancy L. \|last37Cremonese \|first37Gabriele \|last38Daly \|first38R. Terik \|last39Dotto \|first39Elisabetta \|last40Glenar \|first40David A. \|last41Granvik \|first41Mikael \|last42Hasselmann \|first42Pedro H. \|last43Herreros \|first43Isabel \|last44Jacobson \|first44Seth \|last45Jutzi \|first45Martin \|last46Kohout \|first46Tomas \|last47La Forgia \|first47Fiorangela \|last48Lazzarin \|first48Monica \|last49Lin \|first49Zhong-Yi \|last50Lolachi \|first50Ramin \|last51Lucchetti \|first51Alice \|last52Makadia \|first52Rahil \|last53Epifani \|first53Elena Mazzotta \|last54Michel \|first54Patrick \|last55Migliorini \|first55Alessandra \|last56Moskovitz \|first56Nicholas A. \|last57Ormö \|first57Jens \|last58Pajola \|first58Maurizio \|last59Sánchez \|first59Paul \|last60Schwartz \|first60Stephen R. \|last61Snodgrass \|first61Colin \|last62Steckloff \|first62Jordan \|last63Stubbs \|first63Timothy J. \|last64Trigo-Rodríguez \|first64Josep M. \|titleEjecta from the DART-produced active asteroid Dimorphos \|journalNature \|date1 March 2023 \|volume616 \|issue7957 \|pages452–456 \|doi10.1038/s41586-023-05811-4 \|pmid36858074 \|pmc10115637 \|arxiv2303.01700 \|bibcode2023Natur.616..452L \|s2cid257282549\|issn1476-4687 \|display-authors3}}</ref> Observations show that Dimorphos lost approximately 1 million kilograms after the collision.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Witze \|first1Alexandra \|titleAsteroid lost 1 million kilograms after collision with DART spacecraft \|journalNature \|date1 March 2023 \|volume615 \|issue7951 \|pages195 \|doi10.1038/d41586-023-00601-4 \|pmid36859675 \|bibcode2023Natur.615..195W \|s2cid257282080 \|urlhttps://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-00601-4 \|access-date9 March 2023}}</ref> Impact produced a dust plume that temporarily brightened the Didymos system and developed a {{convert\|10000\|km\|mi\|adjon\|spus}}-long dust tail that persisted for several months.<ref name="NOIRLab-20221003">{{cite web \|title = SOAR Telescope Catches Dimorphos's Expanding Comet-like Tail After DART Impact \|url = https://noirlab.edu/public/news/noirlab2223/ \|first Charles \|last Blue \|publisher = NOIRLab \|date = 3 October 2022 \|accessdate 4 February 2023}}</ref><ref name"NASA-20221215">{{cite web \|title = Early Results from NASA's DART Mission \|url = https://www.nasa.gov/feature/early-results-from-nasa-s-dart-mission \|first Jessica \|last Merzdorf \|publisher = NASA \|date = 15 December 2022 \|accessdate 4 February 2023}}</ref><ref name"Li2023">{{cite journal \|display-authors = etal \|first1 = Jian-Yang \|last1 = Li \|first2 = Masatoshi \|last2 = Hirabayashi \|first3 = Tony \|last3 = Farnham \|first4 = Matthew \|last4 = Knight \|first5 = Gonzalo \|last5 = Tancredi \|first6 = Fernando \|last6 = Moreno \|title = Ejecta from the DART-produced active asteroid Dimorphos \|url https://assets.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2292349/v1/34562254-db7b-4289-a7ff-238159687528.pdf?c1669139626 \|journal = Nature \|date = March 2022 \|volume = 616 \|issue = 7957 \|pages = 452–456 \|doi = 10.1038/s41586-023-05811-4 \|pmid = 36858074 \|pmc = 10115637 \|arxiv = 2303.01700 \|bibcode = 2023Natur.616..452L \|s2cid = 257282549 \|access-date = 11 March 2023 \|archive-date = 7 March 2023 \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20230307161053/https://assets.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2292349/v1/34562254-db7b-4289-a7ff-238159687528.pdf?c1669139626 \|url-status = dead }}</ref> Observation and exploration Until the age of space travel, objects in the asteroid belt could only be observed with large telescopes, their shapes and terrain remaining a mystery. The best modern ground-based telescopes and the Earth-orbiting Hubble Space Telescope can only resolve a small amount of detail on the surfaces of the largest asteroids. Limited information about the shapes and compositions of asteroids can be inferred from their light curves (variation in brightness during rotation) and their spectral properties. Sizes can be estimated by timing the lengths of star occultations (when an asteroid passes directly in front of a star). Radar imaging can yield good information about asteroid shapes and orbital and rotational parameters, especially for near-Earth asteroids. Spacecraft flybys can provide much more data than any ground or space-based observations; sample-return missions gives insights about regolith composition. Ground-based observations as seen by Arecibo]] As asteroids are rather small and faint objects, the data that can be obtained from ground-based observations (GBO) are limited. By means of ground-based optical telescopes the visual magnitude can be obtained; when converted into the absolute magnitude it gives a rough estimate of the asteroid's size. Light-curve measurements can also be made by GBO; when collected over a long period of time it allows an estimate of the rotational period, the pole orientation (sometimes), and a rough estimate of the asteroid's shape. Spectral data (both visible-light and near-infrared spectroscopy) gives information about the object's composition, used to classify the observed asteroids. Such observations are limited as they provide information about only the thin layer on the surface (up to several micrometers).<ref namemichel>{{cite journal \|last1Michel \|first1Patrick \|titleFormation and Physical Properties of Asteroids \|journalElements \|date1 February 2014 \|volume10 \|issue1 \|pages19–24 \|doi10.2113/gselements.10.1.19 \|bibcode2014Eleme..10...19M \|urlhttps://www.lpi.usra.edu/exploration/education/hsResearch/asteroid_101/Formation_Physical%20Properties_Asteroids.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/exploration/education/hsResearch/asteroid_101/Formation_Physical%20Properties_Asteroids.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|access-date5 May 2022}}</ref> As planetologist Patrick Michel writes: <blockquote>Mid- to thermal-infrared observations, along with polarimetry measurements, are probably the only data that give some indication of actual physical properties. Measuring the heat flux of an asteroid at a single wavelength gives an estimate of the dimensions of the object; these measurements have lower uncertainty than measurements of the reflected sunlight in the visible-light spectral region. If the two measurements can be combined, both the effective diameter and the geometric albedo—the latter being a measure of the brightness at zero phase angle, that is, when illumination comes from directly behind the observer—can be derived. In addition, thermal measurements at two or more wavelengths, plus the brightness in the visible-light region, give information on the thermal properties. The thermal inertia, which is a measure of how fast a material heats up or cools off, of most observed asteroids is lower than the bare-rock reference value but greater than that of the lunar regolith; this observation indicates the presence of an insulating layer of granular material on their surface. Moreover, there seems to be a trend, perhaps related to the gravitational environment, that smaller objects (with lower gravity) have a small regolith layer consisting of coarse grains, while larger objects have a thicker regolith layer consisting of fine grains. However, the detailed properties of this regolith layer are poorly known from remote observations. Moreover, the relation between thermal inertia and surface roughness is not straightforward, so one needs to interpret the thermal inertia with caution.<ref namemichel/>{{Long quote\|dateDecember 2023}}</blockquote> Near-Earth asteroids that come into close vicinity of the planet can be studied in more details with radar; it provides information about the surface of the asteroid (for example can show the presence of craters and boulders). Such observations were conducted by the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico (305 meter dish) and Goldstone Observatory in California (70 meter dish). Radar observations can also be used for accurate determination of the orbital and rotational dynamics of observed objects.<ref namemichel/> Space-based observations infrared space telescope]] 's instrument NIRCam.]] Both space and ground-based observatories conducted asteroid search programs; the space-based searches are expected to detect more objects because there is no atmosphere to interfere and because they can observe larger portions of the sky. NEOWISE observed more than 100,000 asteroids of the main belt, Spitzer Space Telescope observed more than 700 near-Earth asteroids. These observations determined rough sizes of the majority of observed objects, but provided limited detail about surface properties (such as regolith depth and composition, angle of repose, cohesion, and porosity).<ref name=michel/> Asteroids were also studied by the Hubble Space Telescope, such as tracking the colliding asteroids in the main belt,<ref>{{cite web \|titleSuspected Asteroid Collision Leaves Odd X-Pattern of Trailing Debris \|urlhttps://hubblesite.org/contents/news-releases/2010/news-2010-07.html \|websiteHubbleSite.org \|access-date5 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|last1Garner \|first1Rob \|titleDiscoveries {{!}} Highlights – Tracking Evolution in the Asteroid Belt \|urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/content/discoveries-highlights-tracking-evolution-in-the-asteroid-belt \|websiteNASA \|access-date5 May 2022 \|date7 February 2017}}</ref> break-up of an asteroid,<ref>{{cite web \|titleHubble Witnesses an Asteroid Mysteriously Disintegrating \|urlhttps://hubblesite.org/contents/news-releases/2014/news-2014-15.html \|websiteHubbleSite.org \|access-date5 May 2022}}</ref> observing an active asteroid with six comet-like tails,<ref>{{cite web \|titleNASA's Hubble Sees Asteroid Spout Six Comet-like Tails \|urlhttps://hubblesite.org/contents/news-releases/2013/news-2013-52.html \|websiteHubbleSite.org \|access-date5 May 2022}}</ref> and observing asteroids that were chosen as targets of dedicated missions.<ref>{{cite web \|titleHubble Images of Asteroids Help Astronomers Prepare for Spacecraft Visit \|urlhttps://hubblesite.org/contents/news-releases/2007/news-2007-27.html \|websiteHubbleSite.org \|access-date5 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleHubble Reveals Huge Crater on the Surface of the Asteroid Vesta \|urlhttps://hubblesite.org/contents/news-releases/1997/news-1997-27.html \|websiteHubbleSite.org \|access-date5 May 2022}}</ref> Space probe missions {{see also\|List of minor planets and comets visited by spacecraft\|List of missions to minor planets}} According to Patrick Michel <blockquote>The internal structure of asteroids is inferred only from indirect evidence: bulk densities measured by spacecraft, the orbits of natural satellites in the case of asteroid binaries, and the drift of an asteroid's orbit due to the Yarkovsky thermal effect. A spacecraft near an asteroid is perturbed enough by the asteroid's gravity to allow an estimate of the asteroid's mass. The volume is then estimated using a model of the asteroid's shape. Mass and volume allow the derivation of the bulk density, whose uncertainty is usually dominated by the errors made on the volume estimate. The internal porosity of asteroids can be inferred by comparing their bulk density with that of their assumed meteorite analogues, dark asteroids seem to be more porous (>40%) than bright ones. The nature of this porosity is unclear.<ref name"michel" /></blockquote> Dedicated missions The first asteroid to be photographed in close-up was 951 Gaspra in 1991, followed in 1993 by 243 Ida and its moon Dactyl, all of which were imaged by the Galileo probe en route to Jupiter. Other asteroids briefly visited by spacecraft en route to other destinations include 9969 Braille (by Deep Space 1 in 1999), 5535 Annefrank (by Stardust in 2002), 2867 Šteins and 21 Lutetia (by the Rosetta probe in 2008), and 4179 Toutatis (China's lunar orbiter ''Chang'e 2'', which flew within {{cvt\|2\|mi\|km\|orderflip}} in 2012). The first dedicated asteroid probe was NASA's NEAR Shoemaker, which photographed 253 Mathilde in 1997, before entering into orbit around 433 Eros, finally landing on its surface in 2001. It was the first spacecraft to successfully orbit and land on an asteroid.<ref nametwofirsts>{{cite news\|urlhttps://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/near-shoemaker/in-depth/\|titleNEAR Shoemaker\|publisherNASA\|accessdate=26 April 2021}}</ref> From September to November&nbsp;2005, the Japanese Hayabusa probe studied 25143 Itokawa in detail and returned samples of its surface to Earth on 13&nbsp;June 2010, the first asteroid sample-return mission. In 2007, NASA launched the Dawn spacecraft, which orbited 4 Vesta for a year, and observed the dwarf planet Ceres for three years. Hayabusa2, a probe launched by JAXA 2014, orbited its target asteroid 162173 Ryugu for more than a year and took samples that were delivered to Earth in 2020. The spacecraft is now on an extended mission and expected to arrive at a new target in 2031. NASA launched the OSIRIS-REx in 2016, a sample return mission to asteroid 101955 Bennu. In 2021, the probe departed the asteroid with a sample from its surface. Sample was delivered to Earth in September 2023. The spacecraft continues its extended mission, designated OSIRIS-APEX, to explore near-Earth asteroid Apophis in 2029. In 2021, NASA launched Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART), a mission to test technology for defending Earth against potential hazardous objects. DART deliberately crashed into the minor-planet moon Dimorphos of the double asteroid Didymos in September 2022 to assess the potential of a spacecraft impact to deflect an asteroid from a collision course with Earth.<ref>{{Cite web\|lastPotter\|firstSean\|date2021-11-23\|titleNASA, SpaceX Launch DART: First Test Mission to Defend Planet Earth\|urlhttp://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-spacex-launch-dart-first-test-mission-to-defend-planet-earth\|access-date2021-12-04\|websiteNASA}}</ref> In October, NASA declared DART a success, confirming it had shortened Dimorphos' orbital period around Didymos by about 32 minutes.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastBardan \|firstRoxana \|date2022-10-11 \|titleNASA Confirms DART Mission Impact Changed Asteroid's Motion in Space \|urlhttp://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-confirms-dart-mission-impact-changed-asteroid-s-motion-in-space \|access-date2022-10-11 \|websiteNASA}}</ref> NASA's Lucy, launched in 2021, is a multiple-asteroid flyby probe focused on flying by 7 Jupiter trojans of varying types. While not yet set to reach its first main target, 3548 Eurybates, until 2027, it has made a flyby of main-belt asteroid 152830 Dinkinesh and is set to flyby another asteroid 52246 Donaldjohanson in 2025.<ref>{{citation-attribution\|1{{cite web \|lastHille\|firstKarl\|date2019-10-21\|titleNASA's Lucy Mission Clears Critical Milestone\|urlhttp://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2019/lucy-mission-clears-critical-milestone\|publisherNASA\|access-date2020-12-05}} }}</ref><ref>{{citation-attribution\|1{{cite web\|titleLucy: The First Mission to the Trojan Asteroids\|date21 April 2017\|urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/lucy/overview/index\|publisherNASA\|access-date2021-10-16\|archive-date6 December 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201206213030/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/lucy/overview/index\|url-status=dead}} }}</ref> <gallery mode"packed" heights"150" caption="Asteroid-dedicated space probes"> File:Hayabusa2 Ion thruster.jpg\|Hayabusa2 File:Dawn - PIA12033.jpg\|Dawn File:Lucy-PatroclusMenoetius-art.png\|Lucy File:PSYCHE.jpg\|Psyche </gallery> Planned missions * NASA's Psyche, launched in October 2023, is intended to study the large metallic asteroid of the same name, and is on track to arrive there in 2029. * ESA's Hera, launched in October 2024, is intended study the results of the DART impact. It is expected to measure the size and morphology of the crater, and momentum transmitted by the impact, to determine the efficiency of the deflection produced by DART. * JAXA's DESTINY+ is a mission for a flyby of the Geminids meteor shower parent body 3200 Phaethon, as well as various minor bodies. Its launch is planned for 2024.<ref name"dlr-20201112">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/news/2020/04/20201112_destiny-germany-and-japan-begin-new-asteroid-mission.html\|titleDESTINY+ – Germany and Japan begin new asteroid mission\|publisherGerman Aerospace Center (DLR)\|date12 November 2020\|access-date15 November 2020}}</ref> * CNSA's Tianwen-2 is planned to launch in 2025.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastAndrew Jones published \|date2022-05-18 \|titleChina to launch Tianwen 2 asteroid-sampling mission in 2025 \|urlhttps://www.space.com/china-tianwen2-asteroid-sampling-mission-2025-launch \|access-date2022-09-29 \|websiteSpace.com}}</ref> If all goes as planned, it will use solar electric propulsion to explore the co-orbital near-Earth asteroid 469219 Kamoʻoalewa and the active asteroid 311P/PanSTARRS. The spacecraft is tasked with collecting samples of the regolith of Kamo'oalewa.<ref name"nature20190430">{{cite journal \|lastGibney \|firstElizabeth \|urlhttps://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-01390-5 \|titleChina plans mission to Earth's pet asteroid \|journalNature \|date30 April 2019 \|access-date4 June 2019 \|doi10.1038/d41586-019-01390-5\|pmid32346150 \|s2cid155198626 }}</ref> Asteroid mining {{Main\|Asteroid mining\|Colonization of the asteroids}} The concept of asteroid mining was proposed in 1970s. Matt Anderson defines successful asteroid mining as "the development of a mining program that is both financially self-sustaining and profitable to its investors".<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Anderson \|first1Matt \|titleMining Near Earth Asteroids \|journalPlanetary Sciences Class \|date1 May 2015 \|urlhttp://www.chara.gsu.edu/~thenry/PLANETS/paper.anderson.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.chara.gsu.edu/~thenry/PLANETS/paper.anderson.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|access-date13 April 2022}}</ref> It has been suggested that asteroids might be used as a source of materials that may be rare or exhausted on Earth,<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Anderson \|first1Scot W \|last2Christensen \|first2Korey \|last3LaManna \|first3Julia \|titleThe development of natural resources in outer space \|journalJournal of Energy & Natural Resources Law \|date3 April 2019 \|volume37 \|issue2 \|pages227–258 \|doi10.1080/02646811.2018.1507343 \|bibcode2019JENRL..37..227A \|s2cid169322274 \|urlhttps://www.hoganlovells.com/~/media/hogan-lovells/pdf/2018/the_development_of_natural_resouces_in_outer_space_august_2018.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.hoganlovells.com/~/media/hogan-lovells/pdf/2018/the_development_of_natural_resouces_in_outer_space_august_2018.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|access-date13 April 2022}}</ref> or materials for constructing space habitats. Materials that are heavy and expensive to launch from Earth may someday be mined from asteroids and used for space manufacturing and construction.<ref>{{cite web \|titleHow Asteroid Mining Will Work \|urlhttps://science.howstuffworks.com/asteroid-mining.htm \|websiteHowStuffWorks \|access-date13 April 2022\|date10 November 2000}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|last1Wall \|first1Mike \|titleAsteroid-Mining Project Aims for Deep-Space Colonies \|urlhttps://www.space.com/19368-asteroid-mining-deep-space-industries.html \|websiteSpace.com \|access-date13 April 2022\|date22 January 2013}}</ref> As resource depletion on Earth becomes more real, the idea of extracting valuable elements from asteroids and returning these to Earth for profit, or using space-based resources to build solar-power satellites and space habitats,<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttp://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/spaceres/IV-2.html \| titleRetrieval of Asteroidal Materials \| publisherNASA \| websiteSpace Resources and Space Settlements, 1977 Summer Study at NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California \| year1979 \| author1Brian O'Leary \| author2Michael J. Gaffey \| author3David J. Ross \| author4Robert Salkeld \| name-list-styleamp \| access-date2011-09-29 \| archive-date2019-05-24 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190524014201/https://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/spaceres/IV-2.html \| url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \| urlhttp://ssi.org/reading/papers/space-studies-institute-roadmap/ \| titleA Space Roadmap: Mine the Sky, Defend the Earth, Settle the Universe \| publisherSpace Studies Institute \| year2002 \| access-date19 September 2011 \| authorLee Valentine \| archive-date7 August 2019 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190807051056/http://ssi.org/reading/papers/space-studies-institute-roadmap/ \| url-statuslive }}</ref> becomes more attractive. Hypothetically, water processed from ice could refuel orbiting propellant depots.<ref>{{cite journal \| titleA captured asteroid : Our David's stone for shielding earth and providing the cheapest extraterrestrial material \| year2006 \|author1Didier Massonnet \|author2Benoît Meyssignac \| doi10.1016/j.actaastro.2006.02.030 \| volume59 \| issue1–5 \| journalActa Astronautica \| pages77–83\|bibcode 2006AcAau..59...77M }}</ref><ref name"Kiss">{{cite web \|urlhttp://kiss.caltech.edu/study/asteroid/asteroid_final_report.pdf \|titleAsteroid Retrieval Feasibility Study \|publisherKeck Institute for Space Studies, California Institute of Technology, Jet Propulsion Laboratory \|date12 April 2012 \|author1John Brophy \|author2Fred Culick \|author3Louis Friedman \|display-authorsetal \|access-date19 April 2012 \|archive-date31 May 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170531053431/http://www.kiss.caltech.edu/study/asteroid/asteroid_final_report.pdf \|url-statuslive }}</ref> From the astrobiological perspective, asteroid prospecting could provide scientific data for the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI). Some astrophysicists have suggested that if advanced extraterrestrial civilizations employed asteroid mining long ago, the hallmarks of these activities might be detectable.<ref>{{Cite web\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110408062400/http://smithsonianscience.org/2011/04/evidence-of-asteroid-mining-in-our-galaxy-may-lead-to-the-discovery-of-extraterrestrial-civilizations/\|urlhttp://smithsonianscience.org/2011/04/evidence-of-asteroid-mining-in-our-galaxy-may-lead-to-the-discovery-of-extraterrestrial-civilizations/\|url-statuslive\|titleEvidence of asteroid mining in our galaxy may lead to the discovery of extraterrestrial civilizations\|websiteSmithsonian Science\|date2011-04-05\|archive-date2011-04-08\|publisherSmithsonian Institution}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.centauri-dreams.org/2011/03/29/asteroid-mining-a-marker-for-seti/\|titleAsteroid Mining: A Marker for SETI?\|lastGilster\|firstPaul\|date2011-03-29\|websitecentauri-dreams.org\|access-date2019-12-26\|archive-date2019-12-26\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191226113900/https://www.centauri-dreams.org/2011/03/29/asteroid-mining-a-marker-for-seti/\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|arxiv 1103.5369\|last1 Marchis\|first1 Franck\|title Extrasolar Asteroid Mining as Forensic Evidence for Extraterrestrial Intelligence\|journal International Journal of Astrobiology\|volume 10\|issue 4\|pages 307–313\|last2 Hestroffer\|first2 Daniel\|last3 Descamps\|first3 Pascal\|last4 Berthier\|first4 Jerome\|last5 Bouchez\|first5 Antonin H\|last6 Campbell\|first6 Randall D\|last7 Chin\|first7 Jason C. Y\|last8 van Dam\|first8 Marcos A\|last9 Hartman\|first9 Scott K\|last10 Johansson\|first10 Erik M\|last11 Lafon\|first11 Robert E\|author12 David Le Mignant\|author13 Imke de Pater\|last14 Stomski\|first14 Paul J\|last15 Summers\|first15 Doug M\|last16 Vachier\|first16 Frederic\|last17 Wizinovich\|first17 Peter L\|last18 Wong\|first18 Michael H\|year 2011\|doi 10.1017/S1473550411000127\|bibcode 2011IJAsB..10..307F\|s2cid 119111392}}</ref> Threats to Earth {{See also\|List of Earth-crossing minor planets}} s, small asteroids roughly 1 to 20 meters in diameter impacting Earth's atmosphere]] There is increasing interest in identifying asteroids whose orbits cross Earth's, and that could, given enough time, collide with Earth. The three most important groups of near-Earth asteroids are the Apollos, Amors, and Atens. The near-Earth asteroid 433 Eros had been discovered as long ago as 1898, and the 1930s brought a flurry of similar objects. In order of discovery, these were: 1221 Amor, 1862 Apollo, 2101 Adonis, and finally 69230 Hermes, which approached within 0.005&nbsp;AU of Earth in 1937. Astronomers began to realize the possibilities of Earth impact. Two events in later decades increased the alarm: the increasing acceptance of the Alvarez hypothesis that an impact event resulted in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction, and the 1994 observation of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 crashing into Jupiter. The U.S. military also declassified the information that its military satellites, built to detect nuclear explosions, had detected hundreds of upper-atmosphere impacts by objects ranging from one to ten meters across. All of these considerations helped spur the launch of highly efficient surveys, consisting of charge-coupled device (CCD) cameras and computers directly connected to telescopes. {{As of\|2011}}, it was estimated that 89% to 96% of near-Earth asteroids one kilometer or larger in diameter had been discovered.<ref namenasa_neo/> {{as of\|2018\|10\|29}}, the LINEAR system alone had discovered 147,132 asteroids.<ref>{{cite web \|titleMinor Planet Discover Sites \|publisherInternational Astronomical Union \|departmentMinor Planet Center \|urlhttps://minorplanetcenter.net//iau/lists/MPDiscSites.html \|access-date27 December 2018}}</ref> Among the surveys, 19,266&nbsp;near-Earth asteroids have been discovered<ref>{{cite web \|titleUnusual Minor Planets \|publisherInternational Astronomical Union \|departmentMinor Planet Center \|urlhttps://minorplanetcenter.net//iau/lists/Unusual.html \|access-date27 December 2018}}<!--- using the "close approach" quote ---></ref> including almost 900&nbsp;more than {{cvt\|1\|km\|1}} in diameter.<ref>{{cite web \|seriesDiscovery Statistics \|titleCumulative Totals \|date20 December 2018 \|publisherNASA \|departmentJet Propulsion Laboratory \|urlhttps://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/stats/totals.html \|access-date27 December 2018}}</ref> In June 2018, the National Science and Technology Council warned that the United States is unprepared for an asteroid impact event, and has developed and released the "National Near-Earth Object Preparedness Strategy Action Plan" to better prepare.<ref name"GIZ-20180621" /><ref name"ICARUS-220180522" /><ref name="NYT-20180614">{{cite news \|lastChang \|firstKenneth \|date=14 June 2018 \|title=Asteroids and adversaries: Challenging what NASA knows about space rocks \|newspaper=The New York Times \|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/14/science/asteroids-nasa-nathan-myhrvold.html \|access-date=22 June 2018 }}</ref> According to expert testimony in the United States Congress in 2013, NASA would require at least five years of preparation before a mission to intercept an asteroid could be launched.<ref name"US-Congress-20130410">{{cite report \|collaborationHouse Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, One Hundred Thirteenth Congress, First Session \|date19 March 2013 \|titleThreats from Space: A review of U.S. Government efforts to track and mitigate asteroids and meteors \|volumePart&nbsp;I and Part&nbsp;II \|page147 \|seriesHearing before the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology \|publisherHouse of Representatives \|urlhttp://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-113hhrg80552/pdf/CHRG-113hhrg80552.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-113hhrg80552/pdf/CHRG-113hhrg80552.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|access-date26 November 2018}}</ref> Asteroid deflection strategies {{Main\|Asteroid deflection strategies\|Asteroid impact avoidance}} in 2022 demonstrated that spacecraft impact is a viable option for planetary defense.]] Various collision avoidance techniques have different trade-offs with respect to metrics such as overall performance, cost, failure risks, operations, and technology readiness.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Canavan\|first1G. H \|last2Solem\|first2J. C.\|year1992\|titleInterception of near-Earth objects\|journalMercury\|issn0047-6773\|volume21\|issue3\|pages107–109\|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/253052410\|bibcode1992Mercu..21..107C}}</ref> There are various methods for changing the course of an asteroid/comet.<ref name"HallRoss">C. D. Hall and I. M. Ross, "Dynamics and Control Problems in the Deflection of Near-Earth Objects", Advances in the Astronautical Sciences, Astrodynamics 1997, Vol. 97, Part I, 1997, pp. 613–631.</ref> These can be differentiated by various types of attributes such as the type of mitigation (deflection or fragmentation), energy source (kinetic, electromagnetic, gravitational, solar/thermal, or nuclear), and approach strategy ({{Anchor\|interception2016-01-26}}interception,<ref>{{cite journal\|lastSolem\|firstJ. C.\|year1993\|titleInterception of comets and asteroids on collision course with Earth\|journalJournal of Spacecraft and Rockets\|volume30\|issue2\|pages222–228\|doi10.2514/3.11531\|bibcode1993JSpRo..30..222S\|urlhttps://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1090076/}}</ref><ref>Solem, J. C.; Snell, C. (1994). "[https://books.google.com/books?idxXWZolI9NkUC&dqTerminal+intercept+for+less+than+one+orbital+snell&pgPA1013 Terminal intercept for less than one orbital period warning] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160506210107/https://books.google.com/books?idxXWZolI9NkUC&pgPA1013&lpgPA1013&dqTerminal+intercept+for+less+than+one+orbital+snell#vonepage&qTerminal%20intercept%20for%20less%20than%20one%20orbital%20snell&ffalse \|date=6 May 2016 }}", a chapter in Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids, Geherels, T., ed. (University of Arizona Press, Tucson), pp. 1013–1034.</ref> rendezvous, or remote station). Strategies fall into two basic sets: fragmentation and delay.<ref name"HallRoss"/><ref>{{cite journal\|lastSolem\|firstJ. C.\|year2000\|titleDeflection and disruption of asteroids on collision course with Earth\|journalJournal of the British Interplanetary Society \|volume53\|pages180–196\|urlhttp://www.jbis.org.uk/paper.php?p2000.53.180 \|bibcode2000JBIS...53..180S}}</ref> Fragmentation concentrates on rendering the impactor harmless by fragmenting it and scattering the fragments so that they miss the Earth or are small enough to burn up in the atmosphere. Delay exploits the fact that both the Earth and the impactor are in orbit. An impact occurs when both reach the same point in space at the same time, or more correctly when some point on Earth's surface intersects the impactor's orbit when the impactor arrives. Since the Earth is approximately 12,750&nbsp;km in diameter and moves at approx. 30&nbsp;km per second in its orbit, it travels a distance of one planetary diameter in about 425 seconds, or slightly over seven minutes. Delaying, or advancing the impactor's arrival by times of this magnitude can, depending on the exact geometry of the impact, cause it to miss the Earth.<ref name"RossParkPorter">{{cite journal\|last1Ross\|first1I. M.\|last2Park\|first2S.-Y.\|last3Porter\|first3S. E.\|titleGravitational Effects of Earth in Optimizing Delta-V for Deflecting Earth-Crossing Asteroids\|journalJournal of Spacecraft and Rockets\|volume38\|issue5\|date2001\|pages759–764\|hdl10945/30321\|urlhttps://calhoun.nps.edu/bitstream/handle/10945/30321/AIAA-3743-490.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://calhoun.nps.edu/bitstream/handle/10945/30321/AIAA-3743-490.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|access-date2019-08-30\|citeseerx10.1.1.462.7487\|doi10.2514/2.3743\|s2cid=123431410 }}</ref> "Project Icarus" was one of the first projects designed in 1967 as a contingency plan in case of collision with 1566 Icarus. The plan relied on the new Saturn V rocket, which did not make its first flight until after the report had been completed. Six Saturn V rockets would be used, each launched at variable intervals from months to hours away from impact. Each rocket was to be fitted with a single 100-megaton nuclear warhead as well as a modified Apollo Service Module and uncrewed Apollo Command Module for guidance to the target. The warheads would be detonated 30 meters from the surface, deflecting or partially destroying the asteroid. Depending on the subsequent impacts on the course or the destruction of the asteroid, later missions would be modified or cancelled as needed. The "last-ditch" launch of the sixth rocket would be 18 hours prior to impact.<ref name"Portree">{{cite magazine \|authorDavid S. F. Portree \|titleMIT Saves the World: Project Icarus (1967) \|urlhttps://www.wired.com/2012/03/mit-saves-the-world-project-icarus-1967/ \|magazineWired \|access-date21 October 2013}}</ref> Fiction {{Main\|Asteroids in fiction}} Asteroids and the asteroid belt are a staple of science fiction stories. Asteroids play several potential roles in science fiction: as places human beings might colonize, resources for extracting minerals, hazards encountered by spacecraft traveling between two other points, and as a threat to life on Earth or other inhabited planets, dwarf planets, and natural satellites by potential impact. See also * Exoasteroid * List of minor planets * List of exceptional asteroids * List of asteroid close approaches to Earth * Lost minor planet * Meanings of minor-planet names Notes {{notelist\|1}} References {{reflist\|refs<ref name"ARX-20060816"> {{cite journal \|lastSoter \|firstSteven \|title=What is a Planet? \|date=16 August 2006 \|urlhttps://arxiv.org/ftp/astro-ph/papers/0608/0608359.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://arxiv.org/ftp/astro-ph/papers/0608/0608359.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|access-date=25 December 2017 \|journal=The Astronomical Journal \|volume=132 \|issue=6 \|pages=2513–2519 \|doi=10.1086/508861 \|arxiv=astro-ph/0608359 \|bibcode=2006AJ....132.2513S \|s2cid=14676169 }}</ref> <ref name=AstFams-Icarus-1995> {{cite journal \| first1V. \|last1Zappalà \|first2Ph. \|last2Bendjoya \| first3A. \|last3Cellino \|first4P. \|last4Farinella \| first5C. \|last5Froeschlé \| year=1995 \| title=Asteroid families: Search of a 12,487&nbsp;asteroid sample using two different clustering techniques \| journalIcarus \|volume116 \| issue2 \| pages291–314 \| bibcode1995Icar..116..291Z \| doi10.1006/icar.1995.1127 }}</ref> <ref name=AstJ-2002-v123-p549> {{cite journal \|last1Parker \|first1 J.W. \|last2Stern \|first2 S.A. \|last3Thomas \|first3 P.C. \|last4Festou \|first4 M.C. \|last5Merline \|first5 W.J. \|last6Young \|first6 E.F. \|last7Binzel \|first7 R.P. \|last8Lebofsky \|first8 L.A. \| year=2002 \| title=Analysis of the First Disk-resolved Images of Ceres from Ultraviolet Observations with the Hubble Space Telescope \| journal=The Astronomical Journal \| volume=123 \| issue=1 \| pages=549–557 \| doi10.1086/338093 \|doi-accessfree \| bibcode2002AJ....123..549P \|bibcode-accessfree \| arxiv=astro-ph/0110258 }}</ref> <ref name=Atkinson-2009> {{cite web \|lastAtkinson \|firstNancy \|date=8 October 2009 \|title=More water out there, ice found on an asteroid \|website=International Space Fellowship \|url=http://spacefellowship.com/2009/10/08/more-water-out-there-ice-found-on-an-asteroid/ \|access-date11 October 2009 \|url-statuslive \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091011051040/http://spacefellowship.com/2009/10/08/more-water-out-there-ice-found-on-an-asteroid/ \|archive-date=11 October 2009 }}</ref> <ref name=Bus-2002> {{cite journal \|lastBus \|firstS.J. \|year=2002 \|title=Phase&nbsp;II of the Small Main-belt Asteroid Spectroscopy Survey: A feature-based taxonomy \|journalIcarus \|volume158 \|issue1 \|page146 \|s2cid4880578 \|doi10.1006/icar.2002.6856 \|bibcode=2002Icar..158..146B }}</ref> <ref name="Callahan"> {{cite journal \|last1Callahan \|first1M.P. \|last2Smith \|first2K.E. \|last3Cleaves \|first3H.J. \|last4Ruzica \|first4J. \|last5Stern \|first5J.C. \|last6Glavin \|first6D.P. \|last7House \|first7C.H. \|last8Dworkin \|first8J.P. \|date=11 August 2011 \|title=Carbonaceous meteorites contain a wide range of extraterrestrial nucleobases \|journal=PNAS \|volume108 \|issue34 \|pages=13995–13998 \|doi10.1073/pnas.1106493108 \|doi-accessfree \|pmid21836052 \|pmc3161613 \|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813995C }}</ref> <ref name="Campins2010"> {{cite journal \|last1Campins \|first1 H. \|last2Hargrove \|first2 K \|last3Pinilla-Alonso \|first3 N. \|last4Howell \|first4 E.S.\|author4-link=Ellen Howell \|last5Kelley \|first5 M.S. \|last6Licandro \|first6 J. \|last7Mothé-Diniz \|first7 T. \|last8Fernández \|first8 Y. \|last9Ziffer \|first9 J. \|display-authors=6 \|year=2010 \|title=Water ice and organics on the surface of the asteroid 24 Themis \|journal=Nature \|volume464 \|issue7293 \|pages=1320–1321 \|doi10.1038/nature09029 \|pmid20428164 \|bibcode=2010Natur.464.1320C \|s2cid=4334032 }}</ref> <ref name=CMZ-1975-Icarus> {{cite journal \| last1Chapman \| first1C.R. \|author1-link=Clark R. 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<ref name=OpenUNamingAstrds> {{cite web \|title=The Naming of Asteroids \|url=http://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/science/physics-and-astronomy/astronomy/the-naming-asteroids \|website=Open Learn \|publisherThe Open University \|placeLondon \|access-date=14 August 2016 }}</ref> <ref name="planetary"> {{cite web \|title=Asteroid 1&nbsp;Ceres \|publisher=The Planetary Society \|urlhttp://www.planetary.org/explore/topics/asteroids_and_comets/ceres.html \|url-statuslive \|access-date=20 October 2007 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929092440/http://planetary.org/explore/topics/asteroids_and_comets/ceres.html \|archive-date=29 September 2007 }}</ref> <ref name=PlanSocNameGuides>{{cite web \|title=Asteroid naming guidelines \|publisher=The Planetary Society \|url=http://www.planetary.org/get-involved/contests/osirisrex/guidelines.html \|access-date=14 August 2016 }}</ref> <ref name="PNAS-20191118"> {{cite journal \|last1Furukawa \|first1 Yoshihiro \|display-authors=etal \|date=18 November 2019 \|title=Extraterrestrial ribose and other sugars in primitive meteorites \|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \|volume116 \|issue49 \|pages=24440–24445 \|doi10.1073/pnas.1907169116 \|bibcode2019PNAS..11624440F \|pmid31740594 \|pmc6900709 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> <ref name=Reuell-2019> {{cite news \|lastReuell \|firstPeter \|date=2019-07-08 \|title=Harvard study suggests asteroids might play key role in spreading life \|newspaper=Harvard Gazette \|url=https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2019/07/harvard-study-suggests-asteroids-might-play-key-role-in-spreading-life/ \|access-date=2019-09-26 }}</ref> <ref name=RivkinEmery2010> {{Cite journal \|last1Rivkin \|first1Andrew S. \|last2Emery \|first2Joshua P. \|year=2010 \|title=Detection of ice and organics on an asteroidal surface \|journal=Nature \|volume464 \|issue7293 \|pages=1322–1323 \|doi10.1038/nature09028 \|pmid20428165 \|bibcode=2010Natur.464.1322R \|s2cid=4368093 }}</ref> <ref name=Rossi-2004>{{cite web \|lastRossi \|firstAlessandro \|date=20 May 2004 \|title=The mysteries of the asteroid rotation day \|publisher=The Spaceguard Foundation \|url=http://spaceguard.iasf-roma.inaf.it/tumblingstone/issues/current/eng/ast-day.htm \|access-date9 April 2007 \|url-statusdead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060512060350/http://spaceguard.iasf-roma.inaf.it/tumblingstone/issues/current/eng/ast-day.htm \|archive-date=12 May 2006 }}</ref> <ref name=SPACE-2001-12-19> {{cite web \|title=Life is sweet: Sugar-packing asteroids may have seeded life on Earth \|date=19 December 2001 \|website=Space.com \|url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/planetearth/meteor_sugar_011219.html \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020124092631/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/planetearth/meteor_sugar_011219.html \|archive-date=24 January 2002 }}</ref> <ref name=SPACE-2004-02-04> {{cite web \|firstRobert Roy \|lastBritt \|date=4 February 2005 \|title=Closest flyby of large asteroid to be naked-eye visible \|website=Space.com \|url=http://www.space.com/spacewatch/050204_2004_mn4.html }}</ref> <ref name="Steigerwald">{{cite press release \|last=Steigerwald \|first=John \|date=8 August 2011 \|title=NASA researchers: DNA building blocks can be made in space \|publisher=NASA \|url=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/solarsystem/features/dna-meteorites.html \|access-date=10 August 2011 \|archive-date=23 June 2015 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623004556/http://www.nasa.gov/topics/solarsystem/features/dna-meteorites.html \|url-status=dead }}</ref> <ref name=Strickland2019> {{cite web \|lastStrickland \|firstA. \|date=2019-10-28 \|title=It's an asteroid! No, it's the new smallest dwarf planet in our solar system \|publisher=CNN \|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/28/world/hygiea-smallest-dwarf-planet-intl-scli-trnd-scn/index.html \|access-date=2019-10-28 }}</ref> <ref name=Tholen-1989> {{cite conference \| lastTholen \| firstD.J. \|author-link=David J. Tholen \| year=1989 \| title=Asteroid taxonomic classifications \| book-title=Asteroids II; Proceedings of the Conference \| pages=1139–1150 \| publisher=University of Arizona Press \| bibcode=1989aste.conf.1139T }}</ref> <ref name="Torppa1996"> {{cite journal \|first1J. \|last1Torppa \|first2M. \|last2Kaasalainen \|first3T. \|last3Michałowski \|first4T. \|last4Kwiatkowski \|first5A. \|last5Kryszczyńska \|first6P. \|last6Denchev \|first7R. \|last7Kowalski \| year=1996 \| title=Shapes and rotational properties of thirty asteroids from photometric data \| journalIcarus \| volume164 \| issue2 \| pages346–383 \| bibcode=2003Icar..164..346T \| doi=10.1016/S0019-1035(03)00146-5 \|s2cid=119609765 }}</ref> <ref name=UHi2005-05-19> {{cite press release \|date=19 May 2005 \|title=University of Hawaii astronomer and colleagues find evidence that asteroids change color as they age \|publisherUniversity of Hawaii \|departmentInstitute for Astronomy \|url=http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/info/press-releases/Jedicke_asteroids5-17-04.html \|access-date=27 February 2013 }}</ref> }} Further reading {{cite journal \|last1Azadmanesh \|first1M. \|last2Roshanian \|first2J. \|last3Hassanalian \|first3M. \|titleOn the importance of studying asteroids: A comprehensive review \|journalProgress in Aerospace Sciences \|date2023 \|volume142 \|pages100957 \|doi10.1016/j.paerosci.2023.100957\|bibcode=2023PrAeS.14200957A }} {{cite book \|editor1-lastBadescu \|editor1-firstViorel \|titleAsteroids : prospective energy and material resources \|date2013 \|publisherSpringer \|locationBerlin \|doi10.1007/978-3-642-39244-3 \|bibcode2013aste.book.....B \|isbn978-3-642-39244-3 \|urlhttps://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-642-39244-3}} * {{cite book \|last1Barnes-Svarney \|first1Patricia L. \|titleAsteroid : Earth destroyer or New Frontier? \|date2003 \|publisherBasic Books \|locationCambridge, Mass. \|isbn=978-0-7382-0885-5}} * {{cite book \|editor1-lastBinzel \|editor1-firstRichard P. \|editor1-linkRichard P. Binzel \|editor2-lastGehrels \|editor2-firstTom \|editor2-linkTom Gehrels \|editor3-lastMatthews \|editor3-firstMildred Shapley \|editor3-linkMildred Shapley Matthew\|titleAsteroids II \|date1989 \|publisherUniversity of Arizona Press \|locationTucson \|isbn978-0-8165-1123-5}} * {{cite book \|editor1-lastBottke \|editor1-firstWilliam F. \|editor1-linkWilliam F. Bottke \|editor2-lastCellino \|editor2-firstAlberto \|editor3-lastPaolicchi \|editor3-firstPaolo \|editor4-lastBinzel \|editor4-firstRichard P. \|editor4-linkRichard P. Binzel \|titleAsteroids III \|date2002 \|publisherUniversity of Arizona Press \|locationTucson \|isbn978-0-8165-4651-0 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=JwHTyO6IHh8C }} * {{cite book \|last1Kowal \|first1Charles T. \|author1-linkCharles T. Kowal \|titleAsteroids : their nature and utilization \|date1996 \|publisherJ. Wiley \|locationChichester, England \|isbn978-0-471-96039-3 \|edition=2nd}} * {{cite journal \|last1Metzger \|first1Philip T. \|author-link1Philip T. Metzger \|last2Sykes \|first2Mark V. \|last3Stern \|first3Alan \|last4Runyon \|first4Kirby \|titleThe Reclassification of Asteroids from Planets to Non-Planets \|journalIcarus \|dateFebruary 2019 \|volume319 \|pages21–32 \|doi10.1016/j.icarus.2018.08.026 \|arxiv1805.04115 \|bibcode2019Icar..319...21M \|s2cid119206487 }} * {{cite book \|editor1-lastMichel \|editor1-firstPatrick \|editor1-linkPatrick Michel \|editor2-lastDeMeo \|editor2-firstFrancesca E. \|editor3-lastBottke \|editor3-firstWilliam F. \|editor3-linkWilliam F. Bottke \|titleAsteroids IV \|date2015 \|publisherLunar and Planetary Institute \|locationHouston \|isbn=978-0-8165-3218-6}} * {{cite book \|last1Peebles \|first1Curtis \|titleAsteroids: A History \|date2000 \|publisherSmithsonian Institution Press \|locationWashington,DC \|isbn978-1-56098-389-7}} External links {{Commons category}} {{Wiktionary}} * {{cite web \|titleAlphabetical list of minor planet names \|urlhttp://www.minorplanetcenter.org/iau/lists/MPNames.html \|publisherInternational Astronomical Union \|departmentMinor Planet Center}} * {{cite web \|titleAsteroid articles in Planetary Science Research Discoveries \|urlhttp://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Archive/Archive-Asteroids.html \|departmentPlanetary Science \|publisherUniversity of Hawaii}} * {{cite web \|titleJPL Asteroid Watch site \|publisherJet Propulsion Laboratory \|url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/asteroidwatch/}} * [http://www.nasa.gov/asteroid-and-comet-watch NASA Asteroid and Comet Watch site] * {{youTube\|bSkPNMjRRio\|Asteroid size comparisons (video; 2:40)}} {{Asteroids}} {{Navboxes \|title= Articles related to Asteroids \|list = {{Ceres}} {{4 Vesta}} {{Comets\|nonobject=yes}} {{Solar System}} {{Small Solar System bodies}} {{Asteroid spacecraft}} {{Planetary defense}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Portal bar\|Astronomy\|Spaceflight\|Outer space\|Solar System}} Category:Minor planets Category:Solar System	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid	2025-04-05T18:25:22.361173
794	Allocution	An allocution, or allocutus, is a formal statement made to a court by the defendant who has been found guilty before being sentenced. It is part of the criminal procedure in some jurisdictions using common law. Concept An allocution allows the defendant to explain why the sentence should be lenient. In plea bargains, an allocution may be required of the defendant. The defendant explicitly admits specifically and in detail the actions and their reasons in exchange for a reduced sentence. In principle, that removes any doubt as to the exact nature of the defendant's guilt in the matter. The term allocution is used generally only in jurisdictions in the United States, but there are vaguely similar processes in other common law countries. In many other jurisdictions, it is for the defense lawyer to mitigate on their client's behalf, and the defendant rarely has the opportunity to speak. Australia In Australia, the term allocutus is used by the Clerk of Arraigns or another formal associate of the court. It is generally phrased as: "Prisoner at the Bar, you have been found Guilty by a jury of your peers of the offence of XYZ. Do you have anything to say as to why the sentence of this Court should not now be passed upon you?" The defense counsel will then make a plea in mitigation (also called submissions on penalty) in an attempt to mitigate the relative seriousness of the offense, and heavily refer to and rely upon the defendant's previous good character and good works, if any. The right to make a plea in mitigation is absolute: if a judge or magistrate refuses to hear such a plea or does not properly consider it, the sentence can be overturned on appeal. United States In most of the United States, defendants are allowed the opportunity to allocute before a sentence is passed. Some jurisdictions hold that as an absolute right. In its absence, a sentence but not the conviction may be overturned, resulting in the need for a new sentencing hearing. In the federal system, Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure 32(i)(4) provides that the court must "address the defendant personally in order to permit the defendant to speak or present any information to mitigate the sentence". The Federal Public Defender recommends that defendants speak in terms of how a lenient sentence will be sufficient but not greater than necessary to comply with the statutory directives set forth in . See also Confession (law) Newton hearing, the equivalent in England and Wales References Category:Criminal procedure Category:Evidence law	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allocution	2025-04-05T18:25:22.364393
795	Affidavit	thumb\|Vasil Levski's affidavit, 16 June 1872, Bucharest, Romania An ( ; Medieval Latin for "he has declared under oath") is a written statement voluntarily made by an affiant or deponent under an oath or affirmation which is administered by a person who is authorized to do so by law. Such a statement is witnessed as to the authenticity of the affiant's signature by a taker of oaths, such as a notary public or commissioner of oaths. An affidavit is a type of verified statement or showing, or containing a verification, meaning it is made under oath on penalty of perjury. It serves as evidence for its veracity and is required in court proceedings. Definition An affidavit is typically defined as a written declaration or statement that is sworn or affirmed before a person who has authority to administer an oath. There is no general defined form for an affidavit, although for some proceedings an affidavit must satisfy legal or statutory requirements in order to be considered. An affidavit may include, a commencement which identifies the affiant; an attestation clause, usually a jurat, at the end certifying that the affiant made the statement under oath on the specified date; signatures of the affiant and person who administered the oath. In some cases, an introductory clause, called a preamble, is added attesting that the affiant personally appeared before the authenticating authority. An affidavit may also recite that the statement it records was made under penalty of perjury. An affidavit that is prepared for use within the context of litigation may also include a caption that identifies the venue and parties to the relevant judicial proceedings. Worldwide Australia On 2 March 2016, the High Court of Australia held that the ACT Uniform Evidence Legislation is neutral in the way sworn evidence and unsworn evidence is treated as being of equal weight. United Kingdom The term "affidavit" is used in the UK. According to the UK government website, "The affidavit can be sworn or affirmed by a solicitor, notary or commissioner for oaths (for a charge) or by an authorised member of court staff." India In Indian law, although an affidavit may be taken as proof of the facts stated therein, the courts have no jurisdiction to admit evidence by way of affidavit. Affidavit is not treated as "evidence" within the meaning of Section 3 of the Evidence Act. However, it was held by the Supreme Court that an affidavit can be used as evidence only if the court so orders for sufficient reasons, namely, the right of the opposite party to have the deponent produced for cross-examination. Therefore, an affidavit cannot ordinarily be used as evidence in absence of a specific order of the court. Sri Lanka In Sri Lanka, under the Oaths Ordinance, with the exception of a court-martial, a person may submit an affidavit signed in the presence of a commissioner for oaths or a justice of the peace. Ireland Affidavits are made in a similar way as to England and Wales, although "make oath" is sometimes omitted. An affirmed affidavit may be substituted for an sworn affidavit in most cases for those opposed to swearing oaths. The person making the affidavit is known as the deponent and signs the affidavit. The affidavit concludes in the standard format "sworn/affirmed (declared) before me, [name of commissioner for oaths/solicitor], a commissioner for oaths (solicitor), on the [date] at [location] in the county/city of [county/city], and I know the deponent", and it is signed and stamped by the commissioner for oaths. It is important that the Commissioner states his/her name clearly, sometimes documents are rejected when the name cannot be ascertained. In August 2020, a new method of filing affidavits came into force. Under Section 21 of the Civil Law and Criminal Law (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 2020 witnesses are no longer required to swear before God or make an affirmation when filing an affidavit. Instead, witnesses will make a non-religious "statement of truth" and, if it is breached, will be liable for up to one year in prison if convicted summarily or, upon conviction on indictment, to a maximum fine of €250,000 or imprisonment for a term not exceeding 5 years, or both. This is designed to replace affidavits and statutory declarations in situations where the electronic means of lodgement or filing of documents with the Court provided for in Section 20 is utilised. As of January 2022, it has yet to be adopted widely, and it is expected it will not be used for some time by lay litigants who will still lodge papers in person. United States thumb\|upright=0.9\|Affidavit signed by Harriet Tubman In American jurisprudence, under the rules for hearsay, admission of an unsupported affidavit as evidence is unusual (especially if the affiant is not available for cross-examination) with regard to material facts which may be dispositive of the matter at bar. Affidavits from persons who are dead or otherwise incapacitated, or who cannot be located or made to appear, may be accepted by the court, but usually only in the presence of corroborating evidence. An affidavit which reflected a better grasp of the facts close in time to the actual events may be used to refresh a witness's recollection. Materials used to refresh recollection are admissible as evidence. If the affiant is a party in the case, the affiant's opponent may be successful in having the affidavit admitted as evidence, as statements by a party-opponent are admissible through an exception to the hearsay rule. Affidavits are typically included in the response to interrogatories. Requests for admissions under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 36, however, are not required to be sworn. When a person signs an affidavit, that person is eligible to take the stand at a trial or evidentiary hearing. One party may wish to summon the affiant to verify the contents of the affidavit, while the other party may want to cross-examine the affiant about the affidavit. Some types of motions will not be accepted by the court unless accompanied by an independent sworn statement or other evidence in support of the need for the motion. In such a case, a court will accept an affidavit from the filing attorney in support of the motion, as certain assumptions are made, to wit: The affidavit in place of sworn testimony promotes judicial economy. The lawyer is an officer of the court and knows that a false swearing by them, if found out, could be grounds for severe penalty up to and including disbarment. The lawyer if called upon would be able to present independent and more detailed evidence to prove the facts set forth in his affidavit. Affidavits should not be confused with unsworn declarations under penalty of perjury. In federal courts and about 20 states as of 2006, unsworn declarations under penalty of perjury are authorized by statute as acceptable in lieu of affidavits. The key differences are that an unsworn declaration does not bear the jurat of a notary public and the declarant is not required to swear an oath or affirmation. Rather, the signature of the declarant under a carefully worded phrase binding them to the truth of their statements "under penalty of perjury" is deemed as a matter of law to be sufficiently solemn to remind the declarant of their duty to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth (that is, the oath they would normally swear if they were testifying in person in a court of law). The point of such affidavit substitution statutes is that unsworn declarations can be prepared and executed far more quickly and economically than affidavits, in that the witness need not meet personally with a notary public for the notarization process. The acceptance of an affidavit by one society does not confirm its acceptance as a legal document in other jurisdictions. Equally, the acceptance that a lawyer is an officer of the court (for swearing the affidavit) is not a given. This matter is addressed by the use of the apostille, a means of certifying the legalization of a document for international use under the terms of the 1961 Hague Convention Abolishing the Requirement of Legalization for Foreign Public Documents. Documents which have been notarized by a notary public, and certain other documents, and then certified with a conformant apostille, are accepted for legal use in all the nations that have signed the Hague Convention. Thus most affidavits now require to be apostilled if used for cross border issues. See also Declaration (law) Deposition (law) Fishman Affidavit, a well-known example of an affidavit Performativity Statutory declaration Sworn declaration References Category:Evidence law Category:Legal documents Category:Notary Category:Oaths	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affidavit	2025-04-05T18:25:22.369171
798	Aries (constellation)	{{Short description\|Zodiac constellation in the northern hemisphere}} {{About\|the astronomical constellation\|the astrological sign\|Aries (astrology)}} {{distinguish\|text=Ares, the Greek god of war}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=October 2017}} {{Infobox constellation \| name = Aries \| abbreviation Ari{{sfn\|Russell\|1922\|p469}} \| genitive = Arietis \| pronounce = {{IPAc-en\|ˈ\|ɛər\|iː\|z}},<br> genitive {{IPAc-en\|ə\|ˈ\|r\|aɪ\|ə\|t\|ə\|s}}, {{IPAc-en\|ˌ\|æ\|r\|i\|ˈ\|ɛ\|t\|ə\|s}} \| symbolism = the Ram \| RA {{RA\|01\|46\|37.3761}}–{{RA\|03\|29\|42.4003}}<ref nameboundary>{{Cite journal \| titleAries, constellation boundary \| journalThe Constellations \| publisherInternational Astronomical Union \|urlhttps://www.iau.org/public/themes/constellations/#ari \| access-date=14 February 2014 }}</ref> \| dec{{dec\|31.2213154}}–{{dec\|10.3632069}}<ref nameboundary/> \| family = Zodiac \| areatotal 441{{sfn\|Thompson\|Thompson\|2007\|pp90–91}} \| arearank = 39th \| numbermainstars = 4, 9 \| numberbfstars = 61 \| numberstarsplanets = 6 \| numberbrightstars = 2 \| numbernearbystars = 2{{efn\|The nearby stars that are named or otherwise known are Teegarden's star and TZ Arietis. The distance can be calculated from their parallax, listed in SIMBAD, by taking the inverse of the parallax and multiplying by 3.26.}} \| brighteststarname = Hamal (α Ari) \| starmagnitude = 2.01 \| neareststarname = Teegarden's Star (SO 0253+1652){{sfn\|RECONS, The 100 Nearest Star Systems}} \| stardistancely = 12.58 \| stardistancepc = 3.86 \| numbermessierobjects = 0 \| meteorshowers = {{plainlist \| * May Arietids * Autumn Arietids * Delta Arietids * Epsilon Arietids * Daytime-Arietids * Aries-Triangulids }} \| bordering = {{plainlist \| * Perseus * Triangulum * Pisces * Cetus * Taurus{{sfn\|Thompson\|Thompson\|2007\|pp=90–91}} }} \| latmax = 90 \| latmin = 60 \| month = December \| notes = }} Aries is one of the constellations of the zodiac. It is located in the Northern celestial hemisphere between Pisces to the west and Taurus to the east. The name Aries is Latin for ram. Its old astronomical symbol is (♈︎). It is one of the 48 constellations described by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy, and remains one of the 88 modern constellations. It is a mid-sized constellation ranking 39th in overall size, with an area of 441 square degrees (1.1% of the celestial sphere). Aries has represented a ram since late Babylonian times. Before that, the stars of Aries formed a farmhand. Different cultures have incorporated the stars of Aries into different constellations including twin inspectors in China and a porpoise in the Marshall Islands. Aries is a relatively dim constellation, possessing only four bright stars: Hamal (Alpha Arietis, second magnitude), Sheratan (Beta Arietis, third magnitude), Mesarthim (Gamma Arietis, fourth magnitude), and 41 Arietis (also fourth magnitude). The few deep-sky objects within the constellation are quite faint and include several pairs of interacting galaxies. Several meteor showers appear to radiate from Aries, including the Daytime Arietids and the Epsilon Arietids. History and mythology {{See also\|Aries (astrology)}} Aries is now recognized as an official constellation, albeit as a specific region of the sky, by the International Astronomical Union. It was originally defined in ancient texts as a specific pattern of stars, and has remained a constellation since ancient times; it now includes the ancient pattern and the surrounding stars.{{sfn\|Pasachoff\|2000\|pp128–189}} In the description of the Babylonian zodiac given in the clay tablets known as the MUL.APIN, the constellation, now known as Aries, was the final station along the ecliptic. The MUL.APIN was a comprehensive table of the rising and settings of stars, which likely served as an agricultural calendar. Modern-day Aries was known as {{lang\|sux-Latn\|<sup>MUL</sup>LÚ.ḪUN.GÁ}}, "The Agrarian Worker" or "The Hired Man".{{sfn\|Evans\|1998\|p6}} Although likely compiled in the 12th or 11th century BC, the MUL.APIN reflects a tradition that marks the Pleiades as the vernal equinox, which was the case with some precision at the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age. The earliest identifiable reference to Aries as a distinct constellation comes from the boundary stones that date from 1350 to 1000 BC. On several boundary stones, a zodiacal ram figure is distinct from the other characters. The shift in identification from the constellation as the Agrarian Worker to the Ram likely occurred in later Babylonian tradition because of its growing association with Dumuzi the Shepherd. By the time the MUL.APIN was created—in 1000 BC—modern Aries was identified with both Dumuzi's ram and a hired labourer. The exact timing of this shift is difficult to determine due to the lack of images of Aries or other ram figures.{{sfn\|Rogers, Mesopotamian Traditions\|1998}} In ancient Egyptian astronomy, Aries was associated with the god Amun-Ra, who was depicted as a man with a ram's head and represented fertility and creativity. Because it was the location of the vernal equinox, it was called the "Indicator of the Reborn Sun".{{sfn\|Staal\|1988\|pp36–41}} During the times of the year when Aries was prominent, priests would process statues of Amon-Ra to temples, a practice that was modified by Persian astronomers centuries later. Aries acquired the title of "Lord of the Head" in Egypt, referring to its symbolic and mythological importance.{{sfn\|Olcott\|2004\|p56}} as depicted in ''Urania's Mirror, a set of constellation cards published in London {{circa\|1825}}]] Aries was not fully accepted as a constellation until classical times.{{sfn\|Rogers, Mediterranean Traditions''\|1998}} In Hellenistic astrology, the constellation of Aries is associated with the golden ram of Greek mythology that rescued Phrixus and Helle on orders from Hermes, taking Phrixus to the land of Colchis.{{sfn\|Pasachoff\|2000\|pp84–85}}{{sfn\|Ridpath\|2001\|pp84–85}}{{sfn\|Moore\|Tirion\|1997\|pp128–129}} Phrixus and Helle were the son and daughter of King Athamas and his first wife Nephele. The king's second wife, Ino, was jealous and wished to kill his children. To accomplish this, she induced famine in Boeotia, then falsified a message from the Oracle of Delphi that said Phrixus must be sacrificed to end the famine. Athamas was about to sacrifice his son atop Mount Laphystium when Aries, sent by Nephele, arrived.{{sfn\|Ridpath, Star Tales Aries: The Ram}} Helle fell off of Aries's back in flight and drowned in the Dardanelles, also called the Hellespont in her honour.{{sfn\|Thompson\|Thompson\|2007\|pp90–91}}{{sfn\|Pasachoff\|2000\|pp84–85}}{{sfn\|Moore\|Tirion\|1997\|pp128–129}} Historically, Aries has been depicted as a crouched, wingless ram with its head turned towards Taurus. Ptolemy asserted in his Almagest that Hipparchus depicted Alpha Arietis as the ram's muzzle, though Ptolemy did not include it in his constellation figure. Instead, it was listed as an "unformed star", and denoted as "the star over the head". John Flamsteed, in his Atlas Coelestis, followed Ptolemy's description by mapping it above the figure's head.{{sfn\|Ridpath, Star Tales Aries: The Ram}}{{sfn\|Evans\|1998\|pp41–42}} Flamsteed followed the general convention of maps by depicting Aries lying down.{{sfn\|Staal\|1988\|pp36–41}} Astrologically, Aries has been associated with the head and its humors.{{sfn\|Winterburn\|2008\|p5}} It was strongly associated with Mars, both the planet and the god. It was considered to govern Western Europe and Syria and to indicate a strong temper in a person.{{sfn\|Olcott\|2004\|pp57–58}} The First Point of Aries, the location of the vernal equinox, is named for the constellation. This is because the Sun crossed the celestial equator from south to north in Aries more than two millennia ago. Hipparchus defined it in 130 BC. as a point south of Gamma Arietis. Because of the precession of the equinoxes, the First Point of Aries has since moved into Pisces and will move into Aquarius by around 2600 AD. The Sun now appears in Aries from late April through mid-May, though the constellation is still associated with the beginning of spring.{{sfn\|Ridpath\|2001\|pp84–85}}{{sfn\|Ridpath, Star Tales Aries: The Ram}}{{sfn\|Winterburn\|2008\|pp230–231}} Medieval Muslim astronomers depicted Aries in various ways. Astronomers like al-Sufi saw the constellation as a ram, modelled on the precedent of Ptolemy. However, some Islamic celestial globes depicted Aries as a nondescript four-legged animal with what may be antlers instead of horns.{{sfn\|Savage-Smith\|Belloli\|1985\|p80}} Some early Bedouin observers saw a ram elsewhere in the sky; this constellation featured the Pleiades as the ram's tail.{{sfn\|Savage-Smith\|Belloli\|1985\|p123}} The generally accepted Arabic formation of Aries consisted of thirteen stars in a figure along with five "unformed" stars, four of which were over the animal's hindquarters and one of which was the disputed star over Aries's head.{{sfn\|Savage-Smith\|Belloli\|1985\|pp162–164}} Al-Sufi's depiction differed from both other Arab astronomers' and Flamsteed's, in that his Aries was running and looking behind itself.{{sfn\|Staal\|1988\|pp36–41}} The obsolete constellations Apes, Vespa, Lilium, and Musca Borealis all centred on the same four stars, now known as 33, 35, 39, and 41 Arietis.{{sfn\|Ridpath, Star Tales Musca Borealis}} In 1612, Petrus Plancius introduced Apes, a constellation representing a bee. In 1624, the same stars were used by Jakob Bartsch for Vespa, representing a wasp. In 1679, Augustin Royer used these stars for his constellation Lilium, representing the fleur-de-lis. None of these constellations became widely accepted. Johann Hevelius renamed the constellation "Musca" in 1690 in his Firmamentum Sobiescianum. To differentiate it from Musca, the southern fly, it was later renamed Musca Borealis but it did not gain acceptance and its stars were ultimately officially reabsorbed into Aries.{{sfn\|Ridpath, Star Tales Musca Borealis}} In 1922, the International Astronomical Union defined its recommended three-letter abbreviation, "Ari".{{sfn\|Russell\|1922\|p469}} The official boundaries of Aries were defined in 1930 by Eugène Delporte as a polygon of 12 segments. Its right ascension is between 1<sup>h</sup> 46.4<sup>m</sup> and 3<sup>h</sup> 29.4<sup>m</sup> and its declination is between 10.36° and 31.22° in the equatorial coordinate system.{{sfn\|IAU, The Constellations, Aries}} In non-Western astronomy In traditional Chinese astronomy, stars from Aries were used in several constellations. The brightest stars—Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Arietis—formed a constellation called 'Lou',variously translated as "bond" or "lasso" also "sickle", which was associated with the ritual sacrifice of cattle. This name was shared by the 16th lunar mansion, the location of the full moon closest to the autumnal equinox.{{sfn\|Ridpath, Star Tales Aries: The Ram}} This constellation has also been associated with harvest-time as it could represent a woman carrying a basket of food on her head.{{sfn\|Staal\|1988\|pp36–41}} 35, 39, and 41 Arietis were part of a constellation called Wei (胃), which represented a fat abdomen and was the namesake of the 17th lunar mansion, which represented granaries. Delta and Zeta Arietis were a part of the constellation Tianyin (天陰), thought to represent the Emperor's hunting partner. Zuogeng (左更), a constellation depicting a marsh and pond inspector, was composed of Mu, Nu, Omicron, Pi, and Sigma Arietis.{{sfn\|Staal\|1988\|pp36–41}}{{sfn\|Ridpath, Star Tales Aries: The Ram}} He was accompanied by Yeou-kang, a constellation depicting an official in charge of pasture distribution.{{sfn\|Staal\|1988\|pp36–41}} In a similar system to the Chinese, the first lunar mansion in Hindu astronomy was called "Aswini", after the traditional names for Beta and Gamma Arietis, the Aswins. Because the Hindu new year began with the vernal equinox, the Rig Veda contains over 50 new-year's related hymns to the twins, making them some of the most prominent characters in the work. Aries itself was known as "Aja" and "Mesha".{{sfn\|Olcott\|2004\|pp57–58}} In Hebrew astronomy Aries was named "Taleh"; it signified either Simeon or Gad, and generally symbolizes the "Lamb of the World". The neighboring Syrians named the constellation "Amru", and the bordering Turks named it "Kuzi".{{sfn\|Olcott\|2004\|pp57–58}} Half a world away, in the Marshall Islands, several stars from Aries were incorporated into a constellation depicting a porpoise, along with stars from Cassiopeia, Andromeda, and Triangulum. Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Arietis formed the head of the porpoise, while stars from Andromeda formed the body and the bright stars of Cassiopeia formed the tail.{{sfn\|Staal\|1988\|pp17–18}} Other Polynesian peoples recognized Aries as a constellation. The Marquesas islanders called it Na-pai-ka; the Māori constellation Pipiri may correspond to modern Aries as well.{{sfn\|Makemson\|1941\|p279}} In indigenous Peruvian astronomy, a constellation with most of the same stars as Aries existed. It was called the "Market Moon" and the "Kneeling Terrace", as a reminder of when to hold the annual harvest festival, Ayri Huay.{{sfn\|Olcott\|2004\|pp57–58}} Features Stars {{Further\|List of stars in Aries}} Bright stars Aries has three prominent stars forming an asterism, designated Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Arietis by Johann Bayer. Alpha (Hamal) and Beta (Sheratan) are commonly used for navigation.{{sfn\|Ridpath, Popular Names of Stars}} There is also one other star above the fourth magnitude, 41 Arietis (Bharani<ref name"IAU-LSN"/>). α Arietis, called Hamal, is the brightest star in Aries. Its traditional name is derived from the Arabic word for "lamb" or "head of the ram" (ras al-hamal), which references Aries's mythological background.{{sfn\|Winterburn\|2008\|pp230–231}} With a spectral class of K2{{sfn\|Moore\|Tirion\|1997\|pp128–129}} and a luminosity class of III, it is an orange giant with an apparent visual magnitude of 2.00, which lies 66 light-years from Earth.{{sfn\|Ridpath\|2001\|pp84–85}}{{sfn\|SIMBAD Alpha Arietis}} Hamal has a luminosity of {{Solar luminosity\|96\|linky}} and its absolute magnitude is −0.1.{{sfn\|Moore\|2000\|pp=337–338}} β Arietis, also known as Sheratan, is a blue-white star with an apparent visual magnitude of 2.64. Its traditional name is derived from "sharatayn", the Arabic word for "the two signs", referring to both Beta and Gamma Arietis in their position as heralds of the vernal equinox. The two stars were known to the Bedouin as "qarna al-hamal", "horns of the ram".{{sfn\|Savage-Smith\|Belloli\|1985\|p121}} It is 59 light-years from Earth.{{sfn\|SIMBAD Beta Arietis}} It has a luminosity of {{Solar luminosity\|11}} and its absolute magnitude is 2.1.{{sfn\|Moore\|2000\|pp337–338}} It is a spectroscopic binary star, one in which the companion star is only known through analysis of the spectra.{{sfn\|Burnham\|1978\|pp245–252}} The spectral class of the primary is A5.{{sfn\|Moore\|Tirion\|1997\|pp128–129}} Hermann Carl Vogel determined that Sheratan was a spectroscopic binary in 1903; its orbit was determined by Hans Ludendorff in 1907. It has since been studied for its eccentric orbit.{{sfn\|Burnham\|1978\|pp=245–252}} γ Arietis, with a common name of Mesarthim, is a binary star with two white-hued components, located in a rich field of magnitude 8–12 stars. Its traditional name has conflicting derivations. It may be derived from a corruption of "al-sharatan", the Arabic word meaning "pair" or a word for "fat ram".{{sfn\|Ridpath, Star Tales Aries: The Ram}}{{sfn\|Winterburn\|2008\|pp230–231}}{{sfn\|Davis\|1944}} However, it may also come from the Sanskrit for "first star of Aries" or the Hebrew for "ministerial servants", both of which are unusual languages of origin for star names.{{sfn\|Winterburn\|2008\|pp230–231}} Along with Beta Arietis, it was known to the Bedouin as "qarna al-hamal".{{sfn\|Savage-Smith\|Belloli\|1985\|p121}} The primary is of magnitude 4.59 and the secondary is of magnitude 4.68.{{sfn\|Moore\|2000\|pp337–338}} The system is 164 light-years from Earth.{{sfn\|SIMBAD Gamma Arietis}} The two components are separated by 7.8 arcseconds,{{sfn\|Thompson\|Thompson\|2007\|pp90–91}} and the system as a whole has an apparent magnitude of 3.9.{{sfn\|Moore\|Tirion\|1997\|pp128–129}} The primary has a luminosity of {{Solar luminosity\|60}} and the secondary has a luminosity of {{Solar luminosity\|56}}; the primary is an A-type star with an absolute magnitude of 0.2 and the secondary is a B9-type star with an absolute magnitude of 0.4.{{sfn\|Moore\|2000\|pp337–338}} The angle between the two components is 1°.{{sfn\|Thompson\|Thompson\|2007\|pp90–91}} Mesarthim was discovered to be a double star by Robert Hooke in 1664, one of the earliest such telescopic discoveries. The primary, γ<sup>1</sup> Arietis, is an Alpha² Canum Venaticorum variable star that has a range of 0.02 magnitudes and a period of 2.607 days. It is unusual because of its strong silicon emission lines.{{sfn\|Burnham\|1978\|pp=245–252}} The constellation is home to several double stars, including Epsilon, Lambda, and Pi Arietis. ε Arietis is a binary star with two white components. The primary is of magnitude 5.2 and the secondary is of magnitude 5.5. The system is 290 light-years from Earth.{{sfn\|Ridpath\|2001\|pp84–85}} Its overall magnitude is 4.63, and the primary has an absolute magnitude of 1.4. Its spectral class is A2. The two components are separated by 1.5 arcseconds.{{sfn\|Moore\|2000\|pp337–338}} λ Arietis is a wide double star with a white-hued primary and a yellow-hued secondary. The primary is of magnitude 4.8 and the secondary is of magnitude 7.3.{{sfn\|Ridpath\|2001\|pp84–85}} The primary is 129 light-years from Earth.{{sfn\|SIMBAD Lambda Arietis}} It has an absolute magnitude of 1.7 and a spectral class of F0.{{sfn\|Moore\|2000\|pp337–338}} The two components are separated by 36 arcseconds at an angle of 50°; the two stars are located 0.5° east of 7 Arietis.{{sfn\|Thompson\|Thompson\|2007\|pp90–91}} π Arietis is a close binary star with a blue-white primary and a white secondary. The primary is of magnitude 5.3 and the secondary is of magnitude 8.5.{{sfn\|Ridpath\|2001\|pp84–85}} The primary is 776 light-years from Earth.{{sfn\|SIMBAD Pi Arietis}} The primary itself is a wide double star with a separation of 25.2 arcseconds; the tertiary has a magnitude of 10.8. The primary and secondary are separated by 3.2 arcseconds.{{sfn\|Moore\|2000\|pp=337–338}} Most of the other stars in Aries visible to the naked eye have magnitudes between 3 and 5. δ Ari, called Boteïn, is a star of magnitude 4.35, 170 light-years away. It has an absolute magnitude of −0.1 and a spectral class of K2.{{sfn\|Moore\|2000\|pp337–338}}{{sfn\|SIMBAD Delta Arietis}} ζ Arietis is a star of magnitude 4.89, 263 light-years away. Its spectral class is A0 and its absolute magnitude is 0.0.{{sfn\|Moore\|2000\|pp337–338}}{{sfn\|SIMBAD Zeta Arietis}} 14 Arietis is a star of magnitude 4.98, 288 light-years away. Its spectral class is F2 and its absolute magnitude is 0.6.{{sfn\|Moore\|2000\|pp337–338}}{{sfn\|SIMBAD 14 Arietis}} 39 Arietis (Lilii Borea<ref name"IAU-LSN">{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.iau.org/public/themes/naming_stars/ \| titleNaming Stars \|publisherIAU.org \|access-date30 July 2018}}</ref>) is a similar star of magnitude 4.51, 172 light-years away. Its spectral class is K1 and its absolute magnitude is 0.0.{{sfn\|Moore\|2000\|pp337–338}}{{sfn\|SIMBAD 39 Arietis}} 35 Arietis is a dim star of magnitude 4.55, 343 light-years away. Its spectral class is B3 and its absolute magnitude is −1.7.{{sfn\|Moore\|2000\|pp337–338}}{{sfn\|SIMBAD 35 Arietis}} 41 Arietis, known both as c Arietis and Nair al Butain, is a brighter star of magnitude 3.63, 165 light-years away. Its spectral class is B8 and it has a luminosity of {{Solar luminosity\|105}}. Its absolute magnitude is −0.2.{{sfn\|Moore\|2000\|pp337–338}}{{sfn\|SIMBAD 41 Arietis}} 53 Arietis is a runaway star of magnitude 6.09, 815 light-years away.{{sfn\|Burnham\|1978\|pp245–252}}{{sfn\|SIMBAD 53 Arietis}} Its spectral class is B2. It was likely ejected from the Orion Nebula approximately five million years ago, possibly due to supernovae.{{sfn\|Burnham\|1978\|pp245–252}} Finally, Teegarden's Star is the closest star to Earth in Aries. It is a red dwarf of magnitude 15.14 and spectral class M6.5V. With a proper motion of 5.1 arcseconds per year, it is the 24th closest star to Earth overall.{{sfn\|RECONS, The 100 Nearest Star Systems}} Variable stars Aries has its share of variable stars, including R and U Arietis, Mira-type variable stars, and T Arietis, a semi-regular variable star. R Arietis is a Mira variable star that ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 13.7 to a maximum of 7.4 with a period of 186.8 days.{{sfn\|Moore\|2000\|pp337–338}} It is 4,080 light-years away.{{sfn\|SIMBAD R Arietis}} U Arietis is another Mira variable star that ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 15.2 to a maximum of 7.2 with a period of 371.1 days.{{sfn\|Moore\|2000\|pp337–338}} T Arietis is a semiregular variable star that ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 11.3 to a maximum of 7.5 with a period of 317 days.{{sfn\|Moore\|2000\|pp337–338}} It is 1,630 light-years away.{{sfn\|SIMBAD T Arietis}} One particularly interesting variable in Aries is SX Arietis, a rotating variable star considered to be the prototype of its class, helium variable stars. SX Arietis stars have very prominent emission lines of Helium I and Silicon III. They are normally main-sequence B0p—B9p stars, and their variations are not usually visible to the naked eye. Therefore, they are observed photometrically, usually having periods that fit in the course of one night. Similar to α<sup>2</sup>s, SX Arietis stars have periodic changes in their light and magnetic field, which correspond to the periodic rotation; they differ from the α<sup>2</sup> Canum Venaticorum variables in their higher temperature. There are between 39 and 49 SX Arietis variable stars currently known; ten are noted as being "uncertain" in the General Catalog of Variable Stars.{{sfn\|Good\|2003\|pp136–137}} Deep sky objects ]] NGC 772 is a spiral galaxy with an integrated magnitude of 10.3, located southeast of β Arietis and 15 arcminutes west of 15 Arietis.{{sfn\|Moore\|Tirion\|1997\|pp128–129}} It is a relatively bright galaxy and shows obvious nebulosity and ellipticity in an amateur telescope. It is 7.2 by 4.2 arcminutes, meaning that its surface brightness, magnitude 13.6, is significantly lower than its integrated magnitude. NGC 772 is a class SA(s)b galaxy, which means that it is an unbarred spiral galaxy without a ring that possesses a somewhat prominent bulge and spiral arms that are wound somewhat tightly.{{sfn\|Thompson\|Thompson\|2007\|pp90–91}} The main arm, on the northwest side of the galaxy,{{sfn\|Burnham\|1978\|pp245–252}} is home to many star forming regions; this is due to previous gravitational interactions with other galaxies. NGC 772 has a small companion galaxy, NGC 770, that is about 113,000 light-years away from the larger galaxy. The two galaxies together are also classified as Arp 78 in the Arp peculiar galaxy catalog. NGC 772 has a diameter of 240,000 light-years and the system is 114 million light-years from Earth.{{sfn\|Bratton\|2011\|pp63–66}} Another spiral galaxy in Aries is NGC 673, a face-on class SAB(s)c galaxy. It is a weakly barred spiral galaxy with loosely wound arms. It has no ring and a faint bulge and is 2.5 by 1.9 arcminutes. It has two primary arms with fragments located farther from the core. 171,000 light-years in diameter, NGC 673 is 235 million light-years from Earth.{{sfn\|Bratton\|2011\|pp=63–66}} NGC 678 and NGC 680 are a pair of galaxies in Aries that are only about 200,000 light-years apart. Part of the NGC 691 group of galaxies, both are at a distance of approximately 130 million light-years. NGC 678 is an edge-on spiral galaxy that is 4.5 by 0.8 arcminutes. NGC 680, an elliptical galaxy with an asymmetrical boundary, is the brighter of the two at magnitude 12.9; NGC 678 has a magnitude of 13.35. Both galaxies have bright cores, but NGC 678 is the larger galaxy at a diameter of 171,000 light-years; NGC 680 has a diameter of 72,000 light-years. NGC 678 is further distinguished by its prominent dust lane. NGC 691 itself is a spiral galaxy slightly inclined to our line of sight. It has multiple spiral arms and a bright core. Because it is so diffuse, it has a low surface brightness. It has a diameter of 126,000 light-years and is 124 million light-years away.{{sfn\|Bratton\|2011\|pp63–66}} NGC 877 is the brightest member of an 8-galaxy group that also includes NGC 870, NGC 871, and NGC 876, with a magnitude of 12.53. It is 2.4 by 1.8 arcminutes and is 178 million light-years away with a diameter of 124,000 light-years. Its companion is NGC 876, which is about 103,000 light-years from the core of NGC 877. They are interacting gravitationally, as they are connected by a faint stream of gas and dust.{{sfn\|Bratton\|2011\|pp63–66}} Arp 276 is a different pair of interacting galaxies in Aries, consisting of NGC 935 and IC 1801.{{sfn\|SIMBAD Arp 276}} NGC 821 is an E6 elliptical galaxy. It is unusual because it has hints of an early spiral structure, which is normally only found in lenticular and spiral galaxies. NGC 821 is 2.6 by 2.0 arcminutes and has a visual magnitude of 11.3. Its diameter is 61,000 light-years and it is 80 million light-years away.{{sfn\|Bratton\|2011\|pp63–66}} Another unusual galaxy in Aries is Segue 2, a dwarf and satellite galaxy of the Milky Way, recently discovered to be a potential relic of the epoch of reionization.{{sfn\|Belokurov et al.\|2009}} Meteor showers Aries is home to several meteor showers. The Daytime Arietid meteor shower is one of the strongest meteor showers that occurs during the day, lasting from 22 May to 2 July. It is an annual shower associated with the Marsden group of comets that peaks on 7 June with a maximum zenithal hourly rate of 54 meteors.{{sfn\|Jopek, "Daytime Arietids"}}{{sfn\|Bakich\|1995\|p60}} Its parent body may be the asteroid Icarus. The meteors are sometimes visible before dawn, because the radiant is 32 degrees away from the Sun. They usually appear at a rate of 1–2 per hour as "earthgrazers", meteors that last several seconds and often begin at the horizon. Because most of the Daytime Arietids are not visible to the naked eye, they are observed in the radio spectrum. This is possible because of the ionized gas they leave in their wake.{{sfn\|NASA, "June's Invisible Meteors"}}{{sfn\|Jenniskens\|2006\|pp427–428}} Other meteor showers radiate from Aries during the day; these include the Daytime Epsilon Arietids and the Northern and Southern Daytime May Arietids.{{sfn\|Jopek, "Meteor List"}} The Jodrell Bank Observatory discovered the Daytime Arietids in 1947 when James Hey and G. S. Stewart adapted the World War II-era radar systems for meteor observations.{{sfn\|Jenniskens\|2006\|pp427–428}} The Delta Arietids are another meteor shower radiating from Aries. Peaking on 9 December with a low peak rate, the shower lasts from 8 December to 14 January, with the highest rates visible from 8 to 14 December. The average Delta Arietid meteor is very slow, with an average velocity of {{convert\|13.2\|km\|mi}} per second. However, this shower sometimes produces bright fireballs.{{sfn\|Levy\|2007\|p=122}} This meteor shower has northern and southern components, both of which are likely associated with 1990 HA, a near-Earth asteroid.{{sfn\|Langbroek\|2003}} The Autumn Arietids also radiate from Aries. The shower lasts from 7 September to 27 October and peaks on 9 October. Its peak rate is low.{{sfn\|Levy\|2007\|p119}} The Epsilon Arietids appear from 12 to 23 October.{{sfn\|Staal\|1988\|pp36–41}} Other meteor showers radiating from Aries include the October Delta Arietids, Daytime Epsilon Arietids, Daytime May Arietids, Sigma Arietids, Nu Arietids, and Beta Arietids.{{sfn\|Jopek, "Meteor List"}} The Sigma Arietids, a class IV meteor shower, are visible from 12 to 19 October, with a maximum zenithal hourly rate of less than two meteors per hour on 19 October.{{sfn\|Lunsford, Showers}} Planetary systems Aries contains several stars with extrasolar planets. HIP 14810, a G5 type star, is orbited by three giant planets (those more than ten times the mass of Earth).{{sfn\|Wright et al.\|2009}} HD 12661, like HIP 14810, is a G-type main sequence star, slightly larger than the Sun, with two orbiting planets. One planet is 2.3 times the mass of Jupiter, and the other is 1.57 times the mass of Jupiter.{{sfn\|ExoPlanet HD 12661}} HD 20367 is a G0 type star, approximately the size of the Sun, with one orbiting planet. The planet, discovered in 2002, has a mass 1.07 times that of Jupiter and orbits every 500 days.{{sfn\|ExoPlanet HD 20367}} In 2019, scientists conducting the CARMENES survey at the Calar Alto Observatory announced evidence of two Earth-mass exoplanets orbiting Teegarden's star, located in Aries, within its habitable zone.<ref nameTeegarden2019>{{Cite journal\|arxiv 1906.07196\|doi 10.1051/0004-6361/201935460\|title The CARMENES search for exoplanets around M dwarfs\|year 2019\|last1 Zechmeister\|first1 M.\|last2 Dreizler\|first2 S.\|last3 Ribas\|first3 I.\|last4 Reiners\|first4 A.\|last5 Caballero\|first5 J. A.\|last6 Bauer\|first6 F. F.\|last7 Béjar\|first7 V. J. S.\|last8 González-Cuesta\|first8 L.\|last9 Herrero\|first9 E.\|last10 Lalitha\|first10 S.\|last11 López-González\|first11 M. J.\|last12 Luque\|first12 R.\|last13 Morales\|first13 J. C.\|last14 Pallé\|first14 E.\|last15 Rodríguez\|first15 E.\|last16 Rodríguez López\|first16 C.\|last17 Tal-Or\|first17 L.\|last18 Anglada-Escudé\|first18 G.\|last19 Quirrenbach\|first19 A.\|last20 Amado\|first20 P. J.\|last21 Abril\|first21 M.\|last22 Aceituno\|first22 F. J.\|last23 Aceituno\|first23 J.\|last24 Alonso-Floriano\|first24 F. J.\|last25 Ammler-von Eiff\|first25 M.\|last26 Antona Jiménez\|first26 R.\|last27 Anwand-Heerwart\|first27 H.\|last28 Arroyo-Torres\|first28 B.\|last29 Azzaro\|first29 M.\|last30 Baroch\|first30 D.\|journal Astronomy & Astrophysics\|volume 627\|pages A49\|s2cid 189999121\|display-authors 1}}</ref> The star is a small red dwarf with only around a tenth of the mass and radius of the Sun.<ref nameTeegarden2019 /> It has a large radial velocity.<ref name"Tanner2012">{{cite journal \| display-authors=1 \| last1Tanner \| first1Angelle \| last2White \| first2Russel \| last3Bailey \| first3John \| last4Blake \| first4Cullen \| last5Blake \| first5Geoffrey \| last6Cruz \| first6Kelle \| last7Burgasser \| first7Adam J. \| last8Kraus \| first8Adam \| title=Keck NIRSPEC Radial Velocity Observations of Late-M Dwarfs \| journal=The Astrophysical Journal Supplement \| volume203 \| issue1 \| pages=7 \| date=November 2012 \| doi=10.1088/0067-0049/203/1/10 \| bibcode=2012ApJS..203...10T \|arxiv 1209.1772 \| s2cid50864060 }}</ref> See also * Aries (Chinese astronomy) References Explanatory notes {{Notelist}} Citations {{Reflist \| colwidth \| refs }} Bibliography {{Refbegin}} * {{cite book \| last = Bakich \| first = Michael E. \| year = 1995 \| title = The Cambridge Guide to the Constellations \| publisher = Cambridge University Press \| isbn = 978-0-521-44921-2 \| url = https://archive.org/details/cambridgeguideto00baki }} * {{cite journal \| last1 = Belokurov \| first1 = V. \| last2 = Walker \| first2 = M. G. \| last3 = Evans \| first3 = N. W. \| last4 = Gilmore \| first4 = G. \| last5 = Irwin \| first5 = M. J. \| last6 = Mateo \| first6 = M. \| last7 = Mayer \| first7 = L. \| last8 = Olszewski \| first8 = E. \| last9 = Bechtold \| first9 = J. \| last10 = Pickering \| first10 = T. \|date=August 2009 \| title = The discovery of Segue 2: a prototype of the population of satellites of satellites \| journal = Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society \| volume = 397 \| issue = 4 \| pages = 1748–1755 \| doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15106.x \| doi-access = free \| ref = {{sfnRef\|Belokurov et al.\|2009}} \|arxiv 0903.0818 \|bibcode 2009MNRAS.397.1748B \| s2cid = 20051174 }} * {{cite book \| last = Bratton \| first = Mark \| year = 2011 \| title = The Complete Guide to the Herschel Objects: Sir William Herschel's Star Clusters, Nebulae, and Galaxies \| publisher = Cambridge University Press \| isbn = 978-0-521-76892-4 }} * {{cite book \| last = Burnham \| first = Robert Jr. \| year = 1978 \| title = Burnham's Celestial Handbook \| edition = 2nd \| publisher = Dover Publications \| isbn = 978-0-486-24063-3 \| url = https://archive.org/details/burnhamscelestia00robe }} * {{cite journal \| last = Davis \| first= George A. Jr. \| year = 1944 \| title = The Pronunciations, Derivations, and Meanings of a Selected List of Star Names \| journal = Popular Science \| volume = 52 \| page = 8 \| bibcode = 1944PA.....52....8D }} * {{cite book \| last = Evans \| first = James \| year = 1998 \| title = The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy \| publisher = Oxford University Press \| isbn = 978-0-19-509539-5 }} * {{cite book \| last = Good \| first = Gerry A. \| year = 2003 \| title = Observing Variable Stars \| url = https://archive.org/details/observingvariabl0000good \| url-access = registration \| publisher = Springer \| isbn = 978-1-85233-498-7 }} * {{cite book \| last = Jenniskens \| first = Peter \| year = 2006 \| title = Meteor Showers and Their Parent Comets \| publisher = Cambridge University Press \| isbn = 978-0-521-85349-1 }} * {{cite journal \| last = Langbroek \| first = Marco \| date = 20 August 2003 \| title = The November–December delta-Arietids and asteroid 1990 HA: On the trail of meteoroid stream with meteorite-sized members \| journal = WGN, Journal of the International Meteor Organization \| volume = 31 \| issue = 6 \| pages = 177–182 \| bibcode = 2003JIMO...31..177L }} * {{cite book \| first = David H. \| last = Levy \| title = David Levy's Guide to Observing Meteor Showers \| year = 2007 \| publisher = Cambridge University Press \| isbn = 978-0-521-69691-3 }} * {{cite book \| last = Makemson \| first = Maud Worcester \| year = 1941 \| publisher = Yale University Press \| title = The Morning Star Rises: an account of Polynesian astronomy \| bibcode = 1941msra.book.....M }} * {{cite book \| last1 = Moore \| first1 = Patrick \| last2 = Tirion \| first2 = Wil \| year = 1997 \| title = Cambridge Guide to Stars and Planets \| edition = 2nd \| publisher = Cambridge University Press \| isbn = 978-0-521-58582-8 \| url = https://archive.org/details/cambridgeguideto00moor }} * {{cite book \| last = Moore \| first = Patrick \| year = 2000 \| title = The Data Book of Astronomy \| publisher = Institute of Physics Publishing \| isbn = 978-0-7503-0620-1 }} * {{cite book \| last = Olcott \| first = William Tyler \| year = 2004 \| title = Star Lore: Myths, Legends, and Facts \| publisher = Courier Dover Publications \| isbn = 978-0-486-43581-7 }} * {{cite book \| last = Pasachoff \| first = Jay M. \| year = 2000 \| title = A Field Guide to the Stars and Planets \| edition = 4th \| publisher = Houghton Mifflin \| isbn = 978-0-395-93431-9 }} <!-- Rey is not used... * {{cite book \| first H. A. \| last Rey \| title The Stars—A New Way To See Them \| publisher Houghton Mifflin \| year 1997 \| isbn 978-0-395-24830-0}} --> * {{cite book \| last = Ridpath \| first = Ian \| year = 2001 \| title = Stars and Planets Guide \| publisher = Princeton University Press \| isbn = 978-0-691-08913-3 }} * {{cite journal \| last = Rogers \| first = John H. \| year = 1998 \| title = Origins of the Ancient Constellations: I. The Mesopotamian Traditions \| journal = Journal of the British Astronomical Association \| volume = 108 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 9–28 \| bibcode = 1998JBAA..108....9R \| ref = {{sfnRef\|Rogers, Mesopotamian Traditions\|1998}} }} * {{cite journal \| last = Rogers \| first = John H. \| year = 1998 \| title = Origins of the Ancient Constellations: II. The Mediterranean Traditions \| journal = Journal of the British Astronomical Association \| volume = 108 \| issue = 2 \| pages = 79–89 \| bibcode = 1998JBAA..108...79R \| ref = {{sfnRef\|Rogers, Mediterranean Traditions\|1998}} }} * {{cite journal \| last = Russell \| first = Henry Norris \|date=October 1922 \| title = The New International Symbols for the Constellations \| journal = Popular Astronomy \| volume = 30 \| page = 469 \| bibcode = 1922PA.....30..469R }} * {{cite journal \| last1 = Savage-Smith \| first1 = Emilie \|author-link1=Emilie Savage-Smith \| last2 Belloli \| first2 Andrea P. A \| s2cid = 129450664 \| year = 1985 \| title = Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their History, Construction, and Use \| journal = Smithsonian Studies in History and Technology \| issue = 46 \| pages = 1–354 \| doi = 10.5479/si.00810258.46.1 \| hdl = 10088/2445 \| publisher = Smithsonian Institution Press }} * {{cite book \| last = Staal \| first = Julius D. W. \| year = 1988 \| title = The New Patterns in the Sky: Myths and Legends of the Stars \| publisher = The McDonald and Woodward Publishing Company \| isbn = 978-0-939923-04-5 }} * {{cite book \| last1 = Thompson \| first1 = Robert Bruce \| last2 = Thompson \| first2 = Barbara Fritchman \| title = Illustrated Guide to Astronomical Wonders \| year = 2007 \| publisher = O'Reilly Media \| isbn = 978-0-596-52685-6 }} * {{cite book \| last = Winterburn \| first = Emily \| year = 2008 \| title = The Stargazer's Guide: How to Read Our Night Sky \| publisher = Harper Collins \| isbn = 978-0-06-178969-4 }} * {{cite journal \| last1 = Wright \| first1 = J. T. \| last2 = Fischer \| first2 = D. A. \| last3 = Ford \| first3 = Eric B. \| last4 = Veras \| first4 = D. \| last5 = Wang \| first5 = J. \| last6 = Henry \| first6 = G. W. \| last7 = Marcy \| first7 = G. W. \| last8 = Howard \| first8 = A. W. \| last9 = Johnson \| first9 = John Asher \| year = 2009 \| title = A Third Giant Planet Orbiting HIP 14810 \| journal = The Astrophysical Journal Letters \| volume = 699 \| issue = 2 \| pages = L97–L101 \| arxiv = 0906.0567 \| bibcode = 2009ApJ...699L..97W \| doi = 10.1088/0004-637X/699/2/L97 \| s2cid = 8075527 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|Wright et al.\|2009}} }} {{Refend}} Online sources {{Refbegin}} * {{cite web \| title = Aries Constellation Boundary \| work = The Constellations \| publisher = International Astronomical Union \| url = http://www.iau.org/static/public/constellations/txt/ari.txt \| access-date = 25 May 2012 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|IAU, The Constellations, Aries}} }} * {{cite encyclopedia \|title=Notes for star HD 12661 \|urlhttp://exoplanet.eu/star.php?stHD+12661 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120505100541/http://exoplanet.eu/star.php?stHD%2B12661 \|archive-date=5 May 2012 \|access-date=12 June 2012 \|ref={{sfnRef\|ExoPlanet HD 12661}} \|encyclopedia=Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia \|url-status=dead }} * {{cite encyclopedia \| title = Notes for star HD 20367 \| url http://exoplanet.eu/star.php?stHD+20367 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20071106055557/http://exoplanet.eu/star.php?stHD+20367 \| url-status = dead \| archive-date = 6 November 2007 \| access-date = 12 June 2012 \| encyclopedia = Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia \| ref = {{sfnRef\|ExoPlanet HD 20367}} }} * {{cite web \| last = Jopek \| first = T. J. \| date = 3 March 2012 \| title = Daytime Arietids \| publisher = International Astronomical Union \| work = Meteor Data Center \| url http://www.ta3.sk/IAUC22DB/MDC2007/Roje/pojedynczy_obiekt.php?kodstrumienia171&colecimy=0 \| access-date = 24 May 2012 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|Jopek, "Daytime Arietids"}} \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20121025150714/http://www.ta3.sk/IAUC22DB/MDC2007/Roje/pojedynczy_obiekt.php?kodstrumienia171&colecimy=0 \| archive-date = 25 October 2012 \| url-status = dead }} * {{cite web \| last = Jopek \| first = T. J. \| date = 3 March 2012 \| title = List of All Meteor Showers \| publisher = International Astronomical Union \| work = Meteor Data Center \| url http://www.ta3.sk/IAUC22DB/MDC2007/Roje/roje_lista.php?corobic_roje0&sort_roje=0 \| access-date = 24 May 2012 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|Jopek, "Meteor List"}} \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20120812040509/http://www.ta3.sk/IAUC22DB/MDC2007/Roje/roje_lista.php?corobic_roje0&sort_roje=0 \| archive-date = 12 August 2012 \| url-status = dead }} * {{cite web \| last = Lunsford \| first = Robert \| date = 16 January 2012 \| title = 2012 Meteor Shower List \| publisher = American Meteor Society \| url = http://www.amsmeteors.org/2012/01/2012-meteor-shower-list/ \| access-date = 20 June 2012 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|Lunsford, Showers}} }} * {{cite web \| title = June's Invisible Meteors \| date = 6 June 2000 \| publisher = NASA \| url = https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2000/ast06jun_1m/ \| access-date = 24 May 2012 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|NASA, "June's Invisible Meteors"}} \| archive-date = 17 August 2020 \| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200817141112/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2000/ast06jun_1m/ \| url-status = dead }} * {{cite web \| title = The 100 Nearest Star Systems \| publisher = Research Consortium on Nearby Stars \| date = 1 January 2012 \| url = http://www.chara.gsu.edu/RECONS/TOP100.posted.htm \| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120513202710/http://www.chara.gsu.edu/RECONS/TOP100.posted.htm \| archive-date = 13 May 2012 \| access-date = 25 May 2012 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|RECONS, The 100 Nearest Star Systems}} }} * {{cite web \| last = Ridpath \| first = Ian \| title = Popular Names of Stars \| url = http://www.ianridpath.com/starnames.html \| access-date = 26 May 2012 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|Ridpath, Popular Names of Stars}} }} * {{cite web \| last = Ridpath \| first = Ian \| year = 1988 \| title = Aries: The Ram \| work = Star Tales \| url = http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/aries.html \| access-date = 24 May 2012 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|Ridpath, Star Tales Aries: The Ram}} }} * {{cite web \| last = Ridpath \| first = Ian \| year = 1988 \| title = Musca Borealis \| work = Star Tales \| url = http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/muscaborealis.html \| access-date = 10 July 2012 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|Ridpath, Star Tales Musca Borealis}} }} SIMBAD * {{cite web \| title = Alpha Arietis \| publisher = Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg \| work = SIMBAD \| url http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Identalpha+arietis&NbIdent1&Radius2&Radius.unitarcmin&submitsubmit+id \| access-date = 25 May 2012 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|SIMBAD Alpha Arietis}} }} * {{cite web \| title = Beta Arietis \| publisher = Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg \| work = SIMBAD \| url http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Identbeta+arietis&NbIdent1&Radius2&Radius.unitarcmin&submitsubmit+id \| access-date = 25 May 2012 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|SIMBAD Beta Arietis}} }} * {{cite web \| title = Gamma Arietis \| publisher = Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg \| work = SIMBAD \| url http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Identgamma+arietis&NbIdent1&Radius2&Radius.unitarcmin&submitsubmit+id \| access-date = 25 May 2012 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|SIMBAD Gamma Arietis}} }} * {{cite web \| title = Lambda Arietis \| publisher = Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg \| work = SIMBAD \| url http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Identlambda+arietis&NbIdent1&Radius2&Radius.unitarcmin&submitsubmit+id \| access-date = 25 May 2012 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|SIMBAD Lambda Arietis}} }} * {{cite web \| title = Pi Arietis \| publisher = Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg \| work = SIMBAD \| url http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Identpi+arietis&NbIdent1&Radius2&Radius.unitarcmin&submitsubmit+id \| access-date = 25 May 2012 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|SIMBAD Pi Arietis}} }} * {{cite web \| title = Delta Arietis \| publisher = Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg \| work = SIMBAD \| url http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Identdelta+arietis&NbIdent1&Radius2&Radius.unitarcmin&submitsubmit+id \| access-date = 25 May 2012 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|SIMBAD Delta Arietis}} }} * {{cite web \| title = Zeta Arietis \| publisher = Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg \| work = SIMBAD \| url http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Identzeta+arietis&NbIdent1&Radius2&Radius.unitarcmin&submitsubmit+id \| access-date = 25 May 2012 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|SIMBAD Zeta Arietis}} }} * {{cite web \| title = 14 Arietis \| publisher = Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg \| work = SIMBAD \| url http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Ident14+arietis&NbIdent1&Radius2&Radius.unitarcmin&submitsubmit+id \| access-date = 25 May 2012 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|SIMBAD 14 Arietis}} }} * {{cite web \| title = 39 Arietis \| publisher = Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg \| work = SIMBAD \| url http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Ident39+arietis&NbIdent1&Radius2&Radius.unitarcmin&submitsubmit+id \| access-date = 25 May 2012 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|SIMBAD 39 Arietis}} }} * {{cite web \| title = 35 Arietis \| publisher = Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg \| work = SIMBAD \| url http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Ident35+arietis&NbIdent1&Radius2&Radius.unitarcmin&submitsubmit+id \| access-date = 25 May 2012 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|SIMBAD 35 Arietis}} }} * {{cite web \| title = 41 Arietis \| publisher = Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg \| work = SIMBAD \| url http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Ident41+arietis&NbIdent1&Radius2&Radius.unitarcmin&submitsubmit+id \| access-date = 25 May 2012 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|SIMBAD 41 Arietis}} }} * {{cite web \| title = 53 Arietis \| publisher = Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg \| work = SIMBAD \| url http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Ident53+arietis&NbIdent1&Radius2&Radius.unitarcmin&submitsubmit+id \| access-date = 25 May 2012 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|SIMBAD 53 Arietis}} }} * {{cite web \| title = R Arietis \| publisher = Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg \| work = SIMBAD \| url http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?IdentR+arietis&NbIdent1&Radius2&Radius.unitarcmin&submitsubmit+id \| access-date = 25 May 2012 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|SIMBAD R Arietis}} }} * {{cite web \| title = T Arietis \| publisher = Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg \| work = SIMBAD \| url http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?IdentT+arietis&NbIdent1&Radius2&Radius.unitarcmin&submitsubmit+id \| access-date = 25 May 2012 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|SIMBAD T Arietis}} }} * {{cite web \| title = Arp 276 \| publisher = Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg \| work = SIMBAD \| url http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-basic?IdentArp+276 \| access-date = 12 June 2012 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|SIMBAD Arp 276}} }} {{Refend}} External links {{Commons}} * [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/aries/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Aries] * [http://astrojan.nhely.hu/aries.htm The clickable Aries] * [http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/aries.html Star Tales – Aries] * [https://iconographic.warburg.sas.ac.uk/category/vpc-taxonomy-017059 Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Aries)] {{Stars of Aries}} {{Navconstel}} {{Zodiac}} {{Portal bar\|Astronomy\|Stars\|Outer space}} {{Authority control}} {{Sky\|03\|00\|00\|+\|20\|00\|00\|10}} {{Featured article}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Aries (Constellation)}} Category:Constellations Category:Constellations listed by Ptolemy Category:Northern constellations	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aries_(constellation)	2025-04-05T18:25:22.398660
799	Aquarius (constellation)	{{Short description\|Zodiac constellation straddling the celestial equator}} {{About\|the astronomical constellation\|the astrological sign\|Aquarius (astrology)}} {{redirect\|water bearer\|the Sally Oldfield album\|Water Bearer}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=March 2025}} {{Infobox constellation \| name = Aquarius \| abbreviation = Aqr \| genitive = Aquarii \| pronounce = {{IPAc-en\|ə\|ˈ\|k\|w\|ɛər\|i\|ə\|s}}, genitive {{IPAc-en\|ə\|ˈ\|k\|w\|ɛər\|i\|aɪ}} \| symbolism = the Water-Bearer \| RA {{RA\|20\|38\|19.1706}}–{{RA\|23\|56\|23.5355}}<ref nameboundary/> \| dec{{dec\|03.3256676}}–{{dec\|-24.9040413}}<ref nameboundary>{{Cite journal \| titleAquarius, constellation boundary \| journalThe Constellations \|urlhttps://www.iau.org/public/themes/constellations/#aqr \| access-date30 April 2016 }}</ref> \| family = Zodiac \| areatotal = 980 \| arearank = 10th \| numbermainstars = 10, 22 \| numberbfstars = 97 \| numberstarsplanets = 12 \| numberbrightstars = 2 \| numbernearbystars = 7 \| brighteststarname = β Aqr (Sadalsuud) \| starmagnitude = 2.91 \| neareststarname = EZ Aqr \| stardistancely = 11.27 \| stardistancepc = 3.45 \| numbermessierobjects = 3 \| meteorshowers = March Aquariids <br />Eta Aquariids<br />Delta Aquariids<br /> Iota Aquariids \| bordering = Pisces<br />Pegasus<br />Equuleus<br />Delphinus<br />Aquila<br />Capricornus<br />Piscis Austrinus<br />Sculptor<br />Cetus \| latmax = 65 \| latmin = 90 \| month = October \| notes= }} Aquarius is an equatorial constellation of the zodiac, between Capricornus and Pisces. Its name is Latin for "water-carrier" or "cup-carrier", and its old astronomical symbol is (♒︎), a representation of water. Aquarius is one of the oldest of the recognized constellations along the zodiac (the Sun's apparent path).<ref nameRogers-1>{{citation \|first John H. \|lastRogers \|title Origins of the ancient constellations: I. The Mesopotamian traditions \|journalJournal of the British Astronomical Association \|volume108 \|issue1 \|pages 9–28 \|dateFebruary 1998 \|bibcode 1998JBAA..108....9R}}</ref> It was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy, and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations. It is found in a region often called the Sea due to its profusion of constellations with watery associations such as Cetus the whale, Pisces the fish, and Eridanus the river.{{sfn\|Thompson\|Thompson\|2007}} At apparent magnitude 2.9, Beta Aquarii is the brightest star in the constellation. History and mythology Aquarius is identified as {{lang\|sux-Latn\|GU.LA}} "The Great One" in the Babylonian star catalogues and represents the god Ea himself, who is commonly depicted holding an overflowing vase. The Babylonian star-figure appears on entitlement stones and cylinder seals from the second millennium. It contained the winter solstice in the Early Bronze Age.{{sfn\|Thurston\|1996}} In Old Babylonian astronomy, Ea was the ruler of the southernmost quarter of the Sun's path, the "Way of Ea", corresponding to the period of 45 days on either side of winter solstice. Aquarius was also associated with the destructive floods that the Babylonians regularly experienced, and thus was negatively connoted.{{sfn\|Thompson\|Thompson\|2007}} In Ancient Egypt astronomy, Aquarius was associated with the annual flood of the Nile; the banks were said to flood when Aquarius put his jar into the river, beginning spring.{{sfn\|Staal\|1988\|pp=42–44}} In the Greek tradition, the constellation came to be represented simply as a single vase from which a stream poured down to Piscis Austrinus. The name in the Hindu zodiac is likewise kumbha "water-pitcher".<ref name=Rogers-1/> In Greek mythology, Aquarius is sometimes associated with Deucalion, the son of Prometheus who built a ship with his wife Pyrrha to survive an imminent flood. They sailed for nine days before washing ashore on Mount Parnassus.{{sfn\|Thompson\|Thompson\|2007}}{{sfn\|Star Tales}} Aquarius is also sometimes identified with beautiful Ganymede, a youth in Greek mythology and the son of Trojan king Tros, who was taken to Mount Olympus by Zeus to act as cup-carrier to the gods.{{sfn\|Moore\|2000}}{{sfn\|Ridpath\|2001}}{{sfn\|Star Tales}} Neighboring Aquila represents the eagle, under Zeus' command, that snatched the young boy;<ref>{{citation \|firstJohn H. \|last Rogers \|titleOrigins of the ancient constellations: II. The Mediterranean traditions\|url http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1998JBAA..108...79R&amp;data_typePDF_HIGH&amp;whole_paperYES&amp;typePRINTER&amp;filetype.pdf \|journalJournal of the British Astronomical Association \|volume 108 \|issue2 \|date April 1998 \|pages79–89 \|bibcode 1998JBAA..108...79R}}</ref> some versions of the myth indicate that the eagle was in fact Zeus transformed. One tradition, stated that he was carried off by Eos.<ref>{{Cite web \|title(Schol. ad Apollon. Rhod. iii. 115.) \|urlhttps://www.theoi.com/Ouranios/Ganymedes.html}}</ref> Yet another figure associated with the water bearer is Cecrops I, a king of Athens who sacrificed water instead of wine to the gods.{{sfn\|Star Tales}} Depictions <!-- Water Jar redirects to this section --> '' (including a now-obsolete constellation, Ballon Aerostatique south of it)]] In the first century, Ptolemy's Almagest established the common Western depiction of Aquarius. His water jar, an asterism itself, consists of Gamma, Pi, Eta, and Zeta Aquarii; it pours water in a stream of more than 20 stars terminating with Fomalhaut, now assigned solely to Piscis Austrinus. The water bearer's head is represented by 5th magnitude 25 Aquarii while his left shoulder is Beta Aquarii; his right shoulder and forearm are represented by Alpha and Gamma Aquarii respectively.{{sfn\|Star Tales}} In Eastern astronomy In Chinese astronomy, the stream of water flowing from the Water Jar was depicted as the "Army of Yu-Lin" (Yu-lim-kiun or Yulinjun, Hanzi: 羽林君). The name "Yu-lin" means "feathers and forests", referring to the numerous light-footed soldiers from the northern reaches of the empire represented by these faint stars.{{sfn\|Staal\|1988\|pp42–44}}{{sfn\|Star Tales}} The constellation's stars were the most numerous of any Chinese constellation, numbering 45, the majority of which were located in modern Aquarius. The celestial army was protected by the wall Leibizhen (垒壁阵), which counted Iota, Lambda, Phi, and Sigma Aquarii among its 12 stars.{{sfn\|Star Tales}} 88, 89, and 98 Aquarii represent Fou-youe, the axes used as weapons and for hostage executions. Also in Aquarius is Loui-pi-tchin, the ramparts that stretch from 29 and 27 Piscium and 33 and 30 Aquarii through Phi, Lambda, Sigma, and Iota Aquarii to Delta, Gamma, Kappa, and Epsilon Capricorni.{{sfn\|Staal\|1988\|pp42–44}} Similarly in the Hindu calendar Aquarius is depicted as Kumbha, and Kumbha, which means a pot or a jug, stands for the zodiac sign of Aquarius. Near the border with Cetus, the axe Fuyue was represented by three stars; its position is disputed and may have instead been located in Sculptor. Tienliecheng also has a disputed position; the 13-star castle replete with ramparts may have possessed Nu and Xi Aquarii but may instead have been located south in Piscis Austrinus. The Water Jar asterism was seen to the ancient Chinese as the tomb, Fenmu. Nearby, the emperors' mausoleum Xiuliang stood, demarcated by Kappa Aquarii and three other collinear stars. Ku ("crying") and Qi ("weeping"), each composed of two stars, were located in the same region.{{sfn\|Star Tales}} Three of the Chinese lunar mansions shared their name with constellations. Nu, also the name for the 10th lunar mansion, was a handmaiden represented by Epsilon, Mu, 3, and 4 Aquarii. The 11th lunar mansion shared its name with the constellation Xu ("emptiness"), formed by Beta Aquarii and Alpha Equulei; it represented a bleak place associated with death and funerals. Wei, the rooftop and 12th lunar mansion, was a V-shaped constellation formed by Alpha Aquarii, Theta Pegasi, and Epsilon Pegasi; it shared its name with two other Chinese constellations, in modern-day Scorpius and Aries.{{sfn\|Star Tales}} Features {{See also\|List of stars in Aquarius}} Stars Despite both its prominent position on the zodiac and its large size, Aquarius has no particularly bright stars, its four brightest stars being less bright than {{nobr\|magnitude 2.8 .}}{{sfn\|Moore\|2000}} (The Apparent Magnitude scale is reverse logarithmic, with increasingly bright objects having lower and lower (more negative) magnitudes.) Recent research has shown that there are several stars lying within its borders that possess planetary systems. The two brightest stars, α&nbsp;Aquarii and β&nbsp;Aquarii, are luminous yellow supergiants, of spectral types G0Ib and G2Ib respectively,<ref namemnras402_2_1369/> that were once hot blue-white B-class main sequence stars 5 to 9&nbsp;times as massive as the Sun. The two are also moving through space perpendicular to the plane of the Milky Way.<ref nameapj627_1_L53>{{cite journal \| last1Ayres \| first1Thomas R. \| last2Brown \| first2Alexander \| last3Harper \| first3Graham M. \| dateJuly 2005 \| titleChandra observations of coronal emission from the early G supergiants α and β&nbsp;Aquarii \| journalThe Astrophysical Journal \| volume627 \| issue1 \| pagesL53–L56 \| doi10.1086/431977 \| bibcode2005ApJ...627L..53A \| doi-accessfree }}</ref> β&nbsp;Aquarii is the brightest star in Aquarius with apparent {{nobr\|magnitude 2.91}} – only slightly brighter than α&nbsp;Aquarii. It also has the proper name of Sadalsuud. Having cooled and swollen to around 50&nbsp;times the Sun's diameter, it is around 2200&nbsp;times as luminous as the Sun.<ref namekalerbeta>{{cite web \| firstJames B. \| lastKaler \| titleSadalsuud (Beta Aquarii) \| websiteStars \|publisherU. Illinois \| seriesAstronomy Department \| urlhttp://stars.astro.illinois.edu/sow/sadalsuud.html \| access-date11 October 2016 }}</ref> It is around 6.4&nbsp;times as massive as the Sun and around 56&nbsp;million years old.<ref nameleonid>{{cite journal \|last1Lyubimkov \|first1Leonid S. \|last2Lambert \|first2David L. \|last3Korotin \|first3Sergey A. \|last4Rachkovskaya \|first4Tamara M. \|last5Poklad \|first5Dmitry B. \|year2015 \|titleCarbon abundance and the N/C ratio in atmospheres of A-, F- and G-type supergiants and bright giants \|journalMonthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society \|volume446 \|issue4 \|page3447 \|doi10.1093/mnras/stu2299 \|doi-accessfree \|s2cid118473779 \|bibcode2015MNRAS.446.3447L \|arxiv1411.2722}}</ref> Sadalsuud is {{nobr\|540 ± 20 light-years}} from Earth.<ref namevanLeeuwen2007>{{cite journal \| firstF. \| lastvan&nbsp;Leeuwen \| year2007 \| titleValidation of the new Hipparcos reduction \| journalAstronomy and Astrophysics \| volume474 \| issue2 \| pages653–64 \| bibcode2007A&A...474..653V \| doi10.1051/0004-6361:20078357 \| arxiv0708.1752 \| s2cid18759600 }}</ref> α&nbsp;Aquarii, also known as Sadalmelik, has apparent {{nobr\|magnitude 2.94 .}} It is {{nobr\|520 ± 20 light years}} distant from Earth,<ref namevanLeeuwen2007/> and is around 6.5&nbsp;times as massive as the Sun, and 3000&nbsp;times as luminous. It is 53&nbsp;million years old.<ref namemnras402_2_1369>{{cite journal \| last1Lyubimkov \| first1Leonid S. \| last2Lambert \| first2David L. \| last3Rostopchin \| first3Sergey I. \| last4Rachkovskaya \| first4Tamara M. \| last5Poklad \| first5Dmitry B. \| year2010 \| titleAccurate fundamental parameters for A-, F- and G-type supergiants in the solar neighbourhood \| journalMonthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society \| volume402 \| issue2 \| pages1369–1379 \| doi10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15979.x \| doi-accessfree \| bibcode2010MNRAS.402.1369L \|arxiv 0911.1335 \| s2cid119096173 }}</ref> γ&nbsp;Aquarii, also called Sadachbia,<ref nameIAU-LSN>{{cite web \| titleStar Names \|publisherInternational Astronomical Union \|websiteIAU.org \| urlhttps://www.iau.org/public/themes/naming_stars/ \|access-date30 July 2018}}</ref> is a white main sequence star of spectral type star of spectral type A0V that is between 158 and 315&nbsp;million years old and is around 2.5&nbsp;times the Sun's mass ({{solar mass\|2.5}}),<ref nameDavid2015>{{cite journal \| last1David \| first1Trevor J. \| last2Hillenbrand \| first2Lynne A. \| year2015 \| titleThe ages of early-type stars: Strömgren photometric methods calibrated, validated, tested, and applied to hosts and prospective hosts of directly imaged exoplanets \| journalThe Astrophysical Journal \| volume804 \| issue2 \| pages146 \| s2cid33401607 \| bibcode2015ApJ...804..146D \| doi10.1088/0004-637X/804/2/146 \| arxiv1501.03154 }}<br/>{{cite web \|titleHipparcos&nbsp;102395 \|websiteVizieR \|typestar data catalog entry \|publisherCDS \|placeStrasbourg, FR \|viaHarvard University–Smithsonian Institution, Center for Astrophysics \|urlhttps://vizier.cfa.harvard.edu/viz-bin/VizieR?-sourceJ/ApJ/804/146/table5&HIP102395&-refVIZ649a83a23ca11c}}</ref> and double its radius.<ref nameaaa367_521>{{cite journal \| last1Pasinetti Fracassini \| first1L.E. \| last2Pastori \| first2L. \| last3Covino \| first3S. \| last4Pozzi \| first4A. \| titleCatalogue of apparent diameters and absolute radii of stars (CADARS) – third edition – comments and statistics \| journalAstronomy and Astrophysics \| volume367 \| issue2 \| pages521–524 \|dateFebruary 2001 \| doi10.1051/0004-6361:20000451 \| bibcode2001A&A...367..521P \| arxivastro-ph/0012289\| s2cid425754 }}</ref> Its magnitude is&nbsp;3.85, and it is {{nobr\|164 ± 9 light years}} away,<ref name=vanLeeuwen2007/> hence its luminosity is {{Solar luminosity\|50}}.{{sfn\|Moore\|2000}} The name Sadachbia comes from the Arabic for "lucky stars of the tents", ''sa'd al-akhbiya.{{sfn\|Star Tales}} δ&nbsp;Aquarii, also known as Skat<ref name=IAU-LSN/>{{sfn\|Ridpath\|2001}} or Scheat{{sfn\|Moore\|2000}} is a blue-white spectral type A2 star with apparent magnitude&nbsp;3.27 and luminosity {{Solar luminosity\|105}}.{{sfn\|Moore\|2000}} ε&nbsp;Aquarii, also known as Albali'',{{sfn\|Staal\|1988\|pp=42–44}} is a blue-white spectral type A1 star with apparent magnitude&nbsp;3.77, absolute magnitude&nbsp;1.2, and a luminosity of {{Solar luminosity\|28}}.{{sfn\|Moore\|2000}}{{sfn\|Ridpath\|2001}} ζ&nbsp;Aquarii is a spectral type F2 double star; both stars are white.{{sfn\|Ridpath\|2001}} In combination, they appear to be magnitude&nbsp;3.6 with luminosity {{Solar luminosity\|50}}. The primary has magnitude&nbsp;4.53 and the secondary's magnitude is&nbsp;4.31, but both have absolute {{nobr\|magnitude 0.6.}}{{sfn\|Moore\|2000}} The system's orbital period is 760&nbsp;years; currently the two components are moving farther apart.{{sfn\|Ridpath\|2001}} θ&nbsp;Aquarii, sometimes called Ancha,{{sfn\|Staal\|1988\|pp=42–44}} is spectral type G8 with apparent magnitude&nbsp;4.16 and an absolute {{nobr\|magnitude 1.4.}}{{sfn\|Moore\|2000}} κ&nbsp;Aquarii, also called Situla, has an apparent {{nobr\|magnitude 5.03.}}<ref name=IAU-LSN/> λ&nbsp;Aquarii, also called Hudoor or Ekchusis,{{sfn\|Staal\|1988\|pp=42–44}} is spectral type M2 with magnitude&nbsp;3.74 and luminosity {{Solar luminosity\|120}}.{{sfn\|Moore\|2000}} ξ&nbsp;Aquarii, also called Bunda,<ref name=IAU-LSN/> is spectral type A7 with an apparent magnitude&nbsp;4.69 and an absolute {{nobr\|magnitude 2.4.}}{{sfn\|Moore\|2000}} π&nbsp;Aquarii, also called Seat, is spectral type B0 with apparent magnitude&nbsp;4.66 and absolute {{nobr\|magnitude −4.1.}}{{sfn\|Moore\|2000}} Planetary systems Twelve exoplanet systems have been found in Aquarius as of 2013. Gliese 876, one of the nearest stars to Earth at a distance of 15 light-years,{{sfn\|APOD Gliese 876}} was the first red dwarf star to be found to possess a planetary system. It is orbited by four planets, including one terrestrial planet 6.6 times the mass of Earth. The planets vary in orbital period from 2 days to 124 days.{{sfn\|Exoplanet Encyclopedia Gliese 876}} 91 Aquarii is an orange giant star orbited by one planet, 91&nbsp;Aquarii&nbsp;b. The planet's mass is 2.9 times the mass of Jupiter, and its orbital period is 182 days.{{sfn\|Exoplanet Encyclopedia 91 Aqr}} Gliese 849 is a red dwarf star orbited by the first known long-period Jupiter-like planet, Gliese&nbsp;849&nbsp;b. The planet's mass is 0.99 times that of Jupiter and its orbital period is 1,852 days.{{sfn\|Exoplanet Encyclopedia Gj 849}} There are also less-prominent systems in Aquarius. WASP-6, a type G8 star of magnitude 12.4, is host to one exoplanet, WASP-6 b. The star is 307 parsecs from Earth and has a mass of 0.888 solar masses and a radius of 0.87 solar radii. WASP-6 b was discovered in 2008 by the transit method. It orbits its parent star every 3.36 days at a distance of 0.042 astronomical units (AU). It is 0.503 Jupiter masses but has a proportionally larger radius of 1.224 Jupiter radii.{{sfn\|Exoplanet Encyclopedia WASP-6}} HD 206610, a K0 star located 194 parsecs from Earth, is host to one planet, HD 206610 b. The host star is larger than the Sun; more massive at 1.56 solar masses and larger at 6.1 solar radii. The planet was discovered by the radial velocity method in 2010 and has a mass of 2.2 Jupiter masses. It orbits every 610 days at a distance of 1.68 AU.{{sfn\|Exoplanet Encyclopedia HD 206610 b}} Much closer to its sun is WASP-47 b, which orbits every 4.15 days only 0.052&nbsp;AU from its sun, yellow dwarf (G9V) WASP-47. WASP-47 is close in size to the Sun, having a radius of 1.15 solar radii and a mass even closer at 1.08 solar masses. WASP-47 b was discovered in 2011 by the transit method, like WASP-6 b. It is slightly larger than Jupiter with a mass of 1.14 Jupiter masses and a radius of 1.15 Jupiter masses.{{sfn\|Exoplanet Encyclopedia WASP-47 b}} There are several more single-planet systems in Aquarius. HD 210277, a magnitude 6.63 yellow star located 21.29 parsecs from Earth, is host to one known planet: HD 210277 b. The 1.23 Jupiter mass planet orbits at nearly the same distance as Earth orbits the Sun{{mdash}}1.1&nbsp;AU, though its orbital period is significantly longer at around 442 days. HD 210277 b was discovered earlier than most of the other planets in Aquarius, detected by the radial velocity method in 1998. The star it orbits resembles the Sun beyond their similar spectral class; it has a radius of 1.1 solar radii and a mass of 1.09 solar masses.{{sfn\|Exoplanet Encyclopedia HD 210277 b}} HD 212771 b, a larger planet at 2.3 Jupiter masses, orbits host star HD 212771 at a distance of 1.22&nbsp;AU. The star itself, barely below the threshold of naked-eye visibility at magnitude 7.6, is a G8IV (yellow subgiant) star located 131 parsecs from Earth. Though it has a similar mass to the Sun{{mdash}}1.15 solar masses{{mdash}}it is significantly less dense with its radius of 5 solar radii. Its lone planet was discovered in 2010 by the radial velocity method, like several other exoplanets in the constellation.{{sfn\|Exoplanet Encyclopedia HD 212771 b}} As of 2013, there were only two known multiple-planet systems within the bounds of Aquarius: the Gliese 876 and HD 215152 systems. The former is quite prominent; the latter has only two planets and has a host star farther away at 21.5 parsecs. The HD 215152 system consists of the planets HD 215152 b and HD 215152 c orbiting their K0-type, magnitude 8.13 sun. Both discovered in 2011 by the radial velocity method, the two tiny planets orbit very close to their host star. HD 215152 c is the larger at 0.0097 Jupiter masses (still significantly larger than the Earth, which weighs in at 0.00315 Jupiter masses); its smaller sibling is barely smaller at 0.0087 Jupiter masses. The error in the mass measurements (0.0032 and {{Jupiter mass\|0.0049}} respectively) is large enough to make this discrepancy statistically insignificant. HD 215152 c also orbits further from the star than HD 215152 b, 0.0852&nbsp;AU compared to 0.0652.{{sfn\|Exoplanet Encyclopedia HD 215152 b}}{{sfn\|Exoplanet Encyclopedia HD 215152 c}} On 23 February 2017, NASA announced that ultracool dwarf star TRAPPIST-1 in Aquarius has seven Earth-like rocky planets.<ref name"Trappist-1">{{cite web\|titleNASA Telescope Reveals Largest Batch of Earth-Size, Habitable-Zone Planets Around Single Star\|urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-telescope-reveals-largest-batch-of-earth-size-habitable-zone-planets-around\|websiteNASA\|access-date23 February 2017\|date22 February 2017}}</ref> Of these, as many as four may lie within the system's habitable zone, and may have liquid water on their surfaces. The discovery of the TRAPPIST-1 system is seen by astronomers as a significant step toward finding life beyond Earth. Deep sky objects J2240 lies in the constellation of Aquarius<ref>{{cite press release \|titleGalaxy-wide Echoes from the Past \|url http://www.eso.org/public/news/eso1249/ \|access-date 7 December 2012 \|website ESO Press Release}}</ref>]] Because of its position away from the galactic plane, the majority of deep-sky objects in Aquarius are galaxies, globular clusters, and planetary nebulae.{{sfn\|Thompson\|Thompson\|2007}} Aquarius contains three deep sky objects that are in the Messier catalog: the globular clusters Messier&nbsp;2, Messier&nbsp;72, and the asterism Messier&nbsp;73. While M73 was originally catalogued as a sparsely populated open cluster, modern analysis indicates the 6 main stars are not close enough together to fit this definition, reclassifying M73 as an asterism.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Odenkirchen\|first1M.\|last2Soubiran\|first2C.\|date2002-02-01\|titleNGC 6994 – clearly not a physical stellar ensemble\|urlhttps://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/abs/2002/07/aa1843/aa1843.html\|journalAstronomy & Astrophysics\|languageen\|volume383\|issue1\|pages163–170\|doi10.1051/0004-6361:20011730\|arxivastro-ph/0111601\|bibcode2002A&A...383..163O\|s2cid15545816\|issn=0004-6361}}</ref> Two well-known planetary nebulae are also located in Aquarius: the Saturn Nebula (NGC&nbsp;7009), to the southeast of μ Aquarii; and the famous Helix Nebula (NGC&nbsp;7293), southwest of δ&nbsp;Aquarii. M2, also catalogued as NGC 7089, is a rich globular cluster located approximately 37,000 light-years from Earth. At magnitude 6.5, it is viewable in small-aperture instruments, but a 100&nbsp;mm aperture telescope is needed to resolve any stars. M72, also catalogued as NGC 6981, is a small 9th magnitude globular cluster located approximately 56,000 light-years from Earth.{{sfn\|Ridpath\|2001}} M73, also catalogued as NGC 6994, is an open cluster with highly disputed status. Aquarius is also home to several planetary nebulae. NGC 7009, also known as the Saturn Nebula, is an 8th magnitude planetary nebula located 3,000 light-years from Earth. It was given its moniker by the 19th century astronomer Lord Rosse for its resemblance to the planet Saturn in a telescope; it has faint protrusions on either side that resemble Saturn's rings. It appears blue-green in a telescope and has a central star of magnitude 11.3.{{sfn\|Ridpath\|2001}} Compared to the Helix Nebula, another planetary nebula in Aquarius, it is quite small.{{sfn\|Levy\|2005\|p132}} NGC 7293, also known as the Helix Nebula, is the closest planetary nebula to Earth at a distance of 650 light-years. It covers 0.25 square degrees, making it also the largest planetary nebula as seen from Earth. However, because it is so large, it is only viewable as a very faint object,{{sfn\|Ridpath\|2001}} though it has a fairly high integrated magnitude of 6.0.{{sfn\|Levy\|2005\|p131}} One of the visible galaxies in Aquarius is NGC 7727, of particular interest for amateur astronomers who wish to discover or observe supernovae. A spiral galaxy (type S), it has an integrated magnitude of 10.7 and is 3 by 3 arcseconds.{{sfn\|Sherrod\|Koed\|2003\|p222}} NGC 7252 is a tangle of stars resulting from the collision of two large galaxies and is known as the Atoms-for-Peace galaxy because of its resemblance to a cartoon atom.{{sfn\|APOD Atoms-for-Peace Galaxy}}Meteor showers There are three major meteor showers with radiants in Aquarius: the Eta Aquariids, the Delta Aquariids, and the Iota Aquariids. The Eta Aquariids are the strongest meteor shower radiating from Aquarius. It peaks between 5 and 6 May with a rate of approximately 35 meteors per hour.{{sfn\|Ridpath\|2001}} Originally discovered by Chinese astronomers in 401, Eta Aquariids can be seen coming from the Water Jar beginning on 21 April and as late as 12 May. The parent body of the shower is Halley's Comet, a periodic comet. Fireballs are common shortly after the peak, approximately between 9 May and 11 May. The normal meteors appear to have yellow trails.{{sfn\|Sherrod\|Koed\|2003\|p=52}} The Delta Aquariids is a double radiant meteor shower that peaks first on 29 July and second on 6 August. The first radiant is located in the south of the constellation, while the second radiant is located in the northern circlet of Pisces asterism. The southern radiant's peak rate is about 20 meteors per hour, while the northern radiant's peak rate is about 10 meteors per hour.{{sfn\|Ridpath\|2001}} The Iota Aquariids is a fairly weak meteor shower that peaks on 6 August, with a rate of approximately 8 meteors per hour.{{sfn\|Ridpath\|2001}} Astrology {{Main\|Aquarius (astrology)}} {{As of\|2002}}, the Sun appears in the constellation Aquarius from 16 February to 12 March. In tropical astrology, the Sun is considered to be in the sign Aquarius from 20 January to 19 February, and in sidereal astrology, from 15 February to 14 March. Aquarius is also associated with the Age of Aquarius, a concept popular in 1960s counterculture and Medieval Alchemy. The date of the start of The Age of Aquarius is a topic of much [https://www.theosophical.org/publications/quest-magazine/4505 debate]. Notes {{Reflist}} See also * Aquarius (Chinese astronomy) References {{Refbegin\|30em}} * {{citation \| url = http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap101116.html \| title = Atoms-for-Peace Galaxy Collision \| date = 16 November 2010 \| access-date = 22 August 2014 \| work = Astronomy Picture of the Day \| publisher = NASA \| ref = {{sfnRef\|APOD Atoms-for-Peace Galaxy}} }} * {{citation \| url = http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap980626.html \| title = A Planet for Gliese 876 \| date = 26 June 1998 \| access-date = 23 April 2012 \| work = Astronomy Picture of the Day \| publisher = NASA \| ref = {{sfnRef\|APOD Gliese 876}} }} * {{citation \|ref={{sfnRef\|Exoplanet Encyclopedia WASP-6}} \|url=http://voparis-exoplanet-new.obspm.fr/catalog/wasp-6_b/ \|title=Planet WASP-6 b \|encyclopedia=The Extrasolar Planet Encyclopedia \|publisher=Paris Observatory \|access-date=23 February 2013 \|date=8 April 2012 \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140314060600/http://voparis-exoplanet-new.obspm.fr/catalog/wasp-6_b/ \|archive-date=14 March 2014 }} * {{citation \|url http://exoplanet.eu/star.php?stGliese+876 \|title = Notes for star Gliese 876 \|access-date = 23 April 2012 \|ref = {{sfnRef\|Exoplanet Encyclopedia Gliese 876}} \|url-status = dead \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20120426090935/http://exoplanet.eu/star.php?stGliese+876 \|encyclopedia = Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia \|archive-date = 26 April 2012 }} * {{citation \| url http://exoplanet.eu/star.php?st91+Aqr \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110505014620/http://exoplanet.eu/star.php?st91+Aqr \| url-status = dead \| archive-date = 5 May 2011 \| title = Notes for star 91 Aqr \| access-date = 23 April 2012 \| encyclopedia = Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia \| ref = {{sfnRef\|Exoplanet Encyclopedia 91 Aqr}} }} * {{citation \| url http://exoplanet.eu/star.php?stGj+849 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20071106054024/http://exoplanet.eu/star.php?stGj+849 \| url-status = dead \| archive-date = 6 November 2007 \| title = Notes for star Gj 849 \| access-date = 23 April 2012 \| encyclopedia = Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia \| ref = {{sfnRef\|Exoplanet Encyclopedia Gj 849}} }} * {{citation \|ref={{sfnRef\|Exoplanet Encyclopedia HD 206610 b}} \|url=http://voparis-exoplanet-new.obspm.fr/catalog/hd_206610_b/ \|title=Planet HD 206610 b \|encyclopedia=The Extrasolar Planet Encyclopedia \|publisher=Paris Observatory \|access-date=21 March 2013 \|date=19 March 2010 \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140314061609/http://voparis-exoplanet-new.obspm.fr/catalog/hd_206610_b/ \|archive-date=14 March 2014 }} * {{citation \|ref={{sfnRef\|Exoplanet Encyclopedia WASP-47 b}} \|url=http://voparis-exoplanet-new.obspm.fr/catalog/wasp-47_b/ \|title=Planet WASP-47 b \|encyclopedia=The Extrasolar Planet Encyclopedia \|publisher=Paris Observatory \|access-date=21 March 2013 \|date=24 April 2012 \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140314061606/http://voparis-exoplanet-new.obspm.fr/catalog/wasp-47_b/ \|archive-date=14 March 2014 }} * {{citation \|ref={{sfnRef\|Exoplanet Encyclopedia HD 210277 b}} \|url=http://voparis-exoplanet-new.obspm.fr/catalog/hd_210277_b/ \|title=Planet HD 210277 b \|encyclopedia=The Extrasolar Planet Encyclopedia \|publisher=Paris Observatory \|access-date=22 March 2013 \|date=6 September 2006 \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140314072607/http://voparis-exoplanet-new.obspm.fr/catalog/hd_210277_b/ \|archive-date=14 March 2014 }} ** {{citation \|ref={{sfnRef\|Exoplanet Encyclopedia HD 212771 b}} \|url=http://voparis-exoplanet-new.obspm.fr/catalog/hd_212771_b/ \|title=Planet HD 212771 b \|encyclopedia=The Extrasolar Planet Encyclopedia \|publisher=Paris Observatory \|access-date=22 March 2013 \|date=19 March 2010 \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140314072432/http://voparis-exoplanet-new.obspm.fr/catalog/hd_212771_b/ \|archive-date=14 March 2014 }} * {{citation \|ref={{sfnRef\|Exoplanet Encyclopedia HD 215152 b}} \|url=http://voparis-exoplanet-new.obspm.fr/catalog/hd_215152_b/ \|title=Planet HD 215152 b \|encyclopedia=The Extrasolar Planet Encyclopedia \|publisher=Paris Observatory \|access-date=22 March 2013 \|date=12 September 2011 \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140314072429/http://voparis-exoplanet-new.obspm.fr/catalog/hd_215152_b/ \|archive-date=14 March 2014 }} * {{citation \|ref={{sfnRef\|Exoplanet Encyclopedia HD 215152 c}} \|url=http://voparis-exoplanet-new.obspm.fr/catalog/hd_215152_c/ \|title=Planet HD 215152 c \|encyclopedia=The Extrasolar Planet Encyclopedia \|publisher=Paris Observatory \|access-date=22 March 2013 \|date=12 September 2011 \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140314061417/http://voparis-exoplanet-new.obspm.fr/catalog/hd_215152_c/ \|archive-date=14 March 2014 }} * {{citation \| first = David H. \| last = Levy \| title = Deep Sky Objects \| publisher = Prometheus Books \| year = 2005 \| isbn = 978-1-59102-361-6 \| url-access = registration \| url = https://archive.org/details/deepskyobjects00davi }} * {{citation \| title = Cambridge Guide to Stars and Planets \| last1 = Moore \| first1 = Patrick \| last2 = Tirion \| first2 = Wil \| publisher = Cambridge University Press \| edition = 2nd \| date = 1997 \| isbn = 978-0-521-58582-8 \| url-access = registration \| url = https://archive.org/details/cambridgeguideto00moor }} * {{citation \| title = The Data Book of Astronomy \| last = Moore \| first = Patrick \| date = 2000 \| publisher = Institute of Physics Publishing \| isbn = 978-0-7503-0620-1 }} * {{citation \| last = Ridpath \| first = Ian \| others = Wil Tirion \| date = 2001 \| title = Stars and Planets Guide \| edition = 3rd \| publisher = Princeton University Press \| isbn = 978-0-691-08913-3 }} * {{citation \| last1 = Ridpath \| first1 = Ian \| last2 = Tirion \| first2 = Wil \| date = 2007 \| title = Stars and Planets Guide \| edition = 4th \| location = Collins, London \| isbn = 978-0691135564 \| publisher = Princeton University Press }} * {{citation \| last = Ridpath \| first = Ian \| title = Aquarius \| work = Star Tales \| url = http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/aquarius.html \| access-date = 14 March 2013 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|Star Tales}} }} * {{citation \| last1 = Sherrod \| first1 = P. Clay \| last2 = Koed \| first2 = Thomas L. \| date = 2003 \| title = A Complete Manual of Amateur Astronomy: Tools and Techniques for Astronomical Observations \| publisher = Courier Dover Publications \| isbn = 9780486152165 }} * {{citation \| url http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-basic?Identalf+aqr \| title = Sadalmelik \| access-date = 23 April 2012 \| publisher = SIMBAD \| ref = {{sfnRef\|SIMBAD Sadalmelik}} }} * {{citation \| url http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Identbeta+aquarii&NbIdent1&Radius2&Radius.unitarcmin&submitsubmit+id \| title = bet Aqr \| access-date = 24 April 2012 \| publisher = SIMBAD \| ref = {{sfnRef\|SIMBAD Beta Aquarii}} }} * {{citation \| url http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?identgamma+aquarii&NbIdent1&Radius2&Radius.unitarcmin&submitsubmit+id \| title = gam Aqr \| publisher = SIMBAD \| access-date = 24 April 2012 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|SIMBAD Gamma Aquarii}} }} * {{citation \| title = The New Patterns in the Sky: Myths and Legends of the Stars \| last = Staal \| first = Julius D.W. \| publisher = The McDonald and Woodward Publishing Company \| date = 1988 \| edition = 2nd \| isbn = 978-0-939923-04-5 }} * {{citation \| title = Illustrated Guide to Astronomical Wonders \| last1 = Thompson \| first1 = Robert Bruce \| last2 = Thompson \| first2 = Barbara Fritchman \| publisher = O'Reilly Media \| date = 2007 \| isbn = 978-0-596-52685-6 }} * {{citation \| title = Early Astronomy \| last = Thurston \| first = Hugh \| date=1996 \| publisher = Springer \| isbn = 978-0-387-94822-5 }} {{Refend}} External links {{Commons and category\|Aquarius\|Aquarius (constellation)}} * [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/aquarius/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Aquarius] * [http://astrojan.nhely.hu/aqua.htm The clickable Aquarius] * [https://iconographic.warburg.sas.ac.uk/category/vpc-taxonomy-017069 Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Aquarius)] {{Stars of Aquarius}} {{Constellations}} {{Zodiac}} {{Portal bar\|Astronomy\|Stars\|Outer space}} {{Authority control}} {{Sky\|23\|00\|00\|-\|15\|00\|00\|10}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Aquarius (Constellation)}} Category:Constellations Category:Equatorial constellations Category:Constellations listed by Ptolemy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarius_(constellation)	2025-04-05T18:25:22.436813
800	Anime	{{Short description\|Japanese animation}} {{hatnote group\| {{redirect\|Animé\|the sap\|Hymenaea courbaril}} {{Distinguish\|Amine}} }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{pp-vandalism\|small=yes}} {{Use American English\|date=April 2020}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=April 2020}} {{Infobox comics nationality\|lang1Japanese\|related articles{{flatlist}} * Manga * Manhua * Manhwa * OVA/ONA * Light novel * Visual novel {{endflatlist}}\|image\|captionTrailer for the 2022 anime Heroines Run the Show \|notable publishersList of anime companies\|notable seriesLists of anime}}{{Anime and manga\|Anime}} {{Culture of Japan}} {{Nihongo\|Anime\|アニメ\|\|{{IPA\|ja\|aꜜɲime\|IPA\|Ja-Anime.oga}}{{efn\|{{IPAc-en\|lang\|ˈ\|æ\|n\|ɪ\|m\|eɪ}}}}; derived from a shortening of English animation\|leadyes}} is hand-drawn and computer-generated animation originating from Japan. Outside Japan and in English, anime refers specifically to animation produced in Japan.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastAshcraft \|firstBrian \|date2021-05-18 \|titleWhat "Anime" Means \|urlhttps://kotaku.com/what-anime-means-1689582070 \|access-date2022-03-02 \|websiteKotaku \|languageen \|archive-dateMarch 2, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220302020009/https://kotaku.com/what-anime-means-1689582070 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> However, {{lang\|ja-latn\|anime}}, in Japan and in Japanese, describes all animated works, regardless of style or origin. Many works of animation with a similar style to Japanese animation are also produced outside Japan. Video games sometimes also feature themes and art styles that are sometimes labelled as anime. The earliest commercial Japanese animation dates to 1917. A characteristic art style emerged in the 1960s with the works of cartoonist Osamu Tezuka and spread in the following decades, developing a large domestic audience. Anime is distributed theatrically, through television broadcasts, directly to home media, and over the Internet. In addition to original works, anime are often adaptations of Japanese comics (manga), light novels, or video games. It is classified into numerous genres targeting various broad and niche audiences.<ref>{{cite web\|authorMinistry of Economy, Trade and Industry\|urlhttps://artsandculture.google.com/story/0QXxgxls0jJ5Kg\|titleManga and Anime\|websiteGoogle Arts and Culture\|date2020\|access-dateOctober 27, 2023\|archive-dateOctober 27, 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231027160025/https://artsandculture.google.com/story/0QXxgxls0jJ5Kg\|url-status=live}}</ref> Anime is a diverse medium with distinctive production methods that have adapted in response to emergent technologies. It combines graphic art, characterization, cinematography, and other forms of imaginative and individualistic techniques.{{sfn\|Craig\|2000\|pp139–140}} Compared to Western animation, anime production generally focuses less on movement, and more on the detail of settings and use of "camera effects", such as panning, zooming, and angle shots.{{sfn\|Craig\|2000\|pp139–140}} Diverse art styles are used, and character proportions and features can be quite varied, with a common characteristic feature being large and emotive eyes.<ref>{{cite news \|lastAshcraft \|firstBrian \|date21 September 2016 \|titleA Serious Look at Big Anime Eyes \|urlhttps://kotaku.com/a-serious-look-at-big-anime-eyes-1737751337 \|workKotaku \|access-date4 January 2020 \|archive-dateFebruary 4, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210204054308/https://kotaku.com/a-serious-look-at-big-anime-eyes-1737751337 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The anime industry consists of over 430 production companies, including major studios such as Studio Ghibli, Kyoto Animation, Sunrise, Bones, Ufotable, MAPPA, Wit Studio, CoMix Wave Films, Madhouse, Inc., TMS Entertainment, Pierrot, Production I.G, Nippon Animation and Toei Animation. Since the 1980s, the medium has also seen widespread international success with the rise of foreign dubbed, subtitled programming, and since the 2010s due to the rise of streaming services and a widening demographic embrace of anime culture, both within Japan and worldwide.<ref>{{cite web \|lastBrzeski \|firstPatrick \|date16 May 2022 \|titleHow Japanese Anime Became the World's Most Bankable Genre \|urlhttps://www.hollywoodreporter.com/business/business-news/cannes-japanese-anime-worlds-most-bankable-genre-1235146810/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221206221632/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/business/business-news/japanese-anime-worlds-most-bankable-genre-1235146810/ \|archive-dateDec 6, 2022 \|websiteThe Hollywood Reporter}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.vfxvoice.com/decades-of-growth-rise-of-vod-and-streaming-trigger-anime-avalanche/\|titleDecades of Growth, Rise of VOD and Streaming Trigger Anime Avalanche\|websitevfxvoice\|dateOctober 3, 2022 }}</ref> {{As of\|2016\|post,}} Japanese animation accounted for 60% of the world's animated television shows.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Napier \|first1Susan J. \|titleAnime from Akira to Howl's Moving Castle: Experiencing Contemporary Japanese Animation \|date2016 \|publisherSt. Martin's Press \|isbn9781250117724 \|page10 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idUnuLCwAAQBAJ&pgPR10 \|access-dateFebruary 14, 2019 \|archive-dateSeptember 24, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230924132817/https://books.google.com/books?idUnuLCwAAQBAJ&pgPR10 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Etymology As a type of animation, anime is an art form that comprises many genres found in other mediums; it is sometimes mistakenly classified as a genre itself.{{sfn\|Poitras\|2000\|p7}} In Japanese, the term anime is used to refer to all animated works, regardless of style or origin.<ref>{{cite web\|year2007 \|titleTezuka: The Marvel of Manga - Education Kit \|urlhttp://www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au/__data/page/9842/Tezuka_Kit_1.pdf \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070830033821/http://artgallery.nsw.gov.au/__data/page/9842/Tezuka_Kit_1.pdf <!--DASHBot--> \|archive-date30 August 2007 \|access-date28 October 2007 \|publisherArt Gallery New South Wales}}</ref> English-language dictionaries typically define anime ({{IPAc-en\|ˈ\|æ\|n\|ɪ\|m\|eɪ}})<ref>{{cite web \|titleAnime - Meaning \|urlhttps://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/anime \|access-date4 July 2019 \|workCambridge English Dictionary \|archive-dateJuly 2, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190702192632/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/anime \|url-statuslive }}</ref> as "a style of Japanese animation"<ref name"lexico">{{cite web \|titleAnime \|urlhttps://www.lexico.com/en/definition/anime \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200303181402/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/anime \|url-statusdead \|archive-dateMarch 3, 2020 \|websiteLexico \|publisherOxford University Press \|access-date7 September 2020 \|languageen}}</ref> or as "a style of animation originating in Japan".<ref>{{cite web \|titleAnime \|urlhttps://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anime \|publisherMerriam-Webster \|access-date7 September 2020 \|languageen \|archive-dateFebruary 2, 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130202013521/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anime \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Other definitions are based on origin, making production in Japan a requisite for a work to be considered "anime".<ref name"anna">{{cite web \|titleLexicon - Anime \|urlhttps://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/lexicon.php?id45 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200830144913/https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/lexicon.php?id45 \|archive-dateAugust 30, 2020 \|access-date12 September 2020 \|websiteAnime News Network}}</ref> The etymology of the term anime is disputed. The English word "animation" is written in Japanese katakana as {{lang\|ja\|アニメーション}} ({{transliteration\|ja\|Hepburn\|animēshon}}) and as {{lang\|ja\|アニメ}} ({{transliteration\|ja\|Hepburn\|anime}}, {{IPA\|ja\|a.ɲi.me\|pron\|Anime.ogg}}) in its shortened form.<ref nameanna /> Some sources claim that the term is derived from the French term for animation {{lang\|fr\|dessin animé}} ("cartoon", literally 'animated drawing'),<ref>{{cite book\|firstRichard W.\|lastKroon\|titleA/V A to Z: An Encyclopedic Dictionary of Media, Entertainment and Other Audiovisual Terms\|publisherMcFarland\|year2010\|isbn978-0-7864-5740-3\|page48\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHjmNAgAAQBAJ&pgPA48\|access-dateMay 15, 2023\|archive-dateMay 15, 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230515215928/https://books.google.com/books?idHjmNAgAAQBAJ&pgPA48\|url-statuslive}}</ref> but others believe this to be a myth derived from the popularity of anime in France in the late 1970s and 1980s.<ref nameanna/> In English, anime—when used as a common noun—normally functions as a mass noun. (For example: "Do you watch anime?" or "How much anime have you watched?")<ref>{{cite encyclopedia\|dictionaryAmerican Heritage Dictionary \|edition4th \|titleAnime}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleAnime \|urlhttps://www.dictionary.com/browse/anime \|websiteDictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1) \|access-date21 March 2023 \|archive-dateMarch 31, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230331214659/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/anime \|url-statuslive }}</ref> As with a few other Japanese words, such as saké and Pokémon, English texts sometimes spell anime as animé (as in French), with an acute accent over the final e, to cue the reader to pronounce the letter, not to leave it silent as English orthography may suggest. Prior to the widespread use of anime, the term Japanimation, a portmanteau of Japan and animation, was prevalent throughout the 1970s and 1980s. In the mid-1980s, the term anime began to supplant Japanimation;{{sfn\|Patten\|2004\|pp85–86}} in general, the latter term now only appears in period works where it is used to distinguish and identify Japanese animation.{{sfn\|Patten\|2004\|pp69–70}} History {{Main\|History of anime}} Precursors {{Lang\|ja-latn\|Emakimono}} and shadow plays (kage-e) are considered precursors of Japanese animation.<ref name":1">{{cite book\|lastNovielli \|firstMaria Roberta \|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1020690005 \|titleFloating worlds: a short history of Japanese animation \|date2018 \|isbn978-1-351-33482-2 \|locationBoca Raton \|oclc1020690005}}</ref> {{Lang\|ja-latn\|Emakimono}} was common in the eleventh century. Traveling storytellers narrated legends and anecdotes while the {{lang\|ja-latn\|emakimono}} was unrolled from the right to left in chronological order, as a moving panorama.<ref name":1" /> Kage-e was popular during the Edo period and originated from the shadow plays of China.<ref name":1" /> Magic lanterns from the Netherlands were also popular in the eighteenth century.<ref name":1" /> The paper play called kamishibai surged in the twelfth century and remained popular in the street theater until the 1930s.<ref name":1" /> Puppets of the Bunraku theater and ukiyo-e prints are considered ancestors of characters of most Japanese animation.<ref name":1" /> Finally, manga were a heavy inspiration for anime. Cartoonists Kitzawa Rakuten and Okamoto Ippei used film elements in their strips.<ref name":1" /> Pioneers (1917), the oldest surviving Japanese animated short film made for cinemas]] Animation in Japan began in the early 20th century, when filmmakers started to experiment with techniques pioneered in France, Germany, the United States, and Russia.{{sfn\|Schodt\|1997}} A claim for the earliest Japanese animation is Katsudō Shashin'' ({{circa\|1907}}),<ref>{{cite web\|lastLitten \|firstFrederick S. \|titleJapanese color animation from ca.&nbsp;1907 to 1945 \|urlhttp://litten.de/fulltext/color.pdf \|date29 June 2014 \|access-date23 September 2020 \|page14 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200918032148/http://litten.de/fulltext/color.pdf \|archive-date18 September 2020}}</ref> a private work by an unknown creator.{{sfn\|Clements\|McCarthy\|2006\|p169}} In 1917, the first professional and publicly displayed works began to appear; animators such as Ōten Shimokawa, Seitarō Kitayama, and Jun'ichi Kōuchi (considered the "fathers of anime") produced numerous films, the oldest surviving of which is Kōuchi's Namakura Gatana.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://litten.de/fulltext/ani1917.pdf \|titleSome remarks on the first Japanese animation films in 1917 \|lastLitten \|firstFrederick S. \|access-date11 July 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140810001217/http://litten.de/fulltext/ani1917.pdf \|archive-date10 August 2014 \|url-statuslive \|dfmdy-all }}</ref> Many early works were lost with the destruction of Shimokawa's warehouse in the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake.{{sfn\|Clements\|McCarthy\|2006\|p170}} By the mid-1930s, animation was well-established in Japan as an alternative format to the live-action industry. It suffered competition from foreign producers, such as Disney, and many animators, including Noburō Ōfuji and Yasuji Murata, continued to work with cheaper cutout animation rather than cel animation.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.midnighteye.com/features/pioneers-of-anime.shtml \|titlePioneers of Japanese Animation (Part 1) \|lastSharp \|firstJasper \|date23 September 2004 \|publisherMidnight Eye \|access-date11 December 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100117151328/http://www.midnighteye.com/features/pioneers-of-anime.shtml \|archive-date17 January 2010 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Other creators, including Kenzō Masaoka and Mitsuyo Seo, nevertheless made great strides in technique, benefiting from the patronage of the government, which employed animators to produce educational shorts and propaganda.<ref>{{cite book\|author-last1Yamaguchi \|author-first1Katsunori \|author-first2Yasushi \|author-last2Watanabe \|titleNihon animēshon eigashi \|publisherYūbunsha \|year1977 \|pages26–37}}</ref> In 1940, the government dissolved several artists' organizations to form the {{nihongo foot\|Shin Nippon Mangaka Kyōkai.\|新日本漫画家協会\|\|{{lit}} "New Japan Manga Artist Association"\|grouplower-alpha\|leadyes}}{{sfn\|Kinsella\|2000\|p22}} The first talkie anime was Chikara to Onna no Yo no Naka (1933), a short film produced by Masaoka.{{sfn\|Baricordi\|2000\|page12}}<ref name"kodanasha1993">{{cite book \|titleJapan: An Illustrated Encyclopedia \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/japanillustrated01koda \|url-accessregistration \|year1993 \|publisherKodansha \|locationTokyo, Japan \|isbn978-4-06-206489-7}}</ref> The first feature-length anime film was Momotaro: Sacred Sailors (1945), produced by Seo with a sponsorship from the Imperial Japanese Navy.<ref>{{cite AV media \|titleOfficial booklet, The Roots of Japanese Anime \|typeDVD \|publisherZakka Films \|date2009}}</ref> The 1950s saw a proliferation of short, animated advertisements created for television.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Douglass \|first1Jason Cody \|titleBeyond Anime? Rethinking Japanese Animation Through Early Animated Television Commercials \|date2019 \|publisherPalgrave MacMillan \|isbn9783030279394 \|page213 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7_rEDwAAQBAJ&qanimation+and+advertising}}</ref> Modern era '']] In the 1960s, manga artist and animator Osamu Tezuka adapted and simplified Disney animation techniques to reduce costs and limit frame counts in his productions.{{sfn\|Brenner\|2007\|p6}} Originally intended as temporary measures to allow him to produce material on a tight schedule with inexperienced staff, many of his limited animation practices came to define the medium's style.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://novaonline.nvcc.edu/eli/evans/his135/Events/Anime62/Anime62.html \|titleThe History of Anime & Manga \|lastZagzoug \|firstMarwa \|dateApril 2001 \|publisherNorthern Virginia Community College \|access-date22 November 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130519110530/http://novaonline.nvcc.edu/eli/evans/his135/Events/Anime62/Anime62.html \|archive-date19 May 2013 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Three Tales (1960) was the first anime film broadcast on television;{{sfn\|Patten\|2004\|p271}} the first anime television series was Instant History (1961–64).{{sfn\|Patten\|2004\|p=219}} An early and influential success was Astro Boy (1963–66), a television series directed by Tezuka based on his manga of the same name. Many animators at Tezuka's Mushi Production later established major anime studios (including Madhouse, Sunrise, and Pierrot). The 1970s saw growth in the popularity of manga, many of which were later animated. Tezuka's work—and that of other pioneers in the field—inspired characteristics and genres that remain fundamental elements of anime today. The giant robot genre (also known as "mecha"), for instance, took shape under Tezuka, developed into the super robot genre under Go Nagai and others, and was revolutionized at the end of the decade by Yoshiyuki Tomino, who developed the real robot genre.{{sfn\|Patten\|2004\|p264}} Robot anime series such as Gundam and Super Dimension Fortress Macross became instant classics in the 1980s, and the genre remained one of the most popular in the following decades.{{sfn\|Patten\|2004\|pp306–307}} The bubble economy of the 1980s spurred a new era of high-budget and experimental anime films, including Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984), Royal Space Force: The Wings of Honnêamise (1987), and Akira (1988).{{sfn\|Le Blanc\|Odell\|2017\|page=56}} Neon Genesis Evangelion (1995), a television series produced by Gainax and directed by Hideaki Anno, began another era of experimental anime titles, such as Ghost in the Shell (1995) and Cowboy Bebop (1998). In the 1990s, anime also began attracting greater interest in Western countries; major international successes include Sailor Moon and Dragon Ball Z, both of which were dubbed into more than a dozen languages worldwide. In 2003, Spirited Away, a Studio Ghibli feature film directed by Hayao Miyazaki, won the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature at the 75th Academy Awards. It later became the highest-grossing anime film,{{efn\|Spirited Away was later surpassed as the highest-grossing anime film by Your Name (2016).}} earning more than $355&nbsp;million. Since the 2000s, an increased number of anime works have been adaptations of light novels and visual novels; successful examples include The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya and Fate/stay night (both 2006). Demon Slayer: Kimetsu no Yaiba the Movie: Mugen Train became the highest-grossing Japanese film and one of the world's highest-grossing films of 2020.<ref name"bbc1">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-54730487 \|titleHow a demon-slaying film is drawing Japan back to the cinemas \|date31 October 2020 \|websiteBBC \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201103161257/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-54730487 \|archive-date3 November 2020}}</ref><ref name"bbc">{{cite web \|dateOctober 31, 2020 \|titleHow a demon-slaying film is drawing Japan back to the cinemas \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-54730487 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201103161257/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-54730487 \|archive-dateNovember 3, 2020 \|websiteBBC}}</ref> It also became the fastest grossing film in Japanese cinema, because in 10 days it made 10 billion yen ($95.3m; £72m).<ref name"bbc"/> It beat the previous record of Spirited Away which took 25 days.<ref name"bbc"/><ref>{{cite web \|dateNovember 14, 2020 \|titleThe world is watching more anime and streaming services are buying \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/the-world-is-watching-more-animeand-streaming-services-are-buying-11605365629 \|websiteThe Wall Street Journal \|access-dateNovember 9, 2021 \|archive-dateApril 22, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220422222339/https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-world-is-watching-more-animeand-streaming-services-are-buying-11605365629 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|dateJune 5, 2021 \|titleStreaming and covid-19 have entrenched anime's global popularity \|newspaperThe Economist \|urlhttps://www.economist.com/business/2021/06/05/streaming-and-covid-19-have-entrenched-animes-global-popularity \|access-dateNovember 9, 2021 \|archive-dateNovember 9, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211109124437/https://www.economist.com/business/2021/06/05/streaming-and-covid-19-have-entrenched-animes-global-popularity \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|date11 May 2023 \|titleStreaming giants battle for anime supremacy \|urlhttps://www.straitstimes.com/life/entertainment/streaming-giants-battle-for-anime-supremacy \|websiteThe Straits Times \|access-dateNovember 4, 2023 \|archive-dateJune 7, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230607235146/https://www.straitstimes.com/life/entertainment/streaming-giants-battle-for-anime-supremacy \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|date12 May 2023 \|titleStreaming giants battle to be top platform for Japanese anime \|urlhttps://www.scmp.com/video/asia/3220322/streaming-giants-battle-be-top-platform-japanese-anime \|websiteSouth China Morning Post \|access-dateNovember 4, 2023 \|archive-dateMay 29, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230529161703/https://www.scmp.com/video/asia/3220322/streaming-giants-battle-be-top-platform-japanese-anime \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In 2021, the anime adaptations of Jujutsu Kaisen, Demon Slayer: Kimetsu no Yaiba and Tokyo Revengers were among the top 10 most discussed TV shows worldwide on Twitter.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://blog.twitter.com/en_us/topics/insights/2021/2021--onlyontwitter\|title2021 #OnlyOnTwitter\|date9 December 2021\|websiteTwitter\|access-dateNovember 4, 2023\|archive-dateDecember 9, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211209171456/https://blog.twitter.com/en_us/topics/insights/2021/2021--onlyontwitter\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"ktops">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.cbr.com/jujutsu-kaisen-squid-game-wandavision-twitter-2021/\|titleJujutsu Kaisen Tops Squid Game, Wandavision in Social Media's 2021 Discussions\|date9 December 2021\|websiteCBR\|access-dateDecember 16, 2021\|archive-dateMarch 10, 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220310061915/https://www.cbr.com/jujutsu-kaisen-squid-game-wandavision-twitter-2021/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2022, Attack on Titan won the award of "Most In-Demand TV Series in the World 2021" in the Global TV Demand Awards. Attack on Titan became the first ever non-English language series to earn the title of World's Most In-Demand TV Show, previously held by only The Walking Dead and Game of Thrones.<ref name"WFMZ-TV">{{Cite web\|titleAnime and Asian series dominate 4th Annual Global TV Demand Awards, highlighting industry and consumer trends towards international content\|urlhttps://www.wfmz.com/news/pr_newswire/pr_newswire_entertainment/anime-and-asian-series-dominate-4th-annual-global-tv-demand-awards-highlighting-industry-and-consumer/article_28591ec0-befe-57c6-99c3-eebe66ad66c5.html\|dateJanuary 25, 2022\|access-dateJanuary 27, 2022\|publisherWFMZ-TV\|archive-dateMarch 28, 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220328045603/https://www.wfmz.com/news/pr_newswire/pr_newswire_entertainment/anime-and-asian-series-dominate-4th-annual-global-tv-demand-awards-highlighting-industry-and-consumer/article_28591ec0-befe-57c6-99c3-eebe66ad66c5.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2024, Jujutsu Kaisen broke the Guinness World Record for the "Most in-demand animated TV show" with a global demand rating 71.2 times than that of the average TV show, previously held by Attack on Titan.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/566389-most-in-demand-animated-tv-show\|titleMost in-demand animated TV show\|workGuinness World Records\|access-dateApril 5, 2024\|archive-dateApril 5, 2024\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240405002815/https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/566389-most-in-demand-animated-tv-show\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|lastMateo\|firstAlex\|titleGuinness World Records Names Jujutsu Kaisen 'Most In-Demand Animated TV Show'\|urlhttps://www.animenewsnetwork.com/interest/2024-04-05/guinness-world-records-names-jujutsu-kaisen-most-in-demand-animated-tv-show/.209592\|websiteAnime News Network\|dateApril 5, 2024\|access-dateApril 5, 2024\|archive-dateApril 5, 2024\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240405204400/https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/interest/2024-04-05/guinness-world-records-names-jujutsu-kaisen-most-in-demand-animated-tv-show/.209592\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Attributes , Flag, Serial Experiments Lain, Monster, Mind Game, Lucky Star, Cat Soup, and Gurren Lagann.]] Anime differs from other forms of animation by its art styles, methods of animation, its production, and its process. Visually, anime works exhibit a wide variety of art styles, differing between creators, artists, and studios.{{sfn\|Brenner\|2007\|p=231}} While no single art style predominates anime as a whole, they do share some similar attributes in terms of animation technique and character design. Anime is fundamentally characterized by the use of limited animation, flat expression, the suspension of time, its thematic range, the presence of historical figures, its complex narrative line and, above all, a peculiar drawing style, with characters characterized by large and oval eyes, with very defined lines, bright colors and reduced movement of the lips.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastHorno Lopez \|firstAntonio \|year2012 \|titleControversia sobre el origen del anime. Una nueva perspectiva sobre el primer dibujo animado japonés \|urlhttps://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/CAA/article/view/1055 \|journalCon a de animación \|locationSpain \|publisherTechnical University of Valencia \|issue2 \|pages106–107 \|doi10.4995/caa.2012.1055 \|issn2173-3511 \|doi-accessfree \|hdl10251/14879 \|hdl-accessfree \|access-dateMarch 31, 2022 \|archive-dateApril 22, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220422112422/https://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/CAA/article/view/1055 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis \|lastHorno Lopez \|firstAntonio \|year2014 \|titleAnimación japonesa: análisis de series de anime actuales \|trans-titleJapanese Animation: Analysis of Current Anime Series" \|urlhttps://digibug.ugr.es/handle/10481/34010 \|hdl10481/34010 \|typeDoctoral thesis \|publisherUniversity of Granada \|page4 \|isbn9788490830222 \|access-dateMarch 29, 2022 \|archive-dateMarch 29, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220329222830/https://digibug.ugr.es/handle/10481/34010 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Technique Modern anime follows a typical animation production process, involving storyboarding, voice acting, character design, and cel production. Since the 1990s, animators have increasingly used computer animation to improve the efficiency of the production process. Early anime works were experimental, and consisted of images drawn on blackboards, stop motion animation of paper cutouts, and silhouette animation.<ref name"Jouvanceau2004"/><ref name"Cinémathèque2008">{{cite web\|year2008\|titleTribute to Noburō Ōfuji\|urlhttp://www.cinematheque.qc.ca/animation_japonaise.pdf\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080819214736/http://www.cinematheque.qc.ca/animation_japonaise.pdf\|archive-dateAugust 19, 2008\|access-dateJuly 21, 2008\|workTo the Source of Anime: Japanese Animation\|publisherCinémathèque québécoise}}</ref> Cel animation grew in popularity until it came to dominate the medium. In the 21st century, the use of other animation techniques is mostly limited to independent short films,<ref name"Sharp2003">{{cite web\|lastSharp\|firstJasper\|titleBeyond Anime: A Brief Guide to Experimental Japanese Animation\|workMidnight Eye\|year2003\|urlhttp://www.midnighteye.com/features/beyond_anime.shtml\|access-dateJuly 21, 2008\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080725193748/http://www.midnighteye.com/features/beyond_anime.shtml\| archive-dateJuly 25, 2008 \| url-statuslive}}</ref> including the stop motion puppet animation work produced by Tadahito Mochinaga, Kihachirō Kawamoto and Tomoyasu Murata.<ref name"Sharp2004">{{cite web\|lastSharp\|firstJasper\|titleInterview with Kihachirō Kawamoto\|workMidnight Eye\|year2004\|urlhttp://www.midnighteye.com/interviews/kihachiro_kawamoto.shtml\|access-dateJuly 21, 2008\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080919075703/http://www.midnighteye.com/interviews/kihachiro_kawamoto.shtml\|archive-dateSeptember 19, 2008\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|lastMunroe Hotes\|firstCatherine\|titleTomoyasu Murata and Company\|workMidnight Eye\|year2008\|urlhttp://www.midnighteye.com/features/tomoyasu-murata-and-company.shtml\|access-dateJuly 21, 2008\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080527065156/http://www.midnighteye.com/features/tomoyasu-murata-and-company.shtml\|archive-dateMay 27, 2008\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Computers were integrated into the animation process in the 1990s, with works such as Ghost in the Shell and Princess Mononoke mixing cel animation with computer-generated images.{{sfn\|Poitras\|2000\|p29}} Fuji Film, a major cel production company, announced it would stop cel production, producing an industry panic to procure cel imports and hastening the switch to digital processes.{{sfn\|Poitras\|2000\|p=29}} Prior to the digital era, anime was produced with traditional animation methods using a pose to pose approach.<ref name"Jouvanceau2004">{{cite book\|lastJouvanceau \|firstPierre \|translatorClare Kitson \|titleThe Silhouette Film \|publisherLe Mani \|year2004 \|locationGenoa \|page103 \|urlhttp://www.heeza.fr/description.php?lang2&path64&sortArticle&page0&id296 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080320051512/http://www.heeza.fr/description.php?lang2&path64&sortArticle&page0&id296 \|url-statusdead \|archive-dateMarch 20, 2008 \|isbn88-8012-299-1 \|access-dateAugust 8, 2009 }}</ref> The majority of mainstream anime uses fewer expressive key frames and more in-between animation.<ref nameANNKeyAnimation>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.animenewsnetwork.com/chicks-on-anime/2008-11-04 \|last1Dong \|first1Bamboo \|last2Brienza \|first2Casey \|last3Pocock \|first3Sara \|titleA Look at Key Animation \|seriesChicks on Anime \|workAnime News Network \|dateNovember 4, 2008 \|access-dateSeptember 30, 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121110054551/http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/chicks-on-anime/2008-11-04 \|archive-dateNovember 10, 2012 \|url-status=live }}</ref> Japanese animation studios were pioneers of many limited animation techniques, and have given anime a distinct set of conventions. Unlike Disney animation, where the emphasis is on the movement, anime emphasizes the art quality and let limited animation techniques make up for the lack of time spent on movement. Such techniques are often used not only to meet deadlines but also as artistic devices.<ref name"ChicksOnAnimeSep2008">{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.animenewsnetwork.com/chicks-on-anime/2008-09-16 \|last1Dong \|first1Bamboo \|last2Brienza \|first2Casey \|last3Pocock \|first3Sara \|last4Sevakis \|first4Robin \|titleChicks on Anime - Sep 16th 2008 \|seriesChicks on Anime \|workAnime News Network \|dateSeptember 16, 2008 \|access-dateSeptember 30, 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121108150611/http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/chicks-on-anime/2008-09-16 \|archive-dateNovember 8, 2012 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Anime scenes place emphasis on achieving three-dimensional views, and backgrounds are instrumental in creating the atmosphere of the work.{{sfn\|Schodt\|1997}} The backgrounds are not always invented and are occasionally based on real locations, as exemplified in Howl's Moving Castle and The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya''.<ref>{{cite web\| urlhttp://www.rinku.zaq.ne.jp/p_v/haruhi.html\| title Reference pictures to actual places\| access-dateJanuary 25, 2007\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20070126012418/http://www.rinku.zaq.ne.jp/p_v/haruhi.html\| archive-dateJanuary 26, 2007\| url-statusdead\| dfmdy-all}}</ref>{{better source needed\|dateJune 2024}} Oppliger stated that anime is one of the rare mediums where putting together an all-star cast usually comes out looking "tremendously impressive".<ref>{{cite web\|lastOppliger\|firstJohn\|dateOctober 1, 2012\|titleAsk John: What Determines a Show's Animation Quality?\|urlhttp://www.animenation.net/blog/2012/10/01/ask-john-what-determines-a-shows-animation-quality/\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121015212153/http://www.animenation.net/blog/2012/10/01/ask-john-what-determines-a-shows-animation-quality/\|archive-dateOctober 15, 2012\|access-dateOctober 28, 2012\|publisherAnimeNation}}</ref> The cinematic effects of anime differentiates itself from the stage plays found in American animation. Anime is cinematically shot as if by camera, including panning, zooming, distance and angle shots to more complex dynamic shots that would be difficult to produce in reality.{{sfn\|Poitras\|2000\|p58}}<ref name"production">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.huitula.com/productionIG2_page2.htm\|titleAnime production process - feature film\|year2000\|access-dateAugust 27, 2007\|workPRODUCTION I.G\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20070815101432/http://www.huitula.com/productionIG2_page2.htm\| archive-dateAugust 15, 2007 \| url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.understandinganime.com/cinematography.php \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070122113832/http://www.understandinganime.com/cinematography.php \|url-statususurped \|archive-dateJanuary 22, 2007 \|titleCinematography: Looping and Animetion Techniques \|year1999 \|access-dateAugust 29, 2007 \|workUnderstanding Anime}}</ref> In anime, the animation is produced before the voice acting, contrary to American animation which does the voice acting first.{{sfn\|Poitras\|2000\|p59}} Characters (1970), Macross: Do You Remember Love? (1984), Ghost in the Shell (1995), K-On! (2009), Your Name (2016), The Hidden Dungeon Only I Can Enter (2021), Fruits Basket (2001), and Rurouni Kenshin (1996). ]] The body proportions of human anime characters tend to accurately reflect the proportions of the human body in reality. The height of the head is considered by the artist as the base unit of proportion. Head to height ratios vary drastically by art style, with most anime characters falling between 5 and 8 heads tall. Anime artists occasionally make deliberate modifications to body proportions to produce chibi characters that feature a disproportionately small body compared to the head; many chibi characters are two to four heads tall. Some anime works like Crayon Shin-chan'' completely disregard these proportions, in such a way that they resemble caricatured Western cartoons. A common anime character design convention is exaggerated eye size. The animation of characters with large eyes in anime can be traced back to Osamu Tezuka, who was deeply influenced by such early animation characters as Betty Boop, who was drawn with disproportionately large eyes.{{sfn\|Brenner\|2007\|pp6–7}} Tezuka is a central figure in anime and manga history, whose iconic art style and character designs allowed for the entire range of human emotions to be depicted solely through the eyes.{{sfn\|Poitras\|2000\|p60}} The artist adds variable color shading to the eyes and particularly to the cornea to give them greater depth. Generally, a mixture of a light shade, the tone color, and a dark shade is used.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.biorust.com/tutorials/detail/141/en/ \|titleBasic Anime Eye Tutorial \|access-dateAugust 22, 2007 \|workCenti, Biorust.com \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070824072700/http://biorust.com/tutorials/detail/141/en/ \|archive-dateAugust 24, 2007 \|url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|authorCarlus\|dateJune 6, 2007\|titleHow to color anime eye\|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vVyJ9yfYl_Fc \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111211111545/http://www.youtube.com/watch?vVyJ9yfYl_Fc\|archive-dateDecember 11, 2011\|access-dateAugust 22, 2007\|publisher=YouTube}}</ref> However, not all anime characters have large eyes. For example, the works of Hayao Miyazaki are known for having realistically proportioned eyes, as well as realistic hair colors on their characters.{{sfn\|Poitras\|1998}} Hair in anime is often unnaturally lively and colorful or uniquely styled. The movement of hair in anime is exaggerated and "hair actions" is used to emphasize the action and emotions of characters for added visual effect.{{sfn\|Poitras\|2000\|pp61–62}} Gilles Poitras traces hairstyle color to cover illustrations on manga, where eye-catching artwork and colorful tones are attractive for children's manga.{{sfn\|Poitras\|2000\|pp61–62}} Some anime will depict non-Japanese characters with specific ethnic features, such as a pronounced nose and jutting jaw for European characters.<ref name"do1">{{cite web \|titleDo Manga Characters Look 'White'? \|lastThorn \|firstRachel \|author-linkRachel Thorn \|urlhttp://www.matt-thorn.com/mangagaku/faceoftheother.html \|access-dateDecember 11, 2005 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110717060459/http://www.matt-thorn.com/mangagaku/faceoftheother.html \|archive-dateJuly 17, 2011 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> In other cases, anime feature characters whose race or nationality is not always defined, and this is often a deliberate decision, such as in the Pokémon animated series.{{sfn\|Tobin\|2004\|page=88}} Anime and manga artists often draw from a common canon of iconic facial expression illustrations to denote particular moods and thoughts.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.mangatutorials.com/tut/expressions.php \|titleManga Tutorials: Emotional Expressions \|access-dateAugust 22, 2008 \|workRio \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080729175352/http://www.mangatutorials.com/tut/expressions.php \|archive-dateJuly 29, 2008 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> These techniques are often different in form than their counterparts in Western animation, and they include a fixed iconography that is used as shorthand for certain emotions and moods.<ref name"bloody" /> For example, a male character may develop a nosebleed when aroused.<ref name"bloody">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.umich.edu/~anime/info_emotions.html \|titleEmotional Iconography in Animae \|authorUniversity of Michigan Animae Project \|access-dateAugust 8, 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090402130601/http://www.umich.edu/~anime/info_emotions.html \|archive-dateApril 2, 2009 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> A variety of visual symbols are employed, including sweat drops to depict nervousness, visible blushing for embarrassment, or glowing eyes for an intense glare.{{sfn\|Brenner\|2007\|p52}} Another recurring sight gag is the use of chibi (deformed, simplified character designs) figures to comedically punctuate emotions like confusion or embarrassment.<ref name"bloody" /> Music {{See also\|Anime composer\|Anime song}} The opening and credits sequences of most anime television series are accompanied by J-pop or J-rock songs, often by reputed bands—as written with the series in mind—but are also aimed at the general music market, therefore they often allude only vaguely or not at all, to the thematic settings or plot of the series. Also, they are often used as incidental music ("insert songs") in an episode, in order to highlight particularly important scenes.<ref>{{cite web\|titleOriginal Soundtrack (OST)\|urlhttps://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/lexicon.php?id74\|websiteAnime News Network\|publisherANN\|access-dateOctober 15, 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141017134333/http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/lexicon.php?id74\|archive-dateOctober 17, 2014\|url-statuslive}}</ref>{{Better source needed\|reasonper WP:A&M/RS#Situational, Anime News Network's encyclopedia is not a reliable source\|dateFebruary 2022}} Future funk, a musical microgenre that evolved in the early 2010s from Vaporwave with a French house Euro disco influence, heavily uses anime visuals and samples along with Japanese City pop to build an aesthetic.<ref>{{cite web \|date2021-02-24 \|titleThe Endless Life Cycle of Japanese City Pop \|urlhttps://pitchfork.com/features/article/the-endless-life-cycle-of-japanese-city-pop/ \|access-date2021-11-09 \|websitePitchfork \|languageen-US \|archive-dateFebruary 24, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210224152747/https://pitchfork.com/features/article/the-endless-life-cycle-of-japanese-city-pop/ \|url-status=live }}</ref> Since the 2020s anime songs have experienced a rapid growth in global online popularity due to their widened availability on music streaming services like Spotify and promotion by fans and artists on social media.<ref>{{cite web\|titleWhat are Anisongs? How Music for Anime Became a Growing Global Sensation\|urlhttps://blog.chartmetric.com/anisongs-anime-music-growing-global-sensation/\|websiteChartmetric\|date28 June 2023\|access-dateAugust 31, 2023\|archive-dateAugust 31, 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230831134713/https://blog.chartmetric.com/anisongs-anime-music-growing-global-sensation/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2023, the opening theme "Idol" by Yoasobi of the anime series Oshi no Ko topped the Billboard Global 200 Excl. U.S. charts with 45.7 million streams and 24,000 copies sold outside the U.S. "Idol" has become the first Japanese song and anime song to top the Billboard Global chart as well as taking the first spot on the Apple Music's Top 100: Global chart.<ref>{{cite magazine \|last1Trust \|first1Gary \|titleYOASOBI's 'Idol' Surges to No. 1 on Billboard Global Excl. U.S. Chart \|urlhttps://www.billboard.com/music/chart-beat/yoasobi-idol-tops-billboard-global-excl-us-chart-1235346245/ \|access-dateJune 6, 2023 \|magazineBillboard \|dateJune 5, 2023 \|archive-dateJune 12, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230612151453/https://www.billboard.com/music/chart-beat/yoasobi-idol-tops-billboard-global-excl-us-chart-1235346245/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/anime/yoasobis-idol-tops-global-charts-creating-a-new-streaming-milestone-for-japanese-music-101687344690614.html\|titleYOASOBI's 'Idol' tops global charts, creating a new streaming milestone for Japanese music\|websiteHindustan Times\|date21 June 2023\|access-dateAugust 19, 2023\|archive-dateJune 30, 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230630225419/https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/anime/yoasobis-idol-tops-global-charts-creating-a-new-streaming-milestone-for-japanese-music-101687344690614.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Genres Anime are often classified by target demographic, including {{Nihongo\|children's\|子供\|kodomo}}, {{Nihongo\|girls'\|少女\|shōjo}}, {{Nihongo\|boys'\|少年\|shōnen}}, {{Nihongo\|young men\|青年\|Seinen}}, {{Nihongo\|young women\|女性\|josei}} and a diverse range of genres targeting an adult audience. Shōjo and shōnen anime sometimes contain elements popular with children of all genders in an attempt to gain crossover appeal. Adult anime may feature a slower pace or greater plot complexity that younger audiences may typically find unappealing, as well as adult themes and situations.{{sfn\|Poitras\|2000\|pp44–48}} A subset of adult anime works featuring pornographic elements are labeled "R18" in Japan, and are internationally known as hentai (originating from {{Nihongo\|pervert\|変態\|hentai}}). By contrast, some anime subgenres incorporate ecchi, sexual themes or undertones without depictions of sexual intercourse, as typified in the comedic or harem genres; due to its popularity among adolescent and adult anime enthusiasts, the inclusion of such elements is considered a form of fan service.<ref name"askjohn">Ask John: [http://www.animenation.net/blog/2005/05/20/ask-john-why-do-americans-hate-harem-anime/ Why Do Americans Hate Harem Anime?] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080409032645/http://www.animenation.net/blog/2005/05/20/ask-john-why-do-americans-hate-harem-anime/ \|dateApril 9, 2008 }}. animenation.net. May 20. 2005. Note: fan service and ecchi are often considered the same in wording.</ref>{{sfn\|Brenner\|2007\|p89}} Some genres explore homosexual romances, such as yaoi (male homosexuality) and yuri (female homosexuality). While often used in a pornographic context, the terms yaoi and yuri can also be used broadly in a wider context to describe or focus on the themes or the development of the relationships themselves.{{sfn\|Poitras\|2000\|p50}} Anime's genre classification differs from other types of animation and does not lend itself to simple classification.{{sfn\|Poitras\|2000\|p34}} Gilles Poitras compared the labeling of Gundam 0080 and its complex depiction of war as a "giant robot" anime akin to simply labeling War and Peace a "war novel".{{sfn\|Poitras\|2000\|p34}} Science fiction is a major anime genre and includes important historical works like Tezuka's Astro Boy and Yokoyama's Tetsujin 28-go. A major subgenre of science fiction is mecha, with the Gundam metaseries being iconic.{{sfn\|Poitras\|2000\|p35}} The diverse fantasy genre includes works based on Asian and Western traditions and folklore; examples include the Japanese feudal fairytale InuYasha, and the depiction of Scandinavian goddesses who move to Japan to maintain a computer called Yggdrasil in Ah! My Goddess.{{sfn\|Poitras\|2000\|pp37–40}} Genre crossing in anime is also prevalent, such as the blend of fantasy and comedy in Dragon Half, and the incorporation of slapstick humor in the crime anime film Castle of Cagliostro.{{sfn\|Poitras\|2000\|pp41–43}} Other subgenres found in anime include magical girl, harem, sports, martial arts, literary adaptations, medievalism,<ref>{{Cite journal\|authorE. L. Risden\|titleMiyazaki's Medieval World: Japanese Medievalism and the Rise of Anime\|journalThe Year's Work in Medievalism\|issue28\|year2013\|urlhttps://ywim.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/YWiM-28-2013_07_Risden.pdf\|access-dateApril 7, 2023\|archive-dateApril 9, 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230409150215/https://ywim.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/YWiM-28-2013_07_Risden.pdf\|url-statuslive}}</ref> and war.{{sfn\|Poitras\|2000\|pp45–49}} Formats Early anime works were made for theatrical viewing, and required played musical components before sound and vocal components were added to the production. In 1958, Nippon Television aired Mogura no Abanchūru ("Mole's Adventure"), both the first televised and first color anime to debut.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2013-06-19/oldest-tv-anime-color-screenshots-posted\|titleOldest TV Anime's Color Screenshots Posted\|workAnime News Network\|dateJune 19, 2013\|access-dateJuly 17, 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130726055523/http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2013-06-19/oldest-tv-anime-color-screenshots-posted\|archive-dateJuly 26, 2013\|url-statuslive}}</ref> It was not until the 1960s when the first televised series were broadcast and it has remained a popular medium since.{{sfn\|Poitras\|2000\|p13}} Works released in a direct-to-video format are called "original video animation" (OVA) or "original animation video" (OAV); and are typically not released theatrically or televised prior to home media release.{{sfn\|Poitras\|2000\|p14}}<ref>{{cite news \| urlhttps://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/lexicon.php?id35 \| titleOriginal Animation Video (OAV/OVA) \| workAnime News Network \| access-dateSeptember 5, 2013 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080215085311/http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/lexicon.php?id35 \| archive-dateFebruary 15, 2008 \| url-statuslive \| dfmdy-all }}</ref>{{Better source needed\|reasonper WP:A&M/RS#Situational, Anime News Network's encyclopedia is not a reliable source\|dateFebruary 2022}} The emergence of the Internet has led some animators to distribute works online in a format called "original net animation" (ONA).<ref>{{cite news \| urlhttps://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/lexicon.php?id37 \| titleOriginal Net Anime (ONA) \| workAnime News Network \| access-dateSeptember 5, 2013 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131002014105/http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/lexicon.php?id37 \| archive-dateOctober 2, 2013 \| url-statuslive \| dfmdy-all }}</ref>{{Better source needed\|reasonper WP:A&M/RS#Situational, Anime News Network's encyclopedia is not a reliable source\|dateFebruary 2022}} The home distribution of anime releases was popularized in the 1980s with the VHS and LaserDisc formats.{{sfn\|Poitras\|2000\|p14}} The VHS NTSC video format used in both Japan and the United States is credited with aiding the rising popularity of anime in the 1990s.{{sfn\|Poitras\|2000\|p14}} The LaserDisc and VHS formats were transcended by the DVD format which offered the unique advantages; including multiple subtitling and dubbing tracks on the same disc.{{sfn\|Poitras\|2000\|p15}} The DVD format also has its drawbacks in its usage of region coding; adopted by the industry to solve licensing, piracy and export problems and restricted region indicated on the DVD player.{{sfn\|Poitras\|2000\|p15}} The Video CD (VCD) format was popular in Hong Kong and Taiwan, but became only a minor format in the United States that was closely associated with bootleg copies.{{sfn\|Poitras\|2000\|p=15}} A key characteristic of many anime television shows is serialization, where a continuous story arc stretches over multiple episodes or seasons. Traditional American television had an episodic format, with each episode typically consisting of a self-contained story. In contrast, anime shows such as Dragon Ball Z had a serialization format, where continuous story arcs stretch over multiple episodes or seasons, which distinguished them from traditional American television shows; serialization has since also become a common characteristic of American streaming television shows during the "Peak TV" era.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Ziegler \|first1John R. \|last2Richards \|first2Leah \|titleRepresentation in Steven Universe \|date9 January 2020 \|publisherSpringer Nature \|isbn978-3-030-31881-9 \|page10 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1m_JDwAAQBAJ&pgPA10 \|access-dateNovember 10, 2021 \|archive-dateSeptember 28, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230928172717/https://books.google.com/books?id1m_JDwAAQBAJ&pgPA10#vonepage&q&ffalse \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Industry {{See also\|List of anime companies\|List of Japanese animation studios}} district of Tokyo is popular with anime and manga fans as well as otaku subculture in Japan.]] The animation industry consists of more than 430 production companies with some of the major studios including Toei Animation, Gainax, Madhouse, Gonzo, Sunrise, Bones, TMS Entertainment, Nippon Animation, P.A.Works, Studio Pierrot, Production I.G, Ufotable and Studio Ghibli.{{sfn\|Brenner\|2007\|p17}} Many of the studios are organized into a trade association, The Association of Japanese Animations. There is also a labor union for workers in the industry, the Japanese Animation Creators Association. Studios will often work together to produce more complex and costly projects, as done with Studio Ghibli's Spirited Away.{{sfn\|Brenner\|2007\|p17}} An anime episode can cost between US$100,000 and US$300,000 to produce.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.animenewsnetwork.com/feature/2012-03-05\|title The Anime Economy - Part 1: Let's Make An Anime!\|authorJustin Sevakis\|date March 5, 2012\|access-dateJanuary 3, 2014\|work Anime News Network\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120929131718/http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/feature/2012-03-05\|archive-date September 29, 2012\|url-statuslive\|df mdy-all}}</ref> In 2001, animation accounted for 7% of the Japanese film market, above the 4.6% market share for live-action works.{{sfn\|Brenner\|2007\|p17}} The popularity and success of anime is seen through the profitability of the DVD market, contributing nearly 70% of total sales.{{sfn\|Brenner\|2007\|p17}} According to a 2016 article on Nikkei Asian Review, Japanese television stations have bought over {{JPY\|60 billion}} worth of anime from production companies "over the past few years", compared with under {{JPY\|20 billion}} from overseas.<ref name"Kobayashi">{{cite web\|url http://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Trends/Movie-version-of-Osamu-Tezuka-s-Black-Jack-coming-to-China\|titleMovie version of Osamu Tezuka's 'Black Jack' coming to China\|first Akira\|lastKobayashi\|date September 5, 2016\|access-dateSeptember 10, 2016\|work Nikkei Asian Review\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160910062313/http://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Trends/Movie-version-of-Osamu-Tezuka-s-Black-Jack-coming-to-China\|archive-date September 10, 2016\|url-statuslive\|df mdy-all}}</ref> There has been a rise in sales of shows to television stations in Japan, caused by late night anime with adults as the target demographic.<ref name"Kobayashi"/> This type of anime is less popular outside Japan, being considered "more of a niche product".<ref name"Kobayashi"/> Spirited Away (2001) was the all-time highest-grossing film in Japan until overtaken by Demon Slayer: Kimetsu no Yaiba – The Movie: Mugen Train in 2020.<ref name="gross"> ;Gross {{cite web \|titleSpirited Away (2002)&nbsp;– International Box Office Results \|workBox Office Mojo \|urlhttps://boxofficemojo.com/movies/?pageintl&idspiritedaway.htm \|access-dateJuly 1, 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141129013240/http://boxofficemojo.com/movies/?pageintl&idspiritedaway.htm \|archive-dateNovember 29, 2014 \|url-status=live }} ::North American gross: $10,055,859 ::Japanese gross: $229,607,878 (March 31, 2002) ::Other territories: ${{formatnum:{{#expr:215307+154349+241829+292529+6326294+1981457+307200+2958139+804985+749529+106667+103488+27787+11382770+822940+1044866+36860+1383023}}}} ;Japanese gross {{cite news \|firstLukas \|lastSchwarzacher \|titleJapan box office 'Spirited Away' \|dateFebruary 17, 2002 \|workVariety \|urlhttps://variety.com/2002/digital/awards/japan-box-office-spirited-away-1117860800/ \|access-dateAugust 21, 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140826123724/http://variety.com/2002/digital/awards/japan-box-office-spirited-away-1117860800/ \|archive-dateAugust 26, 2014 \|url-statuslive }} ::End of 2001: $227&nbsp;million {{cite news \|firstLukas \|lastSchwarzacher \|titleH'wood eclipses local fare \|dateFebruary 16, 2003 \|workVariety \|urlhttps://variety.com/2003/scene/markets-festivals/h-wood-eclipses-local-fare-1117880584/ \|access-dateAugust 21, 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140826123741/http://variety.com/2003/scene/markets-festivals/h-wood-eclipses-local-fare-1117880584/ \|archive-dateAugust 26, 2014 \|url-statuslive }} ::Across 2001 and 2002: $270&nbsp;million {{cite news \|firstMark \|lastSchilling \|titleMiyazaki's animated pic to open this summer \|dateMay 16, 2008 \|workVariety \|urlhttps://variety.com/2008/scene/markets-festivals/ponyo-likely-to-heat-up-japan-1117985910/ \|access-dateJuly 2, 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140715010653/http://variety.com/2008/scene/markets-festivals/ponyo-likely-to-heat-up-japan-1117985910/ \|archive-dateJuly 15, 2014 \|url-statuslive }} ::As of 2008: $290&nbsp;million </ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.canime.co/ \|access-dateNovember 1, 2015 \|title7 Animes \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160131004126/http://www.canime.co/ \|archive-dateJanuary 31, 2016 \|url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastHarding \|firstDaryl \|date2020-12-27 \|titleDemon Slayer: Mugen Train Dethrones Spirited Away to Become the No. 1 Film in Japan of All Time \|urlhttps://www.crunchyroll.com/anime-news/2020/12/27-1/demon-slayer-mugen-train-dethrones-spirited-away-to-become-the-no-1-film-in-japan-of-all-time \|access-date2023-05-23 \|websiteCrunchyroll \|languageen-us \|archive-dateDecember 29, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201229114208/https://www.crunchyroll.com/anime-news/2020/12/27-1/demon-slayer-mugen-train-dethrones-spirited-away-to-become-the-no-1-film-in-japan-of-all-time \|url-statuslive }}</ref> It was also the highest-grossing anime film worldwide until it was overtaken by Makoto Shinkai's 2016 film Your Name.<ref>{{cite web\|url https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2017-01-17/shinkai-your-name-tops-spirited-away-as-highest-grossing-anime-film-worldwide/.111141\|titleShinkai's 'your name.' Tops Spirited Away as Highest Grossing Anime Film Worldwide\|date January 17, 2017\|access-dateJanuary 17, 2017\|work Anime News Network\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170118030221/http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2017-01-17/shinkai-your-name-tops-spirited-away-as-highest-grossing-anime-film-worldwide/.111141\|archive-date January 18, 2017\|url-statuslive\|df mdy-all}}</ref> Anime films represent a large part of the highest-grossing Japanese films yearly in Japan, with 6 out of the top 10 in 2014, 2015 and also in 2016. Anime has to be licensed by companies in other countries in order to be legally released. While anime has been licensed by its Japanese owners for use outside Japan since at least the 1960s, the practice became well-established in the United States in the late 1970s to early 1980s, when such TV series as Gatchaman and Captain Harlock were licensed from their Japanese parent companies for distribution in the US market. The trend towards American distribution of anime continued into the 1980s with the licensing of titles such as Voltron and the 'creation' of new series such as Robotech through the use of source material from several original series.{{sfn\|Brenner\|2007\|p=11}} In the early 1990s, several companies began to experiment with the licensing of less child-oriented material. Some, such as A.D. Vision, and Central Park Media and its imprints, achieved fairly substantial commercial success and went on to become major players in the now very lucrative American anime market. Others, such as AnimEigo, achieved limited success. Many companies created directly by Japanese parent companies did not do as well, most releasing only one or two titles before completing their American operations. Licenses are expensive, often hundreds of thousands of dollars for one series and tens of thousands for one movie.<ref name"ADVcourt">[https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2012-01-30/adv-court-documents-reveal-amounts-paid-for-29-anime-titles ADV Court Documents Reveal Amounts Paid for 29 Anime Titles] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120423194657/http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2012-01-30/adv-court-documents-reveal-amounts-paid-for-29-anime-titles \|dateApril 23, 2012 }}</ref> The prices vary widely; for example, Jinki: Extend cost only $91,000 to license while Kurau Phantom Memory cost $960,000.<ref name"ADVcourt"/> Simulcast Internet streaming rights can be cheaper, with prices around $1,000–2,000 an episode,<ref>"[https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/feature/2012-03-09 The Anime Economy Part 3: Digital Pennies]" {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150502060952/http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/feature/2012-03-09 \|dateMay 2, 2015 }}</ref> but can also be more expensive, with some series costing more than {{USD\|200,000}} per episode.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.animenewsnetwork.com/answerman/2016-09-09/.106251\|title Why Are Funimation And Crunchyroll Getting Married?\|firstJustin\|last Sevakis\|dateSeptember 9, 2016\|access-date September 10, 2016\|publisherAnime News Network\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160910033129/http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/answerman/2016-09-09/.106251\|archive-dateSeptember 10, 2016\|url-statuslive\|df= mdy-all}}</ref> The anime market for the United States was worth approximately $2.74&nbsp;billion in 2009.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2011-04-15/america-2009-anime-market-pegged-at-us%242.741-billion\|title America's 2009 Anime Market Pegged at US$2.741&nbsp;Billion\|dateApril 15, 2011\|access-date December 29, 2013\|workAnime News Network\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131228095646/http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2011-04-15/america-2009-anime-market-pegged-at-us%242.741-billion\|archive-dateDecember 28, 2013\|url-statuslive\|dfmdy-all}}</ref> Dubbed animation began airing in the United States in 2000 on networks like The WB and Cartoon Network's Adult Swim.{{sfn\|Brenner\|2007\|p18}} In 2005, this resulted in five of the top ten anime titles having previously aired on Cartoon Network.{{sfn\|Brenner\|2007\|p18}} As a part of localization, some editing of cultural references may occur to better follow the references of the non-Japanese culture.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://w3.salemstate.edu/~poehlkers/Emerson/Pokemon.html \|titlePokemon Case Study \|publisherW3.salemstate.edu \|access-dateNovember 1, 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080820181118/http://w3.salemstate.edu/%7Epoehlkers/Emerson/Pokemon.html \|archive-dateAugust 20, 2008 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The cost of English localization averages US$10,000 per episode.<ref>{{cite web\|lastOppliger\|firstJohn\|dateFebruary 24, 2012\|titleAsk John: Why Does Dubbing Cost So Much?\|urlhttp://www.animenation.net/blog/2012/02/24/ask-john-why-does-dubbing-cost-so-much/\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120619020459/http://www.animenation.net/blog/2012/02/24/ask-john-why-does-dubbing-cost-so-much/\|archive-dateJune 19, 2012\|access-dateOctober 29, 2012\|publisherAnimeNation}}</ref> The industry has been subject to both praise and condemnation for fansubs, the addition of unlicensed and unauthorized subtitled translations of anime series or films.{{sfn\|Brenner\|2007\|p206}} Fansubs, which were originally distributed on VHS bootlegged cassettes in the 1980s, have been freely available and disseminated online since the 1990s.{{sfn\|Brenner\|2007\|p206}} Since this practice raises concerns for copyright and piracy issues, fansubbers tend to adhere to an unwritten moral code to destroy or no longer distribute an anime once an official translated or subtitled version becomes licensed. They also try to encourage viewers to buy an official copy of the release once it comes out in English, although fansubs typically continue to circulate through file-sharing networks.{{sfn\|Brenner\|2007\|p207}} Even so, the laid back regulations of the Japanese animation industry tend to overlook these issues, allowing it to grow underground and thus increasing its popularity until there is a demand for official high-quality releases for animation companies. This has led to an increase in global popularity of Japanese animation, reaching $40&nbsp;million in sales in 2004.<ref namefansubbingimpact>{{cite web\|lastWurm\|firstAlicia\|titleAnime and the Internet: The Impact of Fansubbing\|dateFebruary 18, 2014\|urlhttp://www.reflexivehorizons.com/2014/02/18/anime-and-the-internet-the-impact-of-fansubbing/\|access-dateDecember 12, 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151222111644/http://www.reflexivehorizons.com/2014/02/18/anime-and-the-internet-the-impact-of-fansubbing/\|archive-dateDecember 22, 2015\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Fansub practices have rapidly declined since the early-2010s due to the advent of legal streaming services which simulcast new anime series often within a few hours of their domestic release.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastHo \|firstSoleil \|dateJanuary 9, 2019 \|titleThe future of anime fansubs in a simulcast world \|urlhttps://www.polygon.com/2019/1/9/18171014/anime-fansubs-translation-streaming-crunchyroll \|access-dateJune 2, 2024 \|websitePolygon \|language=en-US}}</ref> Since the 2010s, anime has become a global multibillion industry setting a sales record in 2017 of ¥2.15 trillion ($19.8 billion), driven largely by demand from overseas audiences.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://edition.cnn.com/style/article/japan-anime-global-identity-hnk-intl/index.html\|titleJapanese anime: From 'Disney of the East' to a global industry worth billions\|websiteCNN\|date29 July 2019\|access-dateJanuary 20, 2022\|archive-dateFebruary 7, 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220207140801/https://edition.cnn.com/style/article/japan-anime-global-identity-hnk-intl/index.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2019, Japan's anime industry was valued at $24 billion a year with 48% of that revenue coming from overseas (which is now its largest industry sector).<ref>{{cite web\|titleJapan's anime goes global:Sony's new weapon to take on Netflix\|urlhttps://ft.com/content/9b7c1670-89b1-484c-ae25-61a500369dc3\|workFinancial times\|date24 January 2021\|access-dateNovember 1, 2021\|archive-dateNovember 1, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211101223921/https://ft.com/content/9b7c1670-89b1-484c-ae25-61a500369dc3\|url-statuslive}}</ref> By 2025 the anime industry is expected to reach a value of $30 billion with over 60% of that revenue coming from overseas.<ref>{{cite web\|titleIs There Anything in the Way of Japanese Anime Becoming a Global $30B Market in the Next 5 Years?\|urlhttps://www.linkedin.com/pulse/anything-way-japanese-anime-market-becoming-global-30b-john-evershed\|workLinkedin\|date21 May 2020\|access-dateNovember 12, 2021\|archive-dateNovember 12, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211112182515/https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/anything-way-japanese-anime-market-becoming-global-30b-john-evershed\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Markets Japan External Trade Organization (JETRO) valued the domestic anime market in Japan at {{JPY\|2.4 trillion}} ({{US$\|{{#expr:2400/100}} billion\|longno}}), including {{JPY\|2 trillion}} from licensed products, in 2005.<ref name"J-Marketing">{{cite news\|titleScanning the Media\|urlhttp://www.jmrlsi.co.jp/english/inthemedia/scan/2005/01.html\|access-dateMarch 10, 2005\|workJ-Marketing\|publisherJMR生活総合研究所\|dateFebruary 15, 2005\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050310035337/http://www.jmrlsi.co.jp/english/inthemedia/scan/2005/01.html\|archive-dateMarch 10, 2005\|url-statusdead}}</ref> JETRO reported sales of overseas anime exports in 2004 to be {{JPY\|2 trillion}} ({{US$\|18 billion\|longno}}).<ref>{{cite book\|lastKearns\|firstJohn\|titleTranslator and Interpreter Training: Issues, Methods and Debates\|date2008\|publisherA & C Black\|isbn9781441140579\|page159\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7ewPDjORphEC&pgPA159\|access-dateMay 29, 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190211015650/https://books.google.com/books?id7ewPDjORphEC&pgPA159\|archive-dateFebruary 11, 2019\|url-statuslive}}</ref> JETRO valued the anime market in the United States at {{JPY\|520 billion}} ({{US$\|{{#expr:520/100}} billion\|longno}}),<ref name"J-Marketing"/> including {{US$\|500 million\|longno}} in home video sales and over {{US$\|4 billion\|longno}} from licensed products, in 2005.<ref name"ann-market"/> JETRO projected in 2005 that the worldwide anime market, including sales of licensed products, would grow to {{JPY\|10 trillion}} ({{US$\|100 billion\|longno}}).<ref name"J-Marketing"/><ref name"ann-market">{{cite news\|titleWorld-wide Anime Market Worth $100 Billion\|urlhttps://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2005-02-19/world-wide-anime-market-worth-$100-billion\|workAnime News Network\|dateFebruary 19, 2005\|access-dateMay 28, 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180526042937/https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2005-02-19/world-wide-anime-market-worth-$100-billion\|archive-dateMay 26, 2018\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The anime market in China was valued at {{US$\|21 billion\|longno}} in 2017,<ref>{{cite news\|titleAnime a $21bn market {{ndash}} in China\|urlhttps://asia.nikkei.com/Life-Arts/Arts/Anime-a-21bn-market-in-China\|workNikkei Asian Review\|dateMay 2, 2017\|access-dateMay 28, 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180529054224/https://asia.nikkei.com/Life-Arts/Arts/Anime-a-21bn-market-in-China\|archive-dateMay 29, 2018\|url-statuslive}}</ref> and is projected to reach {{US$\|31 billion\|longno}} by 2020.<ref>{{cite news\|last1Chen\|first1Lulu Yilun\|titleTencent taps ninja Naruto to chase China's $31 billion anime market\|urlhttps://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/03/18/business/tencent-taps-ninja-naruto-chase-chinas-31-billion-anime-market/\|workThe Japan Times\|dateMarch 18, 2016\|access-dateMay 28, 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180529055350/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/03/18/business/tencent-taps-ninja-naruto-chase-chinas-31-billion-anime-market/\|archive-dateMay 29, 2018\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In Europe the anime merchandising market was valued at about $950 million with the figurine segment accounting for most of the share and is expected to reach a value of over $2 billion by 2030.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://finance.yahoo.com/news/europe-anime-merchandising-market-analysis-103300984.html\|titleEurope Anime Merchandising Market Analysis Report 2023-2030 - Market Poised for Substantial Growth with Expansion of Figurine and E-commerce Sectors\|websiteYahoo! Finance\|date24 January 2024\|access-dateFebruary 28, 2024\|archive-dateFebruary 28, 2024\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240228211620/https://finance.yahoo.com/news/europe-anime-merchandising-market-analysis-103300984.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The global anime market size was valued at $26.055 billion in 2021 with 29% of the revenue coming from merchandise. It is expected that the global anime market will reach a value of $47.14 billion by 2028.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://finance.yahoo.com/news/global-anime-market-generate-revenue-150900749.html\|titleGlobal Anime Market to Generate Revenue of $47.14 Billion by 2028-Over 29% Anime Market Revenue Came from Selling Merchandise-SkyQuest Technology\|websiteYahoo! Finance\|date20 September 2022\|access-dateMay 4, 2023\|archive-dateMay 4, 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230504195742/https://finance.yahoo.com/news/global-anime-market-generate-revenue-150900749.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.skyquestt.com/report/anime-market\|titleGlobal Anime Market Size, Share, Growth Analysis, By Type(Video, T.V.) - Industry Forecast 2022-2028\|websiteskyquestt.com\|dateOctober 2022\|access-dateMay 4, 2023\|archive-dateMay 4, 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230504195746/https://www.skyquestt.com/report/anime-market\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2023 the anime industry generated a $19.8 billion in total global revenue, including $5.5 billion from streaming and $14.3 billion from merchandising sales. North America and Asia contributed a combined $14.3 billion in total revenue, accounting for over 72% of anime's global impact.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.parrotanalytics.com/announcements/japanese-anime-captured-dollar198-billion-in-2023-global-revenue-cementing-japans-role-as-a-global-entertainment-leader/\|titleJapanese Anime Captured $19.8 Billion in 2023 Global Revenue, Cementing Japan's Role as a Global Entertainment Leader\|websiteParrot Analytics\|date19 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://japan-forward.com/the-global-rise-of-anime-and-its-untapped-potential/\|titleThe Global Rise of Anime and Its Untapped Potential\|websiteJapan Forward\|date25 December 2024}}</ref> By 2030 the global anime market is expected to reach a value of $48.3 Billion with the largest contributors to this growth being North America, Europe, Asia–Pacific and The Middle East.<ref>{{cite press release\|urlhttps://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2021/10/22/2319206/0/en/Anime-Market-Size-to-Worth-Around-US-48-3-Billion-by-2030.html\|titleAnime Market Size to Worth Around US$ 48.3 Billion by 2030\|websiteGlobeNewswire\|date22 October 2021\|access-dateJanuary 20, 2022\|archive-dateJanuary 20, 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220120182202/https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2021/10/22/2319206/0/en/Anime-Market-Size-to-Worth-Around-US-48-3-Billion-by-2030.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The global anime market size was valued at $25.8 Billion in 2022 and is expected to have a market size of $62.7 Billion by 2032 with a CAGR of 9.4%.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.marketplace.org/shows/make-me-smart/why-anime-is-everywhere-all-at-once/\|titleWhy anime is everywhere all at once\|websiteMarketplace\|date27 February 2024\|access-dateFebruary 28, 2024\|archive-dateFebruary 28, 2024\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240228211619/https://www.marketplace.org/shows/make-me-smart/why-anime-is-everywhere-all-at-once/\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://finance.yahoo.com/news/anime-market-reach-usd-62-120000412.html\|titleAnime Market to Reach USD 62.7 Billion by 2032 CAGR: 9.4% DataHorizzon Research\|websiteYahoo! Finance\|date18 September 2023\|access-dateFebruary 28, 2024\|archive-dateFebruary 28, 2024\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240228211619/https://finance.yahoo.com/news/anime-market-reach-usd-62-120000412.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://datahorizzonresearch.com/anime-market-2172\|titleAnime Market Size, Growth, Share, Statistics Report, By Type (T.V., Movie, Video Games, Internet Distribution, Merchandising, Music, Pachinko, Live Entertainment), By Age Group (Adults and Teens), By Region, and Segment Forecasts, 2023-2032\|websitedatahorizonresearch.com\|access-dateFebruary 28, 2024\|archive-dateFebruary 28, 2024\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240228211619/https://datahorizzonresearch.com/anime-market-2172\|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2019, the annual overseas exports of Japanese animation exceeded $10 billion for the first time in history.<ref>{{cite web\|titleThe export value of anime has more than quadrupled "under the Abe administration" and reached the first trillion yen scale\|urlhttps://m-dojo.hatenadiary.com/entry/2019/12/16/095922\|websiteHatena Blog(In Japanese)\|date15 December 2019\|access-dateJanuary 29, 2022\|archive-dateJanuary 29, 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220129174938/https://m-dojo.hatenadiary.com/entry/2019/12/16/095922\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Awards The anime industry has several annual awards that honor the year's best works. Major annual awards in Japan include the Ōfuji Noburō Award, the Mainichi Film Award for Best Animation Film, the Animation Kobe Awards, the Japan Media Arts Festival animation awards, the Seiyu Awards for voice actors, the Tokyo Anime Award and the Japan Academy Prize for Animation of the Year. In the United States, anime films compete in the Crunchyroll Anime Awards. There were also the American Anime Awards, which were designed to recognize excellence in anime titles nominated by the industry, and were held only once in 2006.{{sfn\|Brenner\|2007\|pp257–258}} Anime productions have also been nominated and won awards not exclusively for anime, like the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature or the Golden Bear. Working conditions In recent years, the anime industry has been accused by both Japanese and foreign media of underpaying and overworking its animators.<ref>{{cite web\|titleThe dark side of Japan's anime industry\|urlhttps://www.vox.com/culture/2019/7/2/20677237/anime-industry-japan-artists-pay-labor-abuse-neon-genesis-evangelion-netflix\|websiteVox\|date2 July 2019\|access-dateJanuary 20, 2022\|archive-dateJuly 2, 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190702142722/https://www.vox.com/culture/2019/7/2/20677237/anime-industry-japan-artists-pay-labor-abuse-neon-genesis-evangelion-netflix\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|title Anime is Booming. So Why Are Animators Living in Poverty?\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/24/business/japan-anime.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/24/business/japan-anime.html \|archive-date2021-12-28 \|url-accesslimited\|workThe New York Times\|date24 February 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|titleDespite global anime market's explosive growth, Japan's animators continue to live in poverty\|urlhttps://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/despite-global-anime-markets-explosive-growth-japans-animators-continue-to-live-in-poverty-9365001.html\|workFirstpost\|date2 March 2021\|access-dateNovember 27, 2021\|archive-dateNovember 27, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211127132118/https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/despite-global-anime-markets-explosive-growth-japans-animators-continue-to-live-in-poverty-9365001.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In response the Japanese Prime Minister Fumio Kishida promised to improve the working conditions and salary of all animators and creators working in the industry.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Liu \|first1Narayan \|titleJapan's New Prime Minister Is a Demon Slayer Fan, Plans to Support Manga and Anime \|urlhttps://www.cbr.com/japan-prime-minister-demon-slayer-fan-support-manga-anime/ \|publisherComic Book Resources \|access-date6 October 2021 \|date3 October 2021 \|archive-dateOctober 5, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211005233923/https://www.cbr.com/japan-prime-minister-demon-slayer-fan-support-manga-anime/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> A few anime studios such as MAPPA have taken actions to improve the working conditions of their employees.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.cbr.com/chainsaw-man-animators-mappa-pay/\|titleMAPPA Offers Chainsaw Man Animators Higher Pay, Better Benefits\|websiteCBR\|date19 August 2021\|access-dateJanuary 20, 2022\|archive-dateJanuary 20, 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220120185545/https://www.cbr.com/chainsaw-man-animators-mappa-pay/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> There has also been a slight increase in production costs and animator pays during the COVID-19 pandemic.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAnime Industry Report 2020 Summary \|urlhttps://aja.gr.jp/download/anime-industry-report-2020-summary \|access-date2022-03-17 \|website日本動画協会 \|languageja \|archive-dateMarch 28, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220328045557/https://aja.gr.jp/download/anime-industry-report-2020-summary \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Throughout 2020 and 2021 the American streaming service Netflix announced that it will greatly invest and fund the anime industry as well as support training programs for new animators.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://about.netflix.com/en/news/netflix-animeslate\|titleNetflix Bets Big on Aspirational and Diverse Anime Adding Five Major Projects\|date28 October 2020\|websiteNetflix}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://about.netflix.com/en/news/teaming-with-wit-studio-to-support-the-craftsmanship-of-anime\|titleTeaming With WIT Studio to Support the Craftsmanship of Anime\|date12 February 2021\|websiteNetflix}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://about.netflix.com/en/news/netflix-festival-japan-2021\|titleNetflix Bets Big On Japanese Content And Creators With Growing Slate Across Both Anime & Live Action\|websiteNetflix\|date9 November 2021}}</ref> On April 27, 2023, Nippon Anime Film Culture Association (NAFCA) was officially founded. The association aims to solve problems in the industry, including the improvement of conditions of the workers.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastKuroda \|firstKenro \|date2023-06-17 \|titleGroup founded to improve work conditions in anime industry \|urlhttps://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/14919481 \|websiteThe Asahi Shimbun \|access-dateJune 30, 2023 \|archive-dateJune 28, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230628055218/https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/14919481 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.crunchyroll.com/news/latest/2023/5/18/nippon-anime-film-culture-association-established-to-solve-problems-in-anime-industry\|titleNippon Anime & Film Culture Association Established to Solve Problems in Anime Industry\|date18 May 2023\|websiteCrunchyroll\|access-dateJune 30, 2023\|archive-dateJune 30, 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230630171359/https://www.crunchyroll.com/news/latest/2023/5/18/nippon-anime-film-culture-association-established-to-solve-problems-in-anime-industry\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Global popularity and cultural impact {{see also\|Japanese pop culture in the United States\|History of anime in the United States\|List of anime theatrically released in the United States\|List of anime distributed in India\|Japanese influence on Chinese culture\|Japanese influence on Korean culture\|Anime in hip hop\|List of highest-grossing anime films}} in Los Angeles, California, United States – one of the largest fan conventions in the Western world.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://overmental.com/content/22-biggest-geek-culture-conventions-in-the-world-170/2\|titleThe 25 Biggest Geek Culture Conventions in the World\|websiteovermental.com\|date14 August 2015\|access-dateSeptember 19, 2022\|archive-dateSeptember 20, 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220920173205/https://overmental.com/content/22-biggest-geek-culture-conventions-in-the-world-170/2\|url-statuslive}}</ref>]] Anime has become commercially profitable in the Western world,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-60865649\|titleAnime: How Japanese animation has taken the West by storm\|websiteBBC\|date26 March 2022\|access-dateMay 4, 2023\|archive-dateMay 4, 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230504114115/https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-60865649\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://pro.morningconsult.com/trend-setters/anime-rise-dragonball-z-crunchyroll\|titleInside Anime's Rise to the Top of American Pop Culture\|date11 October 2022\|websiteMorning Consult\|url-accesslimited\|access-dateJune 30, 2023\|archive-dateJune 30, 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230630232437/https://pro.morningconsult.com/trend-setters/anime-rise-dragonball-z-crunchyroll\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://beebom.com/the-rise-of-anime-manga-japanese-pop-culture-in-west/\|titleThe Rise of Anime, Manga, and Japanese Pop Culture in the West\|websiteBeebom\|authorAjith Kumar\|date28 October 2024}}</ref> as demonstrated by early commercially successful Western adaptations of anime, such as Astro Boy and Speed Racer. Early American adaptions in the 1960s made Japan expand into the continental European market, first with productions aimed at European and Japanese children, such as Heidi, Vicky the Viking and Barbapapa, which aired in various countries. Italy, Spain, and France<ref>{{cite journal \|titleNeojaponism and pop culture. New Japanese exoticism in France \|journalRegioninės Studijos. 2012, &#91;No.&#93; 6, the Development of 'Japan' in the West: Comparative Analysis, P. 67-88 \|urlhttps://www.vdu.lt/cris/handle/20.500.12259/32357 \|publisherVytautas Magnus University \|date2012 \|last1Clothilde \|first1Sabre \|volume6 \|pages67–88 \|access-dateJune 30, 2023 \|archive-dateDecember 27, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211227203626/https://www.vdu.lt/cris/handle/20.500.12259/32357 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|titleFrance's love affair with Japanese culture\|urlhttps://www.euronews.com/culture/2021/12/07/europe-s-biggest-manga-launch-france-prints-250-000-copies-of-one-piece-s-100th-edition\|websiteEuronews\|date7 December 2021\|access-dateJune 30, 2023\|archive-dateDecember 9, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211209221014/https://www.euronews.com/culture/2021/12/07/europe-s-biggest-manga-launch-france-prints-250-000-copies-of-one-piece-s-100th-edition\|url-statuslive}}</ref> grew a particular interest in Japan's output, due to its cheap selling price and productive output. As of 2014, Italy imported the most anime outside Japan.<ref>{{Cite journal\|title The Italian anime boom: The outstanding success of Japanese animation in Italy, 1978–1984\|url https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264089012\|journal Journal of Italian Cinema & Media Studies\|pages 363–381\|volume 2\|issue 3\|doi 10.1386/jicms.2.3.363_1\|first Marco\|last Pellitteri\|date 2014\|access-date February 22, 2016\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160126192751/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264089012_The_Italian_anime_boom_The_outstanding_success_of_Japanese_animation_in_Italy_1978-1984\|archive-date January 26, 2016\|url-statuslive\|df mdy-all\| issn2047-7368 }}</ref> Anime and manga were introduced to France in the late 1970s and became massively popular in spite of a moral panic led by French politicians in the 1980s and 1990s.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastHoad \|firstPhil \|dateMarch 29, 2023 \|titleManga-nifique! How France became obsessed with Japanese anime \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2023/mar/29/france-manga-anime-murakami-macron \|access-dateJuly 11, 2023 \|websiteThe Guardian \|archive-dateJuly 11, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230711033110/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2023/mar/29/france-manga-anime-murakami-macron \|url-statuslive }}</ref> These mass imports influenced anime popularity in East Asian,<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastWu \|firstYuqing \|date2021-08-05 \|titleCan Pop Culture Allay Resentment? Japan's Influence in China Today \|urlhttps://www.cogitatiopress.com/mediaandcommunication/article/view/4117 \|journalMedia and Communication \|languageen \|volume9 \|issue3 \|pages112–122 \|doi10.17645/mac.v9i3.4117 \|issn2183-2439 \|doi-accessfree \|access-dateFebruary 21, 2024 \|archive-dateFebruary 26, 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240226201450/https://www.cogitatiopress.com/mediaandcommunication/article/view/4117 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-07-12/japanese-anime-soft-power-pokemon-astro-boy-military-manga/104042324\|titleFrom military empire to pop culture phenomenon: Inside Japan's animation revolution\|websiteAustralian Broadcasting Corporation\|date11 July 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/arts-culture/article/3220292/new-phase-anime-j-pop-japanese-culture-grows-popularity-south-korea-new-generation-separates-arts\|title'A new phase': from anime to J-pop, Japanese culture grows in popularity in South Korea, as new generation separates arts and politics\|websiteSouth China Morning Post\|date14 May 2023\|access-dateFebruary 21, 2024\|archive-dateFebruary 21, 2024\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240221175141/https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/arts-culture/article/3220292/new-phase-anime-j-pop-japanese-culture-grows-popularity-south-korea-new-generation-separates-arts\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Southeast Asian,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://fulcrum.sg/aseanfocus/the-courteous-charmer-a-hard-look-at-japans-soft-power-in-southeast-asia/\|titleThe Courteous Charmer: A Hard Look at Japan's Soft Power in Southeast Asia\|date18 October 2023\|websitefulcrum.sg}}</ref> South Asian,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://thediplomat.com/2014/08/japanese-cultural-influence-grows-in-india/\|titleJapanese Cultural Influence Grows in India\|websiteThe Diplomat\|date29 August 2014}}</ref> Latin American,<ref>[https://arkonestudios.com/the-latin-american-appetite-for-asian-content/ The Latin American Appetite for Asian Content]. Ark One Studios.</ref><ref>[https://luzmedia.co/asian-heritage-in-latin-america Exploring Asian Heritage in Latin America]. Luz Media.</ref> Arabic<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://english.alarabiya.net/life-style/2024/03/19/How-Saudi-Arabia-has-become-a-global-hub-for-manga-and-anime\|titleHow Saudi Arabia has become a global hub for manga and anime\|websiteAl Arabiya\|date24 March 2024}}</ref> and German markets.{{sfn\|Bendazzi\|2015\|p=363}} The beginning of 1980 saw the introduction of Japanese anime series into the American culture.<ref name"Ruh">{{cite journal \|last1Ruh \|first1Brian \|date2010 \|titleTransforming U.S. Anime in the 1980s: Localization and Longevity \|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/1472869 \|journalMechademia \|volume5 \|access-dateMarch 28, 2020}}</ref> In the 1990s, Japanese animation slowly gained popularity in America. Media companies such as Viz and Mixx began publishing and releasing animation into the American market.<ref>{{cite journal\|lastLeonard\|firstSean\|titleProgress against the law: Anime and fandom, with the key to the globalization of culture\|journalInternational Journal of Cultural Studies\|dateSeptember 1, 2005\|volume8\|issue3\|pages281–305\|doi10.1177/1367877905055679\|s2cid154124888}}</ref> The 1988 film Akira is largely credited with popularizing anime in the Western world during the early 1990s, before anime was further popularized by television shows such as Pokémon and Dragon Ball Z in the late 1990s.<ref name"vice">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.vice.com/en_uk/article/kwk55w/how-akira-has-influenced-modern-culture\|titleHow 'Akira' Has Influenced All Your Favourite TV, Film and Music\|workVICE\|dateSeptember 21, 2016\|access-dateNovember 7, 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170730204751/https://www.vice.com/en_uk/article/kwk55w/how-akira-has-influenced-modern-culture\|archive-dateJuly 30, 2017\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"filmschoolrejects">{{cite web \|title'Akira' Is Frequently Cited as Influential. Why Is That? \|urlhttps://filmschoolrejects.com/akira-influence-12cb6d84c0bc/ \|websiteFilm School Rejects \|dateApril 3, 2017 \|access-dateNovember 7, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181107205951/https://filmschoolrejects.com/akira-influence-12cb6d84c0bc/ \|archive-dateNovember 7, 2018 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> By 1997, Japanese anime was the fastest-growing genre in the American video industry.<ref>{{Cite magazine\|lastPhipps\|firstLang\|date6 October 1997\|titleIs Amano the Best Artist You've Never Heard Of?\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQugCAAAAMBAJ&pgPA47\|magazineNew York Magazine\|volume30\|issue38\|pages45–48 (47)\|issn0028-7369\|access-date26 December 2021}}</ref> The growth of the Internet later provided international audiences with an easy way to access Japanese content.<ref name"fansubbingimpact" /> Early on, online piracy played a major role in this, through over time legal alternatives appeared which significantly reduced illegal practices.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastHo \|firstSoleil \|dateJanuary 9, 2019 \|titleThe future of anime fansubs in a simulcast world \|urlhttps://www.polygon.com/2019/1/9/18171014/anime-fansubs-translation-streaming-crunchyroll \|access-dateAugust 5, 2022 \|websitePolygon \|languageen-US}}</ref> Since the 2010s streaming services have become increasingly involved in the production, licensing and distribution of anime for the international markets.<ref>{{Cite web\|url https://www.forbes.com/sites/olliebarder/2017/10/18/netflix-is-currently-funding-thirty-original-anime-productions/\|title Netflix is Currently Funding 30 Original Anime Productions\|website Forbes\|access-date January 21, 2022\|archive-date October 18, 2017\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20171018215755/https://www.forbes.com/sites/olliebarder/2017/10/18/netflix-is-currently-funding-thirty-original-anime-productions/\|url-status live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2019/12/23/21003549/anime-streaming-wars-netflix-amazon-att-sony-crunchyroll-funimation\|titleAnime is one of the biggest fronts in the streaming wars\|websiteThe Verge\|date23 December 2019\|access-dateJanuary 21, 2022\|archive-dateMarch 28, 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220328045549/https://www.theverge.com/2019/12/23/21003549/anime-streaming-wars-netflix-amazon-att-sony-crunchyroll-funimation\|url-statuslive}}</ref> This is especially the case with net services such as Netflix, Crunchyroll and others which have large catalogs in many countries, although until 2020 anime fans in multiple developing countries, such as India<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://english.jagran.com/entertainment/the-rise-and-rise-of-anime-culture-in-india-and-it-is-here-to-stay-10083378\|titleThe Rise and Rise of 'Anime' Culture in India and Why It Is Here To Stay\|websiteJagran Prakashan\|date18 June 2023\|access-dateApril 21, 2024\|archive-dateApril 21, 2024\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240421171218/https://english.jagran.com/entertainment/the-rise-and-rise-of-anime-culture-in-india-and-it-is-here-to-stay-10083378\|url-statuslive}}</ref> and the Philippines, had fewer options for obtaining access to legal content, and therefore would still turn to online piracy.<ref name":2">{{Cite web\|lastVan der Sar\|firstErnesto\|date15 August 2020\|titlePiracy Giants KissAnime and KissManga Shut Down\|urlhttps://torrentfreak.com/piracy-giants-kissanime-and-kissmanga-shut-down-200815/\|access-date2020-08-16\|websiteTorrentFreak\|languageen\|archive-dateAugust 15, 2020\|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20200815214915/https://torrentfreak.com/piracy-giants-kissanime-and-kissmanga-shut-down-200815/\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name":0">{{Cite web\|lastMorrissy\|firstKim\|date2020-08-19\|titleSoutheast Asia, India Fans Disproportionately Affected by Pirate Site KissAnime Closure\|urlhttps://www.animenewsnetwork.com/interest/2020-08-19/southeast-asia-india-fans-disproportionately-affected-by-pirate-site-kissanime-closure/.163071\|access-date2020-08-25\|websiteAnime News Network\|languageen\|archive-dateAugust 20, 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200820195257/https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/interest/2020-08-19/southeast-asia-india-fans-disproportionately-affected-by-pirate-site-kissanime-closure/.163071\|url-statuslive}}</ref> However beginning with the 2020s anime has been experiencing yet another boom in global popularity and demand due to the COVID-19 pandemic and streaming services like Netflix, Amazon Prime Video, HBO Max, Disney+, Hulu and anime-only services like Crunchyroll and Hidive, increasing the international availability of the amount of new licensed anime shows as well as the size of their catalogs.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/the-world-is-watching-more-animeand-streaming-services-are-buying-11605365629 \|title The world is watching more anime and streaming services are buying \|dateNovember 14, 2020 \|website The Wall Street Journal \|access-dateNovember 9, 2021 \|archive-date April 22, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220422222339/https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-world-is-watching-more-animeand-streaming-services-are-buying-11605365629 \|url-status live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.economist.com/business/2021/06/05/streaming-and-covid-19-have-entrenched-animes-global-popularity \|title Streaming and covid-19 have entrenched anime's global popularity \|dateJune 5, 2021 \|newspaper The Economist \|access-dateNovember 9, 2021 \|archive-date November 9, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211109124437/https://www.economist.com/business/2021/06/05/streaming-and-covid-19-have-entrenched-animes-global-popularity \|url-status live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.brandwatch.com/blog/anime-manga-global-interest/\|titleExploring the Anime and Manga Global Takeover\|websiteBrandwatch\|date24 August 2021\|access-dateDecember 5, 2021\|archive-dateDecember 5, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211205220906/https://www.brandwatch.com/blog/anime-manga-global-interest/\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2021-06-19/funimation-expands-streaming-service-to-colombia-chile-peru/.174064\|titleFunimation Expands Streaming Service to Colombia, Chile, Peru\|websiteAnime News Network\|date19 June 2021\|access-dateNovember 9, 2021\|archive-dateNovember 9, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211109124437/https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2021-06-19/funimation-expands-streaming-service-to-colombia-chile-peru/.174064\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.crunchyroll.com/anime-news/2020/02/22-1/crunchyroll-expands-one-piece-territories-to-europe-and-mena\|titleCrunchyroll announces major One Piece catalog expansion across international regions\|websiteCrunchyroll\|date22 February 2020\|access-dateNovember 9, 2021\|archive-dateNovember 9, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211109125902/https://www.crunchyroll.com/anime-news/2020/02/22-1/crunchyroll-expands-one-piece-territories-to-europe-and-mena\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Netflix reported that, between October 2019 and September 2020, more than {{nowrap\|100 million}} member households worldwide had watched at least one anime title on the platform. Anime titles appeared on the streaming platform's top-ten lists in almost 100 countries within the one-year period.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Frater \|first1Patrick \|titleJapanese Anime Is Growing Success Story for Netflix \|urlhttps://variety.com/2020/streaming/asia/japanese-anime-is-growing-success-netflix-1234816488/ \|access-date13 January 2021 \|workVariety \|date27 October 2020 \|archive-dateFebruary 12, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210212045242/https://variety.com/2020/streaming/asia/japanese-anime-is-growing-success-netflix-1234816488/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> As of 2021, anime series are the most demanded foreign-language television shows in the United States accounting for 30.5% of the market share. (In comparison, Spanish-language and Korean-language shows account for 21% and 11% of the market share, respectively.)<ref>{{cite news \|titleUS audiences can't get enough of Japan's anime action shows \|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-05-11/u-s-audiences-can-t-get-enough-of-japan-s-anime-action-shows \|workBloomberg \|date12 May 2021 \|access-dateOctober 21, 2021 \|archive-dateNovember 10, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211110233558/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-05-11/u-s-audiences-can-t-get-enough-of-japan-s-anime-action-shows \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In 2021 more than half of Netflix's global members watched anime.<ref>{{cite news\|title'Ghost in the Shell SAC_2045,' 'JoJo's Bizarre Adventure' Return as Netflix Reveals 40 Anime Titles for 2022\|url https://variety.com/2022/tv/asia/ghost-in-the-shell-netflix-anime-1235216752/\|websiteVariety\|date 28 March 2022\|access-dateApril 3, 2022\|archive-date April 3, 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220403175754/https://variety.com/2022/tv/asia/ghost-in-the-shell-netflix-anime-1235216752/\|url-status live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|titleNetflix: More Than Half of Members Globally Watched 'Anime' Last Year\|url https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/daily-briefs/2022-03-30/netflix-more-than-half-of-members-globally-watched-anime-last-year/.184167\|websiteAnime News Network\|date 30 March 2022\|access-dateApril 3, 2022\|archive-date April 3, 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220403175754/https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/daily-briefs/2022-03-30/netflix-more-than-half-of-members-globally-watched-anime-last-year/.184167\|url-status live}}</ref> In 2022, the anime series Attack on Titan won the award of "Most In-Demand TV Series in the World 2021" in the Global TV Demand Awards. Attack on Titan became the first ever non-English language series to earn the title of "World's Most In-Demand TV Show", previously held by only The Walking Dead and Game of Thrones.<ref name"WFMZ-TV"/><ref>{{cite news\|url https://www.parrotanalytics.com/announcements/anime-and-asian-series-dominate-4th-annual-global-tv-demand-awards/\|titleAnime and Asian series dominate 4th Annual Global TV Demand Awards, highlighting industry and consumer trends towards international content\|website Parrot Analytics\|date25 January 2022\|access-date February 7, 2022\|archive-dateFebruary 7, 2022\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20220207160322/https://www.parrotanalytics.com/announcements/anime-and-asian-series-dominate-4th-annual-global-tv-demand-awards/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2024, the anime series Jujutsu Kaisen won the award of "Most In-Demand TV Series in the World 2023" in the Global TV Demand Awards.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://todotvnews.com/en/parrot-analytics-unveils-winners-of-6th-annual-global-demand-awards/\|titleParrot Analytics Unveils Winners of 6th Annual Global Demand Awards\|websitetodotvnews\|date30 January 2024\|access-dateFebruary 1, 2024\|archive-dateJanuary 31, 2024\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240131053114/https://todotvnews.com/en/parrot-analytics-unveils-winners-of-6th-annual-global-demand-awards/\|url-status=live}}</ref> Rising interest in anime as well as Japanese video games has led to an increase of university students in the United Kingdom wanting to get a degree in the Japanese language.<ref>{{cite news\|titleAnime and K-pop fuel language-learning boom\|urlhttps://www.taipeitimes.com/News/feat/archives/2021/12/30/2003770413\|websiteTaipei Times\|date30 December 2021\|access-dateJanuary 2, 2022\|archive-dateFebruary 7, 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220207195813/https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/feat/archives/2021/12/30/2003770413\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The word anime alongside other Japanese pop cultural terms like shonen, shojo and isekai have been added to the Oxford English Dictionary.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://public.oed.com/blog/japanese-words-in-the-oed/\|titleFrom anime to zen: Japanese words in the OED\|websiteOxford English Dictionary\|date4 August 2021\|access-dateJune 30, 2023\|archive-dateJune 9, 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230609012226/https://public.oed.com/blog/japanese-words-in-the-oed/\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.gamesradar.com/anime-and-manga-strongarm-their-way-into-the-oxford-dictionary-as-isekai-and-mangaka-become-official-english-words/\|titleAnime and manga strongarm their way into the Oxford dictionary as 'Isekai' and 'Mangaka' become official English words\|websiteGamesRadar+\|date28 March 2024\|access-dateApril 21, 2024\|archive-dateApril 21, 2024\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240421171217/https://www.gamesradar.com/anime-and-manga-strongarm-their-way-into-the-oxford-dictionary-as-isekai-and-mangaka-become-official-english-words/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Various anime and manga series have influenced Hollywood in the making of numerous famous movies and characters.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://screenrant.com/anime-that-inspired-hollywood-movies/\|title10 Anime That Inspired The Making Of Movies In Hollywood\|websiteScreenrant\|date20 January 2021\|access-dateJanuary 29, 2022\|archive-dateJanuary 30, 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220130002956/https://screenrant.com/anime-that-inspired-hollywood-movies/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Hollywood itself has produced live-action adaptations of various anime series such as Ghost in the Shell, Death Note, Dragon Ball Evolution and Cowboy Bebop. However most of these adaptations have been reviewed negatively by both the critics and the audience and have become box-office flops. The main reasons for the unsuccessfulness of Hollywood's adaptions of anime being the often change of plot and characters from the original source material and the limited capabilities a live-action movie or series can do in comparison to an animated counterpart.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.businessinsider.com/anime-movies-hollywood-adaptations-bad-flops-film-studios-2019-1\|titleWhy Hollywood adaptations of anime movies keep flopping\|websiteBusinessInsider\|date11 January 2019\|access-dateJanuary 29, 2022\|archive-dateJanuary 12, 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190112185538/https://www.businessinsider.com/anime-movies-hollywood-adaptations-bad-flops-film-studios-2019-1\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2019/08/10/why-hollywood-should-stay-away-from-live-action-remakes-of-anime.html\|title Why Hollywood should leave anime out of its live-action remake obsession\|websiteCNBC\|date 10 August 2019\|access-dateJanuary 29, 2022\|archive-date January 30, 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220130023632/https://www.cnbc.com/2019/08/10/why-hollywood-should-stay-away-from-live-action-remakes-of-anime.html\|url-status live}}</ref> One of the few particular exceptions to this includes Alita: Battle Angel, which has become a moderate commercial success, receiving generally positive reviews from both the critics and the audience for its visual effects and following the source material. The movie grossed $404 million worldwide, making it director Robert Rodriguez's highest-grossing film.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://screenrant.com/alita-battle-angel-box-office-success/\|titleAlita: Battle Angel Was (Just) A Box Office Success\|websiteScreen Rant\|date12 March 2019\|access-dateFebruary 1, 2022\|archive-dateFebruary 1, 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220201181747/https://screenrant.com/alita-battle-angel-box-office-success/\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://movieweb.com/alita-2-battle-angel-box-office-success/\|titleAlita Wasn't the Bomb Everyone Expected, a Sequel Is Very Possible\|websiteMovieWeb\|date2 April 2019\|access-dateFebruary 1, 2022\|archive-dateFebruary 1, 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220201183036/https://movieweb.com/alita-2-battle-angel-box-office-success/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Anime and manga alongside many other imports of Japanese pop culture have helped Japan to gain a positive worldwide image and improve its relations with other countries.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastNagata \|firstKazuaki \|date7 September 2010 \|titleAnime makes Japan a cultural superpower \|urlhttps://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2010/09/07/reference/anime-makes-japan-superpower/ \|viaJapan Times Online \|access-dateJune 30, 2023 \|archive-dateJuly 7, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180707010033/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2010/09/07/reference/anime-makes-japan-superpower/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|last1Tamaki\|first1Taku\|titleJapan has turned its culture into a powerful political tool\|urlhttp://theconversation.com/japan-has-turned-its-culture-into-a-powerful-political-tool-72821\|journalThe Conversation\|dateApril 26, 2017\|languageen\|access-dateMay 5, 2023\|archive-dateNovember 18, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211118214114/https://theconversation.com/japan-has-turned-its-culture-into-a-powerful-political-tool-72821\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|titleHow Japan's global image morphed from military empire to eccentric pop-culture superpower\|urlhttps://qz.com/1806376/japans-image-has-changed-from-fierce-to-lovable-over-the-decades/\|publisherQuartz\|date2020-05-27\|access-dateJanuary 20, 2022\|archive-dateOctober 21, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211021121139/https://qz.com/1806376/japans-image-has-changed-from-fierce-to-lovable-over-the-decades/\|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2015, during remarks welcoming Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe to the White House, President Barack Obama thanked Japan for its cultural contributions to the United States by saying: {{blockquote\|This visit is a celebration of the ties of friendship and family that bind our peoples. I first felt it when I was 6 years old when my mother took me to Japan. I felt it growing up in Hawaii, like communities across our country, home to so many proud Japanese Americans... Today is also a chance for Americans, especially our young people, to say thank you for all the things we love from Japan. Like karate and karaoke. Manga and anime. And, of course, emojis.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2015/04/28/president-obama-thanks-japanese-leader-for-karaoke-emojis/\|titlePresident Obama thanks Japanese leader for karaoke, emoji\|newspaperThe Washington Post\|date28 April 2015}}</ref>}} In July 2020, after the approval of a Chilean government project in which citizens of Chile would be allowed to withdraw up to 10% of their privately held retirement savings, journalist Pamela Jiles celebrated by running through Congress with her arms spread out behind her, imitating the move of many characters of the anime and manga series Naruto.<ref>{{Cite news\|lastLaing\|firstAislinn\|date16 July 2020\|titlePink-caped Chilean deputy brings lawmakers to their feet to celebrate coronavirus bill\|languageen\|workReuters\|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-chile-pensions-idUSKCN24G3B4\|access-date22 April 2021\|archive-dateJanuary 20, 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220120224917/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-chile-pensions-idUSKCN24G3B4\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|lastQuinteros\|firstPaulo\|date15 July 2020\|titleHokage Jiles: La diputada celebró la aprobación del proyecto del 10% corriendo a lo Naruto\|urlhttps://www.latercera.com/mouse/hokage-jiles-la-diputada-celebro-la-aprobacion-del-proyecto-del-10-corriendo-a-lo-naruto/\|access-date22 April 2021\|websiteLa Tercera\|archive-dateJanuary 20, 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220120224925/https://www.latercera.com/mouse/hokage-jiles-la-diputada-celebro-la-aprobacion-del-proyecto-del-10-corriendo-a-lo-naruto/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In April 2021, Peruvian politicians Jorge Hugo Romero of the PPC and Milagros Juárez of the UPP cosplayed as anime characters to get the otaku vote.<ref>{{cite news\|url https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/interest/2021-04-14/peruvian-politicians-cosplay-anime-characters-to-score-the-otaku-vote/.171709\|titlePeruvian Politicians Cosplay Anime Characters to Score the "Otaku" Vote\|website Anime News Network\|date14 April 2021\|access-date January 20, 2022\|archive-dateJanuary 20, 2022\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20220120225847/https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/interest/2021-04-14/peruvian-politicians-cosplay-anime-characters-to-score-the-otaku-vote/.171709\|url-statuslive}}</ref> On October 28, 2024, The Vatican unveiled its own anime-styled mascot, "Luce", in order to connect with Catholic youth through pop culture.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastPeters \|firstMegan \|date2024-10-28 \|titleThe Vatican Goes Full Anime With New Catholic Mascot: Watch Now \|urlhttps://comicbook.com/anime/news/anime-character-the-vatican-catholic-japan/ \|access-date2024-10-28 \|websiteComicBook.com \|language=en-US}}</ref> In April 2023, the Japan Business Federation laid out a proposal aiming to spur the economic growth of Japan by further promoting the contents industry abroad, primarily anime, manga and video games, for measures to invite industry experts from abroad to come to Japan to work, and to link with the tourism sector to help foreign fans of manga and anime visit sites across the country associated with particular manga stories. The federation seeks on quadrupling the sales of Japanese content in overseas markets within the upcoming 10 years.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastNguyen \|firstJoana \|date2023-04-10 \|titleJapan's leading business lobby group says anime, manga key to economic growth \|urlhttps://www.scmp.com/video/asia/3216598/japans-leading-business-lobby-group-says-anime-manga-key-economic-growth \|websiteSouth China Morning Post \|access-dateJune 30, 2023 \|archive-dateJune 29, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230629011447/https://www.scmp.com/video/asia/3216598/japans-leading-business-lobby-group-says-anime-manga-key-economic-growth \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.dw.com/en/japan-manga-to-spearhead-nations-economic-growth/a-65393781\|titleJapan: Manga to spearhead nation's economic growth\|websiteDW\|date23 April 2023\|access-dateJune 30, 2023\|archive-dateJune 30, 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230630204528/https://www.dw.com/en/japan-manga-to-spearhead-nations-economic-growth/a-65393781\|url-statuslive}}</ref> A 2018 survey conducted in 20 countries and territories using a sample consisting of 6,600 respondents held by Dentsu revealed that 34% of all surveyed people found excellency in anime and manga more than other Japanese cultural or technological aspects, which makes this mass Japanese media the third most-liked "Japanese thing", below Japanese cuisine (34.6%) and Japanese robotics (35.1%). The advertisement company views anime as a profitable tool for marketing campaigns in foreign countries due to its popularity and high reception.<ref>{{cite web\|titleHarnessing the Power of Anime as an Outstanding Marketing Solution\|url https://www.dentsu.co.jp/en/showcase/harnessing_the_power_of_anime.html\|websiteDentsu\|date 1 March 2019\|access-dateJanuary 28, 2022\|archive-date January 28, 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220128170442/https://www.dentsu.co.jp/en/showcase/harnessing_the_power_of_anime.html\|url-status live}}</ref> Anime plays a role in driving tourism to Japan. In surveys held by Statista between 2019 and 2020, 24.2% of tourists from the United States, 7.7% of tourists from China and 6.1% of tourists from South Korea said they were motivated to visit Japan because of Japanese popular culture.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.statista.com/topics/7495/anime-industry-in-japan/#dossierKeyfigures\|titleAnime industry in Japan - statistics and facts\|websiteStatista\|date17 January 2022\|access-dateDecember 4, 2021\|archive-dateDecember 4, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211204121928/https://www.statista.com/topics/7495/anime-industry-in-japan/#dossierKeyfigures\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In a 2021 survey held by Crunchyroll market research, 94% of Gen-Z's and 73% of the general population said that they are familiar with anime.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.animenewsnetwork.com/interest/2021-07-09/crunchyroll-market-research-only-6-percent-of-gen-z-dont-know-what-anime-is/.174962\|titleCrunchyroll Market Research: Only 6% of Gen Z Don't Know What Anime Is\|websiteAnime News Network\|date9 July 2021\|access-dateJanuary 18, 2022\|archive-dateJanuary 18, 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220118132722/https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/interest/2021-07-09/crunchyroll-market-research-only-6-percent-of-gen-z-dont-know-what-anime-is/.174962\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://comicbook.com/anime/news/anime-manga-popularity-gen-z-adults/\|titleAnime Poll Reveals How Popular It Has Become with Gen Z\|websiteCBR\|date11 July 2021\|access-dateJanuary 18, 2022\|archive-dateJuly 16, 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220716095932/https://comicbook.com/anime/news/anime-manga-popularity-gen-z-adults/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Fan response {{see also\|Anime and manga fandom\|Anime and manga fandom in Poland\|ACG (subculture)\|List of anime conventions}} of Madoka Kaname and Kyubey from Puella Magi Madoka Magica during Tracon 2013 event at the Tampere Hall in Tampere, Finland]] Anime clubs gave rise to anime conventions in the 1990s with the "anime boom", a period marked by anime's increased global popularity.{{sfn\|Poitras\|2000\|p73}} These conventions are dedicated to anime and manga and include elements like cosplay contests and industry talk panels.{{sfn\|Brenner\|2007\|p211}} Cosplay, a portmanteau of "costume play", is not unique to anime and has become popular in contests and masquerades at anime conventions.{{sfn\|Brenner\|2007\|pp214–215}} Japanese culture and words have entered English usage through the popularity of the medium, including otaku, an unflattering Japanese term commonly used in English to denote an obsessive fan of anime or manga.{{sfn\|Brenner\|2007\|p195}} Another word that has arisen describing obsessive fans in the United States is wapanese meaning 'white individuals who want to be Japanese, or later known as weeaboo or weeb, individuals who demonstrate an obsession with Japanese anime subculture, a term that originated from abusive content posted on the website 4chan.org.<ref>{{cite web\|lastDavis\|firstJesse Christian\|titleJapanese animation in America and its fans\|urlhttp://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1957/8736/thesis.pdf\|access-dateDecember 12, 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304113039/http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1957/8736/thesis.pdf\|archive-dateMarch 4, 2016\|url-statuslive}}</ref> While originally derogatory, the terms "Otaku" and "Weeb" have been reappropriated by the anime fandom overtime and today are used by some fans to refer to themselves in a comedic and more positive way.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.cbr.com/otaku-or-weeb-the-differences-insults/\|titleOtaku or Weeb: The Differences Between Anime Fandom's Most Famous Insults\|websiteCBR\|date31 May 2020\|access-dateNovember 22, 2021\|archive-dateNovember 22, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211122193854/https://www.cbr.com/otaku-or-weeb-the-differences-insults/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Anime enthusiasts have produced fan fiction and fan art, including computer wallpapers, and anime music videos (AMVs).{{sfn\|Brenner\|2007\|p=201–205}} Many fans visit sites depicted in anime, games, manga and other forms of otaku culture. This behavior is known as "Anime pilgrimage".<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Liu \|first1Shang \|last2Lai \|first2Dan \|last3Li \|first3Zhiyong \|date2022-03-01 \|titleThe identity construction of Chinese anime pilgrims \|urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016073832200024X \|journalAnnals of Tourism Research \|languageen \|volume93 \|pages103373 \|doi10.1016/j.annals.2022.103373 \|s2cid246853441 \|issn0160-7383}}</ref> As of the 2020s, many anime fans and followers use social media platforms and other sites like YouTube, Bilibili, Twitch,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://blog.twitch.tv/en/2017/10/05/anime-returns-to-twitch-with-two-back-to-back-marathons-73f25941fa6b/\|titleAnime returns to Twitch with two back-to-back marathons\|websiteblog.twitch.tv\|date5 October 2017\|access-dateOctober 6, 2023\|archive-dateOctober 14, 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231014225745/https://blog.twitch.tv/en/2017/10/05/anime-returns-to-twitch-with-two-back-to-back-marathons-73f25941fa6b/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Fandom,<ref>{{cite book \| chapter-urlhttps://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203117927-6/wikis-participatory-fandom-jason-mittell \| doi10.4324/9780203117927-6 \| doi-broken-dateNovember 1, 2024 \| titleThe Participatory Cultures Handbook \| chapterWikis and Participatory Fandom \| year2012 \| publisherRoutledge \| isbn9780203117927 \| access-dateApril 19, 2023 \| archive-dateApril 19, 2023 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230419173429/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203117927-6/wikis-participatory-fandom-jason-mittell \| url-statuslive }}</ref> Facebook, Instagram, Reddit, Discord,<ref>{{cite book \| urlhttp://urn.kb.se/resolve?urnurn:nbn:se:mau:diva-20514 \| titleKB URN resolver \| year2020 \| publisherMalmö universitet/Teknik och samhälle \| access-dateApril 19, 2023 \| archive-dateApril 19, 2023 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230419172754/http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urnurn:nbn:se:mau:diva-20514 \| url-statuslive }}</ref> Tumblr,<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/12388417 \|titleAttack on Fandom: How Attack on Titan Fans Use Tumblr \|firstMariya \|lastShcherbinina \|viaAcademia.edu \|access-date5 February 2023 \|archive-dateApril 7, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230407054740/https://www.academia.edu/12388417 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> 4chan, TikTok and Twitter<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://sproutsocial.com/insights/twitter-trending-topics/\|titleTwitter trending topics: How they work and how to use them\|websiteSprout Social\|date15 March 2021\|access-dateDecember 16, 2021\|archive-dateDecember 16, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211216162839/https://sproutsocial.com/insights/twitter-trending-topics/\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"ktops"/> with online communities and databases such as IMDb, MyAnimeList to discuss anime, manga and track their progress watching respective series as well as using news outlets such as Anime News Network.<ref name"kotakumal">{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.kotaku.com.au/2018/01/why-some-fans-watch-anime-at-double-speed/ \|titleWhy Some Fans Watch Anime At Double Speed \|dateJanuary 11, 2018 \|websiteKotaku Australia \|publisherGawker Media \|languageen \|access-dateJune 4, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180619035944/https://www.kotaku.com.au/2018/01/why-some-fans-watch-anime-at-double-speed/ \|archive-dateJune 19, 2018 \|url-statusdead }}</ref><ref name"forbes">{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/laurenorsini/2018/05/30/myanimelist-passes-third-day-of-unexpected-downtime/ \|titleMyAnimeList Passes Third Day Of Unexpected Downtime \|lastOrsini \|firstLauren \|websiteForbes \|languageen \|access-dateJune 4, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180619040817/https://www.forbes.com/sites/laurenorsini/2018/05/30/myanimelist-passes-third-day-of-unexpected-downtime/ \|archive-dateJune 19, 2018 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> According to Crunchyroll's research data from 2023 to 2024 provided by its President Rahul Parini, revealed that there are approximately 800 million people globally (outside of China and Japan) who are either highly aware of anime, show interest in anime or currently watch anime and identify as fans.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2024/2/26/24081180/crunchyroll-president-purini-anime-funimation-shutdown-sony-merger-decoder-interview\|titleCrunchyroll president Rahul Purini on how anime took over the world\|date26 February 2024\|websiteThe Verge\|access-dateMarch 30, 2024\|archive-dateMarch 30, 2024\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240330200505/https://www.theverge.com/2024/2/26/24081180/crunchyroll-president-purini-anime-funimation-shutdown-sony-merger-decoder-interview\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.smh.com.au/culture/movies/800-million-and-growing-why-everyone-wants-a-piece-of-the-anime-action-20240314-p5fcek.html\|title800 million and growing: Why everyone wants a piece of the anime action\|date16 March 2024\|websiteThe Sydney Morning Herald\|access-dateMarch 30, 2024\|archive-dateMarch 30, 2024\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240330200505/https://www.smh.com.au/culture/movies/800-million-and-growing-why-everyone-wants-a-piece-of-the-anime-action-20240314-p5fcek.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2023/07/15/digital/anime-crunchyroll-sony/\|titleFormer piracy site Crunchyroll cashes in on anime's global appeal\|date15 July 2023\|websiteThe Japan Times\|access-dateMarch 30, 2024\|archive-dateMarch 30, 2024\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240330200505/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2023/07/15/digital/anime-crunchyroll-sony/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> According to a 2024 survey conducted on anime fans by Polygon, 65% of the surveyed anime fans said that they find anime more emotionally compelling than other forms of media and more than 3 in 4 of Millennial and Gen-Z fans use the medium as a form of escapism. Almost two-thirds of the anime-watching Gen Z audience said they emotionally connect better with anime than they do with traditional media. Over 50% of surveyed Gen-Z anime fans said that anime influences their identity, fashion and social understanding.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.polygon.com/c/2024/1/22/24034466/anime-viewer-survey-research\|titleAnime is huge — and here are the numbers to prove it\|websitePolygon\|date22 January 2024}}</ref> Due to anime's increased popularity in recent years, a large number of celebrities such as Elon Musk, BTS and Ariana Grande have come out as anime fans.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.cbr.com/bts-celebrities-anime-huge-fans/\|titleBTS & 9 Other Celebrities Who Are Huge Anime Fans\|websiteCBR\|date13 March 2021\|access-dateDecember 16, 2021\|archive-dateDecember 16, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211216162839/https://www.cbr.com/bts-celebrities-anime-huge-fans/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Anime style {{Main\|Anime-influenced animation}} One of the key points that differentiated anime from a handful of Western cartoons is the potential for visceral content. Once the expectation that the aspects of visual intrigue or animation are just for children is put aside, the audience can realize that themes involving violence, suffering, sexuality, pain, and death can all be storytelling elements utilized in anime just as much as other media.{{sfn\|MacWilliams\|2008\|p=307}} {{Quote box \| quote = "Japanese animation is so different from what airs here. It's far edgier, more adult and violent." \| author Mike Lazzo of the American Cartoon Network<ref>{{cite journal \|urlhttps://iafor.org/archives/journals/iafor-journal-of-asian-studies/10.22492.ijas.1.1.04.pdf \|title"Gotta Catch 'Em All!" Pokémon, Cultural Practice and Object Networks \|lastBainbridge \|firstJason \|journalIAFOR Journal of Asian Studies \|dateWinter 2014 \|issue1 \|volume1 \|doi10.22492/ijas.1.1.04 \|access-dateJanuary 9, 2023 \|archive-dateMarch 8, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230308075542/https://iafor.org/archives/journals/iafor-journal-of-asian-studies/10.22492.ijas.1.1.04.pdf \|url-statuslive }}</ref> \| align = left \| width = 25em \| bgcolor = Lavender \| salign = right }} However, as anime itself became increasingly popular, its styling has been inevitably the subject of both satire and serious creative productions.<ref name="anna" /> South Park{{'}}s "Chinpokomon" and "Good Times with Weapons" episodes, Adult Swim's Perfect Hair Forever, and Nickelodeon's Kappa Mikey are examples of Western satirical depictions of Japanese culture and anime, but anime tropes have also been satirized by some anime such as KonoSuba. Traditionally only Japanese works have been considered anime, but some works have sparked debate about blurring the lines between anime and cartoons, such as the American anime-style productions Avatar: The Last Airbender and Avatar: The Legend of Korra.<ref name"escapist">{{cite web\|lastO'Brien\|firstChris\|titleCan Americans Make Anime?\|urlhttp://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/features/9829-Can-Americans-Make-Anime\|workThe Escapist\|access-dateJuly 17, 2013\|dateJuly 30, 2012\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121018071546/http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/features/9829-Can-Americans-Make-Anime\|archive-dateOctober 18, 2012\|url-statuslive}}</ref> These anime-styled works have become defined as anime-influenced animation, in an attempt to classify all anime styled works of non-Japanese origin.<ref name"whatisanime">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.animenewsnetwork.com/editorial/2002-07-26 \|titleWhat is anime? \|dateJuly 26, 2002 \|access-dateAugust 18, 2007 \|workANN\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20070820052800/http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/editorial/2002-07-26\| archive-dateAugust 20, 2007 \| url-statuslive}}</ref> Some creators of these works cite anime as a source of inspiration, for example the French production team for Ōban Star-Racers that moved to Tokyo to collaborate with a Japanese production team.<ref>{{cite web\|titleAaron McGruder - The Boondocks Interview\|urlhttp://www.ugo.com/ugo/html/article/?id17924\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071030033247/http://www.ugo.com/ugo/html/article/?id17924\|archive-dateOctober 30, 2007\|access-dateOctober 14, 2007\|workTroy Rogers\|publisherUnderGroundOnline\|quoteWe looked at Samurai Champloo and Cowboy Bebop to make this work for black comedy and it would be a remarkable thing.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.g4tv.com/screensavers/features/49962/Ten_Minutes_with_Megas_XLR.html \|titleTen Minutes with "Megas XLR" \|dateOctober 13, 2004 \|access-dateNovember 27, 2007 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070929123347/http://www.g4tv.com/screensavers/features/49962/Ten_Minutes_with_Megas_XLR.html \|archive-dateSeptember 29, 2007 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"company">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.savtheworld.com/eng/company.php \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070813141936/http://www.savtheworld.com/eng/company.php \|url-statusdead \|archive-dateAugust 13, 2007 \|titleSTW company background summary }}</ref> When anime is defined as a "style" rather than as a national product, it leaves open the possibility of anime being produced in other countries,<ref name"escapist" /> but this has been contentious amongst fans, with John Oppliger stating, "The insistence on referring to original American art as Japanese "anime" or "manga" robs the work of its cultural identity."<ref name"anna" /><ref>{{cite web\|dateMay 15, 2006\|titleHow should the word Anime be defined?\|urlhttp://www.animenation.net/blog/2006/05/15/ask-john-how-should-the-word-anime-be-defined/\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081217143953/http://www.animenation.net/blog/2006/05/15/ask-john-how-should-the-word-anime-be-defined/\|archive-dateDecember 17, 2008\|access-dateSeptember 26, 2008\|workAnimeNation}}</ref> While some anime will depict non-Japanese characters with specific ethnic features, such as a pronounced nose and jutting jaw for European characters,<ref name"do1"/> there are some styles that deliberately forgo any identification of its characters with real-world ethnicities or nationalities, termed in criticism as mukokuseki (statelessness). Mukokuseki characters can significantly impact the reception of a property outside of Japan.<ref nameCuteCult>Bîrlea, Oana-Maria. “Soft Power: ’Cute Culture’, a Persuasive Strategy in Japanese Advertising.” TRAMES: A Journal of the Humanities & Social Sciences, vol. 27, no. 3, July 2023, pp. 311–24. EBSCOhost via Wikipedia Library, https://doi.org/10.3176/tr.2023.3.07.</ref><ref nameCBRnation>Altiok, Revna. "[https://www.cbr.com/mukokuseki-no-nationality-importance-in-anime/ What Is Mukokuseki in Anime – And Why Is It Important?] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240119143318/https://www.cbr.com/mukokuseki-no-nationality-importance-in-anime/ \|date=January 19, 2024 }}" from Comic Book Resources, 24 June 2022.</ref> A U.A.E.-Filipino produced TV series called Torkaizer is dubbed as the "Middle East's First Anime Show", and is currently in production<ref name"Torkaizer">{{cite web\|lastFakhruddin\|firstMufaddal\|title'Torkaizer', Middle East's First Anime Show\|urlhttp://me.ign.com/en/news/9594/-torkaizer-middle-east-s-first-anime-show\|websiteIGN\|access-dateJune 12, 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130630133627/http://me.ign.com/en/news/9594/-torkaizer-middle-east-s-first-anime-show\|archive-dateJune 30, 2013\|url-statuslive\|dateApril 9, 2013}}</ref> and looking for funding.<ref>{{cite web\|last1Green\|first1Scott\|titleVIDEO: An Updated Look at "Middle East's First Anime"\|urlhttp://www.crunchyroll.com/anime-news/2013/12/26/video-an-updated-look-at-middle-easts-first-anime\|websiteCrunchyroll\|access-dateAugust 20, 2014\|dateDecember 26, 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141103233248/http://www.crunchyroll.com/anime-news/2013/12/26/video-an-updated-look-at-middle-easts-first-anime\|archive-dateNovember 3, 2014\|url-statuslive}}</ref>{{Update inline\|dateJuly 2024\|reasonThese citations are over 10 years old. Did Torkaizer gets its funding or not? What exactly happened here?}} Netflix has produced multiple anime series in collaboration with Japanese animation studios,<ref>{{cite web\|last1Schley\|first1Matt\|titleNetflix May Produce Anime\|urlhttp://www.otakuusamagazine.com/LatestNews/News1/Netflix-May-Produce-Anime-7035.aspx\|websiteOtakuUSA\|dateNovember 5, 2015\|access-dateNovember 17, 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151107204830/http://otakuusamagazine.com/LatestNews/News1/Netflix-May-Produce-Anime-7035.aspx\|archive-dateNovember 7, 2015\|url-statuslive}}</ref> and in doing so, has offered a more accessible channel for distribution to Western markets.<ref>{{cite web\|last1Barder\|first1Ollie\|titleNetflix Is Interested In Producing Its Own Anime\|urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/olliebarder/2015/11/04/netflix-is-interested-in-producing-its-own-anime/\|workForbes\|access-dateNovember 17, 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170729115913/https://www.forbes.com/sites/olliebarder/2015/11/04/netflix-is-interested-in-producing-its-own-anime/\|archive-dateJuly 29, 2017\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Similar initiatives have been enacted by the US-based streaming service Crunchyroll,<ref nameCrunchyOriginals>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2020-02-25/crunchyroll-unveils-7-crunchyroll-originals-works-including-tower-of-god-noblesse-god-of-high-school/.156748\|titleCrunchyroll Unveils 7 'Crunchyroll Originals' Works Including Tower of God, Noblesse, God of High School\|publisherAnime News Network\|dateFebruary 25, 2020\|access-dateJuly 25, 2020\|archive-dateFebruary 25, 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200225153220/https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2020-02-25/crunchyroll-unveils-7-crunchyroll-originals-works-including-tower-of-god-noblesse-god-of-high-school/.156748\|url-status=live}}</ref> producing titles such as High Guardian Spice and an adaptation of Tower of God. The web-based series RWBY, produced by Texas-based company Rooster Teeth, is produced using an anime art style, and the series has been described as "anime" by multiple sources. For example, Adweek, in the headline to one of its articles, described the series as "American-made anime",<ref name "AdweekRWBY">{{cite web\|last1Castillo\|first1Michelle\|titleAmerican-Made Anime From Rooster Teeth Gets Licensed In Japan\|urlhttp://www.adweek.com/news/technology/american-made-anime-rooster-teeth-gets-licensed-japan-159528\|websiteAdWeek\|access-dateAugust 20, 2014\|dateAugust 15, 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140819090314/http://www.adweek.com/news/technology/american-made-anime-rooster-teeth-gets-licensed-japan-159528\|archive-dateAugust 19, 2014\|url-statuslive}}</ref> and in another headline, The Huffington Post described it as simply "anime", without referencing its country of origin.<ref>{{cite web\|lastLazar\|firstShira\|titleRoosterteeth Adds Anime RWBY To YouTube Slate (WATCH)\|urlhttps://www.huffingtonpost.com/shira-lazar/roosterteeth-adds-anime-r_b_3720316.html\|publisherHuffingtonpost\|access-dateAugust 15, 2013\|dateAugust 7, 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131029134907/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/shira-lazar/roosterteeth-adds-anime-r_b_3720316.html\|archive-dateOctober 29, 2013\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2013, Monty Oum, the creator of RWBY, said "Some believe just like Scotch needs to be made in Scotland, an American company can't make anime. I think that's a narrow way of seeing it. Anime is an art form, and to say only one country can make this art is wrong."<ref name"rwby">{{cite web\|lastRush\|firstAmanda\|titleFEATURE: Inside Rooster Teeth's "RWBY"\|urlhttp://www.crunchyroll.com/anime-news/2013/07/12/feature-inside-rooster-teeths-rwby\|publisherCrunchyroll\|access-dateJuly 18, 2013\|dateJuly 12, 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130716153934/http://www.crunchyroll.com/anime-news/2013/07/12/feature-inside-rooster-teeths-rwby\|archive-dateJuly 16, 2013\|url-statuslive}}</ref> RWBY has been released in Japan with a Japanese language dub;<ref>{{cite web\|title海外3DCGアニメ『RWBY』吹き替え版BD・DVD販売決定！コミケで発表\|urlhttp://kai-you.net/article/7931\|websiteKAI-YOU\|access-dateAugust 19, 2014\|dateAugust 16, 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140819232942/http://kai-you.net/article/7931\|archive-dateAugust 19, 2014\|url-statuslive}}</ref> the CEO of Rooster Teeth, Matt Hullum, commented "This is the first time any American-made anime has been marketed to Japan. It definitely usually works the other way around, and we're really pleased about that."<ref name "AdweekRWBY" /> Media franchises {{Further\|Media mix\|List of highest-grossing media franchises}} at Jewel Changi Airport in Singapore]] In Japanese culture and entertainment, media mix is a strategy to disperse content across multiple representations: different broadcast media, gaming technologies, cell phones, toys, amusement parks, and other methods.<ref namejen>Henry Jenkins, Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide, [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780814742815/page/110 p. 110]</ref> It is the Japanese term for a transmedia franchise.<ref name"Steinberg">Marc Steinberg, ''Anime's Media Mix: Franchising Toys and Characters in Japan</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|lastDenison\|firstRayna\|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/3693690\|titleManga Movies Project Report 1 - Transmedia Japanese Franchising\|journalAcademia.edu\|access-dateJuly 31, 2015\|archive-dateMarch 18, 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220318040903/https://www.academia.edu/3693690\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The term gained its circulation in late 1980s, but the origins of the strategy can be traced back to the 1960s with the proliferation of anime, with its interconnection of media and commodity goods.<ref nameamm>Steinberg, [https://books.google.com/books?idrzGqyHaUGYkC&q%22media+mix%22 p. vi] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221031111347/https://books.google.com/books?idrzGqyHaUGYkC&printsecfrontcover#vonepage&q%22media%20mix%22 \|dateOctober 31, 2022 }}</ref> A number of anime and manga media franchises such as Demon Slayer: Kimetsu no Yaiba, Dragon Ball, Fate/stay night, Yu-Gi-Oh!, Neon Genesis Evangelion and Gundam'' have gained considerable global popularity, and are among the world's highest-grossing media franchises. Pokémon in particular is estimated to be the highest-grossing media franchise of all time.<ref name"licensing">{{cite news \|lastHutchins \|firstRobert \|title'Anime will only get stronger,' as Pokémon beats Marvel as highest grossing franchise \|urlhttps://www.licensing.biz/entertainment/anime-will-only-get-stronger-as-pok%C3%A9mon-beats-marvel-as-highest-grossing-franchise \|workLicensing.biz \|dateJune 26, 2018 \|access-dateSeptember 5, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181106145711/https://www.licensing.biz/entertainment/anime-will-only-get-stronger-as-pok%C3%A9mon-beats-marvel-as-highest-grossing-franchise \|archive-dateNovember 6, 2018 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> See also <!--{DEAD: {Wikipedia books\|Anime and Manga\|positionright}}--> <!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description WP:SEEALSO. --> {{div col\|colwidth=20em}} * Cool Japan * Hentai * History of anime * Japanese popular culture * Japanophilia * Lists of anime * La nouvelle manga * Manfra * Mechademia * OEL manga * Otaku * Soft power § Japan * Television in Japan * Video games in Japan * Voice acting in Japan * Vtuber {{div col end}} <!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order. --> Notes {{notelist}} References {{Reflist}} Sources {{refbegin\|30em}} * {{cite book \|titleAnime: A Guide to Japanese Animation (1958–1988) \|lastBaricordi \|firstAndrea \|author2de Giovanni, Massimiliano \|author3Pietroni, Andrea \|author4Rossi, Barbara \|author5Tunesi, Sabrina \|dateDecember 2000 \|publisherProtoculture Inc. \|locationMontreal, Quebec, Canada \|isbn2-9805759-0-9 \|ref{{SfnRef\|Baricordi\|2000}}}} * {{Cite book \|titleAnimation: A World History: Volume II: The Birth of a Style - The Three Markets \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0azMCgAAQBAJ \|publisherCRC Press \|dateOctober 23, 2015 \|isbn978-1-3175-1991-1 \|languageen \|firstGiannalberto \|last=Bendazzi }} * {{cite book \|titleUnderstanding Manga and Anime \|publisherLibraries Unlimited \|lastBrenner \|firstRobin \|year2007 \|isbn978-1-59158-332-5}} * {{cite book \|last1Clements \|first1Jonathan \|author-link1Jonathan Clements \|last2McCarthy \|first2Helen \|author-link2Helen McCarthy \|titleThe Anime Encyclopedia: A Guide to Japanese Animation Since 1917 \|publisherStone Bridge Press \|locationBerkeley, Calif \|isbn978-1-933330-10-5 \|year=2006}} * {{cite book \|last1Craig \|first1Timothy J. \|titleJapan Pop!: Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture \|date2000 \|publisherSharpe \|locationArmonk, NY [u.a.] \|isbn978-0-7656-0561-0 \|url-accessregistration \|url=https://archive.org/details/japanpopinsidew00crai }} * {{cite book \|lastDrazen \|firstPatrick \|titleAnime Explosion!: The What? Why? & Wow! of Japanese Animation \|date2003 \|publisherStone Bridge Press \|locationBerkeley, California \|isbn=978-1611720136}} * {{cite book \|lastKinsella \|firstSharon \|titleAdult Manga: Culture and Power in Contemporary Japanese Society \|date2000 \|publisherUniversity of Hawaii Press \|locationHonolulu, Hawaii \|isbn=978-0824823184}} * {{cite book \|last1Le Blanc \|first1Michelle \|last2Odell \|first2Colin \|titleAkira \|date2017 \|publisherBloomsbury Publishing \|locationLondon \|isbn=978-1844578108}} * {{cite book \|lastMacWilliams \|firstMark W. \|titleJapanese Visual Culture: Explorations in the World of Manga and Anime \|date2008 \|publisherM. E. Sharpe \|locationArmonk \|isbn978-0-7656-1602-9 \|url-accessregistration \|url=https://archive.org/details/japanesevisualcu0000unse }} * {{cite book \|lastNapier \|firstSusan J. \|titleAnime from Akira to Howl's Moving Castle: Experiencing Contemporary Japanese Animation \|date2005 \|publisherSt. Martin's Press \|locationNew York \|isbn=1-4039-7051-3}} * {{cite book \|titleWatching Anime, Reading Manga: 25 Years of Essays and Reviews \|publisherStone Bridge Press \|lastPatten \|firstFred \|year2004 \|isbn1-880656-92-2}} * {{cite book \|lastPoitras \|firstGilles \|titleAnime Companion \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/animecompanionwh0000poit \|url-accessregistration \|publisherStone Bridge Press \|year1998 \|locationBerkeley, California \|isbn=1-880656-32-9 }} * {{cite book \|titleAnime Essentials: Every Thing a Fan Needs to Know \|publisherStone Bridge Press \|lastPoitras \|firstGilles \|year2000 \|isbn978-1-880656-53-2}} * {{cite book \|lastRuh \|firstBrian \|year2014 \|titleStray Dog of Anime \|locationNew York, NY \|publisherPalgrave Macmillan \|isbn=978-1-137-35567-6}} * {{cite book \|lastSchodt \|firstFrederik L. \|titleManga! Manga!: The World of Japanese Comics \|publisherKodansha International \|dateAugust 18, 1997 \|editionReprint \|locationTokyo, Japan \|isbn0-87011-752-1 \|url-accessregistration \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/mangamanga00fred }} * {{cite book \|lastTobin \|firstJoseph Jay \|year2004 \|titlePikachu's Global Adventure: The Rise and Fall of Pokémon \|publisherDuke University Press \|isbn0-8223-3287-6}} * {{Cite news \|last1Green \|first1Ronald S. \|last2Beregeron \|first2Susan J. \|date2021 \|titleTeaching Cultural, Historical, and Religious Landscapes with the Anime \|pages48–53 \|workEducation About ASIA}} * {{Cite news \|last1Chan \|first1Yee-Han \|last2wong \|first2Ngan-Ling \|last3Ng \|first3Lee-Luan \|date2017 \|titleJapanese Language Student's Perception of Using Anime as a Teaching Tool \|pages93–104 \|workIndonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics 7.1 \|urlhttps://ejournal.upi.edu/index.php/IJAL/article/view/6862 \|access-dateApril 29, 2022 \|archive-dateAugust 15, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220815031924/https://ejournal.upi.edu/index.php/IJAL/article/view/6862 \|url-status=live }} * {{Cite news \|last1Han \|first1Chan Yee \|last2Ling \|first2Wong Ngan \|date2017 \|titleThe Use of Anime in Teaching Japanese as a Foreign Language \|pages66–78 \|workMalaysian Online Journal of Educational Technology 5.2 \|urlhttps://eric.ed.gov/?idEJ1142396 \|access-dateApril 29, 2022 \|archive-dateApril 7, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230407054740/https://eric.ed.gov/?idEJ1142396 \|url-status=live }} * {{Cite news \|last1Junjie \|first1Shan \|last2Nishihara \|first2Yoko \|last3Yamanishi \|first3Ryosuke \|date2018 \|titleA System for Japanese Listening Training Support With Watching Japanese Anime Scenes \|pages947–956 \|workProcedia Computer Science 126 \|seriesKnowledge-Based and Intelligent Information & Engineering Systems: Proceedings of the 22nd International Conference, KES-2018, Belgrade, Serbia \|volume126 \|doi10.1016/j.procs.2018.08.029 \|urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877050918313073 \|access-date\|archive-dateApril 29, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220429034955/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877050918313073 \|url-statuslive }} {{refend}} {{Animation industry in Japan}} {{Animation}} {{Japan topics}} {{Film genres}} {{Media franchises}} {{Subject bar\|Anime and manga\|Animation\|Cartoon\|Film\|Television\|Japan \|commons = Category:Anime \|d = Q1107 \|n = Category:Anime \|v = Anime \|voy = Anime and manga in Japan \|wikt = anime }} {{Authority control}} Category:1917 introductions Category:Anime and manga terminology Category:Japanese inventions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anime	2025-04-05T18:25:22.514107
801	Asterism	Asterism may refer to: Asterism (astronomy), a pattern of stars Asterism (band), a Japanese rock band Asterism (gemology), an optical phenomenon in gemstones Asterism (typography), (⁂) a moderately rare typographical symbol denoting a break in passages See also Aster (disambiguation) Asterisk (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asterism	2025-04-05T18:25:22.516162
802	Ankara	{{short description\|Capital of Turkey}} {{About\|the Turkish capital city}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=October 2020}} {{Infobox settlement \| name = Ankara \| official_name \| settlement_type {{wrap\|Capital city and metropolitan municipality}} \| image_skyline {{multiple image\|total_width280px\|perrow1/3/2/1\|borderinfobox\|caption_align = center \| image1 = Ankara from bus station.jpg \| caption1 = Söğütözü central business district \| image2 = AlacaStandarte.jpg \| caption2 = Hittite sun disk \| image3 = Monumentum ancyranum.JPG \| caption3 = Temple of Augustus and Rome \| image4 = Ankara_asv2021-10_img15_Atakule.jpg \| caption4 = Atakule \| image5 = ANKARA KOCATEPE CAMİİ.jpg \| caption5 = Kocatepe Mosque \| image6 = 2. Meclis Binası.jpg \| caption6 = Republic Museum \| image7 = Ankara_asv2021-10_img04_Anıtkabir.jpg \| caption7 = Anıtkabir }} \| image_flag = File:Flag of Ankara.svg \| nickname = Heart of Turkey<br />{{small\|({{langx\|tr\|Türkiye'nin Kalbi}})}} \| map_caption = Location of Ankara within Turkey \| pushpin_map = Turkey#Asia<!-- Ankara is located in Central Anatolia, in the Asian part of Turkey. Do not change this to Europe without discussing it on the talk page, changes made without consensus will be reverted. --> \| pushpin_label_position = <!-- the position of the pushpin label: left, right, top, bottom, none --> \| pushpin_map_caption = Location within Turkey \| pushpin_relief = 1 \| coordinates {{coord\|39\|55\|48\|N\|32\|51\|00\|E\|region:TR\|displayinline,title}} \| subdivision_type = Country \| subdivision_name = {{flag\|Turkey}} \| subdivision_type1 = Region \| subdivision_type2 = Province \| subdivision_name1 = Central Anatolia \| subdivision_name2 = Ankara \| parts_type = Districts \| parts = 25 \| leader_party = CHP \| leader_title = Mayor \| leader_name = Mansur Yavaş \| leader_title1 = Governor \| leader_name1 = Vasip Şahin \| area_footnotes {{efn\|1Ankara Province / Metropolitan municipality [25,632&nbsp;km² (including lake)<ref>{{cite web \|titleİl ve İlçe Yüz Ölçümleri – Ankara Province (25,632 km²) \|urlhttps://www.harita.gov.tr/uploads/files/products/il-ve-ilce-yuzolcumleri-1291.xlsx \|publisherHarita Genel Müdürlüğü (HGM) \|websitewww.harita.gov.tr \|date2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/343221023 \|titleThe Case Of Ankara Province (25,653.46 km²) \|last1İlker \|first1Alan \|last2Zerrin \|first2Demirörs \|last3Rüya \|first3Bayar \|last4Kerime \|first4Karabacak \|publisherInternational Journal of Geography and Geography Education (IGGE), 42; pg.650–667 \|date10 June 2020 \|workAnkara University (www.ankara.edu.tr)}}</ref><ref name"Gölbaşı1">{{cite web \|titleGölbaşı (1,508.61 km²) – Ankara Province (25,575.94 km²) (pg.3) \|urlhttps://webdosya.csb.gov.tr/db/ankara/duyurular/golbasi-ock-cdp_arastirma-ve-plan-aciklama-raporu-20200325140218.pdf \|publisherT.C. Çevre, Şehircilik ve İklim Değişikliği Bakanlığı \|websitewww.csb.gov.tr \|date2020}}</ref> / 24,521&nbsp;km² (excluding lake) according to the Turkish Statistical Institute – TÜİK], is a province ({{lang\|tr\|il}}) of Turkey which has 25 districts ({{lang\|tr\|ilçe}}) and 9 of these districts form the urban area of Ankara city (4,130.2&nbsp;km² including lake).<ref name"citypopulation.de">{{cite web \|titleAnkara City: the population and area of the districts \|urlhttp://www.citypopulation.de/en/turkey/ankaracity/ \|publisherCityPopulation.de}}</ref><br />Altındağ 158.2&nbsp;km² <br />Çankaya 454.2&nbsp;km² <br />Etimesgut 283.2&nbsp;km² <br />Gölbaşı 1,508.6&nbsp;km² (a small area is part of the city proper)<ref name"Gölbaşı1" /><br />Keçiören 152.2&nbsp;km² <br />Mamak 345.7&nbsp;km² <br />Pursaklar 133.7&nbsp;km² <br />Sincan 862.3&nbsp;km² <br />Yenimahalle 232.1&nbsp;km²}} \| area_urban_km2 = 4,130.2 \| area_metro_km2 = 25,632 \| elevation_m = 938 \| population_total = 5,864,049 \| population_rank = 2nd in Turkey \| population_urban = 5,246,281 \| population_as_of = 31 December 2024 \| population_footnotes <ref name"Population of Turkey">{{cite web \|urlhttps://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?pThe-Results-of-Address-Based-Population-Registration-System-2024-53783&dil2 \|titleThe Results of Address Based Population Registration System, 2024 \|publisherTurkish Statistical Institute \|websitewww.tuik.gov.tr \|date6 February 2025 \|access-date6 February 2025}}</ref> <!-- do not add update figure as that stat is only published once a year due to legal reasons --> \| population_urban_footnotes <ref name"citypopulation.de"/><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://cip.tuik.gov.tr/ \|formatthe year is updated \|publisherTurkish Statistical Institute \|websitewww.tuik.gov.tr \|titleNüfus ve Demografi – Toplam Nüfus \|access-date8 February 2023}}</ref> \| population_density_urban_km2 = 1,270 \| population_density_metro_km2 = 229 \| demographics_type1 = GDP Nominal {{Nobold\|(2023)}} \| demographics1_footnotes <ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?pGross-Domestic-Product-by-Provinces-2023-53575&dil2 \|title"Gross Domestic Product by Provinces (2023) - [Tables 1 and 3] \|publisherTurkish Statistical Institute \|websitewww.tuik.gov.tr \|date12 December 2024 \|access-date12 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://cip.tuik.gov.tr/ \|languagetr\|titleUlusal Hesaplar - Kişi başına GSYH ($)\|trans-titleNational Accounts - GDP per capita ($) \|publisherTurkish Statistical Institute \|websitewww.tuik.gov.tr \|access-date12 December 2024}}</ref> \| demographics1_title1 = Capital city and metropolitan municipality \| demographics1_info1 = ₺ 2,539 billion<br>US$ 108.3&nbsp;billion \| demographics1_title2 = Per capita \| demographics1_info2 = ₺ 438,242<br>US$ 18,655 \| postal_code_type = Postal code \| postal_code = 06xxx \| area_code = +90 312 \| registration_plate = 06 \| website = {{URL\|www.ankara.bel.tr}}<br />{{URL\|www.ankara.gov.tr}}<!-- http://ankara.ankaram.net/en/ --> \| timezone = TRT \| utc_offset = +03:00 \| blank3_info 0.855<ref>{{cite web \|titleSub-national HDI – Area Database – Global Data Lab \|urlhttps://hdi.globaldatalab.org/areadata/shdi/ \|websitehdi.globaldatalab.org \|access-date26 August 2018 \|archive-date23 September 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180923120638/https://hdi.globaldatalab.org/areadata/shdi/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> – <span style="color:#090;">very high</span> \| population_demonym = Ankaran<br />(Turkish: Ankaralı) }} Ankara{{efn\|{{IPAc-en\|ˈ\|æ\|ŋ\|k\|ər\|ə}} {{respell\|ANG\|kər\|ə}}, {{IPAc-en\|USalso\|ˈ\|ɑː\|ŋ\|-}} {{respell\|AHNG\|kər\|ə}};<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia \|urlhttp://www.lexico.com/definition/Ankara \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200322182007/https://www.lexico.com/definition/ankara \|url-statusdead \|archive-date2020-03-22 \|titleAnkara \|dictionaryLexico UK English Dictionary \|publisherOxford University Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/ankara\|titleAnkara\|workCollins English Dictionary\|publisherHarperCollins\|access-date30 May 2019\|archive-date6 April 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190406141135/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/ankara\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"AHD">{{Cite American Heritage Dictionary\|Ankara\|access-date30 May 2019}}</ref><ref name"MerWeb">{{Cite Merriam-Webster\|Ankara\|access-date30 May 2019}}</ref> {{IPA\|tr\|ˈɑŋkɑɾɑ\|lang\|Ankara pronunciation.ogg}}; abbreviated Ank.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttp://www.dildernegi.org.tr/TR,278/kisaltmalar-dizelgesi.html \| titleKısaltmalar Dizelgesi }}</ref>}} is the capital city of Turkey. Located in the central part of Anatolia, the city has a population of about 5.2&nbsp;million in its urban center and about 5.8&nbsp;million in Ankara Province.<ref name"Population of Turkey"/><ref name="citypopulation.de"/> Ankara is Turkey's second-largest city by population after Istanbul, first by urban land area, and third by metro land area after Konya and Sivas. Ankara was historically known as Ancyra{{efn\|{{IPAc-en\|æ\|n\|ˈ\|s\|aɪ\|r\|ə}} {{respell\|an\|SY\|rə}}<ref name"AHD"/><ref name"MerWeb"/>}} and Angora.{{efn\|{{IPAc-en\|æ\|ŋ\|ˈ\|ɡ\|ɔːr\|ə}} {{respell\|ang\|GOR\|ə}},<ref>[https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/Angora "Angora"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190530141549/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/Angora \|date30 May 2019 }} (US) and {{Cite encyclopedia \|urlhttp://www.lexico.com/definition/Angora \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200322182003/https://www.lexico.com/definition/angora \|url-statusdead \|archive-date2020-03-22 \|titleAngora \|dictionaryLexico UK English Dictionary \|publisherOxford University Press}}</ref> {{IPAc-en\|USalso\|ˈ\|æ\|ŋ\|ɡ\|ə\|r\|ə}} {{respell\|ANG\|gə\|rə}}),<ref name"AHD"/>}}<ref>{{cite book \|authorLord Kinross \|author-linkPatrick Balfour, 3rd Baron Kinross \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idUjiLmz2_EBAC&qAngora \|titleAtaturk: A Biography of Mustafa Kemal, Father of Modern Turkey \|publisherWilliam Morrow and Company \|year1965 \|access-date13 January 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210529130818/https://books.google.com/books?idUjiLmz2_EBAC&qAngora \|archive-date29 May 2021 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Serving as the capital of the ancient Celtic state of Galatia (280–64&nbsp;BC), and later of the Roman province with the same name (25&nbsp;BC–7th century), Ankara has various Hattian, Hittite, Lydian, Phrygian, Galatian, Greek, Persian, Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman archeological sites. The Ottomans made the city the capital first of the Anatolia Eyalet (1393 – late 15th century) and then the Angora Eyalet (1827–1864) and the Angora Vilayet (1867–1922). On 23 April 1920, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey was established in Ankara, which became the headquarters of the Turkish National Movement during the Turkish War of Independence. Ankara became the new Turkish capital upon the establishment of the Republic on 29 October 1923, succeeding in this role as the former Turkish capital Istanbul following the fall of the Ottoman Empire. The historical center of Ankara is a rocky hill rising {{convert\|150\|spus\|m\|ft\|sigfig1\|abbr=on}} over the left bank of the Ankara River, a tributary of the Sakarya River. The hill remains crowned by the ruins of Ankara Castle. Although few of its outworks have survived, there are well-preserved examples of Roman and Ottoman architecture throughout the city. The government is a prominent employer, but Ankara is also an important commercial and industrial city located at the center of Turkey's road and railway networks. The city gave its name to the Angora wool shorn from Angora rabbits, the long-haired Angora goat (the source of mohair), and the Angora cat. The area is also known for its pears, honey and Muscat grapes. Although situated in one of the driest regions of Turkey and surrounded mostly by steppe vegetation (except for the forested areas on the southern periphery), Ankara can be considered a green city in terms of green areas per inhabitant, at {{convert\|72\|m2\|0\|abbroff\|spus}} per head.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.ankara.bel.tr/AbbSayfalari/hizmet_birimleri/Cevre/kisi_basina_dusen_yesil_alan.aspx \|titleMunicipality of Ankara: Green areas per head \|publisherAnkara.bel.tr \|access-date29 June 2010 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110719022657/http://www.ankara.bel.tr/AbbSayfalari/hizmet_birimleri/Cevre/kisi_basina_dusen_yesil_alan.aspx \|archive-date19 July 2011}}</ref> Ankara is among the top 100 science and technology clusters in the world.<ref>{{harvnb\|World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)\|2024\|pp76–77}}</ref> Etymology The orthography of the name Ankara<ref>{{Cite web \|titleПеревод sañkara с санскрита на русский \|urlhttps://translate.academic.ru/sa%C3%B1kara/sa/ru/ \|access-date2022-10-11 \|websiteСловари и энциклопедии на Академике \|languageru}}</ref> has varied over the ages. It has been identified with the Hittite cult center {{lang\|hit-Latn\|Ankuwaš}},<!--or Ankuwa, but not Ankuwash--><ref name"qgmpff">{{cite web \|urlhttp://socialscience.tjc.edu/mkho/fulbright/1998/turkey/turman3.htm \|titleJudy Turman: Early Christianity in Turkey \|publisherSocialscience.tjc.edu \|access-date29 June 2010 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20021115072135/http://socialscience.tjc.edu/mkho/fulbright/1998/turkey/turman3.htm \|archive-date15 November 2002}}</ref><ref name"xtxpyw">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.hurriyet.com.tr/seyahat/4407373_p.asp \|titleSaffet Emre Tonguç: Ankara (Hürriyet Seyahat) \|date15 May 2006 \|publisherHurriyet.com.tr \|access-date29 June 2010 \|archive-date8 June 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608115709/http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/seyahat/4407373_p.asp \|url-statuslive }}</ref> although this remains a matter of debate.<ref name"Gorny">Gorny, Ronald L. "Zippalanda and Ankuwa: The Geography of Central Anatolia in the Second Millennium B.C." The Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 117 (1997).</ref> In classical antiquity and during the medieval period, the city was known as {{lang\|grc-Latn\|Ánkyra}} ({{lang\|grc\|Ἄγκυρα}}, {{lit\|anchor}}) in Greek and {{lang\|la\|Ancyra}} in Latin; the Galatian Celtic name was probably a similar variant. Following its annexation by the Seljuk Turks in 1073, the city became known in many European languages as Angora; it was also known in Ottoman Turkish as {{lang\|ota-Latn\|Engürü}} ({{lang\|ota\|انگورو}}).{{sfn\|Baynes\|1878\|p45}}{{sfn\|Chisholm\|1911\|pp40–41}} The form "Angora" is preserved in the names of breeds of many different kinds of animals, and in the names of several locations in the US (see Angora). History {{Main\|History of Ankara}} {{For timeline}} {{more citations needed\|section\|date=October 2017}}<!--many paragraphs have no citations--> The region's history can be traced back to the Bronze Age Hattic civilization, which was succeeded in the 2nd millennium BC by the Hittites, in the 10th century BC by the Phrygians, and later by the Lydians, Persians, Greeks, Galatians, Romans, Byzantines, and Turks (the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm, the Ottoman Empire and finally republican Türkiye). {{Multiple image \| align = right \| direction = vertical \| image1 = Alacastandarte Hirsch&Löwen.jpg \| image2 = AlacaStandarte.jpg \| caption2 = Alaca Höyük bronze standards on display at the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, which is considered as the city's symbol. }} Ancient history The oldest settlements in and around the city center of Ankara belonged to the Hattic civilization which existed during the Bronze Age and was gradually absorbed c. 2000 – 1700&nbsp;BC by the Indo-European Hittites. The city grew significantly in size and importance under the Phrygians starting around 1000&nbsp;BC, and experienced a large expansion following the mass migration from Gordion, (the capital of Phrygia), after an earthquake which severely damaged that city around that time. In Phrygian tradition, King Midas was venerated as the founder of Ancyra, but Pausanias mentions that the city was actually far older, which accords with present archeological knowledge.<ref>Pausanias, Description of Greece, 1.4.1., "Ancyra was actually older even than that."</ref> Phrygian rule was succeeded first by Lydian and later by Persian rule, though the strongly Phrygian character of the peasantry remained, as evidenced by the gravestones of the much later Roman period. Persian sovereignty lasted until the Persians' defeat at the hands of Alexander the Great who conquered the city in 333&nbsp;BC. Alexander came from Gordion to Ankara and stayed in the city for a short period. After his death at Babylon in 323&nbsp;BC and the subsequent division of his empire among his generals, Ankara, and its environs fell into the share of Antigonus. Another important expansion took place under the Greeks of Pontos who came there around 300&nbsp;BC and developed the city as a trading center for the commerce of goods between the Black Sea ports and Crimea to the north; Assyria, Cyprus, and Lebanon to the south; and Georgia, Armenia and Persia to the east.{{citation needed\|dateOctober 2023}} By that time,{{citation needed\|dateOctober 2023}} the city also took its name Ἄγκυρα (Ánkyra, meaning anchor in Greek) which, in slightly modified form, provides the modern name of Ankara. <gallery> Seated Woman of Çatalhöyük on black background.jpg\|Seated Woman of Çatalhöyük on display at the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations. </gallery> Celtic history '' was a famous statue commissioned some time between 230 and 220&nbsp;BC by King Attalos I of Pergamon to honor his victory over the Celtic Galatians in Anatolia. Roman marble copy of a Hellenistic work of the late 3rd century BC, at the Capitoline Museums, Rome.]] In 278&nbsp;BC, the city, along with the rest of central Anatolia, was occupied by a Celtic group, the Galatians, who were the first to make Ankara one of their main tribal centers, the headquarters of the Tectosages tribe.<ref>Livy, xxxviii. 16</ref> Other centers were Pessinus, today's Ballıhisar, for the Trocmi tribe, and Tavium, to the east of Ankara, for the Tolistobogii tribe. The city was then known as Ancyra. The Celtic element was probably relatively small in numbers; a warrior aristocracy which ruled over Phrygian-speaking peasants. However, the Celtic language continued to be spoken in Galatia for many centuries. At the end of the 4th century, St. Jerome, a native of Dalmatia, observed that the language spoken around Ankara was very similar to that being spoken in the northwest of the Roman world near Trier. Roman history The city was subsequently passed under the control of the Roman Empire. In 25&nbsp;BC, Emperor Augustus raised it to the status of a polis and made it the capital city of the Roman province of Galatia.<ref name"TIB">{{cite book\|lastBelke\|firstKlaus\|titleTabula Imperii Byzantini, Band 4: Galatien und Lykaonien\|chapterAnkyra\|pages[https://archive.org/details/tabulaimperiibyz0000unse/page/126 126–130]\|locationVienna\|publisherVerlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften\|year1984\|languagede\|isbn978-3-7001-0634-0\|chapter-urlhttps://archive.org/details/tabulaimperiibyz0000unse/page/126}}</ref> Ankara is famous for the Monumentum Ancyranum (Temple of Augustus and Rome) which contains the official record of the Acts of Augustus, known as the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, an inscription cut in marble on the walls of this temple. The ruins of Ancyra still furnish today valuable bas-reliefs, inscriptions and other architectural fragments. Two other Galatian tribal centers, Tavium near Yozgat, and Pessinus (Balhisar) to the west, near Sivrihisar, continued to be reasonably important settlements in the Roman period, but it was Ancyra that grew into a grand metropolis. An estimated 200,000 people lived in Ancyra in good times during the Roman Empire, a far greater number than was to be the case from after the fall of the Roman Empire until the early 20th century. The small Ankara River ran through the center of the Roman town. It has now been covered and diverted, but it formed the northern boundary of the old town during the Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman periods. Çankaya, the rim of the majestic hill to the south of the present city center, stood well outside the Roman city, but may have been a summer resort. In the 19th century, the remains of at least one Roman villa or large house were still standing not far from where the Çankaya Presidential Residence stands today. To the west, the Roman city extended until the area of the Gençlik Park and Railway Station, while on the southern side of the hill, it may have extended downward as far as the site presently occupied by Hacettepe University. It was thus a sizeable city by any standards and much larger than the Roman towns of Gaul or Britannia.{{Citation needed\|date=October 2012}} Ancyra's importance rested on the fact that it was the junction point where the roads in northern Anatolia running north–south and east–west intersected, giving it major strategic importance for Rome's eastern frontier.<ref name="TIB"/> The great imperial road running east passed through Ankara and a succession of emperors and their armies came this way. They were not the only ones to use the Roman highway network, which was equally convenient for invaders. In the second half of the 3rd century, Ancyra was invaded in rapid succession by the Goths coming from the west (who rode far into the heart of Cappadocia, taking slaves and pillaging) and later by the Arabs. For about a decade, the town was one of the western outposts of one of Palmyrean empress Zenobia in the Syrian Desert, who took advantage of a period of weakness and disorder in the Roman Empire to set up a short-lived state of her own. The town was reincorporated into the Roman Empire under Emperor Aurelian in 272. The tetrarchy, a system of multiple (up to four) emperors introduced by Diocletian (284–305), seems to have engaged in a substantial program of rebuilding and of road construction from Ancyra westwards to Germe and Dorylaeum (now Eskişehir). In its heyday, Roman Ancyra was a large market and trading center but it also functioned as a major administrative capital, where a high official ruled from the city's Praetorium, a large administrative palace or office. During the 3rd century, life in Ancyra, as in other Anatolian towns, seems to have become somewhat militarized in response to the invasions and instability of the town. <gallery> Museum of Anatolian Civilizations116.jpg\|Marble head of a Roman woman on display at the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations. Res Gestae.jpg\|The Res Gestae Divi Augusti is the self-laudatory autobiography completed in 13&nbsp;AD, just before his death, by the first Roman emperor Augustus. Most of the text is preserved on the walls of the Monumentum Ancyranum. Ankara Thermen05.jpg\|The Roman Baths of Ankara were constructed by the Roman emperor Caracalla (212–217) in honor of Asclepios, the God of Medicine, and built around three principal rooms: the caldarium (hot bath), the tepidarium (warm bath) and the frigidarium (cold bath) in a typically laid-out {{convert\|80\|x\|120\|m\|adjon\|abbroff\|sp=us}} classical complex. </gallery> Byzantine history '' (362) was erected in honor of the Roman emperor Julian the Apostate's visit to Ancyra.\|281x281px]] The city is well known during the 4th century as a center of Christian activity (see also below), due to frequent imperial visits, and through the letters of the pagan scholar Libanius.<ref name"TIB"/> Bishop Marcellus of Ancyra and Basil of Ancyra were active in the theological controversies of their day, and the city was the site of no fewer than three church synods in 314, 358 and 375, the latter two in favor of Arianism.<ref name"TIB"/> The city was visited by Emperor Constans I (r. 337–350) in 347 and 350, Julian (r. 361–363) during his Persian campaign in 362, and Julian's successor Jovian (r. 363–364) in winter 363/364 (he entered his consulship while in the city). After Jovian's death soon after, Valentinian I (r. 364–375) was acclaimed emperor at Ancyra, and in the next year his brother Valens (r. 364–378) used Ancyra as his base against the usurper Procopius.<ref name"TIB" /> When the province of Galatia was divided sometime in 396/99, Ancyra remained the civil capital of Galatia I, as well as its ecclesiastical center (metropolitan see).<ref name"TIB" /> Emperor Arcadius (r. 383–408) frequently used the city as his summer residence, and some information about the ecclesiastical affairs of the city during the early 5th century is found in the works of Palladius of Galatia and Nilus of Ancyra.<ref name="TIB" /> In 479, the rebel Marcian attacked the city, without being able to capture it.<ref name"TIB" /> In 610/11, Comentiolus, brother of Emperor Phocas (r. 602–610), launched his own unsuccessful rebellion in the city against Heraclius (r. 610–641).<ref name"TIB" /> Ten years later, in 620 or more likely 622, it was captured by the Sassanid Persians during the Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628. Although the city returned to Byzantine hands after the end of the war, the Persian presence left traces in the city's archeology, and likely began the process of its transformation from a late antique city to a medieval fortified settlement.<ref name="TIB" /> In 654, the city, also known in Arabic sources as Qalat as-Salasil ("fortress of the chains"),<ref>{{Cite book \|titleThe History of al-Tabari Vol. 33: Storm and Stress along the Northern Frontiers of the 'Abbasid Caliphate: The Caliphate of al-Mu'tasim A.D. 833-842/A.H. 218–227 \|publisherSUNY Press \|year2015 \|isbn9780791497210 \|pages99}}</ref> was captured for the first time by the Arabs of the Rashidun Caliphate, under Muawiyah, the future founder of the Umayyad Caliphate.<ref name"TIB" /> At about the same time, the themes were established in Anatolia, and Ancyra became capital of the Opsician Theme, which was the largest and most important theme until it was split up under Emperor Constantine V (r. 741–775); Ancyra then became the capital of the new Bucellarian Theme.<ref name"TIB" /> The city was captured at least temporarily by the Umayyad prince Maslama ibn Hisham in 739/40, the last of the Umayyads' territorial gains from the Byzantine Empire.<ref>{{The End of the Jihad State \|page169}}</ref> Ancyra was attacked without success by Abbasid forces in 776 and in 798/99. In 805, Emperor Nikephoros I (r. 802–811) strengthened its fortifications, a fact which probably saved it from sack during the large-scale invasion of Anatolia by Caliph Harun al-Rashid in the next year.<ref name"TIB" /> Arab sources report that Harun and his successor al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833) took the city, but this information is later invention. In 838, however, during the Amorium campaign, the armies of Caliph al-Mu'tasim (r. 833–842) converged and met at the city; abandoned by its inhabitants, Ancara was razed to the ground, before the Arab armies went on to besiege and destroy Amorium reaching as far as Smyrna.<ref name"TIB" /> In 859, Emperor Michael III (r. 842–867) came to the city during a campaign against the Arabs, and ordered its fortifications restored.<ref name"TIB" /> In 872, the city was menaced, but not taken, by the Paulicians under Chrysocheir.<ref name"TIB" /> The last Arab raid to reach the city was undertaken in 931, by the Abbasid governor of Tarsus, Thamal al-Dulafi, but the city again was not captured.<ref name"TIB" /> Ecclesiastical history ]] Early Christian martyrs of Ancyra, about whom little is known, included Proklos and Hilarios who were natives of the otherwise unknown nearby village of Kallippi, and suffered repression under the emperor Trajan (98–117). In the 280s we hear of Philumenos, a Christian corn merchant from southern Anatolia, being captured and martyred in Ankara, and Eustathius. As in other Roman towns, the reign of Diocletian marked the culmination of the persecution of the Christians. In 303, Ancyra was one of the towns where the co-emperors Diocletian and his deputy Galerius launched their anti-Christian persecution. In Ancyra, their first target was the 38-year-old Bishop of the town, whose name was Clement. Clement's life describes how he was taken to Rome, then sent back, and forced to undergo many interrogations and hardship before he, and his brother, and various companions were put to death. The remains of the church of St. Clement can be found today in a building just off Işıklar Caddesi in the Ulus district. Quite possibly this marks the site where Clement was originally buried. Four years later, a doctor of the town named Plato and his brother Antiochus also became celebrated martyrs under Galerius. Theodotus of Ancyra is also venerated as a saint. However, the persecution proved unsuccessful and in 314 Ancyra was the center of an important council of the early church;{{sfn\|Rockwell\|1911}} its 25 disciplinary canons constitute one of the most important documents in the early history of the administration of the Sacrament of Penance.{{sfn\|Rockwell\|1911}} The synod also considered ecclesiastical policy for the reconstruction of the Christian Church after the persecutions, and in particular the treatment of lapsi—Christians who had given in to forced paganism (sacrifices) to avoid martyrdom during these persecutions.{{sfn\|Rockwell\|1911}} Though paganism was probably tottering in Ancyra in Clement's day, it may still have been the majority religion. Twenty years later, Christianity and monotheism had taken its place. Ancyra quickly turned into a Christian city, with a life dominated by monks and priests and theological disputes. The town council or senate gave way to the bishop as the main local figurehead. During the middle of the 4th century, Ancyra was involved in the complex theological disputes over the nature of Christ, and a form of Arianism seems to have originated there.{{sfn\|Parvis\|2006\|pp=325–345}} In 362–363, Emperor Julian passed through Ancyra on his way to an ill-fated campaign against the Persians, and according to Christian sources, engaged in a persecution of various holy men.<ref namegibbon>{{cite book\|lastGibbon\|firstEdward\|titleThe History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire\|author-linkEdward Gibbon\|pageChapter 23}}</ref> The stone base for a statue, with an inscription describing Julian as "Lord of the whole world from the British Ocean to the barbarian nations", can still be seen, built into the eastern side of the inner circuit of the walls of Ankara Castle. The Column of Julian which was erected in honor of the emperor's visit to the city in 362 still stands today. In 375, Arian bishops met at Ancyra and deposed several bishops, among them St. Gregory of Nyssa. In the late 4th century, Ancyra became something of an imperial holiday resort. After Constantinople became the East Roman capital, emperors in the 4th and 5th centuries would retire from the humid summer weather on the Bosporus to the drier mountain atmosphere of Ancyra. Theodosius II (408–450) kept his court in Ancyra in the summers. Laws issued in Ancyra testify to the time they spent there. The Metropolis of Ancyra continued to be a residential see of the Eastern Orthodox Church until the 20th century, with about 40,000 faithful, mostly Turkish-speaking, but that situation ended as a result of the 1923 Convention Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations. The earlier Armenian genocide put an end to the residential eparchy of Ancyra of the Armenian Catholic Church, which had been established in 1850.<ref name"Bull Universi Dominici gregis">[http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k51627x/f401.image Bull Universi Dominici gregis] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150330045229/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k51627x/f401.image \|date30 March 2015 }}, in Giovanni Domenico Mansi, Sacrorum Conciliorum Nova et Amplissima Collectio, vol. XL, coll. 779–780</ref><ref name"gallica.bnf.fr">F. Tournebize, v. II. Ancyre, évêché arménien catholique, in [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6561037d/f796.image ''Dictionnaire d'Histoire et de Géographie ecclésiastiques''] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150628235228/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6561037d/f796.image \|date28 June 2015 }}, vol. II, Paris 1914, coll. 1543–1546</ref> It is also a titular metropolis of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. Both the Ancient Byzantine Metropolitan archbishopric and the 'modern' Armenian eparchy are now listed by the Catholic Church as titular sees,<ref>Annuario Pontificio 2013 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013 {{ISBN\|978-88-209-9070-1}}), p. 832</ref> with separate apostolic successions. Seljuk and Ottoman history After the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, the Seljuk Turks overran much of Anatolia. By 1073, the Turkish settlers had reached the vicinity of Ancyra, and the city was captured shortly after, at the latest by the time of the rebellion of Nikephoros Melissenos in 1081.<ref name"TIB"/> In 1101, when the Crusade under Raymond IV of Toulouse arrived, the city had been under Danishmend control for some time. The Crusaders captured the city, and handed it over to the Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118).<ref name"TIB"/> Byzantine rule did not last long, and the city was captured by the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum at some unknown point; in 1127, it returned to Danishmend control until 1143, when the Seljuks of Rum retook it.<ref name="TIB"/> After the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1243, in which the Mongols defeated the Seljuks, most of Anatolia became part of the dominion of the Mongols. Taking advantage of Seljuk decline, a semi-religious cast of craftsmen and trade people named Ahiler chose Angora as their independent city-state in 1290. Orhan, the second Bey of the Ottoman Empire, captured the city in 1356. Timur defeated Bayezid I at the Battle of Ankara in 1402 and took the city, but in 1403 Angora was again under Ottoman control. The Levant Company maintained a factory in the town from 1639 to 1768.{{sfn\|Chisholm\|1911\|pp40–41}} In the 19th century, its population was estimated at 20,000 to 60,000.{{sfn\|Baynes\|1878\|p45}} It was sacked by Egyptians under Ibrahim Pasha in 1832.{{sfn\|Chisholm\|1911\|pp=40–41}} From 1867 to 1922, the city served as the capital of the Angora Vilayet, which included most of ancient Galatia. Prior to World War I, the town had a British consulate and a population of around 28,000, roughly {{frac\|1\|3}} of whom were Christian.{{sfn\|Chisholm\|1911\|pp40–41}} Turkish republican capital (center) and Prime Minister İsmet İnönü (left) leaving the Grand National Assembly of Türkiye during the 7th anniversary celebrations of the Turkish Republic in 1930]] Following the Ottoman defeat in World War I, the Ottoman capital Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and much of Anatolia was occupied by the Allies, who planned to share these lands between Armenia, France, Greece, Italy and the United Kingdom, leaving for the Turks the core piece of land in central Anatolia. In response, the leader of the Turkish nationalist movement, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, established the headquarters of his resistance movement in Angora in 1920. After the Turkish War of Independence was won and the Treaty of Sèvres was superseded by the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), the Turkish nationalists replaced the Ottoman Empire with the Republic of Turkey on 29 October 1923. A few days earlier, Angora had officially replaced Constantinople as the new Turkish capital city, on 13 October 1923,<ref name"britannica">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/place/Ankara\|titleAnkara &#124; Location, History, Economy, & Facts\|websiteBritannica\|access-date9 January 2021\|archive-date1 January 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210101013721/https://www.britannica.com/place/Ankara\|url-statuslive}}</ref> and Republican officials declared that the city's name is Ankara.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/mar28/istanbul-not-constantinople/ \|titleIstanbul, not Constantinople \|lastSociety \|date4 March 2014 \|websiteNational Geographic Society\|access-date28 March 2019 \|archive-date3 January 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200103152146/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/mar28/istanbul-not-constantinople/ \|url-status=live }}</ref> . It was designed by Istanbul-born Italian Levantine architect Giulio Mongeri and built between 1926 and 1929.]] After Ankara became the capital of the newly founded Republic of Turkey, new development divided the city into an old section, called Ulus, and a new section, called Yenişehir. Ancient buildings reflecting Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman history and narrow winding streets mark the old section. The new section, now centered on Kızılay Square, has the trappings of a more modern city: wide streets, hotels, theaters, shopping malls, and high-rises. Government offices and foreign embassies are also located in the new section. Ankara has experienced a phenomenal growth since it was made Turkey's capital in 1923, when it was "a small town of no importance".<ref>Columbia Lippincott Gazetteer</ref> In 1924, the year after the government had moved there, Ankara had about 35,000 residents. By 1927 there were 44,553 residents and by 1950 the population had grown to 286,781. After<!--Re: "Turkish postal service law of 1930" people cannot find the text of the act so they are not sure if it really exists--> 1930, the city officially became known in Western languages as Ankara. By the late 1930s, the English name "Angora" was no longer in popular use.<ref>Deriu, Davide. "A challenge to the West: British views of republican Ankara" (Chapter 12). In: Gharipour, Mohammad and Nilay Özlü (editors). The City in the Muslim World: Depictions by Western Travel Writers. Routledge, 5 March 2015. {{ISBN\|1317548221}}, 9781317548225. Start: p. [https://books.google.com/books?idAw3wBgAAQBAJ&pgPA279 279] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200726052419/https://books.google.com/books?idAw3wBgAAQBAJ&pgPA279 \|date26 July 2020 }}. CITED: p. [https://books.google.com/books?idAw3wBgAAQBAJ&pgPA299 299] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200604232048/https://books.google.com/books?idAw3wBgAAQBAJ&pgPA299 \|date4 June 2020 }}.</ref> in Ankara is the largest library in Turkey, with a collection of over 4 million printed books<ref name"Presidential Library"/> and over 120&nbsp;million electronic editions<ref name"Presidential Library"/> published in 134 languages.<ref name"Presidential Library">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.aa.com.tr/en/culture/turkey-s-largest-library-to-be-disabled-friendly/1738322\|titleTurkey's largest library to be disabled-friendly\|authorSibel Morrow\|publisherAnadolu Agency\|websiteaa.com.tr\|date=19 February 2020}}</ref>]] Ankara continued to grow rapidly during the latter half of the 20th century and eventually outranked İzmir as Turkey's second-largest city, after Istanbul. Ankara's urban population reached 4,587,558 in 2014, while the population of Ankara Province reached 5,150,072 in 2015.<ref name"citypopulation1">{{cite web\|titleTurkey: Major cities and provinces\|urlhttp://citypopulation.de/Turkey-C20.html\|access-date8 February 2015\|websiteCity Population \|archive-date24 February 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150224193933/http://www.citypopulation.de/Turkey-C20.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The Presidential Palace of Türkiye is situated in Ankara. This building serves as the main residence of the president. Geography {{Annotated image \|image=Koppen-Geiger_Map_TUR_present_with_provinces.svg \|image-width=2500 <!-- choose any width, as you like it. It doesn't matter the factual width of the image--> \|image-left=-585 <!-- crop the left part. Be aware of the "-" minus symbol --> \|image-top=-450 <!-- crop the upper part. Be aware of the "-" minus symbol --> \|width=300 \|height=220 <!-- crop the below part. That will be the height of the image in the article --> \|float=right \|annotations=<!-- empty or not, this parameter must be included --> \|caption=Köppen map of Ankara Province and surrounding regions:<ref>"Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution". Nature Scientific Data. DOI:[https://www.nature.com/articles/sdata2018214 10.1038/sdata.2018.214].</ref> {{legend-col \|thumb size=wide \|{{legend\|#FFDB63\|BSk}} \|{{legend\|#C6C700\|Csb}} \|{{legend\|#38C7FF\|Dfb}} \|{{legend\|#C600C7\|Dsb}} }} }} Geographically, Ankara is located in between the Kızılırmak and Sakarya rivers, and the Sakarya River forms its border with Eskişehir in the west. Ankara shares its borders with Bolu and Çankırı in the north; Konya in the south and Kırıkkale in the east.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastartunbeg \|date2022-05-11 \|titleAnkara \|urlhttps://tr.ansiklopedika.net/viki/ankara \|access-date2022-07-24 \|websiteAnsiklopedika Viki \|language=tr}}</ref> Ankara and its province are located in the Central Anatolia Region of Turkey. The Çubuk Brook flows through the city center of Ankara. It is connected in the western suburbs of the city to the Ankara River, which is a tributary of the Sakarya River. Climate Ankara has a cold semi-arid climate under the Köppen climate classification (BSk), while under the Trewartha climate classification, the city is classified as humid continental (Dc). Due to its elevation and inland location, Ankara has cold and snowy winters, and hot and dry summers. Rainfall occurs mostly during the spring and autumn. The city lies in USDA Hardiness zone 7b, and its annual average precipitation is fairly low at {{convert\|spus\|414\|mm\|0}}, nevertheless precipitation can be observed throughout the year. Monthly mean temperatures range from {{convert\|0.9\|°C\|1}} in January to {{convert\|24.3\|°C\|1}} in July, with an annual mean of {{convert\|12.6\|°C\|1}}.<ref name"eather1" /> Ankara's overall temperature regime is very similar to New York City. {{Weather box \| location = Ankara (Turkish State Meteorological Service Compound, Keçiören), 1991–2020, extremes 1927–2023 \| metric first = Yes \| single line = Yes \| Jan record high C = 18.4 \| Feb record high C = 21.3 \| Mar record high C = 27.8 \| Apr record high C = 31.6 \| May record high C = 34.4 \| Jun record high C = 37.0 \| Jul record high C = 41.0 \| Aug record high C = 40.5 \| Sep record high C = 39.1 \| Oct record high C = 33.3 \| Nov record high C = 24.7 \| Dec record high C = 20.4 \| year record high C = 41.0 \| Jan high C = 4.7 \| Feb high C = 7.4 \| Mar high C = 12.2 \| Apr high C = 17.5 \| May high C = 22.8 \| Jun high C = 27.3 \| Jul high C = 31.0 \| Aug high C = 31.0 \| Sep high C = 26.5 \| Oct high C = 20.3 \| Nov high C = 13.0 \| Dec high C = 6.7 \| year high C = 18.4 \| Jan mean C = 0.9 \| Feb mean C = 2.7 \| Mar mean C = 6.7 \| Apr mean C = 11.5 \| May mean C = 16.5 \| Jun mean C = 20.6 \| Jul mean C = 24.2 \| Aug mean C = 24.3 \| Sep mean C = 19.6 \| Oct mean C = 13.9 \| Nov mean C = 7.3 \| Dec mean C = 2.8 \| year mean C = 12.6 \| Jan low C = -2.2 \| Feb low C = -1.2 \| Mar low C = 1.9 \| Apr low C = 6.0 \| May low C = 10.5 \| Jun low C = 14.1 \| Jul low C = 17.2 \| Aug low C = 17.4 \| Sep low C = 13.1 \| Oct low C = 8.4 \| Nov low C = 2.7 \| Dec low C = -0.3 \| year low C = 7.3 \| Jan record low C = -24.9 \| Feb record low C = -24.2 \| Mar record low C = -19.2 \| Apr record low C = -7.2 \| May record low C = -1.6 \| Jun record low C = 3.8 \| Jul record low C = 4.5 \| Aug record low C = 5.5 \| Sep record low C = -1.5 \| Oct record low C = -9.8 \| Nov record low C = -17.5 \| Dec record low C = -24.2 \| year record low C = -24.9 \| Jan precipitation mm = 38.6 \| Feb precipitation mm = 36.6 \| Mar precipitation mm = 46.9 \| Apr precipitation mm = 44.5 \| May precipitation mm = 51.0 \| Jun precipitation mm = 40.2 \| Jul precipitation mm = 14.8 \| Aug precipitation mm = 14.6 \| Sep precipitation mm = 17.9 \| Oct precipitation mm = 33.4 \| Nov precipitation mm = 31.9 \| Dec precipitation mm = 43.2 \| year precipitation mm = 413.6 \| precipitation colour = green \| Jan precipitation days = 11.67 \| Feb precipitation days = 10.9 \| Mar precipitation days = 10.47 \| Apr precipitation days = 11.63 \| May precipitation days = 12 \| Jun precipitation days = 9.27 \| Jul precipitation days = 3.37 \| Aug precipitation days = 3.67 \| Sep precipitation days = 4.17 \| Oct precipitation days = 7.63 \| Nov precipitation days = 7.67 \| Dec precipitation days = 11.27 \| year precipitation days \| Jan snow days7.8 \| Feb snow days =4.9 \| Mar snow days =4.4 \| Apr snow days =0.5 \| May snow days =0 \| Jun snow days =0 \| Jul snow days =0 \| Aug snow days =0 \| Sep snow days =0 \| Oct snow days =0 \| Nov snow days =0.9 \| Dec snow days =4.2 \| year snow days \| Jan humidity 76.7 \| Feb humidity = 70.7 \| Mar humidity = 63.2 \| Apr humidity = 58.4 \| May humidity = 56.3 \| Jun humidity = 53.1 \| Jul humidity = 45.5 \| Aug humidity = 45.3 \| Sep humidity = 48.8 \| Oct humidity = 60.2 \| Nov humidity = 68.6 \| Dec humidity = 76.7 \| year humidity = 60.2 \| Jan sun = 68.2 \| Feb sun = 101.7 \| Mar sun = 148.8 \| Apr sun = 189.0 \| May sun = 238.7 \| Jun sun = 279.0 \| Jul sun = 328.6 \| Aug sun = 310.0 \| Sep sun = 261.0 \| Oct sun = 192.2 \| Nov sun = 129.0 \| Dec sun = 74.4 \| Jand sun = 2.2 \| Febd sun = 3.6 \| Mard sun = 4.8 \| Aprd sun = 6.3 \| Mayd sun = 7.7 \| Jund sun = 9.3 \| Juld sun = 10.6 \| Augd sun = 10.0 \| Sepd sun = 8.7 \| Octd sun = 6.2 \| Novd sun = 4.3 \| Decd sun = 2.4 \| yeard sun = 6.3 \| source 1 Turkish State Meteorological Service<ref nameeather1> {{cite web \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20190112144035/https://mgm.gov.tr/veridegerlendirme/il-ve-ilceler-istatistik.aspx?kA&m=ANKARA \| archive-date = 12 January 2019 \| url https://www.mgm.gov.tr/veridegerlendirme/il-ve-ilceler-istatistik.aspx?kH&m=ANKARA \| title = Resmi İstatistikler: İllerimize Ait Genel İstatistik Verileri \| publisher = Turkish State Meteorological Service \| language = tr \| access-date = 26 June 2021}}</ref> \| source 2 NOAA (humidity, 1991–2020),<ref nameWMOCLINO>{{cite web \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210717012832/https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/2.2/data/0-data/Region-6-WMO-Normals-9120/Turkiye/CSV/Ankara_Bolge_17130.csv \|archive-formatCSV \|format=CSV \| archive-date = 17 July 2021 \| url = https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/2.2/data/0-data/Region-6-WMO-Normals-9120/Turkiye/CSV/Ankara_Bolge_17130.csv \| title = World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1991–2020: Ankara-Bolge \| publisher = National Centers for Environmental Information \| access-date 2 August 2023}}</ref> Meteomanz(snowy days 2008-2024)<ref>{{Cite web\|url http://www.meteomanz.com/sy3?l1&cou6290&ind17130&m101&y12000&m212&y22024 \|titleAnkara/Central weather data by months\|access-date15 March 2025 \|websiteMeteomanz }}</ref> }} Demographics {{Historical populations \|footnote Source: TÜİK<ref nametuik>{{cite web\|urlhttps://biruni.tuik.gov.tr/medas/?kn95&localeen \|titlePopulation Of SRE-1, SRE-2, Provinces and Districts\|publisherTÜIK \|access-date20 June 2023}}</ref> \|align=right \|percentages=pagr \|2007\|4,466,756 \|2012\|4,965,542 \|2017\|5,445,026 \|2022\|5,782,285 }} ]] Ankara had a population of 75,000 in 1927. There were 74,632 male residents and 48,882 female residents in Ankara according to the 1935 census.<ref>{{cite journal\|authorGül Neşe Doğusan Alexander\|titleCaught between Aspiration and Actuality: The Etiler Housing Cooperative and the Production of Housing in Turkey\|journalJournal of the Society of Architectural Historians\|volume76\|issue3\|year2017\|jstor26419016\| doi10.1525/jsah.2017.76.3.349\|page351}}</ref> As of 2022, the population of the Ankara Province was 5,782,285.<ref nametuik/> When Ankara became the capital of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, it was designated as a planned city for 500,000 future inhabitants. During the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s, the city grew in a planned and orderly pace. However, from the 1950s onward, the city grew much faster than envisioned, because unemployment and poverty forced people to migrate from the countryside into the city to seek a better standard of living. As a result, many illegal houses called gecekondu were built around the city, causing the unplanned and uncontrolled urban landscape of Ankara, as not enough planned housing could be built fast enough. Although precariously built, the vast majority of them have electricity, running water and modern household amenities. Nevertheless, many of these gecekondus have been replaced by huge public housing projects in the form of tower blocks such as Elvankent, Eryaman and Güzelkent; and also as mass housing compounds for military and civil service accommodation. Although many gecekondus still remain, they too are gradually being replaced by mass housing compounds, as empty land plots in the city of Ankara for new construction projects are becoming impossible to find. Çorum and Yozgat, which are located in Central Anatolia and whose population is decreasing, are the provinces with the highest net migration to Ankara.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://report.tuik.gov.tr/reports/rwservlet?adnksdb2&reportturkiye_il_koy_sehir.RDF&p_il16&p_kod2&p_yil2008&desformathtml&ENVIDadnksdb2Env \|titleİllere göre il/ilçe merkezi ve belde/köy nüfusu – 2008 \|websitereport.tuik.gov.tr \|access-date11 January 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110920035746/http://report.tuik.gov.tr/reports/rwservlet?adnksdb2&reportturkiye_il_koy_sehir.RDF&p_il16&p_kod2&p_yil2008&desformathtml&ENVIDadnksdb2Env \|archive-date20 September 2011 \|url-statusdead \|languagetr}}</ref> About one third of the Central Anatolia population of 15,608,868 people resides in Ankara. The literacy rate in the whole province for people who are 15 years old or older is 98.18% according to 2020 TÜİK data. Ankara Province also has the highest percentage of tertiary education graduates in Turkey with 29.08% of the population having either an undergraduate, master's or doctor's degree.<ref>{{Cite web \|last\|titleİllere Göre Türkiye'de 15+ Yaş Nüfusun Eğitim Durumu ve Oranlar (%) {{!}} @DrDataStats \|urlhttps://www.drdatastats.com/illere-gore-turkiyede-15-yas-nufusun-egitim-durumu-ve-oranlar/ \|access-date2022-03-10 \|websitebased on TÜİK data \|languagetr}}</ref> Economy and infrastructure , Ankara]] Ankara has long been a productive agricultural region in Anatolia. In the Ottoman period, Ankara was well known for producing grain, cotton, and fruits.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastChen \|firstYuan Julian \|date2021-10-11 \|titleBetween the Islamic and Chinese Universal Empires: The Ottoman Empire, Ming Dynasty, and Global Age of Explorations \|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/59068575 \|journalJournal of Early Modern History \|volume25 \|issue5 \|pages422–456 \|doi10.1163/15700658-bja10030 \|issn1385-3783 \|s2cid244587800}}</ref> The city has exported mohair (from the Angora goat) and Angora wool (from the Angora rabbit) internationally for centuries. In the 19th century, the city also exported substantial amounts of goat and cat skins, gum, wax, honey, berries, and madder root.{{sfn\|Baynes\|1878\|p45}} It was connected to Istanbul by railway before the First World War, continuing to export mohair, wool, berries, and grain.{{sfn\|Chisholm\|1911\|pp40–41}} The Central Anatolia Region is one of the primary locations of grape and wine production in Turkey, and Ankara is particularly famous for its Kalecik Karası and Muscat grapes; and its Kavaklıdere wine, which is produced in the Kavaklıdere neighborhood within the Çankaya district of the city. Ankara is also famous for its pears. Another natural product of Ankara is its indigenous type of honey (Ankara Balı) which is known for its light color and is mostly produced by the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo in the Gazi district, and by other facilities in the Elmadağ, Çubuk and Beypazarı districts. Çubuk-1 and Çubuk-2 dams on the Çubuk Brook in Ankara were among the first dams constructed in the Turkish Republic. and Emek Business Center (1959–1965), the first International Style office tower and shopping center in Turkey.<ref>{{cite web \|titleEmek Business Center, Ankara \|urlhttps://www.emporis.com/buildings/107658/emek-business-center-ankara-turkey \|url-statususurped \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151223051519/http://www.emporis.com/buildings/107658/emek-business-center-ankara-turkey \|archive-date23 December 2015 \|access-date25 June 2022 \|websiteEmporis \|publisherEmporis}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|authorIşıl Gülkök \|dateSeptember 2013 \|titleNew representations of space: Emek office building and Gima Store (in Production of Sidewalks: the Case of Atatürk Boulevard, Ankara) \|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/figure/New-Representations-of-space-Emek-office-building-Gima-Store-Old-Representations_fig14_323771958}}</ref>]] Ankara is the center of the state-owned and private Turkish defence and aerospace companies, where the industrial plants and headquarters of the Turkish Aerospace Industries, MKE, ASELSAN, HAVELSAN, ROKETSAN, FNSS,<ref>{{cite web \|authorFNSS Savunma Sistemleri A.Ş. \|titleFNSS Savunma Sistemleri A.Ş. \|urlhttp://www.fnss.com.tr/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140109163928/http://www.fnss.com.tr/ \|archive-date9 January 2014 \|access-date21 March 2011}}</ref> Nurol Makina,<ref>{{cite web \|titleNurol Makina ve Sanayi A.Ş. \|urlhttp://www.nurolmakina.com.tr/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100322233142/http://www.nurolmakina.com.tr/ \|archive-date22 March 2010 \|access-date21 March 2011 \|worknurolmakina.com.tr}}</ref> and numerous other firms are located. Exports to foreign countries from these defense and aerospace firms have steadily increased in the past decades. The IDEF in Ankara is one of the largest international expositions of the global arms industry. A number of the global automotive companies also have production facilities in Ankara, such as the German bus and truck manufacturer MAN SE.<ref>{{cite web \|titleMAN Turkiye \|urlhttp://www.man.com.tr/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131026043012/http://www.man.com.tr/ \|archive-date26 October 2013 \|access-date31 March 2011 \|work=man.com.tr}}</ref> Ankara hosts the OSTIM Industrial Zone, Turkey's largest industrial park. A large percentage of the complicated employment in Ankara is provided by the state institutions; such as the ministries, subministries, and other administrative bodies of the Turkish government. There are also many foreign citizens working as diplomats or clerks in the embassies of their respective countries. Transportation {{See also\|Ankara Metro\|Ankara railway station\|Ankara Esenboğa Airport\|List of airports in Ankara}} is a hub for conventional trains.]] is a hub for the high-speed rail (YHT) services.]] The Electricity, Gas, Bus General Directorate (EGO)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.ego.gov.tr \|titleEGO Genel Müdürlüğü \|publisherEgo.gov.tr \|access-date5 May 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081123055229/http://www.ego.gov.tr/ \|archive-date23 November 2008 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> operates the Ankara Metro and other forms of public transportation. Ankara is served by a suburban rail named Başkentray (B1) and five Metro lines (A1, M1, M2, M3, M4) of the Ankara Metro with about 400,000 total daily commuters, while additional subway lines (A2 and M2a/b) are planned. A {{convert\|3.2\|km\|1\|abbron}} long gondola lift with four stations connects the district of Şentepe to the Yenimahalle metro station.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://en.leitner-ropeways.com/Home/Largest-urban-ropeway-on-Eurasian-continent-opens-to-celebrations-in-Ankara \|titleLargest urban ropeway on Eurasian continent opens to celebrations in Ankara \|publisherLeitner ropeways \|access-date21 May 2014 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140521233912/http://en.leitner-ropeways.com/Home/Largest-urban-ropeway-on-Eurasian-continent-opens-to-celebrations-in-Ankara \|archive-date=21 May 2014}}</ref> Ankara Central Station is a major rail hub in Turkey. The Turkish State Railways operates passenger train service from Ankara to other major cities, such as: Istanbul, Eskişehir, Balıkesir, Kütahya, İzmir, Kayseri, Adana, Kars, Elazığ, Malatya, Diyarbakır, Karabük, Zonguldak and Sivas. Commuter rail also runs between the stations of Sincan and Kayaş. On 13 March 2009, the new Yüksek Hızlı Tren (YHT) high-speed rail service began operation between Ankara and Eskişehir. On 23 August 2011, another YHT high-speed line commercially started its service between Ankara and Konya. On 25 July 2014, the Ankara–Istanbul high-speed line of YHT entered service.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.uic.org/com/uic-e-news/410/article/inauguration-ceremony-of-ankara?pagethickbox_enews\|titleSuccessful inauguration of Ankara – Istanbul High Speed Line\|workuic.org\|access-date17 September 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150214115431/http://www.uic.org/com/uic-e-news/410/article/inauguration-ceremony-of-ankara?pagethickbox_enews\|archive-date14 February 2015\|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ankara Esenboğa Airport, located in the north-east of the city, is Ankara's main airport. Whilst the AŞTİ is the main coach terminal. Ankara public transportation statistics The average amount of time people spend commuting on public transit in Ankara on a weekday is 71 minutes. 17% of public transit passengers, ride for more than two hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is sixteen minutes, while 28% of users wait for over twenty minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is {{convert\|9.9\|km\|abbron}}, while 27% travel for over {{convert\|12\|km\|abbron}} in a single direction.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://moovitapp.com/insights/en/Moovit_Insights_Public_Transit_Index_Turkey_Ankara-1723\|titleAnkara Public Transportation Statistics\|publisherGlobal Public Transit Index by Moovit\|access-date19 June 2017\|archive-date3 August 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170803212539/https://moovitapp.com/insights/en/Moovit_Insights_Public_Transit_Index_Turkey_Ankara-1723\|url-status=live}} Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.</ref> {{wide image\|Esenboga International Airport Ankara Turkey.jpg\|600px\|align-capcenter\|Esenboğa International Airport}} Politics {{see also\|List of mayors of Ankara}} of the CHP is the Mayor of Ankara.]] Since 8 April 2019, the mayor of Ankara is Mansur Yavaş from the Republican People's Party (CHP), who won the mayoral election in 2019 and 2024. Ankara is politically a triple battleground between the ruling conservative AK Party, the opposition Kemalist center-left Republican People's Party (CHP) and the nationalist far-right MHP. The province of Ankara is divided into 25 districts. Historically, the CHP's key and almost only political stronghold in Ankara lied within the central area of Çankaya, which is the city's most populous district. While the CHP has always gained between 60 and 70% of the vote in Çankaya since 2002, political support elsewhere throughout Ankara was minimal. The high population within Çankaya, as well as Yenimahalle to an extent, has allowed the CHP to take overall second place behind the AK Party in both local and general elections, with the MHP a close third, despite the fact that the MHP was politically stronger than the CHP in almost every other district. Overall, the AK Party enjoyed the most support throughout the city. The electorate of Ankara thus tended to vote in favor of the political right, far more so than the other main cities of Istanbul and İzmir. In retrospect, the 2013–14 protests against the AK Party government were particularly strong in Ankara, proving to be fatal on multiple occasions.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/05/ethem-sarisuluk-killed-turkey-protests_n_3390502.html\|titleTurkish Protester Ethem Sarısülük Is Dead, Family Says [UPDATED]\|workHuffPost\|date5 June 2013\|access-date20 February 2020\|archive-date20 October 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171020010640/https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/05/ethem-sarisuluk-killed-turkey-protests_n_3390502.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> {{Infobox political party \| country \| name Ankara district Municipalities <br /> {{small\|Local elections, 2024}} \| native_name \| colorcode #000099 \| seats1_title = CHP \| seats1 {{Composition bar\|16\|25\|hex#cc0000}} \| seats2_title = AK Party \| seats2 {{Composition bar\|8\|25\|hex#fdc400}} \| seats3_title = Independent \| seats3 {{Composition bar\|1\|25\|hex{{party color\|Independent}}}} }} The city suffered from a series of terrorist attacks in 2015 and 2016, most notably on 10 October 2015; 17 February 2016; and 13 March 2016. The city was also one of the sites of the coup attempt on 15 July 2016. Melih Gökçek was the Metropolitan Mayor of Ankara between 1994 and 2017. Initially elected in the 1994 local elections, he was re-elected in 1999, 2004 and 2009. In the 2014 local elections, Gökçek stood for a fifth term. The MHP's metropolitan mayoral candidate for the 2009 local elections, Mansur Yavaş, stood as the CHP's candidate against Gökçek in 2014. In a heavily controversial election, Gökçek was declared the winner by just 1% ahead of Yavaş amid allegations of systematic electoral fraud. With the Supreme Electoral Council and courts rejecting his appeals, Yavaş declared his intention to take the irregularities to the European Court of Human Rights. Although Gökçek was inaugurated for a fifth term, most election observers believe<ref>{{cite news \|date = 19 April 2014 \|title = Turkey's Prime Minister: Erdoğan v. judges, again \|newspaper = The Economist \|volume = 411 \|issue = 8883 \|pages = 32–36 }}</ref> that Yavaş was the winner of the election.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/03/turkey-election-chp-ankara-challenge-vote.html\|titleTurkish opposition party will challenge Ankara vote – Al-Monitor: the Pulse of the Middle East\|workAl-Monitor\|access-date29 October 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150721195513/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/03/turkey-election-chp-ankara-challenge-vote.html\|archive-date21 July 2015\|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://erikmeyersson.com/2014/04/01/is-something-rotten-in-ankaras-mayoral-election-a-very-preliminary-statistical-analysis/\|titleIs Something Rotten in Ankara's Mayoral Election? A Very Preliminary Statistical Analysis \|workErik Meyersson\|dateApril 2014\|access-date29 October 2014\|archive-date16 July 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160716160539/https://erikmeyersson.com/2014/04/01/is-something-rotten-in-ankaras-mayoral-election-a-very-preliminary-statistical-analysis/\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303978304579475510758359516\|titleTurkish Opposition Cries Vote Fraud Amid Crackdown – WSJ\|authorJoe Parkinson And Emre Peker\|date1 April 2014\|workThe Wall Street Journal\|access-date13 March 2017\|archive-date14 April 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170414082039/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303978304579475510758359516\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/chps-ankara-candidate-vows-to-defend-votes-as-police-crack-down-on-protest.aspx?pageID238&nID64391&NewsCatID338\|titleCHP's Ankara candidate vows to defend votes as police crack down on protest – POLITICS\|workhurriyetdailynews.com\|date2 April 2014 \|access-date29 October 2014\|archive-date29 October 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141029034259/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/chps-ankara-candidate-vows-to-defend-votes-as-police-crack-down-on-protest.aspx?pageID238&nID64391&NewsCatID338\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://news.vice.com/article/turkeys-weirdest-mayor-wont-be-distracted-by-electoral-fraud-allegations\|titleTurkey's Weirdest Mayor Won't Be Distracted By Electoral Fraud Allegations\|workVICE News\|access-date29 October 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141029042436/https://news.vice.com/article/turkeys-weirdest-mayor-wont-be-distracted-by-electoral-fraud-allegations\|archive-date29 October 2014\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Gökçek resigned on 28 October 2017 and was replaced by the former mayor of Sincan district, Mustafa Tuna; who was succeeded by Mansur Yavaş of the CHP, the current mayor of Ankara, elected in 2019. Main sights Ancient/archeological sites ]] ]] (Temple of Augustus and Rome) in Ulus, the primary intact copy of Res Gestae written by the first Roman emperor Augustus survives.]] ]] Ankara Citadel The foundations of the Ankara castle and citadel were laid by the Galatians on a prominent lava outcrop ({{Coord\|39.941\|N\|32.864\|E\|type:landmark\|display=inline}}), and the rest was completed by the Romans. The Byzantines and Seljuks further made restorations and additions. The area around and inside the citadel, being the oldest part of Ankara, contains many fine examples of traditional architecture. There are also recreational areas to relax. Many restored traditional Turkish houses inside the citadel area have found new life as restaurants, serving local cuisine. The citadel was depicted in various Turkish banknotes during 1927–1952 and 1983–1989.<ref>The citadel was depicted in the following Turkish banknotes: * On the obverse of the 1 lira banknote of 1927–1939 (1. Emission Group – One Turkish Lira – [http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E1/6.htm I. Series] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090417141856/http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E1/6.htm \|date17 April 2009 }}). * On the obverse of the 5 lira banknote of 1927–1937 (1. Emission Group – Five Turkish Lira – [http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E1/10.htm I. Series] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090426025336/http://tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E1/10.htm \|date26 April 2009 }}). * On the reverse of the 10 lira banknote of 1927–1938 (1. Emission Group – Ten Turkish Lira – [http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E1/14.htm I. Series] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090426024951/http://tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E1/14.htm \|date26 April 2009 }}). * On the reverse of the 10 lira banknote of 1938–1952 (2. Emission Group – Ten Turkish Lira – [http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E2/52.htm I. Series] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090225021428/http://tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E2/52.htm \|date25 February 2009 }}). * On the reverse of the 100 lira banknotes of 1983–1989 (7. Emission Group – One Hundred Turkish Lira – [http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E7/256.htm I. Series] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090603080558/http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E7/256.htm \|date3 June 2009 }} & [http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E7/258.htm II. Series] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090603083227/http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E7/258.htm \|date3 June 2009 }}). [http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/eng/ Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090615060512/http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/eng/ \|date15 June 2009 }}. Banknote Museum. – Links retrieved on 20 April 2009. {{cite web\|urlhttp://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E1/6.htm\|title"E 1" – The Banknotes of 1. Emission Group – "One Turkish Lira"\|websitetcmb.gov.tr\|access-date20 April 2009\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090417141856/http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E1/6.htm\|archive-date17 April 2009}}</ref>Roman TheaterThe remains, the stage, and the backstage of the Antique Rome theatre of Ankara can be seen outside the castle. Roman statues that were found here are exhibited in the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations. The seating area is still under excavation.Temple of Augustus and Rome <!--linked--> {{main\|Temple of Augustus and Rome}} The Augusteum,{{sfn\|Chisholm\|1911b\|p953}} now known as the Temple of Augustus and Rome, was built 25&nbsp;{{abbr\|x\|sometime between}}&nbsp;20&nbsp;BC following the conquest of Central Anatolia by the Roman Empire. Ancyra then formed the capital of the new province of Galatia. After the death of Augustus in AD&nbsp;14, a copy of the text of the Res Gestae Divi Augusti (the Monumentum Ancyranum) was inscribed on the interior of the temple's {{lang\|la\|pronaos}} in Latin and a Greek translation on an exterior wall of the {{lang\|la\|cella}}. The temple on the ancient acropolis of Ancyra was enlarged in the 2nd century and converted into a church in the 5th century. It is located in the Ulus quarter of the city. It was subsequently publicized by the Austrian ambassador Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq in the 16th century.Roman BathsThe Roman Baths of Ankara have all the typical features of a classical Roman bath complex: a frigidarium (cold room), a tepidarium (warm room) and a caldarium (hot room). The baths were built during the reign of the Roman emperor Caracalla in the early 3rd century to honor Asclepios, the God of Medicine. Today, only the basement and first floors remain. It is situated in the Ulus quarter.Roman RoadThe Roman Road of Ankara or Cardo Maximus was found in 1995 by Turkish archeologist Cevdet Bayburtluoğlu. It is {{convert\|216\|m\|ft\|abbroff\|spus}} long and {{convert\|6.7\|m\|ft\|1\|abbroff\|spus}} wide. Many ancient artifacts were discovered during the excavations along the road and most of them are displayed at the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://v3.arkitera.com/news.php?actiondisplayNewsItem&ID26016\|titleRoma Yolu\|date14 March 2007\|publisherarkitera.com\|access-date10 June 2013\|archive-date12 May 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150512204914/http://v3.arkitera.com/news.php?actiondisplayNewsItem&ID26016\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Antik Ankara">{{Cite book\|lastSargın\|firstHaluk\|year2012\|titleAntik Ankara\|publisherArkadaş Yayınevi\|placeAnkara\|isbn978-975-509-719-0\|languagetr\|pages126, 127, 128}}</ref>Column of JulianThe Column of Julian or Julianus, now in the Ulus district, was erected in honor of the Roman emperor Julian the Apostate's visit to Ancyra in 362. Mosques Kocatepe Mosque {{Multiple image \| align = right \| direction = vertical \| image1 = ANKARA_KOCATEPE_CAMİİ.jpg \| image2 = Ahmet_Hamdi_Akseki_Mosque,_Ankara_02.jpg \| caption2 = Top: Kocatepe Mosque (1987)<br />Bottom: Ahmet Hamdi Akseki Mosque (2013) }} Kocatepe Mosque is the largest mosque in the city. Located in the Kocatepe quarter, it was constructed between 1967 and 1987 in classical Ottoman style with four minarets. Its size and prominent location have made it a landmark for the city. Ahmet Hamdi Akseki Mosque Ahmet Hamdi Akseki Mosque is located near the Presidency of Religious Affairs on the Eskişehir Road. Built in the Turkish neoclassical style, it is one of the largest new mosques in the city, completed and opened in 2013. It can accommodate 6&nbsp;thousand people during general prayers, and up to 30&nbsp;thousand people during funeral prayers. The mosque was decorated with Anatolian Seljuk style patterns.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.diyanet.gov.tr/tr/icerik/ahmet-hamdi-akseki-camii-dualarla-ibadete-acildi/8078\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150218022254/http://www.diyanet.gov.tr/tr/icerik/ahmet-hamdi-akseki-camii-dualarla-ibadete-acildi/8078 \|titleAhmet Hamdi Akseki Mosque has been opened for prayers\|archive-date18 February 2015}}</ref> Yeni (Cenab Ahmet) Mosque It is the largest Ottoman mosque in Ankara and was built by the famous architect Sinan in the 16th century. The mimber (pulpit) and mihrap (prayer niche) are of white marble, and the mosque itself is of Ankara stone, an example of very fine workmanship. Hacı Bayram Mosque (1428)]] This mosque, in the Ulus quarter next to the Temple of Augustus, was built in the early 15th century in Seljuk style by an unknown architect. It was subsequently restored by architect Mimar Sinan in the 16th century, with Kütahya tiles being added in the 18th century. The mosque was built in honor of Hacı Bayram-ı Veli, whose tomb is next to the mosque, two years before his death (1427–28).<ref>{{cite web\|authorSonTech Yazılım \|urlhttp://www.HaciBayramiVeli.com \|titleHacı Bayram-ı Veli :. hacıbayramveli, hacı bayramveli, haci bayrami veli, hacıbayram, nasihatleri, hacı bayram cami, hayatı, hacıbayram-ı veli \|publisherHacibayramiveli.com \|access-date5 May 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090525033235/http://www.hacibayramiveli.com/ \|archive-date25 May 2009 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The usable space inside this mosque is {{convert\|437\|m2\|spus\|sqft\|0\|abbron}} on the first floor and {{convert\|spus\|263\|m2\|sqft\|0\|abbron}} on the second floor. Ahi Elvan Mosque It was founded in the Ulus quarter near the Ankara Citadel and was constructed by the Ahi fraternity during the late 14th and early 15th centuries. The finely carved walnut mimber (pulpit) is of particular interest.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.ankara.com/museums.html\|titleMuseums – Ankara.com: City guide of Turkey's Capital\|access-date8 July 2016\|archive-date31 January 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190131145302/http://www.ankara.com/museums.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Alâeddin Mosque The Alâeddin Mosque is the oldest mosque in Ankara. It has a carved walnut mimber, the inscription on which records that the mosque was completed in early AH 574 (which corresponds to the summer of 1178&nbsp;AD) and was built by the Seljuk prince Muhiddin Mesud Şah (died 1204), the Bey of Ankara, who was the son of the Anatolian Seljuk sultan Kılıç Arslan II (reigned 1156–1192.) Modern monuments There are at least 50 monuments and reliefs throughout the city. Some notables are; Victory Monument {{Multiple image \| align = right \| direction = vertical \| image1 = Ankara asv2021-10 img38 Victory Monument.jpg \| image2 = Hittite Sun Course Monument.jpg \| caption2 = Top: Victory Monument (1927)<br />Bottom: Hittite Sun Course Monument (1978) }} The Victory Monument (Turkish: Zafer Anıtı) was crafted by Austrian sculptor Heinrich Krippel in 1925 and was erected in 1927 at Ulus Square. The monument is made of marble and bronze and features an equestrian statue of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, who wears a Republic era modern military uniform, with the rank Field Marshal.<ref>[http://www.kulturvarliklari.gov.tr/TR,43950/ankara-ulus-ataturk-aniti.html Ministry of Culture page] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304072834/http://www.kulturvarliklari.gov.tr/TR,43950/ankara-ulus-ataturk-aniti.html \|date4 March 2016 }}. {{in lang\|tr}}</ref> Statue of Atatürk Located at Zafer(Victory) Square (Turkish: Zafer Meydanı), the marble and bronze statue was crafted by the Italian sculptor Pietro Canonica in 1927 and depicts a standing Atatürk who wears a Republic era modern military uniform, with the rank Field Marshal. Monument of Security The Security Monument, located in Güvenpark near Kızılay Square, was erected in 1935 and bears Atatürk's advice to his people: "Turk! Be proud, work hard, and believe in yourself." (There is debate on whether or not Atatürk actually said "Use your mind"(Turkish: öğün) instead of "Be proud"(Turkish: övün))<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.malumatfurus.org/turk-ogun-calis-guven-sozu-ovunmek/\|title"Türk Öğün, Çalış, Güven" Sözündeki "Övünmek" Vurgusu\|date=29 October 2021}}</ref> The monument was depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 5 lira banknote of 1937–1952<ref>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/eng/ Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090615060512/http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/eng/ \|date15 June 2009 }}. The Banknotes of 2. Emission Group – Five Turkish Lira – [http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E2/48.htm I. Series] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120203053233/http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E2/48.htm \|date3 February 2012 }}</ref> and of the 1000 lira banknotes of 1939–1946.<ref>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/eng/ Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090615060512/http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/eng/ \|date15 June 2009 }}. Banknote Museum: 2. Emission Group – One Thousand Turkish Lira – [http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E2/70.htm I. Series] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090225021015/http://tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E2/70.htm \|date25 February 2009 }} & [http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E2/72.htm II. Series] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070912195327/http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E2/72.htm \|date12 September 2007 }}</ref> Hatti Monument Erected in 1978 at Sıhhiye Square, this impressive monument symbolizes the Hatti Sun Disc (which was later adopted by the Hittites) and commemorates Anatolia's earliest known civilization. The Hatti Sun Disc has been used in the previous logo of Ankara Metropolitan Municipality. It was also used in the previous logo of the Ministry of Culture & Tourism. Korean War Monument The Monument to Turkish Soldiers Fighting in Korea opened in 1973 to commemorate the veterans and martyrs of the Turkish Brigade.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleKore Savaşı'nın 72. yılı Ankara'da törenle anıldı \|urlhttps://www.aa.com.tr/tr/yasam/kore-savasinin-72-yili-ankarada-torenle-anildi/2622444#}}</ref> Inns Suluhan 's courtyard has been covered with a glass roof.]] Suluhan is a historical Inn in Ankara. It is also called the Hasanpaşa Han. It is about {{convert\|spus\|400\|m}} southeast of Ulus Square and situated in the Hacıdoğan neighborhood. According to the vakfiye (inscription) of the building, the Ottoman era han was commissioned by Hasan Pasha, a regional beylerbey, and was constructed between 1508 and 1511, during the final years of the reign of Sultan Bayezid II.<ref name"Ank">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://ankaratarihi.blogspot.com/2009/12/eski-hana-yeni-cehre-suluhan.html\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304185638/http://ankaratarihi.blogspot.com/2009/12/eski-hana-yeni-cehre-suluhan.html \|titleAnkara: ESKİ HAN'A YENİ ÇEHRE: SULUHAN\|date3 December 2009\|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> There are 102 rooms (now shops) which face the two yards.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://blog.milliyet.com.tr/Eski_Han_a_yeni_cehre__Suluhan/Blog/?BlogNo171373\|titleEski Han'a yeni çehre: Suluhan/Kent Tarihi/milliyet blog\|access-date8 July 2016\|archive-date12 March 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160312053234/http://blog.milliyet.com.tr/Eski_Han_a_yeni_cehre__Suluhan/Blog/?BlogNo171373\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In each room there is a window, a niche and a chimney.<ref name"Ank2">{{cite web\|urlhttp://ankaratarihi.blogspot.com/2009/12/eski-hana-yeni-cehre-suluhan.html\|titleAnkara: ESKİ HAN'A YENİ ÇEHRE: SULUHAN\|firstMehmet\|lastTuncer\|access-date8 July 2016\|archive-date4 March 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304185638/http://ankaratarihi.blogspot.com/2009/12/eski-hana-yeni-cehre-suluhan.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref>Çengelhan Rahmi M. Koç MuseumÇengelhan Rahmi M. Koç Museum is a museum of industrial technology situated in Çengel Han, an Ottoman era Inn which was completed in 1523, during the early years of the reign of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. The exhibits include industrial/technological artifacts from the 1850s onwards. There are also sections about Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of modern Turkey; Vehbi Koç, Rahmi Koç's father and one of the first industrialists of Turkey, and Ankara city. Shopping Foreign visitors to Ankara usually like to visit the old shops in Çıkrıkçılar Yokuşu (Weavers' Road) near Ulus, where myriad things ranging from traditional fabrics, hand-woven carpets and leather products can be found at bargain prices. Bakırcılar Çarşısı (Bazaar of Coppersmiths) is particularly popular, and many interesting items, not just of copper, can be found here like jewelry, carpets, costumes, antiques and embroidery. Up the hill to the castle gate, there are many shops selling a huge and fresh collection of spices, dried fruits, nuts, and other produce. and Atrium Shopping Mall]] Modern shopping areas are mostly found in Kızılay, or on Tunalı Hilmi Avenue, including the modern mall of Karum (named after the ancient Assyrian merchant colonies called Kârum that were established in central Anatolia at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC) which is located towards the end of the Avenue; and in Çankaya, the quarter with the highest elevation in the city. Atakule Tower next to Atrium Mall in Çankaya has views over Ankara and also has a revolving restaurant at the top. The symbol of the Armada Shopping Mall is an anchor, and there's a large anchor monument at its entrance, as a reference to the ancient Greek name of the city, Ἄγκυρα (Ánkyra), which means anchor. Likewise, the anchor monument is also related with the Spanish name of the mall, Armada, which means naval fleet. and Karum Shopping Mall]] As Ankara started expanding westward in the 1970s, several modern, suburbia-style developments, mini-cities and business districts such as Söğütözü began to rise along the western highway, also known as the Eskişehir Road. The Armada, CEPA and Kentpark malls on the highway, the Galleria, Arcadium and Gordion in Ümitköy, and a huge mall, Real in Bilkent Center, offer North American and European style shopping opportunities (these places can be reached through the Eskişehir Highway.) There is also the newly expanded ANKAmall at the outskirts, on the Istanbul Highway, which houses most of the well-known international brands. This mall is the largest throughout the Ankara region. In 2014, a few more shopping malls were open in Ankara. They are Next Level and Taurus on the Boulevard of Mevlana (also known as Konya Road). Culture The arts of the Turkish State Opera and Ballet (1933)]] serves as the Presidential Symphony Orchestra Concert Hall.]] Turkish State Opera and Ballet, the national directorate of opera and ballet companies of Turkey, has its headquarters in Ankara, and serves the city with three venues: Ankara Opera House (Opera Sahnesi, also known as Büyük Tiyatro) is the largest of the three venues for opera and ballet in Ankara. Music Ankara is host to five classical music orchestras: Presidential Symphony Orchestra (Turkish Presidential Symphony Orchestra) Bilkent Symphony Orchestra (BSO) is a major symphony orchestra of Turkey. Hacettepe Symphony Orchestra was founded in 2003 and directed by Erol Erdinç Başkent Oda Orkestrası (Chamber Orchestra of the Capital)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.boorkestrasi.com/ \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070322005734/http://www.boorkestrasi.com/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-date22 March 2007 \|titleIndex of / \|publisherBoorkestrasi.com \|access-date=22 May 2009 }}</ref> There are four concert halls in the city: CSO Concert Hall Bilkent Concert Hall is a performing arts center in Ankara. It is located in the Bilkent University campus. MEB Şura Salonu (also known as the Festival Hall), It is noted for its tango performances. Çankaya Çağdaş Sanatlar Merkezi Concert Hall was founded in 1994. The city has been host to several well-established, annual theater, music, film festivals: Ankara International Music Festival, a music festival organized in the Turkish capital presenting classical music and ballet programs. Ankara also has a number of concert venues such as Eskiyeni, IF Performance Hall, Jolly Joker, Kite, Nefes Bar, and Route, which host the live performances and events of popular musicians. Theater The Turkish State Theatres also has its head office in Ankara and runs the following stages in the city: {{div col\|colwidth=30em}} 125. Yıl Çayyolu Sahnesi Büyük Tiyatro, Küçük Tiyatro, Şinasi Sahnesi, Akün Sahnesi, Altındağ Tiyatrosu, İrfan Şahinbaş Atölye Sahnesi, Oda Tiyatrosu, Mahir Canova Sahnesi, Muhsin Ertuğrul Sahnesi. {{div col end}} In addition, the city is served by several private theater companies, among which Ankara Sanat Tiyatrosu, who have their own stage in the city center, is a notable example. Museums There are about 50 museums in the city. Some notables include; Museum of Anatolian Civilizations The Museum of Anatolian Civilizations (Anadolu Medeniyetleri Müzesi) is situated at the entrance of the Ankara Castle. It is an old 15th century bedesten (covered bazaar)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.lonelyplanet.com/turkey/central-anatolia/ankara/sights/museums-galleries/museum-anatolian-civilisations\|titleMuseum of Anatolian Civilisations – Lonely Planet\|firstLonely\|lastPlanet\|access-date8 July 2016\|archive-date28 August 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160828183359/https://www.lonelyplanet.com/turkey/central-anatolia/ankara/sights/museums-galleries/museum-anatolian-civilisations\|url-statuslive}}</ref> that has been restored and now houses a collection of Paleolithic, Neolithic, Hatti, Hittite, Phrygian, Urartian and Roman works as well as a major section dedicated to Lydian treasures. Anıtkabir is the mausoleum of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder of the Republic of Turkey.]] Anıtkabir is located on an imposing hill, which forms the Anıttepe quarter of the city, where the mausoleum of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder of the Republic of Turkey, stands. Completed in 1953, it is a fusion of ancient and modern architectural styles. An adjacent museum houses a wax statue of Atatürk, his writings, letters and personal items, as well as an exhibition of photographs recording important moments in his life and during the establishment of the Republic. Anıtkabir is open every day, while the adjacent museum is open every day except Mondays. Ankara Aviation Museum Ankara Aviation Museum (Hava Kuvvetleri Müzesi Komutanlığı) is located near the Istanbul Road in Etimesgut. The museum opened to the public in September 1998.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.hvkk.tsk.tr/en-us/Turkish_Air_Force/Air_Force_Museums/Ankara_Aviation_Museum\|titleTurkish Air Force – Air Force Museums – Ankara Aviation Museum\|access-date8 July 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160815192301/https://www.hvkk.tsk.tr/en-us/Turkish_Air_Force/Air_Force_Museums/Ankara_Aviation_Museum\|archive-date15 August 2016\|url-statusdead}}</ref> It is home to various missiles, avionics, aviation materials and aircraft that have served in the Turkish Air Force (e.g. combat aircraft such as the F-86 Sabre, F-100 Super Sabre, F-102 Delta Dagger, F-104 Starfighter, F-5 Freedom Fighter, F-4 Phantom; and cargo planes such as the Transall C-160.) Also a Hungarian MiG-21, a Pakistani MiG-19, and a Bulgarian MiG-17 are on display at the museum. Cer Modern Cer Modern is the modern-arts museum of Ankara, inaugurated on 1 April 2010. It is situated in the renovated building of the historic TCDD Cer Atölyeleri, formerly a workshop of the Turkish State Railways. The museum incorporates the largest exhibition hall in Turkey. The museum holds periodic exhibitions of modern and contemporary art as well as hosting other contemporary arts events. Ankara Ethnography Museum ]] Ankara Ethnography Museum (Etnoğrafya Müzesi) is located opposite to the Ankara Opera House on Talat Paşa Boulevard, in the Ulus district. There is a fine collection of folkloric items, as well as artifacts from the Seljuk and Ottoman periods. In front of the museum building, there is a marble and bronze equestrian statue of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (who wears a Republic era modern military uniform, with the rank Field Marshal) which was crafted in 1927<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.muze.gov.tr/en/museums/ethnography-museum-of-ankara\|titleEthnography Museum of Ankara – Müze\|access-date8 July 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160806193224/http://www.muze.gov.tr/en/museums/ethnography-museum-of-ankara\|archive-date6 August 2016\|url-statusdead}}</ref> by the Italian sculptor Pietro Canonica. Mehmet Akif Literature Museum Library The Mehmet Akif Literature Museum Library is an important literary museum and archive opened in 2011 and dedicated to Mehmet Akif Ersoy (1873–1936), the poet of the Turkish National Anthem. METU Science and Technology Museum / Archaeology Museum Both the METU Science and Technology Museum (ODTÜ Bilim ve Teknoloji Müzesi) and the Archaeology Museum (ODTÜ Arkeoloji Müzesi) are located inside the Middle East Technical University campus. Republic & War of Independence Museum , used as the first Turkish Grand National Assembly building]] Both the Republic Museum and War of Independence Museum are located on Ulus Square. They were originally the first and second Parliament building (TBMM) of the Republic of Turkey, respectively. The War of Independence was planned and directed here as recorded in various photographs and items presently on exhibition. In another display, wax figures of former presidents of the Republic of Turkey are on exhibit. State Art and Sculpture Museum ]] The State Art and Sculpture Museum (Resim-Heykel Müzesi) which opened to the public in 1980<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.kulturturizm.gov.tr/EN,117565/ankara-art-and-sculpture-museum-directorate.html\|titleAnkara Art and Sculpture Museum Directorate\|access-date8 July 2016\|archive-date20 August 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160820001802/http://www.kulturturizm.gov.tr/EN,117565/ankara-art-and-sculpture-museum-directorate.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> is close to the Ethnography Museum and houses a rich collection of Turkish art from the late 19th century to the present day. There are also galleries which host guest exhibitions. TCDD Open Air Steam Locomotive Museum The TCDD Open Air Steam Locomotive Museum is an open-air museum which traces the history of steam locomotives. Sports ]] As with all other cities of Turkey, football is the most popular sport in Ankara. The city currently has three football clubs competing in the second tier of Turkish football, the TFF First League: Ankaragücü, Gençlerbirliği and Ankara Keçiörengücü. Ankaragücü, founded in 1910, is the oldest club in Ankara and is associated with Ankara's military arsenal manufacturing company MKE. They were the Turkish Cup winners in 1972 and 1981. Gençlerbirliği, founded in 1923, are known as the Ankara Gale or the Poppies because of their colors: red and black. They were the Turkish Cup winners in 1987 and 2001. Ankara Keçiörengücü also compete in this tier. They were founded in 1987, and bear purple and white colours on their home kit. Büyükşehir Belediye Ankaraspor also played in the Süper Lig until 2010, when they were expelled. The club was reconstituted in 2014 as Osmanlıspor but have since returned to their old identity as Ankaraspor. Ankaraspor currently play in the TFF Second League at the Etimesgut Belediyesi Atatürk Stadium. Gençlerbirliği's B team, Hacettepe S.K. (formerly known as Gençlerbirliği OFTAŞ) played in the Süper Lig but folded in 2023. Ankara Demirspor and Etimesgut Belediyespor also play in the TFF Second League. Ankara has a large number of minor teams, playing at regional levels, including Çankaya FK, Altındağspor,<ref name"tff">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.tff.org/Default.aspx?pageID395&kulupID3351\|titleAltindağ Spor – Kulüp Bilgileri TFF\|websitetff.org\|access-date9 January 2021\|archive-date18 September 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200918141304/https://tff.org/Default.aspx?pageID395&kulupID3351\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Mamak FK, Çubukspor, and Bağlumspor. In the Turkish Basketball Super League, Ankara is represented by Türk Telekom B.K., who play at the Ankara Arena. TED Ankara Kolejliler, MKE Ankaragücü, and OGM Ormanspor play in the second-tier Turkish First League. Türk Telekom became the fourth team in the country's history to participate in EuroCup finals (22-23). Halkbank Ankara is the leading domestic powerhouse in men's volleyball, having won many championships and cups in the Turkish Men's Volleyball League and even the CEV Cup in 2013. Ankara Buz Pateni Sarayı is where the ice skating and ice hockey competitions take place in the city. There are many popular spots for skateboarding which is active in the city since the 1980s. Skaters in Ankara usually meet in the park near the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. The 2012-built THF Sport Hall hosts the Handball Super League and Women's Handball Super League matches scheduled in Ankara.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.sportstv.com.tr/sampiyon-kim-olacak-2/ \|newspaperSports TV \|titleHentbol-Şampiyon kim olacak? \|date20 May 2013 \|languagetr \|access-date29 May 2013 \|archive-date21 March 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140321131101/http://www.sportstv.com.tr/sampiyon-kim-olacak-2/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Parks ]] Ankara has many parks and open spaces mainly established in the early years of the Republic and well maintained and expanded thereafter. The most important of these parks are: Gençlik Parkı (houses an amusement park with a large pond for rowing), the Botanical garden, Seğmenler Park, Anayasa Park, Kuğulu Park (famous for the swans received as a gift from the Chinese government), Abdi İpekçi Park, Esertepe Parkı, Güven Park (see above for the monument), Kurtuluş Park (has an ice-skating rink), Altınpark (also a prominent exposition/fair area), Harikalar Diyarı (claimed to be Biggest Park of Europe inside city borders) and Göksu Park. Dikmen Vadisi (Dikmen Valley) is a {{convert\|70\|ha}} park and recreation area situated in Çankaya district. Gençlik Park was depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 100 lira banknotes of 1952–1976.<ref>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/eng/ Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090615060512/http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/eng/ \|date15 June 2009 }}. Banknote Museum: 5. Emission Group – One Hundred Turkish Lira – [http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E5/168.htm I. Series] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090204092341/http://tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E5/168.htm \|date4 February 2009 }}, [http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E5/170.htm II. Series] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090204092346/http://tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E5/170.htm \|date4 February 2009 }}, [http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E5/172.htm III. Series] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090204092351/http://tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E5/172.htm \|date4 February 2009 }}, [http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E5/174.htm IV. Series] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090204092356/http://tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E5/174.htm \|date4 February 2009 }}, [http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E5/176.htm V. Series] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090204092402/http://tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E5/176.htm \|date4 February 2009 }} & [http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E5/179.htm VI. Series] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090204092407/http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E5/179.htm \|date4 February 2009 }}</ref> Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo (Atatürk Orman Çiftliği) is an expansive recreational farming area which houses a zoo, several small agricultural farms, greenhouses, restaurants, a dairy farm and a brewery. It is a pleasant place to spend a day with family, be it for having picnics, hiking, biking or simply enjoying good food and nature. There is also an exact replica of the house where Atatürk was born in 1881, in Thessaloniki, Greece. Visitors to the "Çiftlik" (farm) as it is affectionately called by Ankarans, can sample such famous products of the farm such as old-fashioned beer and ice cream, fresh dairy products and meat rolls/kebabs made on charcoal, at a traditional restaurant (Merkez Lokantası, Central Restaurant), cafés and other establishments scattered around the farm. Education {{Main\|Education in Ankara}} Universities Ankara is noted, within Turkey, for the multitude of universities it is home to. These include the following, several of them being among the most reputable in the country: {{div col\|colwidth=20em}} Ankara University Atılım University Başkent University Bilkent University Çankaya University Gazi University Gülhane Military Medical Academy Hacettepe University Middle East Technical University TED University TOBB University of Economics and Technology Turkish Aeronautical Association University Turkish Military Academy Turkish National Police Academy Ufuk University Yıldırım Beyazıt University {{div col end}} Fauna Angora cat {{Main\|Turkish Angora}} with odd eyes (heterochromia), which is common among the Angoras]] Ankara is home to a world-famous domestic cat breed – the Turkish Angora, called Ankara kedisi (Ankara cat) in Turkish. Turkish Angoras are one of the ancient, naturally occurring cat breeds, having originated in Ankara and its surrounding region in central Anatolia. They mostly have a white, silky, medium to long length coat, no undercoat and a fine bone structure. There seems to be a connection between the Angora Cats and Persians, and the Turkish Angora is also a distant cousin of the Turkish Van. Although they are known for their shimmery white coat, there are more than twenty varieties including black, blue and reddish fur. They come in tabby and tabby-white, along with smoke varieties, and are in every color other than pointed, lavender, and cinnamon (all of which would indicate breeding to an outcross.) Eyes may be blue, green, or amber, or even one blue and one amber or green. The W gene which is responsible for the white coat and blue eye is closely related to the hearing ability, and the presence of a blue eye can indicate that the cat is deaf to the side the blue eye is located. However, a great many blue and odd-eyed white cats have normal hearing, and even deaf cats lead a very normal life if kept indoors. Ears are pointed and large, eyes are almond shaped and the head is massive with a two plane profile. Another characteristic is the tail, which is often kept parallel to the back. Angora goat {{Main\|Angora goat}} The Angora goat ({{Langx\|tr\|Ankara keçisi}}) is a breed of domestic goat that originated in Ankara and its surrounding region in central Anatolia.<ref name"Ekarius">{{cite book\|authorCarol Ekarius\|titleStorey's Illustrated Breed Guide to Sheep, Goats, Cattle, and Pigs: 163 Breeds from Common to Rare\|date10 September 2008\|publisherStorey Publishing\|isbn978-1-60342-037-2\|page=150}}</ref> This breed was first mentioned in the time of Moses, roughly in 1500&nbsp;BC.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://daisyshillfarm.com/My_Homepage_Files/Page2.html \|titleAngora Goats history \|publisherDaisyshillfarm.com \|access-date29 June 2010 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090703174935/http://daisyshillfarm.com/My_Homepage_Files/Page2.html \|archive-date=3 July 2009}}</ref> The first Angora goats were brought to Europe by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, about 1554, but, like later imports, were not very successful. Angora goats were first introduced in the United States in 1849 by James P. Davis. Seven adult goats were a gift from Sultan Abdülmecid I in appreciation for his services and advice on the raising of cotton. The fleece taken from an Angora goat is called mohair. A single goat produces between {{convert\|5\|and\|8\|kg\|spellin\|lkout\|abbr=off}} of hair per year. Angoras are shorn twice a year, unlike sheep, which are shorn only once. Angoras have high nutritional requirements due to their rapid hair growth. A poor quality diet will curtail mohair development. The United States, Turkey, and South Africa are the top producers of mohair. For a long period of time, Angora goats were bred for their white coat. In 1998, the Colored Angora Goat Breeders Association was set up to promote breeding of colored Angoras. Today, Angora goats produce white, black (deep black to greys and silver), red (the color fades significantly as the goat gets older), and brownish fiber. Angora goats were depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 50 lira banknotes of 1938–1952.<ref>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/eng/ Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090615060512/http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/eng/ \|date15 June 2009 }}. Banknote Museum:<br />2. Emission Group – Fifty Turkish Lira – [http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E2/56.htm I. Series] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090225021444/http://tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E2/56.htm \|date25 February 2009 }};<br />3. Emission Group – Fifty Turkish Lira – [http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E3/86.htm I. Series] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081225181717/http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E3/86.htm \|date25 December 2008 }} & [http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E3/88.htm II. Series] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070912194725/http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E3/88.htm \|date12 September 2007 }}</ref> Angora rabbit {{Main\|Angora rabbit}} The Angora rabbit ({{Langx\|tr\|Ankara tavşanı}}) is a variety of domestic rabbit bred for its long, soft hair. The Angora is one of the oldest types of domestic rabbit, originating in Ankara and its surrounding region in central Anatolia, along with the Angora cat and Angora goat. The rabbits were popular pets with French royalty in the mid-18th century, and spread to other parts of Europe by the end of the century. They first appeared in the United States in the early 20th century. They are bred largely for their long Angora wool, which may be removed by shearing, combing, or plucking (gently pulling loose wool). Angoras are bred mainly for their wool because it is silky and soft. They have a humorous appearance, as they oddly resemble a fur ball. Most are calm and docile but should be handled carefully. Grooming is necessary to prevent the fiber from matting and felting on the rabbit. A condition called "wool block" is common in Angora rabbits and should be treated quickly.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.joyofhandspinning.com/angora-care.shtml \|titleAngora Rabbit Breeds – How to Care for Your Angora Rabbit \|access-date29 January 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090125215910/http://joyofhandspinning.com/angora-care.shtml \|archive-date25 January 2009 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Sometimes they are shorn in the summer as the long fur can cause the rabbits to overheat. International relations {{See also\|List of twin towns and sister cities in Turkey}} Twin towns and sister cities Ankara is twinned with:<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.ankara.bel.tr/en/foreign-relations-department/sister-cities-of-ankara \|titleSister Cities of Ankera \|publisherT.C. Ankara Büyükþehir Belediyesi Baþkanlýðý \|locationAnkera, Turkey \|access-date13 August 2016 \|archive-date24 December 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181224190520/https://www.ankara.bel.tr/en/foreign-relations-department/sister-cities-of-ankara/#.V6zuCGVvfxs \|url-statuslive }}</ref> {{Colbegin\|colwidth=22em}} {{flagicon\|South Korea}} Seoul, South Korea (since 1971)<ref name"Seoul twinnings2">{{cite web\|urlhttp://english.seoul.go.kr/gover/cooper/coo_02sis.html \|titleInternational Cooperation: Sister Cities \|access-date26 January 2008 \|workSeoul Metropolitan Government \|publisherseoul.go.kr \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071210175055/http://english.seoul.go.kr/gover/cooper/coo_02sis.html \|archive-date10 December 2007 \|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref name"Seoul winnings">{{cite web\|urlhttp://english.seoul.go.kr/gtk/cg/cityhall.php?pidx6 \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20120325052520/http://english.seoul.go.kr/gtk/cg/cityhall.php?pidx6 \|url-statusdead \|archive-date25 March 2012 \|titleSeoul -Sister Cities [via WayBackMachine] \|access-date23 August 2013 \|work=Seoul Metropolitan Government (archived 2012-04-25) }}</ref> {{flagicon\|Pakistan}} Islamabad, Pakistan (since 1982)<ref>{{cite web\|titleSister Cities of Ankara\|authorGreater Municipality of Ankara\|urlhttp://www.ankara.bel.tr/AbbSayfalariEn/hizmet_birimleri/dis_dairesi_baskanligi/kardes_sehirler.aspx\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100705145123/http://www.ankara.bel.tr/AbbSayfalariEn/hizmet_birimleri/dis_dairesi_baskanligi/kardes_sehirler.aspx\|archive-date5 July 2010}}</ref> {{flagicon\|Malaysia}} Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (since 1984) {{flagicon\|China}} Beijing, China (since 1990)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/Sister_Cities/Sister_City/\|titleSister Cities\|publisherBeijing Municipal Government\|access-date23 June 2009\|archive-date16 February 2010\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100216015454/http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/Sister_Cities/Sister_City/\|url-status=live}}</ref> {{flagicon\|Jordan}} Amman, Jordan (since 1992) {{flagicon\|Kyrgyzstan}} Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (since 1992) * {{flagicon\|Hungary}} Budapest, Hungary (since 1992) {{flagicon\|Sudan}} Khartoum, Sudan (since 1992) {{flagicon\|Russia}} Moscow, Russia (since 1992) {{flagicon\|Bulgaria}} Sofia, Bulgaria (since 1992) {{flagicon\|Cuba}} Havana, Cuba (since 1993) {{flagicon\|Ukraine}} Kyiv, Ukraine (since 1993) {{flagicon\|Turkmenistan}} Ashgabat, Turkmenistan (since 1994) {{flagicon\|Kuwait}} Kuwait City, Kuwait (since 1994) {{flagicon\|Bosnia and Herzegovina}} Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina (since 1994)<ref>{{cite web\|authordaenet d.o.o. \|urlhttp://www.sarajevo.ba/en/stream.php?kat160 \|titleSarajevo Official Web Site: Sister cities \|publisherSarajevo.ba \|access-date6 May 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090412141407/http://www.sarajevo.ba/en/stream.php?kat160 \|archive-date12 April 2009 \|url-statusdead}}</ref> {{flagicon\|Albania}} Tirana, Albania (since 1995)<ref name"International relations">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.tirana.gov.al/common/images/International%20Relations.pdf \|titleTwinning Cities: International Relations \|access-date23 June 2009 \|workMunicipality of Tirana \|publishertirana.gov.al\|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111010042121/http://www.tirana.gov.al/common/images/International%20Relations.pdf \|archive-date=10 October 2011 }}</ref> {{flagicon\|Georgia}} Tbilisi, Georgia (since 1996)<ref name"Tbilisi Sister Cities">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.tbilisi.gov.ge/index.php?lang_idENG&sec_id4571 \|titleTbilisi Sister Cities \|access-date5 August 2013 \|workTbilisi City Hall \|publisherTbilisi Municipal Portal \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130724120155/http://www.tbilisi.gov.ge/index.php?lang_idENG&sec_id4571 \|archive-date24 July 2013 \|url-status=dead}}</ref> {{flagicon\|Russia}} Ufa, Bashkortostan, Russia (since 1997) {{flagicon\|Turkey}} Alanya, Turkey {{flagicon\|Romania}} Bucharest, Romania (since 1998) {{flagicon\|Vietnam}} Hanoi, Vietnam (since 1998) {{flagicon\|Bahrain}} Manama, Bahrain (since 2000) {{flagicon\|Somalia}} Mogadishu, Somalia (since 2000) {{flagicon\|Chile}} Santiago, Chile (since 2000) {{flagicon\|Kazakhstan}} Astana, Kazakhstan (since 2001) {{flagicon\|Tajikistan}} Dushanbe, Tajikistan (since 2003) {{flagicon\|Afghanistan}} Kabul, Afghanistan (since 2003) {{flagicon\|Mongolia}} Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia (since 2003) {{flagicon\|Egypt}} Cairo, Egypt (since 2004) {{flagicon\|Moldova}} Chișinău, Moldova (since 2004)<ref name"Chișinău winnings">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.chisinau.md/tabview.php?lro&idc526 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120903122220/http://www.chisinau.md/tabview.php?lro&idc526 \|titleOraşe înfrăţite (Twin cities of Minsk) [via WaybackMachine.com] \|publisherPrimăria Municipiului Chişinău \|archive-date3 September 2012 \|access-date21 July 2013 \|languagero \|url-status=dead}}</ref> {{flagicon\|Yemen}} Sana'a, Yemen (since 2004) {{flagicon\|Uzbekistan}} Tashkent, Uzbekistan (since 2004) {{flagicon\|Kosovo}} Pristina, Kosovo (since 2005) {{flagicon\|Russia}} Kazan, Tatarstan, Russia (since 2005) {{flagicon\|DRC}} Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo (since 2005) {{flagicon\|Ethiopia}} Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (since 2006) {{flagicon\|Belarus}} Minsk, Belarus (since 2007)<ref name"Minsk">{{cite web\|urlhttp://minsk.gov.by/ru/city/ \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130502075333/http://minsk.gov.by/ru/city/ \|titleTwin towns and Sister cities of Minsk [via WaybackMachine.com] \|publisherThe department of protocol and international relations of Minsk City Executive Committee \|archive-date2 May 2013 \|access-date21 July 2013 \|languageru \|url-status=dead}}</ref> {{flagicon\|Croatia}} Zagreb, Croatia (since 2008)<ref>{{cite web \| url http://www.ankara-bel.gov.tr/AbbSayfalari/hizmet_birimleri/dis_dairesi_baskanligi/kardes_kent/kardes_kent_2/zagrep_ile_ankara.aspx \| title Signing Sister City Protocol between Zagreb and Ankara \| publisher Ankara Metropolitan Municipality \| date 27 October 2008 \| url-status dead \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20121029034144/http://www.ankara-bel.gov.tr/AbbSayfalari/hizmet_birimleri/dis_dairesi_baskanligi/kardes_kent/kardes_kent_2/zagrep_ile_ankara.aspx \| archive-date = 29 October 2012}}</ref> {{flagicon\|Syria}} Damascus, Syria (since 2010) {{flagicon\|Guinea-Bissau}} Bissau, Guinea-Bissau (since 2011) {{flagicon\|United States}} Washington, D.C., US (since 2011)<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttp://os.dc.gov/node/63502 \| titleFrequently Asked Questions – Office of Protocol and International Affairs \| publisherDistrict of Columbia \| access-date18 September 2012 \| archive-date21 September 2012 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120921014908/http://os.dc.gov/node/63502 \| url-status=live }}</ref> {{flagicon\|Thailand}} Bangkok, Thailand (since 2012)<ref>{{cite web\|titleFriendship and cooperation agreement between Bangkok Metropolitan Administration of the Kingdom of Thailand and the Greater Ankara Municipality of the Republic of Turkey\|date 21 March 2012\|urlhttp://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Angara.pdf\|author1 Bangkok Metropolitan Administration\|author2Greater Ankara Municipality\|access-date 21 July 2013\|archive-date11 April 2019\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20190411202948/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Angara.pdf\|url-status= live}}</ref> {{flagicon\|Iran}} Tehran, Iran (since 2013)<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://english.farsnews.com/newstext.aspx?nn13920927001088 \|titleTehran, Ankara to Sign Sister City Agreement Today \|publisherFarsNews \|access-date18 December 2013 \|archive-date16 October 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151016094737/http://english.farsnews.com/newstext.aspx?nn13920927001088 \|url-status=live }}</ref> {{flagicon\|Qatar}} Doha, Qatar (since 2016)<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.gulf-times.com/story/509443/Doha-Ankara-sign-twinning-agreement\|titleDoha, Ankara sign twinning agreement\|newspaperGulf Times\|date24 August 2016\|access-date31 May 2018\|archive-date31 May 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180531060530/http://www.gulf-times.com/story/509443/Doha-Ankara-sign-twinning-agreement\|url-statuslive}}</ref> {{flagicon\|Montenegro}} Podgorica, Montenegro (since 7 March 2019) {{flagicon\|Northern Cyprus}} North Nicosia, Northern Cyprus {{flagicon\|Djibouti}} Djibouti City, Djibouti (since 2017)<ref name"diyanet">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.diyanet.gov.tr/en-US/Content/PrintDetail/9978/\|websitediyanet.gov.tr\|title208 sister cities in 93 countries\|access-date9 January 2021\|archive-date6 April 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190406181403/http://www.diyanet.gov.tr/en-US/Content/PrintDetail/9978/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> {{Colend}} Partner cities {{flagicon\|North Macedonia}} Skopje, North Macedonia (since 1995)<ref name"Ankara winnings">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.ankara-bel.gov.tr/AbbSayfalari/hizmet_birimleri/dis_dairesi_baskanligi/avrupa_gunu_kutlamasi.aspx \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090114033014/http://www.ankara-bel.gov.tr/AbbSayfalari/hizmet_birimleri/dis_dairesi_baskanligi/avrupa_gunu_kutlamasi.aspx \|titleKardeş Kentleri Lists ve 5 Mayıs Avrupa Günü Kutlaması [via WaybackMachine.com] \|publisherAnkara Büyükşehir Belediyesi – Tüm Hakları Saklıdır \|archive-date14 January 2009 \|access-date21 July 2013 \|languagetr \|url-status=dead}}</ref> {{flagicon\|Austria}} Vienna, Austria List of notable people {{Main\|List of people from Ankara}} See also {{portal\|Turkey}} Ankara Agreement ATO Congresium Battle of Ancyra Battle of Ankara List of bridges in Ankara List of hospitals in Ankara Province List of libraries in Ankara List of tallest buildings in Ankara Synod of Ancyra Treaty of Ankara (disambiguation) Victory Monument (Ankara) Notes {{Notelist}} References {{Reflist}} Sources {{cite EB9\|wstitleAngora\|volume2\|page=45}} {{cite EB1911\|wstitleAncyra\|volume1\|date1911b\|page953}} {{cite book\|lastParvis\|firstSarah\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-jgsQihyWTEC\|titleMarcellus of Ancyra And the Lost Years of the Arian Controversy 325–345\|placeNew York\|publisherOxford University Press\|date2006\|isbn=978-0-19-928013-1}} * {{Cite report \|authorWorld Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) \|year2024 \|titleGlobal Innovation Index 2024: Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship \|urlhttps://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/assets/67729/2000%20Global%20Innovation%20Index%202024_WEB3lite.pdf \|locationGeneva \|publisherWIPO \|doi10.34667/tind.50062 \|author-linkWorld Intellectual Property Organization}} Attribution {{EB1911\|wstitleAngora\|volume2\|date1911\|pages40–41}} {{EB1911\|lastRockwell\|firstWilliam Walker\|wstitleAncyra\|volume1}} Further reading {{Cite book \|authorMembers of Staff of the Museum \|year2006 \|titleGuide book to The Museum of Anatolian Civilizations \|isbn978-975-17-2198-3 \|publisher"The association for the support and encouragement of the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations." Dönmez offset (Printer) \|locationAnkara \|url-accessregistration \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/museumofanatolia0000anad }} External links {{Sister project links\|autoyes\|dyes}} [http://www.ankara.gov.tr Governorate of Ankara] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121130080250/http://www.ankara.bel.tr/ Municipality of Ankara] * [http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/former/t0128.htm GCatholic – (former and) Latin titular see] * [http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/former/t2026.htm GCatholic – former and titular Armenian Catholic see] * [http://www.ankaraka.org.tr Ankara Development Agency] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190417190926/http://esenbogaairport.com/ Esenboğa International Airport] * {{OSM relation\|223422}} {{Ankara}} {{List of European capitals by region}} {{List of Asian capitals by region\|state=collapsed}} {{Capital cities of the European Union candidates}} {{Districts of Turkey\|provname=Ankara}} {{Metropolitan centers in Turkey}} {{Largest cities in Turkey}} {{Authority control}} <!--please leave the empty space as standard--> Category:Capitals in Europe Category:Capitals in Asia Category:Populated places in Ankara Province Category:Metropolitan areas of Turkey	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ankara	2025-04-05T18:25:22.594540
803	Arabic	{{Short description\|Semitic language spoken in the Arab world}} {{About\|the general language (macrolanguage)\|specific varieties of Arabic and other uses\|Arabic (disambiguation)}} {{distinguish\|Amharic\|Aramaic}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=July 2020}} {{Use American English\|date=August 2016}} {{expert needed\|linguistics\|dateAugust 2022\|reasonThere seems to be some confusion surrounding the chronology of Arabic's origination, including notably in the paragraph on Qaryat Al-Faw (also discussed on talk). There are major sourcing gaps from "Literary Arabic" onwards}} {{Infobox language \| name = Arabic \| nativename = {{lang\|ar\|اَلْعَرَبِيَّةُ}} ({{transl\|ar\|al-ʿarabiyyah}}) \| pronunciation = {{IPA\|ar\|ˈʕarabiː\|\|Arabi.ogg}} <br/> {{IPA\|ar\|al ʕaraˈbijːa\|\|Al arabic.ogg}} \| states = Arabian peninsula \| region = Arab world and surrounding regions \| ethnicity = Arabs, other ethnic groups of the Arab world \| speakers = {{sigfig\|410.549950\|3}} million native speakers of all varieties \| date = 2020–2024 \| ref <ref namee28>{{e28\|ara}}</ref> \| speakers2 {{sigfig\|69.973000\|2}} million L2 users of all varieties (2020–2024)<ref name"arb">{{e28\|ara\|Arabic}}</ref> \| speakers_label = Speakers \| familycolor = Afro-Asiatic \| fam2 = Semitic \| fam3 = West Semitic \| fam4 = Central Semitic \| dia1 = Central Asian \| dia2 = Chadian \| dia3 = Egyptian \| dia4 = Levantine \| dia5 = Maghrebi \| dia6 = Mesopotamian \| dia7 = Peninsular \| dia8 = Saʽidi \| dia9 = Shirvani \| dia10 = Sudanese \| stand1 = Modern Standard Arabic \| script = Arabic alphabet {{Collapsible list\|titlestyle font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left;\|title Other official scripts\| \|Latin script (Maltese alphabet) }} \| nation {{Collapsible list \| titlestyle font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left; \| title = 28 states and territories\| \|Algeria \|Bahrain \|Chad \|Comoros \|Djibouti \|Egypt \|Eritrea<ref>{{Citation \|titleEritrea \|date2023-04-26 \|urlhttps://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/eritrea/ \|workThe World Factbook \|access-date2023-04-29 \|publisherCentral Intelligence Agency \|language=en}}</ref> \|Iraq \|Jordan \|Kuwait \|Lebanon \|Libya \|Mali \|Mauritania \|Morocco \|Oman \|Palestine \|Qatar \|Saudi Arabia \|Somalia \|Sudan \|Syria \|Tunisia \|United Arab Emirates \|Yemen \|Zanzibar (Tanzania) \|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (partially recognized state) \|\|Somaliland (unrecognized state) }} {{Collapsible list \| titlestyle font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left; \| titleInternational Organizations\| \|African Union \|Arab League \|Organisation of Islamic Cooperation \|United Nations }} {{Collapsible list \| titlestyle font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left; \| titleSpecial status in Constitution\| \|Iran{{efn\|The constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran recognizes the Arabic language as the language of Islam, giving it a formal status as the language of religion, and regulates its spreading within the Iranian national curriculum. The constitution declares in Chapter II: (The Official Language, Script, Calendar, and Flag of the Country) in Article 16 "Since the language of the Qur`an and Islamic texts and teachings is Arabic, ..., it must be taught after elementary level, in all classes of secondary school and in all areas of study."<ref name"constituteproject.org">Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran: [https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Iran_1989?langen ''Iran (Islamic Republic of)'s Constitution of 1979. – Article: 16 Official or national languages], 1979, retrieved 25 July 2018</ref>}} \|Pakistan{{efn\|The constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan states in Article 31 No. 2 that "The State shall endeavour, as respects the Muslims of Pakistan (a) to make the teaching of the Holy Quran and Islamiat compulsory, to encourage and facilitate the learning of Arabic language ..."<ref name="pakistanconstitutionlaw.com">Constitution of Pakistan: [https://pakistanconstitutionlaw.com/article-31-islamic-way-of-life Constitution of Pakistan, 1973 – Article: 31 Islamic way of life], 1973, retrieved 13 June 2018</ref>}} }} \| minority = {{collapsible list\| \|Cyprus<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://languagecharter.eokik.hu/sites/StatesParties/Cyprus.htm\|titleImplementation of the Charter in Cyprus\|websiteDatabase for the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages\|publisherPublic Foundation for European Comparative Minority Research\|access-date20 May 2013\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111024143749/http://languagecharter.eokik.hu/sites/StatesParties/Cyprus.htm\|archive-date24 October 2011}}</ref> \|Israel<ref name"israelbasiclaw">{{cite web\|urlhttps://main.knesset.gov.il/EN/activity/Documents/BasicLawsPDF/BasicLawNationState.pdf\|titleBasic Law: Israel – The Nation State of the Jewish People\|date2018-07-19\|publisherKnesset\|access-date2021-01-13\|archive-date10 April 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210410191721/http://knesset.gov.il/laws/special/eng/basiclawnationstate.pdf\|url-status=live}}</ref> \|Mali<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMali \|urlhttps://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/afrique/mali.htm \|access-date2023-04-29 \|websitewww.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca}}</ref> \|Niger<ref>{{Cite web \|titleNiger : Loi n° 2001-037 du 31 décembre 2001 fixant les modalités de promotion et de développement des langues nationales\|languagefr \|urlhttps://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/afrique/niger-loi-2001-037-LNG.htm \|access-date2023-04-29 \|website=www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca}}</ref> \|Philippines<ref>Constitution of the Philippines, Article XIV, Sec 7: For purposes of communication and instruction, the official languages of the Philippines are Filipino and, until otherwise provided by law, English. The regional languages are the auxiliary official languages in the regions and shall serve as auxiliary media of instruction therein. Spanish and Arabic shall be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis.</ref> \|Senegal<ref nameHassaniyaAlphabet>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.jo.gouv.sn/spip.php?article4790 \|titleDecret n° 2005-980 du 21 octobre 2005 \|access-date2021-12-10 \|archive-date2015-05-18 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150518092122/http://www.jo.gouv.sn/spip.php?article4790 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> \|South Africa<ref name"constitution.1.6">{{cite book\|urlhttps://www.concourt.org.za/images/phocadownload/the_text/english-2013.pdf\|titleThe Constitution of the Republic of South Africa\|publisherConstitutional Court of South Africa\|year2013\|edition2013 English version\|atch.&nbsp;1, s.&nbsp;6\|access-date17 April 2020\|archive-date23 August 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180823174423/https://www.concourt.org.za/images/phocadownload/the_text/english-2013.pdf\|url-status=live}}</ref> }} \| agency = {{collapsible list \| Algeria: Supreme Council of the Arabic language in Algeria Egypt: Academy of the Arabic Language in Cairo Israel: Academy of the Arabic Language in Israel Iraq: Iraqi Academy of Sciences Jordan: Jordan Academy of Arabic Libya: Academy of the Arabic Language in Jamahiriya Morocco: Academy of the Arabic Language in Rabat Saudi Arabia: Academy of the Arabic Language in Riyadh Somalia: Academy of the Arabic Language in Mogadishu Sudan: Academy of the Arabic Language in Khartoum Syria: Arab Academy of Damascus (the oldest) Tunisia: Beit Al-Hikma Foundation }} \| iso1 = ar \| iso2 = ara \| iso3 = ara \| lc1 = arq \| ld1 = Algerian Arabic \| lc2 = xaa \| ld2 = Andalusi Arabic \| lc3 = abv \| ld3 = Bahrani Arabic \| lc4 = avl \| ld4 = Bedawi Arabic \| lc5 = shu \| ld5 = Chadian Arabic \| lc6 = acy \| ld6 = Cypriot Arabic \| lc7 = adf \| ld7 = Dhofari Arabic \| lc8 = arz \| ld8 = Egyptian Arabic \| lc9 = acm \| ld9 = Gelet Iraqi Arabic \| lc10 = afb \| ld10 = Gulf Arabic \| lc11 = ayh \| ld11 = Hadhrami Arabic \| lc12 = mey \| ld12 = Hassaniya Arabic \| lc13 = acw \| ld13 = Hejazi Arabic \| lc14 = apc \| ld14 = Levantine Arabic \| lc15 = ayl \| ld15 = Libyan Arabic \| lc16 = ary \| ld16 = Moroccan Arabic \| lc17 = ars \| ld17 = Najdi Arabic \| lc18 = acx \| ld18 = Omani Arabic \| lc19 = ayp \| ld19 = Qeltu Iraqi Arabic \| lc20 = aao \| ld20 = Saharan Arabic \| lc21 = aec \| ld21 = Saʽidi Arabic \| lc22 = ayn \| ld22 = Sanʽani Arabic \| lc23 = ssh \| ld23 = Shihhi Arabic \| lc24 = sqr \| ld24 = Siculo-Arabic \| lc25 = arb \| ld25 = Standard Arabic \| lc26 = apd \| ld26 = Sudanese Arabic \| lc27 = acq \| ld27 = Taʽizzi-Adeni Arabic \| lc28 = abh \| ld28 = Tajiki Arabic \| lc29 = aeb \| ld29 = Tunisian Arabic \| lc30 = auz \| ld30 = Uzbeki Arabic \| lingua = 12-AAC \| image = Arabic albayancalligraphy.svg \| imagescale = 0.7 \| imagecaption = {{transliteration\|ar\|al-ʿarabiyyah}} in written Arabic (Naskh script) \| notice = IPA \| ancestor = Proto-Afroasiatic \| ancestor2 = Proto-Semitic \| ancestor3 = Proto-Arabic \| ancestor4 = Old Arabic \| ancestor5 = Pre-classical Arabic \| sign = <!--"Arab sign-language family" is NOT signed Arabic. It is an unrelated family of sign languages spread across the Arabian Peninsula.--> \| glotto = arab1395 \| glottorefname = Arabic \| map = Arabic speaking world.svg \| mapcaption = {{legend\|#088A4B\|Sole official language, Arabic-speaking majority}} {{legend\|#045FB4\|Co-official language, Arabic-speaking majority}} {{legend\|#5599ff\|Co-official language, Arabic-speaking minority}} {{legend\|#e6e6e6\|Not an official language, Arabic-speaking minority}} }} Arabic ({{langx\|ar\|labelendonym\|اَلْعَرَبِيَّةُ\|al-ʿarabiyyah}}, {{IPA\|ar\|al ʕaraˈbijːa\|pron\|Al arabic.ogg}}, or {{langx\|ar\|labelnone\|عَرَبِيّ\|ʿarabīy}}, {{IPA\|ar\|ˈʕarabiː\|pron\|Arabi.ogg}} {{IPA\|ar\|ʕaraˈbij\|labelor}}) is a Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world.<ref name"Al-Jallad"/> The ISO assigns language codes to 32 varieties of Arabic, including its standard form of Literary Arabic, known as Modern Standard Arabic,<ref name"www-01.sil.org">{{cite web\|titleDocumentation for ISO 639 identifier: ara\|urlhttp://www-01.sil.org/iso639-3/documentation.asp?idara\|access-date20 March 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160303211429/http://www-01.sil.org/iso639-3/documentation.asp?idara\|archive-date3 March 2016\|url-statuslive}}</ref> which is derived from Classical Arabic. This distinction exists primarily among Western linguists; Arabic speakers themselves generally do not distinguish between Modern Standard Arabic and Classical Arabic, but rather refer to both as {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|al-ʿarabiyyatu l-fuṣḥā}} ({{lang\|ar\|اَلعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلْفُصْحَىٰ}}<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastKamusella\|firstTomasz\|date2017\|titleThe Arabic Language: A Latin of Modernity?\|urlhttps://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/10023/12443/_Journal_of_Nationalism_Memory_Language_Politics_The_Arabic_Language_A_Latin_of_Modernity.pdf?sequence1&isAllowedy\|journalJournal of Nationalism, Memory & Language Politics\|volume11\|issue2\|pages117–145\|access-date28 June 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191212190454/https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/10023/12443/_Journal_of_Nationalism_Memory_Language_Politics_The_Arabic_Language_A_Latin_of_Modernity.pdf?sequence1&isAllowedy\|archive-date12 December 2019\|url-statuslive\|doi10.1515/jnmlp-2017-0006\|hdl10023/12443\|s2cid158624482\|doi-accessfree \|issn = 2570-5857}}</ref> "the eloquent Arabic") or simply {{transliteration\|ar\|al-fuṣḥā}} ({{lang\|ar\|اَلْفُصْحَىٰ}}). Arabic is the third most widespread official language after English and French,<ref>{{Harvcoltxt\|Wright\|2001\|p492}}</ref> one of six official languages of the United Nations,<ref name"auto1">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://ask.un.org/faq/14463\|titleWhat are the official languages of the United Nations? - Ask DAG!\|websiteask.un.org\|languageen\|access-date2019-12-21\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160205021716/http://ask.un.org/faq/14463\|archive-date5 February 2016\|url-statuslive}}</ref> and the liturgical language of Islam.<ref name"auto2">{{Cite web\|lastWorld\|firstI. H.\|titleArabic\|urlhttps://ihworld.com/schools/community-school-languages/arabic/\|access-date2021-07-07\|websiteIH World\|languageen}}</ref> Arabic is widely taught in schools and universities around the world and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, governments and the media.<ref name"auto2"/> During the Middle Ages, Arabic was a major vehicle of culture and learning, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy. As a result, many European languages have borrowed words from it. Arabic influence, mainly in vocabulary, is seen in European languages (mainly Spanish and to a lesser extent Portuguese, Catalan, and Sicilian) owing to the proximity of Europe and the long-lasting Arabic cultural and linguistic presence, mainly in Southern Iberia, during the Al-Andalus era. Maltese is a Semitic language developed from a dialect of Arabic and written in the Latin alphabet.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/Maltese-language\|titleMaltese language\|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica\|languageen\|access-date2019-12-21\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190924141837/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Maltese-language\|archive-date24 September 2019\|url-status=live}}</ref> The Balkan languages, including Albanian, Greek, Serbo-Croatian, and Bulgarian, have also acquired many words of Arabic origin, mainly through direct contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has influenced languages across the globe throughout its history, especially languages where Islam is the predominant religion and in countries that were conquered by Muslims. The most markedly influenced languages are Persian, Turkish, Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu),<ref name"Versteegh19972">{{cite book\|titleThe Arabic Language\|last1Versteegh\|first1Kees\|last2Versteegh\|first2C. H. M.\|date1997\|publisherColumbia University Press\|isbn9780231111522\|languageen\|quote... of the Qufdn; many Arabic loanwords in the indigenous languages, as in Urdu and Indonesian, were introduced mainly through the medium of Persian.}}</ref> Kashmiri, Kurdish, Bosnian, Kazakh, Bengali, Malay (Indonesian and Malaysian), Maldivian, Pashto, Punjabi, Albanian, Armenian, Azerbaijani, Sicilian, Spanish, Greek, Bulgarian, Tagalog, Sindhi, Odia,<ref name"Raya-1981">{{cite book \|authorBhabani Charan Ray \|titleOrissa Under the Mughals: From Akbar to Alivardi : a Fascinating Study of the Socio-economic and Cultural History of Orissa \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idFgUeAAAAMAAJ&pgPA213\|seriesOrissan studies project, 10 \|year1981 \|publisherPunthi Pustak \|locationCalcutta \|page213 \|chapterAppendix B Persian, Turkish, Arabic words generally used in Oriya \|oclc461886299}}</ref> Hebrew and African languages such as Hausa, Amharic, Tigrinya, Somali, Tamazight, and Swahili. Conversely, Arabic has borrowed some words (mostly nouns) from other languages, including its sister-language Aramaic, Persian, Greek, and Latin and to a lesser extent and more recently from Turkish, English, French, and Italian. Arabic is spoken by as many as 380 million speakers, both native and non-native, in the Arab world,<ref namee28>{{e28\|ara}}</ref> making it the fifth most spoken language in the world<ref>{{cite web \|titleThe 10 Most Spoken Languages In The World \|lastLane \|firstJames \|urlhttps://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/the-10-most-spoken-languages-in-the-world \|date2 June 2021 \|websiteBabbel \|access-date29 June 2021}}</ref> and the fourth most used language on the internet in terms of users.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleInternet: most common languages online 2020\|urlhttps://www.statista.com/statistics/262946/share-of-the-most-common-languages-on-the-internet/\|access-date2021-11-26\|websiteStatista\|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|titleTop Ten Internet Languages in The World - Internet Statistics\|urlhttps://www.internetworldstats.com/stats7.htm\|access-date2021-11-26\|websitewww.internetworldstats.com\|archive-date7 September 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190907141114/https://www.internetworldstats.com/stats7.htm\|url-statusdead}}</ref> It also serves as the liturgical language of more than 2 billion Muslims.<ref name"auto1"/> In 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked Arabic the fourth most useful language for business, after English, Mandarin Chinese, and French.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2015-03-29 \|titleMandarin Chinese Most Useful Business Language After English - Bloomberg Business \|urlhttp://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2011-08-30/mandarin-chinese-most-useful-business-language-after-english-1-#content \|access-date2022-01-02 \|website Bloomberg News\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150329042844/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2011-08-30/mandarin-chinese-most-useful-business-language-after-english-1-#content \|archive-date29 March 2015 \|url-statusdead}}</ref> Arabic is written with the Arabic alphabet, an abjad script that is written from right to left. Classification {{Further\|Classification of Arabic languages}} Arabic is usually classified as a Central Semitic language. Linguists still differ as to the best classification of Semitic language sub-groups.<ref name="Stefan Weninger 2011"/> The Semitic languages changed between Proto-Semitic and the emergence of Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include: # The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation (jalas-) into a past tense. # The conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation (yajlis-) into a present tense. # The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms (e.g., a present tense formed by doubling the middle root, a perfect formed by infixing a {{IPA\|/t/}} after the first root consonant, probably a jussive formed by a stress shift) in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms (e.g., -u for indicative, -a for subjunctive, no ending for jussive, -an or -anna for energetic). # The development of an internal passive. There are several features which Classical Arabic, the modern Arabic varieties, as well as the Safaitic and Hismaic inscriptions share which are unattested in any other Central Semitic language variety, including the Dadanitic and Taymanitic languages of the northern Hejaz. These features are evidence of common descent from a hypothetical ancestor, Proto-Arabic.{{sfn\|Al-Jallad\|2020a\|p8}}<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Huehnergard \|first1John \|titleArabic in Context: Celebrating 400 Years of Arabic at Leiden University \|publisherBrill \|year2017 \|isbn978-90-04-34304-7 \|editor-lastAl-Jallad \|editor-firstAhmad \|page13 \|chapterArabic in Its Semitic Context \|doi10.1163/9789004343047_002 \|oclc967854618}}</ref> The following features of Proto-Arabic can be reconstructed with confidence:<ref>{{Cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6X29BwAAQBAJ\|titleAn Outline of the Grammar of the Safaitic Inscriptions\|lastAl-Jallad\|firstAhmad\|date2015\|publisherBrill\|isbn978-90-04-28982-6\|languageen\|access-date17 July 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160723012810/https://books.google.com/books?id6X29BwAAQBAJ\|archive-date23 July 2016\|url-status=live}}</ref> # negative particles {{IPA\|m}} * {{IPA\|/mā/}}; {{IPA\|lʾn}} {{IPA\|/lā-ʾan/}} to Classical Arabic {{IPA\|lan}} # {{IPA\|mafʿūl}} G-passive participle # prepositions and adverbs {{IPA\|f}}, {{IPA\|ʿn}}, {{IPA\|ʿnd}}, {{IPA\|ḥt}}, {{IPA\|ʿkdy}} # a subjunctive in -{{IPA\|a}} # {{IPA\|t}}-demonstratives # leveling of the -{{IPA\|at}} allomorph of the feminine ending # {{IPA\|ʾn}} complementizer and subordinator # the use of {{IPA\|f}}- to introduce modal clauses # independent object pronoun in {{IPA\|(ʾ)y}} # vestiges of nunation'' On the other hand, several Arabic varieties are closer to other Semitic languages and maintain features not found in Classical Arabic, indicating that these varieties cannot have developed from Classical Arabic.{{sfn\|Birnstiel\|2019\|p368}}<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastAl-Jallad \|firstAhmad \|year2021 \|titleConnecting the Lines between Old (Epigraphic) Arabic and the Modern Vernaculars \|journalLanguages \|languageen \|volume6 \|issue4 \|page1 \|doi10.3390/languages6040173 \|issn2226-471X \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Thus, Arabic vernaculars do not descend from Classical Arabic:{{sfn\|Versteegh\|2014\|p172}} Classical Arabic is a sister language rather than their direct ancestor.{{sfn\|Al-Jallad\|2020a\|p8}} History Old Arabic {{Main\|Old Arabic}} Arabia had a wide variety of Semitic languages in antiquity. The term "Arab" was initially used to describe those living in the Arabian Peninsula, as perceived by geographers from ancient Greece.<ref name"Al-Jallad"/><ref>{{Cite book\|lastMacdonald\|firstMichael C. A.\|chapterArabians, Arabias, and the Greeks_Contact and Perceptions\|pages16–17\|chapter-urlhttps://www.academia.edu/4593009\|titleLiteracy and Identity in Pre-Islamic Arabia\|isbn9781003278818\|languageen}}{{Dead link\|dateNovember 2024 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside the Ancient South Arabian family (e.g. Southern Thamudic) were spoken. It is believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages (non-Central Semitic languages) were spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hejaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages. In {{Lang\|ar-latn\|Najd\|italicno}} and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested.<ref name"Al-Jallad"/> In eastern Arabia, inscriptions in a script derived from ASA attest to a language known as Hasaitic. On the northwestern frontier of Arabia, various languages known to scholars as Thamudic B, Thamudic D, Safaitic, and Hismaic are attested. The last two share important isoglosses with later forms of Arabic, leading scholars to theorize that Safaitic and Hismaic are early forms of Arabic and that they should be considered Old Arabic.<ref name"Al-Jallad">{{Cite book\|chapter-urlhttps://www.academia.edu/18470301\|chapterAl-Jallad. The earliest stages of Arabic and its linguistic classification \|titleRoutledge Handbook of Arabic Linguistics, forthcoming \|isbn9781315147062\|access-date2016-07-15\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171023221343/http://www.academia.edu/18470301/Al-Jallad._The_earliest_stages_of_Arabic_and_its_linguistic_classification_Routledge_Handbook_of_Arabic_Linguistics_forthcoming_\|archive-date23 October 2017\|url-statuslive\|last1Al-Jallad\|first1=Ahmad}}</ref> Linguists generally believe that "Old Arabic", a collection of related dialects that constitute the precursor of Arabic, first emerged during the Iron Age.<ref name"Stefan Weninger 2011">Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin/Boston, 2011.</ref> Previously, the earliest attestation of Old Arabic was thought to be a single 1st century CE inscription in Sabaic script at {{Lang\|ar-latn\|Qaryat al-Faw\|italicno}}, in southern present-day Saudi Arabia. However, this inscription does not participate in several of the key innovations of the Arabic language group, such as the conversion of Semitic mimation to nunation in the singular. It is best reassessed as a separate language on the Central Semitic dialect continuum.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastAl-Jallad\|firstAhmad\|titleAl-Jallad. 2014. On the genetic background of the Rbbl bn Hfʿm grave inscription at Qaryat al-Fāw\|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/8770005\|journalBSOAS\|dateJanuary 2014\|volume77 \|issue3 \|pages445–465 \|doi10.1017/S0041977X14000524\|language=en}}</ref> It was also thought that Old Arabic coexisted alongside—and then gradually displaced—epigraphic Ancient North Arabian (ANA), which was theorized to have been the regional tongue for many centuries. ANA, despite its name, was considered a very distinct language, and mutually unintelligible, from "Arabic". Scholars named its variant dialects after the towns where the inscriptions were discovered (Dadanitic, Taymanitic, Hismaic, Safaitic).<ref name"Stefan Weninger 2011" /> However, most arguments for a single ANA language or language family were based on the shape of the definite article, a prefixed h-. It has been argued that the h- is an archaism and not a shared innovation, and thus unsuitable for language classification, rendering the hypothesis of an ANA language family untenable.<ref>{{Cite web\|lastAl-Jallad\|firstAhmad\|titleAl-Jallad (Draft) Remarks on the classification of the languages of North Arabia in the 2nd edition of The Semitic Languages (eds. J. Huehnergard and N. Pat-El)\|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/38721216\|languageen}}{{Dead link\|dateJuly 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes}}</ref> Safaitic and Hismaic, previously considered ANA, should be considered Old Arabic due to the fact that they participate in the innovations common to all forms of Arabic.<ref name"Al-Jallad" /> The earliest attestation of continuous Arabic text in an ancestor of the modern Arabic script are three lines of poetry by a man named Garm(')allāhe found in En Avdat, Israel, and dated to around 125 CE.<ref>{{Cite web\|lastAl-Jallad\|firstAhmad\|titleOne wāw to rule them all: the origins and fate of wawation in Arabic and its orthography\|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/33017695\|languageen}}</ref> This is followed by the Namara inscription, an epitaph of the {{Lang\|ar-latn\|Lakhmid\|italicno}} king Imru' al-Qays bar 'Amro, dating to 328 CE, found at Namaraa, Syria. From the 4th to the 6th centuries, the Nabataean script evolved into the Arabic script recognizable from the early Islamic era.<ref>{{Cite web\|lastNehmé\|firstLaila\|title&quot;A glimpse of the development of the Nabataean script into Arabic based on old and new epigraphic material&quot;, in M.C.A. Macdonald (ed), The development of Arabic as a written language (Supplement to the Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, 40). Oxford: 47–88.\|workSupplement to the Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies \|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/2106858\|dateJanuary 2010\|languageen}}</ref> There are inscriptions in an undotted, 17-letter Arabic script dating to the 6th century CE, found at four locations in Syria (Zabad, Jebel Usays, Harran, {{Lang\|ar-latn\|Umm el-Jimal\|italicno}}). The oldest surviving papyrus in Arabic dates to 643 CE, and it uses dots to produce the modern 28-letter Arabic alphabet. The language of that papyrus and of the Qur'an is referred to by linguists as "Quranic Arabic", as distinct from its codification soon thereafter into "Classical Arabic".<ref name"Stefan Weninger 2011" />Classical Arabic {{Main\|Classical Arabic}} In late pre-Islamic times, a transdialectal and transcommunal variety of Arabic emerged in the Hejaz, which continued living its parallel life after literary Arabic had been institutionally standardized in the 2nd and 3rd century of the Hijra, most strongly in Judeo-Christian texts, keeping alive ancient features eliminated from the "learned" tradition (Classical Arabic).<ref>{{Cite journal\|urlhttp://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics/middle-arabic-EALL_COM_vol3_0213?s.num0&s.rows20&s.f.s2_parents.f.book.encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics&s.qmiddle+arabic\|titleMiddle Arabic \|publisherBrill Reference\|journalEncyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics\|access-date2016-07-17\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160815171843/http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics/middle-arabic-EALL_COM_vol3_0213?s.num0&s.rows20&s.f.s2_parents.f.book.encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics&s.qmiddle+arabic\|archive-date15 August 2016\|url-statuslive\|date2011-05-30\|last1Lentin\|first1Jérôme}}</ref> This variety and both its classicizing and "lay" iterations have been termed Middle Arabic in the past, but they are thought to continue an Old Higazi register. It is clear that the orthography of the Quran was not developed for the standardized form of Classical Arabic; rather, it shows the attempt on the part of writers to record an archaic form of Old Higazi.{{Citation needed\|dateSeptember 2022}} In the late 6th century AD, a relatively uniform intertribal "poetic koine" distinct from the spoken vernaculars developed based on the Bedouin dialects of Najd, probably in connection with the court of al-Ḥīra. During the first Islamic century, the majority of Arabic poets and Arabic-writing persons spoke Arabic as their mother tongue. Their texts, although mainly preserved in far later manuscripts, contain traces of non-standardized Classical Arabic elements in morphology and syntax.{{Citation needed\|dateSeptember 2022}} Standardization Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali ({{circa\|603}}–689) is credited with standardizing Arabic grammar, or an-naḥw ({{Lang\|ar\|النَّحو}} "the way"<ref>{{Cite web\|lastTeam\|firstAlmaany\|titleترجمة و معنى نحو بالإنجليزي في قاموس المعاني. قاموس عربي انجليزي مصطلحات صفحة 1\|urlhttps://www.almaany.com/ar/dict/ar-en/%D9%86%D8%AD%D9%88/\|access-date2021-05-26\|websitewww.almaany.com\|languageen}}</ref>), and pioneering a system of diacritics to differentiate consonants ({{Lang\|ar\|نقط الإعجام}} ''nuqaṭu‿l-i'jām "pointing for non-Arabs") and indicate vocalization ({{Lang\|ar\|التشكيل}} at-tashkīl'').<ref>{{Cite book\|lastLeaman\|firstOliver\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idisDgI0-0Ip4C&pgPA131\|titleThe Qur'an: An Encyclopedia\|date2006\|publisherTaylor & Francis\|isbn978-0-415-32639-1\|languageen}}</ref> Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi (718–786) compiled the first Arabic dictionary, ''Kitāb al-'Ayn'' ({{Lang\|ar\|كتاب العين}} "The Book of the Letter ع"), and is credited with establishing the rules of Arabic prosody.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleAl-Khalīl ibn Aḥmad {{!}} Arab philologist\|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/al-Khalil-ibn-Ahmad\|access-date2021-05-27\|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica\|languageen}}</ref> Al-Jahiz (776–868) proposed to Al-Akhfash al-Akbar an overhaul of the grammar of Arabic, but it would not come to pass for two centuries.<ref name"Landmarks in linguistic thought III-1997">{{cite book\| lastVersteegh \| firstKees\|chapterIbn Maḍâ' and the refutation of the grammarians\|titleLandmarks in linguistic thought III\|year1997\|pages140–152\|locationAbingdon, UK\|publisherTaylor & Francis\|doi10.4324/9780203444153_chapter_11\|isbn978-0-203-27565-8 }}</ref> The standardization of Arabic reached completion around the end of the 8th century. The first comprehensive description of the ʿarabiyya "Arabic", Sībawayhi's al-Kitāb, is based first of all upon a corpus of poetic texts, in addition to Qur'an usage and Bedouin informants whom he considered to be reliable speakers of the ʿarabiyya.<ref name"referenceworks.brillonline.com" /> Spread Arabic spread with the spread of Islam. Following the early Muslim conquests, Arabic gained vocabulary from Middle Persian and Turkish.<ref name"The National-2016" /> In the early Abbasid period, many Classical Greek terms entered Arabic through translations carried out at Baghdad's House of Wisdom.<ref name="The National-2016" /> By the 8th century, knowledge of Classical Arabic had become an essential prerequisite for rising into the higher classes throughout the Islamic world, both for Muslims and non-Muslims. For example, Maimonides, the Andalusi Jewish philosopher, authored works in Judeo-Arabic—Arabic written in Hebrew script.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1Stern\|first1Josef\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYR2jDwAAQBAJ\|titleMaimonides' "Guide of the Perplexed" in Translation: A History from the Thirteenth Century to the Twentieth\|last2Robinson\|first2James T.\|last3Shemesh\|first3Yonatan\|date2019-08-15\|publisherUniversity of Chicago Press\|isbn978-0-226-45763-5\|languageen}}</ref> Development Ibn Jinni of Mosul, a pioneer in phonology, wrote prolifically in the 10th century on Arabic morphology and phonology in works such as Kitāb Al-Munṣif, Kitāb Al-Muḥtasab, and {{Interlanguage link\|Kitāb Al-Khaṣāʾiṣ\|ar\|الخصائص (كتاب)\|italicy}}.<ref>Bernards, Monique, "Ibn Jinnī", in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE, Edited by: Kate Fleet, Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas, Everett Rowson. Consulted online on 27 May 2021 First published online: 2021 First print edition: 9789004435964, 20210701, 2021–4</ref> Ibn Mada' of Cordoba (1116–1196) realized the overhaul of Arabic grammar first proposed by Al-Jahiz 200 years prior.<ref name="Landmarks in linguistic thought III-1997" /> The Maghrebi lexicographer Ibn Manzur compiled Lisān al-ʿArab ({{lang\|ar\|لسان العرب}}, "Tongue of Arabs"), a major reference dictionary of Arabic, in 1290.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastBaalbaki\|firstRamzi\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idcme7AwAAQBAJ&qlisan+al+arab+ibn+manzur+1290&pgPA385\|titleThe Arabic Lexicographical Tradition: From the 2nd/8th to the 12th/18th Century\|date2014-05-28\|publisherBRILL\|isbn978-90-04-27401-3\|languageen}}</ref> Neo-Arabic Charles Ferguson's koine theory claims that the modern Arabic dialects collectively descend from a single military koine that sprang up during the Islamic conquests; this view has been challenged in recent times. Ahmad al-Jallad proposes that there were at least two considerably distinct types of Arabic on the eve of the conquests: Northern and Central (Al-Jallad 2009). The modern dialects emerged from a new contact situation produced following the conquests. Instead of the emergence of a single or multiple koines, the dialects contain several sedimentary layers of borrowed and areal features, which they absorbed at different points in their linguistic histories.<ref name"referenceworks.brillonline.com">{{Cite journal\|urlhttp://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics/polygenesis-in-the-arabic-dialects-EALL_SIM_000030?s.num1&s.f.s2_parents.f.book.encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics&s.qneo-arabic\|titlePolygenesis in the Arabic Dialects\|publisher Brill Reference\|journalEncyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics\|access-date2016-07-17\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160815234348/http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics/polygenesis-in-the-arabic-dialects-EALL_SIM_000030?s.num1&s.f.s2_parents.f.book.encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics&s.qneo-arabic\|archive-date15 August 2016\|url-statuslive\|date2011-05-30\|last1Al-Jallad\|first1Ahmad}}</ref> According to Veersteegh and Bickerton, colloquial Arabic dialects arose from pidginized Arabic formed from contact between Arabs and conquered peoples. Pidginization and subsequent creolization among Arabs and arabized peoples could explain relative morphological and phonological simplicity of vernacular Arabic compared to Classical and MSA.{{sfn\|Versteegh\|2014\|p299}}<ref>{{Cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVM6M1351GWsC&pgPA198\|titleDiathesis in the Semitic Languages: A Comparative Morphological Study\|lastRetsö\|firstJan\|date1989\|publisherBrill\|isbn978-90-04-08818-4\|languageen\|access-date16 May 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181004104045/https://books.google.com/books?idVM6M1351GWsC&pgPA198\|archive-date4 October 2018\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In around the 11th and 12th centuries in al-Andalus, the zajal and muwashah poetry forms developed in the dialectical Arabic of Cordoba and the Maghreb.<ref>{{Cite book\|authorIbn Khaldūn\|author-linkIbn Khaldun\|titleThe Muqaddimah : An Introduction to History\|isbn978-0-691-16628-5\|oclc913459792\|publication-date27 April 2015\|date1967\|orig-datework in the original language written in 1377\|publisherPrinceton University Press\|translator-lastRosenthal\|translator-firstFranz\|translator-linkFranz Rosenthal\|editor-lastDawood\|editor-firstN. J.\|editor-linkN. J. Dawood}}</ref> Nahda The Nahda was a cultural and especially literary renaissance of the 19th century in which writers sought "to fuse Arabic and European forms of expression."<ref name"Gelvin-2020">{{Cite book\|lastGelvin\|firstJames L.\|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1122689432\|titleThe modern Middle East : a history\|date2020\|isbn978-0-19-007406-7\|editionFifth\|locationNew York\|pages112\|oclc1122689432}}</ref> According to James L. Gelvin, "Nahda writers attempted to simplify the Arabic language and script so that it might be accessible to a wider audience."<ref name="Gelvin-2020" /> In the wake of the industrial revolution and European hegemony and colonialism, pioneering Arabic presses, such as the Amiri Press established by Muhammad Ali (1819), dramatically changed the diffusion and consumption of Arabic literature and publications.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.library.yale.edu/neareast/exhibitions/earlyprinting1.html\|titleEarly Arabic Printing: Movable Type & Lithography\|lastOkerson\|firstAnn\|date2009\|websiteYale University Library\|access-date20 February 2020\|archive-date18 February 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200218151558/http://www.library.yale.edu/neareast/exhibitions/earlyprinting1.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Rifa'a al-Tahtawi proposed the establishment of Madrasat al-Alsun in 1836 and led a translation campaign that highlighted the need for a lexical injection in Arabic, to suit concepts of the industrial and post-industrial age (such as sayyārah {{lang\|ar\|سَيَّارَة}} 'automobile' or bākhirah {{lang\|ar\|باخِرة}} 'steamship').<ref>{{Cite book \|lastHamzaoui \|firstRached \|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/462880236 \|titleL'Academie de Langue Arabe du Caire \|publisherPublications de l'Université de Tunis \|year1975 \|oclc462880236 \|languagefr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|lastالشيال \|firstجمال الدين \|urlhttp://worldcat.org/oclc/1041872985 \|titleرفاعة الطهطاوي : زعيم النهضة الفكرية في عصر محمد علي \|oclc=1041872985}}</ref> In response, a number of Arabic academies modeled after the {{Lang\|fr\|Académie française}} were established with the aim of developing standardized additions to the Arabic lexicon to suit these transformations,<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastSawaie\|firstMohammed\|date2011-05-30\|titleLanguage Academies\|urlhttps://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics/language-academies-EALL_COM_vol2_0082#d10645177e183\|journalEncyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics\|languageen\|access-date20 February 2020\|archive-date27 February 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210227053137/https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics/language-academies-EALL_COM_vol2_0082#d10645177e183\|url-statuslive}}</ref> first in Damascus (1919), then in Cairo (1932), Baghdad (1948), Rabat (1960), Amman (1977), {{Interlanguage link\|Academy of the Arabic Language in Khartum\|ltKhartum\|ar\|مجمع اللغة العربية بالخرطوم}} (1993), and Tunis (1993).<ref name"UNESCO-2019">{{Cite book\|lastUNESCO\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPhnLDwAAQBAJ&pgPA19\|titleبناء مجتمعات المعرفة في المنطقة العربية\|date2019-12-31\|publisherUNESCO Publishing\|isbn978-92-3-600090-9\|languagear\|access-date31 March 2021\|archive-date5 April 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210405055054/https://books.google.com/books?idPhnLDwAAQBAJ&pgPA19\|url-statuslive}}</ref> They review language development, monitor new words and approve the inclusion of new words into their published standard dictionaries. They also publish old and historical Arabic manuscripts.{{Citation needed\|date=September 2022}} In 1997, a bureau of Arabization standardization was added to the Educational, Cultural, and Scientific Organization of the Arab League.<ref name"UNESCO-2019" /> These academies and organizations have worked toward the Arabization of the sciences, creating terms in Arabic to describe new concepts, toward the standardization of these new terms throughout the Arabic-speaking world, and toward the development of Arabic as a world language.<ref name"UNESCO-2019" /> This gave rise to what Western scholars call Modern Standard Arabic. From the 1950s, Arabization became a postcolonial nationalist policy in countries such as Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco,<ref>{{cite book\|lastTilmatine\|firstMohand\|chapterArabization and linguistic domination: Berber and Arabic in the North of Africa\|titleLanguage Empires in Comparative Perspective\|year2015\|pages1–16\|placeBerlin, München, Boston\|publisherDE GRUYTER\|doi10.1515/9783110408362.1\|isbn978-3-11-040836-2\|s2cid132791029 }}</ref> and Sudan.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastSeri-Hersch\|firstIris\|date2020-12-02\|titleArabization and Islamization in the Making of the Sudanese "Postcolonial" State (1946-1964)\|journalCahiers d'études africaines\|issue240\|pages779–804\|doi10.4000/etudesafricaines.32202\|s2cid229407091\|issn0008-0055\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Classical, Modern Standard and spoken Arabic {{Further\|Classical Arabic\|Modern Standard Arabic\|Varieties of Arabic}}{{See also\|List of Arabic dictionaries}}Arabic usually refers to Standard Arabic, which Western linguists divide into Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic.<ref name"Kamusella">{{Cite journal\|lastKamusella\|firstTomasz Dominik\|year2017\|titleThe Arabic Language: A Latin of Modernity?\|journalJournal of Nationalism, Memory and Language Politics \|publisherDe Gruyter\|volume11 \|number2 \|doi10.1515/jnmlp-2017-0006 \|doi-accessfree \|issn2570-5857\|hdl10023/12443 \|page117\|hdl-accessfree}}</ref> It could also refer to any of a variety of regional vernacular Arabic dialects, which are not necessarily mutually intelligible. inscription]]Classical Arabic is the language found in the Quran, used from the period of Pre-Islamic Arabia to that of the Abbasid Caliphate. Classical Arabic is prescriptive, according to the syntactic and grammatical norms laid down by classical grammarians (such as Sibawayh) and the vocabulary defined in classical dictionaries (such as the Lisān al-ʻArab).{{Citation needed\|dateSeptember 2022}} Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) largely follows the grammatical standards of Classical Arabic and uses much of the same vocabulary. However, it has discarded some grammatical constructions and vocabulary that no longer have any counterpart in the spoken varieties and has adopted certain new constructions and vocabulary from the spoken varieties. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the industrial and post-industrial era, especially in modern times.<ref name="auto">Abdulkafi Albirini. 2016. Modern Arabic Sociolinguistics (pp. 34–35).</ref> Due to its grounding in Classical Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic is removed over a millennium from everyday speech, which is construed as a multitude of dialects of this language. These dialects and Modern Standard Arabic are described by some scholars as not mutually comprehensible. The former are usually acquired in families, while the latter is taught in formal education settings. However, there have been studies reporting some degree of comprehension of stories told in the standard variety among preschool-aged children.<ref name="auto"/> The relation between Modern Standard Arabic and these dialects is sometimes compared to that of Classical Latin and Vulgar Latin vernaculars (which became Romance languages) in medieval and early modern Europe.<ref name="Kamusella"/> MSA is the variety used in most current, printed Arabic publications, spoken by some of the Arabic media across North Africa and the Middle East, and understood by most educated Arabic speakers. "Literary Arabic" and "Standard Arabic" ({{lang\|ar\|فُصْحَى}} {{transliteration\|ar\|fuṣḥá}}) are less strictly defined terms that may refer to Modern Standard Arabic or Classical Arabic.{{Citation needed\|date=September 2022}} Some of the differences between Classical Arabic (CA) and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) are as follows:{{Citation needed\|date=September 2022}} Certain grammatical constructions of CA that have no counterpart in any modern vernacular dialect (e.g., the energetic mood) are almost never used in Modern Standard Arabic.{{Citation needed\|date=September 2022}} * Case distinctions are very rare in Arabic vernaculars. As a result, MSA is generally composed without case distinctions in mind, and the proper cases are added after the fact, when necessary. Because most case endings are noted using final short vowels, which are normally left unwritten in the Arabic script, it is unnecessary to determine the proper case of most words. The practical result of this is that MSA, like English and Standard Chinese, is written in a strongly determined word order and alternative orders that were used in CA for emphasis are rare. In addition, because of the lack of case marking in the spoken varieties, most speakers cannot consistently use the correct endings in extemporaneous speech. As a result, spoken MSA tends to drop or regularize the endings except when reading from a prepared text.{{Citation needed\|date=September 2022}} The numeral system in CA is complex and heavily tied in with the case system. This system is never used in MSA, even in the most formal of circumstances; instead, a greatly simplified system is used, approximating the system of the conservative spoken varieties.{{Citation needed\|date=September 2022}} (1–100)]] MSA uses much Classical vocabulary (e.g., {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|dhahaba}} 'to go') that is not present in the spoken varieties, but deletes Classical words that sound obsolete in MSA. In addition, MSA has borrowed or coined many terms for concepts that did not exist in Quranic times, and MSA continues to evolve.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt\|Kaye\|1991\|p?}}</ref> Some words have been borrowed from other languages—notice that transliteration mainly indicates spelling and not real pronunciation (e.g., {{lang\|ar\|فِلْم}} {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|film}} 'film' or {{lang\|ar\|ديمقراطية}} {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|dīmuqrāṭiyyah}} 'democracy').{{Citation needed\|dateSeptember 2022}} The current preference is to avoid direct borrowings, preferring to either use loan translations (e.g., {{lang\|ar\|فرع}} {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|farʻ}} 'branch', also used for the branch of a company or organization; {{lang\|ar\|جناح}} {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|janāḥ}} 'wing', is also used for the wing of an airplane, building, air force, etc.), or to coin new words using forms within existing roots ({{lang\|ar\|استماتة}} {{transliteration\|ar\|istimātah}} 'apoptosis', using the root {{lang\|ar\|موت}} m/w/t 'death' put into the Xth form, or {{lang\|ar\|جامعة}} {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|jāmiʻah}} 'university', based on {{lang\|ar\|جمع}} {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|jamaʻa}} 'to gather, unite'; {{lang\|ar\|جمهورية}} {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|jumhūriyyah}} 'republic', based on {{lang\|ar\|جمهور}} {{transliteration\|ar\|jumhūr}} 'multitude'). An earlier tendency was to redefine an older word although this has fallen into disuse (e.g., {{lang\|ar\|هاتف}} {{transliteration\|ar\|hātif}} 'telephone' < 'invisible caller (in Sufism)'; {{lang\|ar\|جريدة}} {{transliteration\|ar\|jarīdah}} 'newspaper' < 'palm-leaf stalk').{{Citation needed\|date=September 2022}} Colloquial or dialectal Arabic refers to the many national or regional varieties which constitute the everyday spoken language. Colloquial Arabic has many regional variants; geographically distant varieties usually differ enough to be mutually unintelligible, and some linguists consider them distinct languages.<ref>"Arabic Language." Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009.</ref> However, research indicates a high degree of mutual intelligibility between closely related Arabic variants for native speakers listening to words, sentences, and texts; and between more distantly related dialects in interactional situations.<ref>Trentman, E. and Shiri, S., 2020. The Mutual Intelligibility of Arabic Dialects. Critical Multilingualism Studies, 8(1), pp.104–134.</ref>, a sample of Nabataean script, considered a direct precursor of Arabic script<ref name"The National-2016">{{Cite web\|date2016-12-15\|titleExamining the origins of Arabic ahead of Arabic Language Day\|urlhttps://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/examining-the-origins-of-arabic-ahead-of-arabic-language-day-1.199916\|access-date2021-04-20\|websiteThe National\|languageen\|archive-date20 April 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210420022852/https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/examining-the-origins-of-arabic-ahead-of-arabic-language-day-1.199916\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|titlelinteau de porte\|urlhttps://collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010123278\|access-date2021-04-20\|websiteMusée du Louvre\|date328\|languageen\|archive-date20 April 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210420022907/https://collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010123278\|url-statuslive}}</ref>]]The varieties are typically unwritten. They are often used in informal spoken media, such as soap operas and talk shows,<ref name"Jenkins">{{Citation \|lastJenkins \|firstOrville Boyd \|urlhttp://strategyleader.org/articles/arabicpercent.html \|websiteStrategy Leader Resource Kit \|titlePopulation Analysis of the Arabic Languages \|date18 March 2000 \|access-date12 March 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090318105008/http://strategyleader.org/articles/arabicpercent.html \|archive-date18 March 2009 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> as well as occasionally in certain forms of written media such as poetry and printed advertising. Hassaniya Arabic, Maltese, and Cypriot Arabic are only varieties of modern Arabic to have acquired official recognition.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMorocco 2011 Constitution \|urlhttps://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Morocco_2011?langen \|access-date2022-09-25 \|websiteConstitute \|languageen}}</ref> Hassaniya is official in Mali<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://sgg-mali.ml/JO/2023/mali-jo-2023-13-sp-2.pdf \|titleJournal officiel de la republique du mali secretariat general du gouvernement – decret n°2023-0401/pt-rm du 22 juillet 2023 portant promulgation de la constitution \|author<!--Not stated--> \|date22 July 2023 \|websitesgg-mali.ml \|access-date26 July 2023 \|quoteArticle 31 : Les langues nationales sont les langues officielles du Mali.}}</ref> and recognized as a minority language in Morocco,<ref>{{Cite web\|titleMorocco 2011 Constitution, Article 5\|urlhttps://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Morocco_2011?langen\|access-date2021-07-18\|websitewww.constituteproject.org\|languageen}}</ref> while the Senegalese government adopted the Latin script to write it.<ref nameHassaniyaAlphabet/> Maltese is official in (predominantly Catholic) Malta and written with the Latin script. Linguists agree that it is a variety of spoken Arabic, descended from Siculo-Arabic, though it has experienced extensive changes as a result of sustained and intensive contact with Italo-Romance varieties, and more recently also with English. Due to "a mix of social, cultural, historical, political, and indeed linguistic factors", many Maltese people today consider their language Semitic but not a type of Arabic.<ref name"Čéplö">{{Cite journal \|lastČéplö \|firstSlavomír \|date2020-01-01 \|titleChapter 13 Maltese \|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/43201849 \|journalArabic and Contact-induced Change}}</ref> Cypriot Arabic is recognized as a minority language in Cyprus.<ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.1080/14664208.2011.629113 \|last1Hadjioannou \|first1Xenia \|last2Tsiplakou \|first2Stavroula \|last3Kappler \|first3Matthias \|year2011 \|titleLanguage policy and language planning in Cyprus \|journalCurrent Issues in Language Planning \|volume12 \|issue4 \|page508 \|publisherRoutledge \|hdl10278/29371 \|s2cid143966308 \|hdl-accessfree }}</ref> Status and usage Diglossia The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of diglossia, which is the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. Tawleed is the process of giving a new shade of meaning to an old classical word. For example, al-hatif lexicographically means the one whose sound is heard but whose person remains unseen. Now the term al-hatif is used for a telephone. Therefore, the process of tawleed can express the needs of modern civilization in a manner that would appear to be originally Arabic.<ref name"GUP">{{Cite book\|titleArabic Language and Linguistics\|date2012\|publisherGeorgetown University Press\|isbn9781589018853\|jstor j.ctt2tt3zh }}</ref> In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their school-taught Standard Arabic as well as their native dialects, which depending on the region may be mutually unintelligible.<ref>Janet C.E. Watson, [https://books.google.com/books?id4RDIoDAF1e8C&pgPR19 The Phonology and Morphology of Arabic] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160414064146/https://books.google.com/books?id4RDIoDAF1e8C&pgPR19 \|date14 April 2016 }}, Introduction, p. xix. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. {{ISBN\|978-0-19-160775-2}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?idoj5jAMspUfAC&pgPA10462 Proceedings and Debates of the] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160414102344/https://books.google.com/books?idoj5jAMspUfAC&pgPA10462 \|date14 April 2016 }} 107th United States Congress Congressional Record, p. 10,462. Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 2002.</ref><ref>Shalom Staub, [https://books.google.com/books?idHPsCHy3nsA8C&pgPA124 Yemenis in New York City: The Folklore of Ethnicity] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160414035902/https://books.google.com/books?idHPsCHy3nsA8C&pgPA124 \|date14 April 2016 }}, p. 124. Philadelphia: Balch Institute for Ethnic Studies, 1989. {{ISBN\|978-0-944190-05-0}}</ref><ref>Daniel Newman, [https://books.google.com/books?idDEdXz4OVvqMC&pgPA1 Arabic-English Thematic Lexicon] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160413231019/https://books.google.com/books?idDEdXz4OVvqMC&pgPA1 \|date13 April 2016 }}, p. 1. London: Routledge, 2007. {{ISBN\|978-1-134-10392-8}}</ref><ref>Rebecca L. Torstrick and Elizabeth Faier, [https://books.google.com/books?idJwp6D51NB34C&pgPA41 Culture and Customs of the Arab Gulf States] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160414064244/https://books.google.com/books?idJwp6D51NB34C&pgPA41 \|date14 April 2016 }}, p. 41. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2009. {{ISBN\|978-0-313-33659-1}}</ref> Some of these dialects can be considered to constitute separate languages which may have "sub-dialects" of their own.<ref>Walter J. Ong, [https://books.google.com/books?idJXC217u47tEC&pgPA32 Interfaces of the Word: Studies in the Evolution of Consciousness and Culture] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160414064010/https://books.google.com/books?idJXC217u47tEC&pgPA32 \|date14 April 2016 }}, p. 32. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012. {{ISBN\|978-0-8014-6630-4}}</ref> When educated Arabs of different dialects engage in conversation (for example, a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese), many speakers code-switch back and forth between the dialectal and standard varieties of the language, sometimes even within the same sentence. , used in some cases for the Arabic language]] The issue of whether Arabic is one language or many languages is politically charged, in the same way it is for the varieties of Chinese, Hindi and Urdu, Serbian and Croatian, Scots and English, etc. In contrast to speakers of Hindi and Urdu who claim they cannot understand each other even when they can, speakers of the varieties of Arabic will claim they can all understand each other even when they cannot.<ref>Clive Holes, [https://books.google.com/books?id8E0Rr1xY4TQC&pgPA2 Modern Arabic: Structures, Functions, and Varieties] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221102102905/https://books.google.com/books?id8E0Rr1xY4TQC&pgPA2 \|date2 November 2022 }}, p. 3. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2004. {{ISBN\|978-1-58901-022-2}}</ref> While there is a minimum level of comprehension between all Arabic dialects, this level can increase or decrease based on geographic proximity: for example, Levantine and Gulf speakers understand each other much better than they do speakers from the Maghreb. The issue of diglossia between spoken and written language is a complicating factor: A single written form, differing sharply from any of the spoken varieties learned natively, unites several sometimes divergent spoken forms. For political reasons, Arabs mostly assert that they all speak a single language, despite mutual incomprehensibility among differing spoken versions.<ref>Nizar Y. Habash,[https://books.google.com/books?idkRIHCnC74BoC&pgPA1 Introduction to Arabic Natural Language Processing] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221102102906/https://books.google.com/books?idkRIHCnC74BoC&pgPA1 \|date2 November 2022 }}, pp. 1–2. San Rafael, CA: Morgan & Claypool, 2010. {{ISBN\|978-1-59829-795-9}}</ref> From a linguistic standpoint, it is often said that the various spoken varieties of Arabic differ among each other collectively about as much as the Romance languages.<ref>Bernard Bate, [https://books.google.com/books?id8uP7LHS3cDMC&pgPT38 Tamil Oratory and the Dravidian Aesthetic: Democratic Practice in South India] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221102102907/https://books.google.com/books?id8uP7LHS3cDMC&pgPT38 \|date2 November 2022 }}, pp. 14–15. New York: Columbia University Press, 2013. {{ISBN\|978-0-231-51940-3}}</ref> This is an apt comparison in a number of ways. The period of divergence from a single spoken form is similar—perhaps 1500 years for Arabic, 2000 years for the Romance languages. Also, while it is comprehensible to people from the Maghreb, a linguistically innovative variety such as Moroccan Arabic is essentially incomprehensible to Arabs from the Mashriq, much as French is incomprehensible to Spanish or Italian speakers but relatively easily learned by them. This suggests that the spoken varieties may linguistically be considered separate languages.{{citation needed\|dateSeptember 2022}} 1916–1925). The flag contains the four Pan-Arab colors: black, white, green and red. \|alt]] Status in the Arab world vis-à-vis other languages With the sole example of Medieval linguist Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati – who, while a scholar of the Arabic language, was not ethnically Arab – Medieval scholars of the Arabic language made no efforts at studying comparative linguistics, considering all other languages inferior.{{sfn\|Versteegh\|2014\|p=107}} In modern times, the educated upper classes in the Arab world have taken a nearly opposite view. Yasir Suleiman wrote in 2011 that "studying and knowing English or French in most of the Middle East and North Africa have become a badge of sophistication and modernity and ... feigning, or asserting, weakness or lack of facility in Arabic is sometimes paraded as a sign of status, class, and perversely, even education through a mélange of code-switching practises."<ref>Suleiman, p. [https://books.google.com/books?idFQAiPgBRUkoC&pgPA93 93] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160414032933/https://books.google.com/books?idFQAiPgBRUkoC&pgPA93 \|date14 April 2016 }}</ref> As a foreign language Arabic has been taught worldwide in many elementary and secondary schools, especially Muslim schools. Universities around the world have classes that teach Arabic as part of their foreign languages, Middle Eastern studies, and religious studies courses. Arabic language schools exist to assist students to learn Arabic outside the academic world. There are many Arabic language schools in the Arab world and other Muslim countries. Because the Quran is written in Arabic and all Islamic terms are in Arabic, millions<ref>{{Cite web\|last1M. Ed.\|first1Loyola University-Maryland\|last2B. S.\|first2Child Development\|titleThe Importance of the Arabic Language in Islam\|urlhttps://www.learnreligions.com/arabic-language-in-islam-2004035\|access-date2021-01-07\|websiteLearn Religions\|languageen\|archive-date1 February 2009\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090201010256/http://islam.about.com/library/weekly/aa032300a.htm\|url-statuslive}}</ref> of Muslims (both Arab and non-Arab) study the language. Software and books with tapes are an important part of Arabic learning, as many of Arabic learners may live in places where there are no academic or Arabic language school classes available. Radio series of Arabic language classes are also provided from some radio stations.<ref>{{cite book\|last1Quesada\|first1Thomas C.\|titleArabic Keyboard\|publisherPeter Jones\|locationMadisonville\|page49\|editionAtlanta\|urlhttps://arabic-keyboard.online\|access-date11 October 2012\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070927072656/http://www.arc-news.com/read.php?langen&id_articol1059\|archive-date27 September 2007\|url-statuslive}}</ref> A number of websites on the Internet provide online classes for all levels as a means of distance education; most teach Modern Standard Arabic, but some teach regional varieties from numerous countries.<ref>{{cite web\|titleReviews of Language Courses\|urlhttp://Lang1234.com\|publisherLang1234\|access-date12 September 2012}}</ref> Vocabulary Lexicography {{See also\|List of Arabic dictionaries}} Pre-modern Arabic lexicography The tradition of Arabic lexicography extended for about a millennium before the modern period.<ref name"Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE-2020">{{Cite journal \|titleLexicography, Arabic \|year2020 \|publisherBrill \|urlhttps://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/-COM_35848 \|languageen \|doi10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_com_35848\|journalEncyclopaedia of Islam, THREE}}</ref> Early lexicographers ({{Lang\|ar\|لُغَوِيُّون}} lughawiyyūn) sought to explain words in the Quran that were unfamiliar or had a particular contextual meaning, and to identify words of non-Arabic origin that appear in the Quran.<ref name"Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE-2020" /> They gathered shawāhid ({{Lang\|ar\|شَوَاهِد}} 'instances of attested usage') from poetry and the speech of the Arabs—particularly the Bedouin {{Ill\|ʾaʿrāb (Bedouins)\|ltʾaʿrāb\|ar\|أعراب}} ({{Lang\|ar\|أَعْراب}}) who were perceived to speak the "purest," most eloquent form of Arabic—initiating a process of jamʿu‿l-luɣah ({{Lang\|ar\|جمع اللغة}} 'compiling the language') which took place over the 8th and early 9th centuries.<ref name"Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE-2020" />''Kitāb al-'Ayn ({{Circa\|8th century}}), attributed to Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi, is considered the first lexicon to include all Arabic roots; it sought to exhaust all possible root permutations—later called taqālīb ({{Lang\|ar\|تقاليب}})—calling those that are actually used mustaʿmal ({{Lang\|ar\|مستعمَل}}) and those that are not used muhmal ({{Lang\|ar\|مُهمَل}}).<ref name"Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE-2020" /> Lisān al-ʿArab (1290) by Ibn Manzur gives 9,273 roots, while Tāj al-ʿArūs (1774) by Murtada az-Zabidi gives 11,978 roots.<ref name="Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE-2020" /> This lexicographic tradition was traditionalist and corrective in nature—holding that linguistic correctness and eloquence derive from Qurʾānic usage, {{Ill\|Jahili poetry\|ltpre-Islamic poetry\|fr\|Littérature préislamique\|ar\|أدب جاهلي}}, and Bedouin speech—positioning itself against laḥnu‿l-ʿāmmah'' ({{Lang\|ar\|لَحْن العامة}}), the solecism it viewed as defective.<ref name"Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE-2020" /> Western lexicography of Arabic In the second half of the 19th century, the British Arabist Edward William Lane, working with the Egyptian scholar {{Ill\|Ibrāhīm Abd al-Ghaffār ad-Dasūqī\|ar\|إبراهيم عبد الغفار الدسوقي}},<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastRichards \|firstD. S. \|date1999 \|titleEdward Lane's Surviving Arabic Correspondence \|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/25183625 \|journalJournal of the Royal Asiatic Society \|volume9 \|issue1 \|pages1–25 \|doi10.1017/S135618630001590X \|jstor25183625 \|s2cid161420127 \|issn1356-1863}}</ref> compiled the Arabic–English Lexicon by translating material from earlier Arabic lexica into English.<ref>{{Cite journal \|year2020 \|titleLane, Edward William \|urlhttps://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/-COM_35793 \|journalEncyclopaedia of Islam \|languageen \|publisherBrill \|doi10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_com_35793}}</ref> The German Arabist Hans Wehr, with contributions from Hedwig Klein,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHedwig Klein and "Mein Kampf": The unknown Arabist - Qantara.de \|urlhttps://en.qantara.de/content/hedwig-klein-and-mein-kampf-the-unknown-arabist \|access-date2023-06-15 \|websiteQantara.de – Dialogue with the Islamic World \|date7 April 2018 \|languageen}}</ref> compiled the Arabisches Wörterbuch für die Schriftsprache der Gegenwart (1952), later translated into English as A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic (1961), based on established usage, especially in literature.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastAbu-Haidar \|firstJ. A. \|date1983 \|titleReview of A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic (Arabic-English) \|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/615409 \|journalBulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London \|volume46 \|issue2 \|pages351–353 \|doi10.1017/S0041977X00079040 \|jstor615409 \|s2cid162954225 \|issn0041-977X}}</ref> Modern Arabic lexicography The Academy of the Arabic Language in Cairo sought to publish a historical dictionary of Arabic in the vein of the Oxford English Dictionary, tracing the changes of meanings and uses of Arabic words over time.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2020-11-15 \|titleالمعجم التاريخي للعربية.. ضوء في عتمة الهوان \|urlhttps://www.hespress.com/المعجم-التاريخي-للعربية-ضوء-في-عتمة-ال-738317.html \|access-date2021-03-31 \|websiteHespress – هسبريس جريدة إلكترونية مغربية \|languagear}}</ref> A first volume of Al-Muʿjam al-Kabīr was published in 1956 under the leadership of Taha Hussein.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastvon Grunebaum \|firstG. E. \|date1959 \|titleReview of Al-Muʿjam al-kabīr, Murad Kāmil, Ibrāhīm al-Ibyārī \|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/543279 \|journalJournal of Near Eastern Studies \|volume18 \|issue2 \|pages157–159 \|doi10.1086/371525 \|jstor543279 \|issn0022-2968}}</ref> The project is not yet complete; its 15th volume, covering the letter ṣād, was published in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastالجبر \|firstخالد \|titleمعجم الدوحة التاريخي للغة العربية.. الواقع الحقيقي للغة والحضارة \|urlhttps://www.aljazeera.net/opinions/2022/8/30/%d8%a7%d9%84%d9%85%d8%b9%d8%a7%d8%ac%d9%85-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%aa%d8%a7%d8%b1%d9%8a%d8%ae%d9%8a%d8%a9-%d8%a7%d9%84%d9%88%d8%a7%d9%82%d8%b9-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%ad%d9%82%d9%8a%d9%82%d9%8a \|access-date2023-06-17 \|websitewww.aljazeera.net \|languagear}}</ref> Loanwords Kufic script, Blue Qur'an, 9th–10th century.)]] The most important sources of borrowings into (pre-Islamic) Arabic are from the related (Semitic) languages Aramaic,<ref>See the seminal study by Siegmund Fraenkel, Die aramäischen Fremdwörter im Arabischen, Leiden 1886 (repr. 1962)</ref> which used to be the principal, international language of communication throughout the ancient Near and Middle East, and Ethiopic. Many cultural, religious and political terms have entered Arabic from Iranian languages, notably Middle Persian, Parthian, and (Classical) Persian,<ref>See for instance Wilhelm Eilers, "Iranisches Lehngut im Arabischen", Actas IV. Congresso des Estudos Árabes et Islâmicos, Coimbra, Lisboa, Leiden 1971, with earlier references.</ref> and Hellenistic Greek (kīmiyāʼ has as origin the Greek khymia, meaning in that language the melting of metals; see Roger Dachez, ''Histoire de la Médecine de l'Antiquité au XXe siècle, Tallandier, 2008, p.&nbsp;251), alembic (distiller) from ambix (cup), almanac (climate) from almenichiakon (calendar). For the origin of the last three borrowed words, see Alfred-Louis de Prémare, Foundations of Islam'', Seuil, L'Univers Historique, 2002. Some Arabic borrowings from Semitic or Persian languages are, as presented in De Prémare's above-cited book: {{citation needed\|date=September 2022}} madīnah/medina (مدينة, city or city square), a word of Aramaic origin ܡܕ݂ܝܼܢ݇ܬܵܐ məḏī(n)ttā (in which it means "state/city").{{citation needed\|date=September 2022}} jazīrah (جزيرة), as in the well-known form الجزيرة "Al-Jazeera", means "island" and has its origin in the Syriac ܓܵܙܲܪܬܵܐ gāzartā.{{citation needed\|date=September 2022}} lāzaward (لازورد) is taken from Persian لاژورد lājvard, the name of a blue stone, lapis lazuli. This word was borrowed in several European languages to mean (light) blue – azure in English, azur in French and azul in Portuguese and Spanish.{{citation needed\|date=September 2022}} (9th–11th century), with the Basmala as an example, from kufic ''{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|Qur'ān}}'' manuscripts: (1) Early 9th century, script with no dots or diacritic marks;(2) and (3) 9th–10th century under the Abbasid dynasty, Abu al-Aswad's system established red dots with each arrangement or position indicating a different short vowel; later, a second black-dot system was used to differentiate between letters like ''{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|fā'}} and {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|qāf}}''; (4) 11th century, in al-Farāhidi's system (system used today) dots were changed into shapes resembling the letters to transcribe the corresponding long vowels.]]A comprehensive overview of the influence of other languages on Arabic is found in Lucas & Manfredi (2020).<ref name"Lucas2020"/> Influence on other languages The influence of Arabic has been most important in Islamic countries, because it is the language of the Islamic sacred book, the Quran. Arabic is also an important source of vocabulary for languages such as Amharic, Azerbaijani, Baluchi, Bengali, Berber, Bosnian, Chaldean, Chechen, Chittagonian, Croatian, Dagestani, Dhivehi, English, German, Gujarati, Hausa, Hindi, Kazakh, Kurdish, Kutchi, Kyrgyz, Malay (Malaysian and Indonesian), Pashto, Persian, Punjabi, Rohingya, Romance languages (French, Catalan, Italian, Portuguese, Sicilian, Spanish, etc.) Saraiki, Sindhi, Somali, Sylheti, Swahili, Tagalog, Tigrinya, Turkish, Turkmen, Urdu, Uyghur, Uzbek, Visayan and Wolof, as well as other languages in countries where these languages are spoken.<ref name"Lucas2020">{{Cite book \| veditors = Lucas C, Manfredi S \| title = Arabic and contact-induced change \| place = Berlin \| publisher = Language Science Press \| date = 2020 \| format = pdf \| url = http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/235 \| doi = 10.5281/zenodo.3744565 \| doi-access = free \| isbn = 978-3-96110-252-5 \| access-date = 7 January 2021 \| archive-date = 16 January 2021 \| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210116141357/https://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/235 \| url-status = live \| last1 = Lucas \| first1 = Christopher \| last2 = Manfredi \| first2 = Stefano }}</ref> Modern Hebrew has been also influenced by Arabic especially during the process of revival, as MSA was used as a source for modern Hebrew vocabulary and roots.<ref>{{Cite web\|lastPhD\|firstD. Gershon Lewental\|titleRasmī or aslī?: Arabic's impact on modern Israeli Hebrew by D Gershon Lewental, PhD (DGLnotes)\|urlhttp://dglnotes.com/notes/arabic-hebrew.htm\|access-date2021-11-27\|websiteDGLnotes}}</ref> English has many Arabic loanwords, some directly, but most via other Mediterranean languages. Examples of such words include admiral, adobe, alchemy, alcohol, algebra, algorithm, alkaline, almanac, amber, arsenal, assassin, candy, carat, cipher, coffee, cotton, ghoul, hazard, jar, kismet, lemon, loofah, magazine, mattress, sherbet, sofa, sumac, tariff, and zenith.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://blogs.transparent.com/arabic/top-50-english-words-of-arabic-origin/\|titleTop 50 English Words – of Arabic Origin\|publisherArabic Language Blog\|websiteblogs.transparent.com\|date21 February 2012\|access-date2018-12-14\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181215065830/https://blogs.transparent.com/arabic/top-50-english-words-of-arabic-origin/\|archive-date15 December 2018\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Other languages such as Maltese<ref>{{cite encyclopedia \|authorEB staff \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9050379/Maltese-language \|titleMaltese language – Britannica Online Encyclopedia \|encyclopediaBritannica.com \|access-date4 May 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080605045845/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9050379/Maltese-language \|archive-date5 June 2008 \|url-status=live}}</ref> and Kinubi derive ultimately from Arabic, rather than merely borrowing vocabulary or grammatical rules. Terms borrowed range from religious terminology (like Berber taẓallit, "prayer", from salat ({{lang\|ar\|صلاة}} {{transliteration\|ar\|ṣalāh}})), academic terms (like Uyghur mentiq, "logic"), and economic items (like English coffee) to placeholders (like Spanish {{lang\|es\|fulano}}, "so-and-so"), everyday terms (like Hindustani lekin, "but", or Spanish {{lang\|es\|taza}} and French {{lang\|fr\|tasse}}, meaning "cup"), and expressions (like Catalan {{lang\|ca\|a betzef}}, "galore, in quantity"). Most Berber varieties (such as Kabyle), along with Swahili, borrow some numbers from Arabic. Most Islamic religious terms are direct borrowings from Arabic, such as {{lang\|ar\|صلاة}} (ṣalāh), "prayer", and {{lang\|ar\|إمام}} (imām), "prayer leader".{{citation needed\|date=September 2022}} In languages not directly in contact with the Arab world, Arabic loanwords are often transferred indirectly via other languages rather than being transferred directly from Arabic. For example, most Arabic loanwords in Hindustani and Turkish entered through Persian. Older Arabic loanwords in Hausa were borrowed from Kanuri. Most Arabic loanwords in Yoruba entered through Hausa.{{Citation needed\|date=September 2021}} Arabic words made their way into several West African languages as Islam spread across the Sahara. Variants of Arabic words such as {{lang\|ar\|كتاب}} kitāb ("book") have spread to the languages of African groups who had no direct contact with Arab traders.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt\|Gregersen\|1977\|p=237}}</ref> Since, throughout the Islamic world, Arabic occupied a position similar to that of Latin in Europe, many of the Arabic concepts in the fields of science, philosophy, commerce, etc. were coined from Arabic roots by non-native Arabic speakers, notably by Aramaic and Persian translators, and then found their way into other languages. This process of using Arabic roots, especially in Kurdish and Persian, to translate foreign concepts continued through to the 18th and 19th centuries, when swaths of Arab-inhabited lands were under Ottoman rule.{{Citation needed\|dateSeptember 2022}} Spoken varieties {{Main\|Varieties of Arabic}} '' and other sources: {{legend-col\|thumb size=wide \|{{legend\|#ff4900\|1: Hassaniyya}} \|{{legend\|#00c373\|2: {{ISO 639 name\|ary}}}} \|{{legend\|#009dff\|3: Algerian Saharan Arabic}} \|{{legend\|#ff00d6\|4: {{ISO 639 name\|arq}}}} \|{{legend\|#ddb92f\|5: {{ISO 639 name\|aeb}}}} \|{{legend\|#00ffbd\|6: Libyan Arabic – Western Egyptian Bedawi Arabic}} \|{{legend\|#e7c075\|7: {{ISO 639 name\|arz}}}} \|{{legend\|#51cc29\|8: Eastern Egyptian Bedawi Arabic}} \|{{legend\|#298dcc\|9: Saidi Arabic}} \|{{legend\|#cc29b2\|10: {{ISO 639 name\|shu}}}} \|{{legend\|#ccb929\|11: Sudanese Arabic}} \|{{legend\|#29cca2\|12: Sudanese Creole Arabic}} \|{{legend\|#ff9266\|13: {{ISO 639 name\|ars}}}} \|{{legend\|#66c4ff\|14: Levantine Arabic}} \|{{legend\|#ea93f0\|15: North Mesopotamian Arabic}} \|{{legend\|#998e3d\|16: Mesopotamian Arabic}} \|{{legend\|#66ffd8\|17: Gulf Arabic}} \|{{legend\|#cc8366\|18: Baharna Arabic}} \|{{legend\|#bae344\|19: Hijazi Arabic}} \|{{legend\|#66a5cc\|20: Shihhi Arabic}} \|{{legend\|#cc66bc\|21: Omani Arabic}} \|{{legend\|#ccc066\|22: Dhofari Arabic}} \|{{legend\|#66ccb2\|23: Sanaani Arabic}} \|{{legend\|#f2ae92\|24: Ta'izzi-Adeni Arabic}} \|{{legend\|#79ba3c\|25: Hadrami Arabic}} \|{{legend\|#91cdf2\|26: Uzbeki Arabic}} \|{{legend\|#a786f2\|27: Tajiki Arabic}} \|{{legend\|#a4a068\|28: Cypriot Arabic}} \|{{legend\|#59a6b8\|29: {{ISO 639 name\|mt}}}} \|{{legend\|#fc7183\|30: Nubi}} \|{{legend\|#fefee9ff\|Sparsely populated area or no indigenous Arabic speakers}} \|Solid area fill: variety natively spoken by at least 25% of the population of that area or variety indigenous to that area only \|Hatched area fill: minority scattered over the area \|Dotted area fill: speakers of this variety are mixed with speakers of other Arabic varieties in the area }}]] Colloquial Arabic is a collective term for the spoken dialects of Arabic used throughout the Arab world, which differ radically from the literary language. The main dialectal division is between the varieties within and outside of the Arabian peninsula, followed by that between sedentary varieties and the much more conservative Bedouin varieties. All the varieties outside of the Arabian peninsula, which include the large majority of speakers, have many features in common with each other that are not found in Classical Arabic. This has led researchers to postulate the existence of a prestige koine dialect in the one or two centuries immediately following the Arab conquest, whose features eventually spread to all newly conquered areas. These features are present to varying degrees inside the Arabian peninsula. Generally, the Arabian peninsula varieties have much more diversity than the non-peninsula varieties, but these have been understudied.{{Citation needed\|date=September 2022}} in the year 1000/1001 CE, thought to be the earliest existing example of a Qur'an written in a cursive script.]] Within the non-peninsula varieties, the largest difference is between the non-Egyptian North African dialects, especially Moroccan Arabic, and the others. Moroccan Arabic in particular is hardly comprehensible to Arabic speakers east of Libya (although the converse is not true, in part due to the popularity of Egyptian films and other media).{{Citation needed\|date=September 2022}} One factor in the differentiation of the dialects is influence from the languages previously spoken in the areas, which have typically provided many new words and have sometimes also influenced pronunciation or word order. However, a more weighty factor for most dialects is, as among Romance languages, retention (or change of meaning) of different classical forms. Thus Iraqi aku, Levantine and Peninsular fīh and North African kayən all mean 'there is', and all come from Classical Arabic forms (yakūn, fīhi, ''kā'in respectively), but now sound very different.{{Citation needed\|dateSeptember 2022}} Koiné According to Charles A. Ferguson,<ref>{{citation\|firstCharles\|lastFerguson\|titleThe Arabic Koine\|journalLanguage\|volume35\|year1959\|pages616–630\|issue4\|doi10.2307/410601\|jstor=410601}}</ref> the following are some of the characteristic features of the koiné that underlies all the modern dialects outside the Arabian peninsula. Although many other features are common to most or all of these varieties, Ferguson believes that these features in particular are unlikely to have evolved independently more than once or twice and together suggest the existence of the koine: * Loss of the dual number except on nouns, with consistent plural agreement (cf. feminine singular agreement in plural inanimates). * Change of a to i in many affixes (e.g., non-past-tense prefixes ti- yi- ni-; wi-'' 'and'; il- 'the'; feminine -it in the construct state). * Loss of third-weak verbs ending in w (which merge with verbs ending in y). * Reformation of geminate verbs, e.g., {{transliteration\|ar\|ḥalaltu}} 'I untied' → {{transliteration\|ar\|ḥalēt(u)}}. * Conversion of separate words lī 'to me', laka 'to you', etc. into indirect-object clitic suffixes. * Certain changes in the cardinal number system, e.g., {{transliteration\|ar\|khamsat ayyām}} 'five days' → {{transliteration\|ar\|kham(a)s tiyyām}}, where certain words have a special plural with prefixed t. * Loss of the feminine elative (comparative). * Adjective plurals of the form {{transliteration\|ar\|kibār}} 'big' → {{transliteration\|ar\|kubār}}. * Change of nisba suffix {{transliteration\|ar\|-iyy}} > {{transliteration\|ar\|i}}. * Certain lexical items, e.g., {{transliteration\|ar\|jāb}} 'bring' < {{transliteration\|ar\|jāʼa bi-}} 'come with'; {{transliteration\|ar\|shāf}} 'see'; {{transliteration\|ar\|ēsh}} 'what' (or similar) < {{transliteration\|ar\|ayyu shayʼ}} 'which thing'; {{transliteration\|ar\|illi}} (relative pronoun). * Merger of {{IPA\|/dˤ/}} {{angle bracket\|{{lang\|ar\|ض}}}} and {{IPA\|/ðˤ/}} {{angle bracket\|{{lang\|ar\|ظ}}}} in most or all positions. Dialect groups * Egyptian Arabic, spoken by 67 million people in Egypt.<ref name="ARZ">{{e25\|arz\|Arabic, Egyptian Spoken}}</ref> It is one of the most understood varieties of Arabic, due in large part to the widespread distribution of Egyptian films and television shows throughout the Arabic-speaking world. * Levantine Arabic, spoken by about 44 million people in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Palestine, Israel, and Turkey.<ref name="e25apc">{{e25\|apc\|Levantine Arabic}}</ref> Lebanese Arabic is a variety of Levantine Arabic spoken primarily in Lebanon. Jordanian Arabic is a continuum of mutually intelligible varieties of Levantine Arabic spoken by the population of the Kingdom of Jordan. Palestinian Arabic is a name of several dialects of the subgroup of Levantine Arabic spoken by the Palestinians in Palestine, by Arab citizens of Israel and in most Palestinian populations around the world. Samaritan Arabic, spoken by only several hundred in the Nablus region. * Cypriot Maronite Arabic, spoken in Cyprus by around 9,800 people (2013 UNSD).<ref>{{e25\|acy\|Arabic, Cypriot Spoken}}</ref> * Maghrebi Arabic, also called "Darija", spoken by about 70 million people in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. It also forms the basis of Maltese via the extinct Sicilian Arabic dialect.<ref name="Borg, Albert J. 1997">Borg, Albert J.; Azzopardi-Alexander, Marie (1997). Maltese. Routledge. {{ISBN\|0-415-02243-6}}.</ref> Maghrebi Arabic is very hard to understand for Arabic speakers from the Mashriq or Mesopotamia, the most comprehensible being Libyan Arabic and the most difficult Moroccan Arabic. The others such as Algerian Arabic can be considered in between the two in terms of difficulty. Libyan Arabic, spoken in Libya and neighboring countries. Tunisian Arabic, spoken in Tunisia and north-eastern Algeria. Algerian Arabic, spoken in Algeria. * Judeo-Algerian Arabic was spoken by Jews in Algeria until 1962, now it is spoken by a few elderly Algerian Jews in France and Israel. Moroccan Arabic, spoken in Morocco. Hassaniya Arabic (3 million speakers), spoken in Mauritania, Western Sahara, some parts of the Azawad in northern Mali, southern Morocco, and south-western Algeria. Andalusian Arabic, spoken in Spain until the 16th century. Siculo-Arabic (Sicilian Arabic), was spoken in Sicily and Malta between the end of the 9th century and the end of the 12th century and eventually evolved into the Maltese language. *** Maltese, spoken on the island of Malta, is the only fully separate standardized language to have originated from an Arabic dialect, the extinct Siculo-Arabic dialect, with independent literary norms. Maltese has evolved independently of Modern Standard Arabic and its varieties into a standardized language over the past 800 years in a gradual process of Latinisation.<ref>{{cite book\|author1Borg and Azzopardi-Alexander\|titleMaltese\|date1997\| publisherRoutledge\|isbn978-0-415-02243-9\|pagexiii\|quoteIn fact, Maltese displays some areal traits typical of Maghrebine Arabic, although over the past 800 years of independent evolution it has drifted apart from Tunisian Arabic \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtYf-fZ-izycC&pgPR13 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|author1Brincat, Joseph M. \|dateFeb 2005 \|publisherMED Magazine \|titleMaltese – an unusual formula\|quoteOriginally Maltese was an Arabic dialect but it was immediately exposed to Latinisation because the Normans conquered the islands in 1090, while Christianisation, which was complete by 1250, cut off the dialect from contact with Classical Arabic. Consequently Maltese developed on its own, slowly but steadily absorbing new words from Sicilian and Italian according to the needs of the developing community.\|urlhttp://macmillandictionaries.com/MED-Magazine/February2005/27-LI-Maltese.htm\|access-date17 February 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151208063739/http://macmillandictionaries.com/MED-Magazine/February2005/27-LI-Maltese.htm\|archive-date8 December 2015\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Maltese is therefore considered an exceptional descendant of Arabic that has no diglossic relationship with Standard Arabic or Classical Arabic.<ref>{{cite book\|author1Robert D Hoberman\|titleMorphologies of Asia and Africa, Alan S. Kaye (Ed.), Chapter 13: Maltese Morphology\|date2007\|publisherEisenbrown\|quoteMaltese is the chief exception: Classical or Standard Arabic is irrelevant in the Maltese linguistic community and there is no diglossia.\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgaktTQ8vq28C&pgPA257\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181004103929/https://books.google.co.uk/books?idgaktTQ8vq28C&pgPA257\|archive-date4 October 2018\|url-statuslive\|isbn978-1-57506-109-2}}</ref> Maltese is different from Arabic and other Semitic languages since its morphology has been deeply influenced by Romance languages, Italian and Sicilian.<ref>{{cite book\|author1Robert D Hoberman\|titleMorphologies of Asia and Africa, Alan S. Kaye (Ed.), Chapter 13: Maltese Morphology\|date2007\|publisherEisenbrown\|quoteyet it is in its morphology that Maltese also shows the most elaborate and deeply embedded influence from the Romance languages, Sicilian and Italian, with which it has long been in intimate contact....As a result Maltese is unique and different from Arabic and other Semitic languages.\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgaktTQ8vq28C&pgPA257\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181004103929/https://books.google.co.uk/books?idgaktTQ8vq28C&pgPA257\|archive-date4 October 2018\|url-statuslive\|isbn978-1-57506-109-2}}</ref> It is the only Semitic language written in the Latin script. In terms of basic everyday language, speakers of Maltese are reported to be able to understand less than a third of what is said to them in Tunisian Arabic,<ref>{{cite web\|titleMutual Intelligibility of Spoken Maltese, Libyan Arabic and Tunisian Arabic Functionally Tested: A Pilot Study\|quoteTo summarise our findings, we might observe that when it comes to the most basic everyday language, as reflected in our data sets, speakers of Maltese are able to understand less than a third of what is being said to them in either Tunisian or Benghazi Libyan Arabic.\|urlhttps://docs.google.com/viewer?urlhttp%3A%2F%2Fling.auf.net%2Flingbuzz%2F002930%2Fcurrent.pdf&embeddedtrue&chromefalse&dov1\|access-date23 September 2017\|page1\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171011132849/https://docs.google.com/viewer?urlhttp%3A%2F%2Fling.auf.net%2Flingbuzz%2F002930%2Fcurrent.pdf&embeddedtrue&chromefalse&dov1\|archive-date11 October 2017\|url-statuslive}}</ref> which is related to Siculo-Arabic,<ref name"Borg, Albert J. 1997" /> whereas speakers of Tunisian are able to understand about 40% of what is said to them in Maltese.<ref>{{cite web\|titleMutual Intelligibility of Spoken Maltese, Libyan Arabic and Tunisian Arabic Functionally Tested: A Pilot Study\|quoteSpeakers of Tunisian and Libyan Arabic are able to understand about 40% of what is said to them in Maltese.\|urlhttps://docs.google.com/viewer?urlhttp%3A%2F%2Fling.auf.net%2Flingbuzz%2F002930%2Fcurrent.pdf&embeddedtrue&chromefalse&dov1\|access-date23 September 2017\|page1\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171011132849/https://docs.google.com/viewer?urlhttp%3A%2F%2Fling.auf.net%2Flingbuzz%2F002930%2Fcurrent.pdf&embeddedtrue&chromefalse&dov1\|archive-date11 October 2017\|url-statuslive}}</ref> This asymmetric intelligibility is considerably lower than the mutual intelligibility found between Maghrebi Arabic dialects.<ref>{{cite web\|titleMutual Intelligibility of Spoken Maltese, Libyan Arabic and Tunisian Arabic Functionally Tested: A Pilot Study\|quoteIn comparison, speakers of Libyan Arabic and speakers of Tunisian Arabic understand about two-thirds of what is being said to them.\|urlhttps://docs.google.com/viewer?urlhttp%3A%2F%2Fling.auf.net%2Flingbuzz%2F002930%2Fcurrent.pdf&embeddedtrue&chromefalse&dov1\|access-date23 September 2017\|page1\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171011132849/https://docs.google.com/viewer?urlhttp%3A%2F%2Fling.auf.net%2Flingbuzz%2F002930%2Fcurrent.pdf&embeddedtrue&chromefalse&dov1\|archive-date11 October 2017\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Maltese has its own dialects, with urban varieties of Maltese being closer to Standard Maltese than rural varieties.<ref name"isser">Isserlin (1986). Studies in Islamic History and Civilization, {{ISBN\|965-264-014-X}}</ref> * Mesopotamian Arabic, spoken by about 41.2 million people in Iraq (where it is called "Aamiyah"), eastern Syria and southwestern Iran (Khuzestan) and in the southeastern of Turkey (in the eastern Mediterranean, Southeastern Anatolia Region). North Mesopotamian Arabic is a spoken north of the Hamrin Mountains in Iraq, in western Iran, northern Syria, and in southeastern Turkey (in the eastern Mediterranean Region, Southeastern Anatolia Region, and southern Eastern Anatolia Region).<ref>{{e25\|ayp\|Arabic, North Mesopotamian Spoken}}</ref> Judeo-Mesopotamian Arabic, also known as Iraqi Judeo Arabic and Yahudic, is a variety of Arabic spoken by Iraqi Jews of Mosul. Baghdad Arabic is the Arabic dialect spoken in Baghdad, and the surrounding cities and it is a subvariety of Mesopotamian Arabic. Baghdad Jewish Arabic is the dialect spoken by the Iraqi Jews of Baghdad. South Mesopotamian Arabic (Basrawi dialect) is the dialect spoken in southern Iraq, such as Basra, Dhi Qar, and Najaf.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastMüller-Kessler\|firstChrista\|date2003\|titleAramaic ?k?, lyk? and Iraqi Arabic ?aku, maku: The Mesopotamian Particles of Existence\|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/3217756\|journalJournal of the American Oriental Society\|volume123\|issue3\|pages641–646\|doi10.2307/3217756\|jstor3217756\|issn0003-0279}}</ref> Khuzestani Arabic, spoken in the Iranian province of Khuzestan. This is a mix of Southern Mesopotamian Arabic and Gulf Arabic. * Khorasani Arabic, spoken in the Iranian province of Khorasan. Kuwaiti Arabic is a Gulf Arabic dialect spoken in Kuwait. Sudanese Arabic, spoken by 17 million people in Sudan and some parts of southern Egypt. Sudanese Arabic is quite distinct from the dialect of its neighbor to the north; rather, the Sudanese have a dialect similar to the Hejazi dialect. * Juba Arabic, spoken in South Sudan and southern far Sudan. * Gulf Arabic, spoken by around four million people, predominantly in Kuwait, Bahrain, some parts of Oman, eastern Saudi Arabia coastal areas and some parts of UAE and Qatar. Also spoken in Iran's Bushehr and Hormozgan provinces. Although Gulf Arabic is spoken in Qatar, most Qatari citizens speak Najdi Arabic (Bedawi). * Omani Arabic, distinct from the Gulf Arabic of Eastern Arabia and Bahrain, spoken in Central Oman. With its oil wealth and mobility it has spread to various areas of the former Sultanate of Muscat, especially Zanzibar and the Swahili Coast. * Hadhrami Arabic, spoken by around 8 million people, predominantly in Hadhramaut, and in parts of the Arabian Peninsula, South and Southeast Asia, and East Africa by Hadhrami descendants. ** Indonesian Arabic, spoken in Arab ethnic enclaves in Indonesia, especially along the north coast of Java. It has about 60,000 speakers according to a rough estimate in 2010.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastEvi Nurus Suroiyah \|last2Dewi Anisatuz Zakiyah \|date2021-06-07 \|titlePerkembangan Bahasa Arab di Indonesia \|trans-titleDevelopment of Arabic in Indonesia \|urlhttps://ejournal.iaiskjmalang.ac.id/index.php/muhad/article/view/302 \|journalMuhadasah: Jurnal Pendidikan Bahasa Arab \|volume3 \|issue1 \|pages60–69 \|doi10.51339/muhad.v3i1.302 \|issn2721-9488\|doi-accessfree \|languageid}}</ref> * Yemeni Arabic, spoken in Yemen, and southern Saudi Arabia by 15 million people. Similar to Gulf Arabic. * Najdi Arabic, spoken by around 10 million people, mainly spoken in Najd, central and northern Saudi Arabia. Most Qatari citizens speak Najdi Arabic (Bedawi). * Hejazi Arabic (6 million speakers), spoken in Hejaz, western Saudi Arabia. * Saharan Arabic spoken in some parts of Algeria, Niger and Mali. * Baharna Arabic (800,000 speakers), spoken by Bahrani Shias in Bahrain and Qatif, the dialect exhibits many big differences from Gulf Arabic. It is also spoken to a lesser extent in Oman. * Judeo-Arabic dialects – these are the dialects spoken by the Jews that had lived or continue to live in the Arab World. As Jewish migration to Israel took hold, the language did not thrive and is now considered endangered. So-called Qəltu Arabic. * Chadian Arabic, spoken in Chad, Sudan, some parts of South Sudan, Central African Republic, Niger, Nigeria, and Cameroon. * Central Asian Arabic, spoken in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Afghanistan by around 8,000 people.<ref>{{e25\|abh\|Arabic, Tajiki Spoken}}</ref><ref>{{citation\|chapterCentral Asian Arabic: The Irano-Arabic Dynamics of a New Perfect\|doi10.4324/9780203327715-12 \|chapter-urlhttps://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/mono/10.4324/9780203327715-12/central-asian-arabic-irano-arabic-dynamics-new-perfect-%C3%A9va-%C3%A1gnes-csat%C3%B3-bo-isaksson-carina-jahani\|access-date14 January 2023\|titleLinguistic Convergence and Areal Diffusion \|year2004 \|pages121–134 \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn9780203327715 }}</ref> Tajiki Arabic is highly endangered.<ref name"ELTajiki">{{Citation\|titleTajiki Spoken Arabic\|urlhttps://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/3585\|websiteEndangered Languages\|access-date14 January 2023}}</ref> * Shirvani Arabic, spoken in Azerbaijan and Dagestan until the 1930s, now extinct. Phonology {{Main\|Standard Arabic phonology}} {{See also\|Egyptian Arabic phonology\|Hejazi Arabic phonology\|Levantine Arabic phonology\|Tunisian Arabic phonology}} While many languages have numerous dialects that differ in phonology, contemporary spoken Arabic is more properly described as a continuum of varieties.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt\|Kirchhoff\|Vergyri\|2005\|p38}}</ref> Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), is the standard variety shared by educated speakers throughout Arabic-speaking regions. MSA is used in writing in formal print media and orally in newscasts, speeches and formal declarations of numerous types.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt\|Kirchhoff\|Vergyri\|2005\|pp38–39}}</ref> Modern Standard Arabic has 28 consonant phonemes and 6 vowel phonemes. All phonemes contrast between "emphatic" (pharyngealized) consonants and non-emphatic ones. Some of these phonemes have coalesced in the various modern dialects, while new phonemes have been introduced through borrowing or phonemic splits. A "phonemic quality of length" applies to consonants as well as vowels.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt\|Holes\|2004\|p57}}</ref> Grammar {{Main\|Arabic grammar}}The grammar of Arabic has similarities with the grammar of other Semitic languages. Some of the typical differences between Standard Arabic ({{Lang\|ar\|فُصْحَى}}) and vernacular varieties are a loss of morphological markings of grammatical case, changes in word order, a shift toward more analytic morphosyntax, loss of grammatical mood, and loss of the inflected passive voice. Literary Arabic {{main\|Modern Standard Arabic}} As in other Semitic languages, Arabic has a complex and unusual morphology, i.e. method of constructing words from a basic root. Arabic has a nonconcatenative "root-and-pattern" morphology: A root consists of a set of bare consonants (usually three), which are fitted into a discontinuous pattern to form words. For example, the word for 'I wrote' is constructed by combining the root {{transliteration\|ar\|k-t-b}} 'write' with the pattern {{transliteration\|ar\|-a-a-tu}} 'I Xed' to form {{transliteration\|ar\|katabtu}} 'I wrote'. Other verbs meaning 'I Xed' will typically have the same pattern but with different consonants, e.g. {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|qaraʼtu}} 'I read', {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|akaltu}} 'I ate', {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|dhahabtu}} 'I went', although other patterns are possible, e.g. {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|sharibtu}} 'I drank', {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|qultu}} 'I said', {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|takallamtu}} 'I spoke', where the subpattern used to signal the past tense may change but the suffix {{transliteration\|ar\|-tu}} is always used. From a single root {{transliteration\|ar\|k-t-b}}, numerous words can be formed by applying different patterns: * {{Script/Arabic\|كَتَبْتُ}} {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|katabtu}} 'I wrote' * {{Script/Arabic\|كَتَّبْتُ}} {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|kattabtu}} 'I had (something) written' * {{Script/Arabic\|كَاتَبْتُ}} {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|kātabtu}} 'I corresponded (with someone)' * {{Script/Arabic\|أَكْتَبْتُ}} ''{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|'aktabtu}}'' 'I dictated' * {{Script/Arabic\|اِكْتَتَبْتُ}} {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|iktatabtu}} 'I subscribed' * {{Script/Arabic\|تَكَاتَبْنَا}} {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|takātabnā}} 'we corresponded with each other' * {{Script/Arabic\|أَكْتُبُ}} ''{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|'aktubu}}'' 'I write' * {{Script/Arabic\|أُكَتِّبُ}} ''{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|'ukattibu}}'' 'I have (something) written' * {{Script/Arabic\|أُكَاتِبُ}} ''{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|'ukātibu}}'' 'I correspond (with someone)' * {{Script/Arabic\|أُكْتِبُ}} ''{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|'uktibu}}'' 'I dictate' * {{Script/Arabic\|أَكْتَتِبُ}} ''{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|'aktatibu}}'' 'I subscribe' * {{Script/Arabic\|نَتَكَتِبُ}} {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|natakātabu}} 'we correspond each other' * {{Script/Arabic\|كُتِبَ}} {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|kutiba}} 'it was written' * {{Script/Arabic\|أُكْتِبَ}} ''{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|'uktiba}}'' 'it was dictated' * {{Script/Arabic\|مَكْتُوبٌ}} {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|maktūbun}} 'written' * {{Script/Arabic\|مُكْتَبٌ}} {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|muktabun}} 'dictated' * {{Script/Arabic\|كِتَابٌ}} {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|kitābun}} 'book' * {{Script/Arabic\|كُتُبٌ}} {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|kutubun}} 'books' * {{Script/Arabic\|كَاتِبٌ}} {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|kātibun}} 'writer' * {{Script/Arabic\|كُتَّابٌ}} {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|kuttābun}} 'writers' * {{Script/Arabic\|مَكْتَبٌ}} {{transliteration\|ar\|maktabun}} 'desk, office' * {{Script/Arabic\|مَكْتَبَةٌ}} {{transliteration\|ar\|maktabatun}} 'library, bookshop' * etc. Nouns and adjectives Nouns in Literary Arabic have three grammatical cases (nominative, accusative, and genitive [also used when the noun is governed by a preposition]); three numbers (singular, dual and plural); two genders (masculine and feminine); and three "states" (indefinite, definite, and construct). The cases of singular nouns, other than those that end in long ā, are indicated by suffixed short vowels (/-u/ for nominative, /-a/ for accusative, /-i/ for genitive). The feminine singular is often marked by {{script/Arabic\|ـَة}} /-at/, which is pronounced as /-ah/ before a pause. Plural is indicated either through endings (the sound plural) or internal modification (the broken plural). Definite nouns include all proper nouns, all nouns in "construct state" and all nouns which are prefixed by the definite article {{script/Arabic\|اَلْـ}} /al-/. Indefinite singular nouns, other than those that end in long ā, add a final /-n/ to the case-marking vowels, giving /-un/, /-an/ or /-in/, which is also referred to as nunation or tanwīn. Adjectives in Literary Arabic are marked for case, number, gender and state, as for nouns. The plural of all non-human nouns is always combined with a singular feminine adjective, which takes the {{script/Arabic\|ـَة}} /-at/ suffix. Pronouns in Literary Arabic are marked for person, number and gender. There are two varieties, independent pronouns and enclitics. Enclitic pronouns are attached to the end of a verb, noun or preposition and indicate verbal and prepositional objects or possession of nouns. The first-person singular pronoun has a different enclitic form used for verbs ({{script/Arabic\|ـنِي}} /-nī/) and for nouns or prepositions ({{script/Arabic\|ـِي}} /-ī/ after consonants, {{script/Arabic\|ـيَ}} /-ya/ after vowels). Nouns, verbs, pronouns and adjectives agree with each other in all respects. Non-human plural nouns are grammatically considered to be feminine singular. A verb in a verb-initial sentence is marked as singular regardless of its semantic number when the subject of the verb is explicitly mentioned as a noun. Numerals between three and ten show "chiasmic" agreement, in that grammatically masculine numerals have feminine marking and vice versa. Verbs {{further\|Arabic verbs}} Verbs in Literary Arabic are marked for person (first, second, or third), gender, and number. They are conjugated in two major paradigms (past and non-past); two voices (active and passive); and six moods (indicative, imperative, subjunctive, jussive, shorter energetic and longer energetic); the fifth and sixth moods, the energetics, exist only in Classical Arabic but not in MSA.<ref>Rydin, Karin C. (2005). A reference grammar of Modern Standard Arabic. New York: Cambridge University Press.</ref> There are two participles, active and passive, and a verbal noun, but no infinitive. The past and non-past paradigms are sometimes termed perfective and imperfective, indicating the fact that they actually represent a combination of tense and aspect. The moods other than the indicative occur only in the non-past, and the future tense is signaled by prefixing {{Script/Arabic\|سَـ}} {{transliteration\|ar\|sa-}} or {{Script/Arabic\|سَوْفَ}} {{transliteration\|ar\|sawfa}} onto the non-past. The past and non-past differ in the form of the stem (e.g., past {{Script/Arabic\|كَتَبـ}} {{transliteration\|ar\|katab-}} vs. non-past {{Script/Arabic\|ـكْتُبـ}} {{transliteration\|ar\|-ktub-}}), and use completely different sets of affixes for indicating person, number and gender: In the past, the person, number and gender are fused into a single suffixal morpheme, while in the non-past, a combination of prefixes (primarily encoding person) and suffixes (primarily encoding gender and number) are used. The passive voice uses the same person/number/gender affixes but changes the vowels of the stem. The following shows a paradigm of a regular Arabic verb, {{Script/Arabic\|كَتَبَ}} {{transliteration\|ar\|kataba}} 'to write'. In Modern Standard, the energetic mood, in either long or short form, which has the same meaning, is almost never used. Derivation Like other Semitic languages, and unlike most other languages, Arabic makes much more use of nonconcatenative morphology, applying many templates applied to roots, to derive words than adding prefixes or suffixes to words. For verbs, a given root can occur in many different derived verb stems, of which there are about fifteen, each with one or more characteristic meanings and each with its own templates for the past and non-past stems, active and passive participles, and verbal noun. These are referred to by Western scholars as "Form I", "Form II", and so on through "Form XV", although Forms XI to XV are rare. These stems encode grammatical functions such as the causative, intensive and reflexive. Stems sharing the same root consonants represent separate verbs, albeit often semantically related, and each is the basis for its own conjugational paradigm. As a result, these derived stems are part of the system of derivational morphology, not part of the inflectional system. Examples of the different verbs formed from the root {{Script/Arabic\|كتب}} {{transliteration\|ar\|k-t-b}} 'write' (using {{Script/Arabic\|حمر}} {{transliteration\|ar\|ḥ-m-r}} 'red' for Form IX, which is limited to colors and physical defects): {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Most of these forms are exclusively Classical Arabic ! Form !! Past !! Meaning !! Non-past !! Meaning \|- \| I \|\| {{transliteration\|ar\|kataba}} \|\| 'he wrote' \|\| {{transliteration\|ar\|yaktubu}} \|\| 'he writes' \|- \| II \|\| {{transliteration\|ar\|kattaba}} \|\| 'he made (someone) write' \|\| {{transliteration\|ar\|yukattibu}} \|\| "he makes (someone) write" \|- \| III \|\| {{transliteration\|ar\|kātaba}} \|\| 'he corresponded with, wrote to (someone)' \|\| {{transliteration\|ar\|yukātibu}} \|\| 'he corresponds with, writes to (someone)' \|- \| IV \|\| {{transliteration\|ar\|ʾaktaba}} \|\| 'he dictated' \|\| {{transliteration\|ar\|yuktibu}} \|\| 'he dictates' \|- \| V \|\| {{transliteration\|ar\|takattaba}} \|\| nonexistent\|\| {{transliteration\|ar\|yatakattabu}} \|\| nonexistent \|- \| VI \|\| {{transliteration\|ar\|takātaba}} \|\| 'he corresponded (with someone, esp. mutually)' \|\| {{transliteration\|ar\|yatakātabu}} \|\| 'he corresponds (with someone, esp. mutually)' \|- \| VII \|\| {{transliteration\|ar\|inkataba}} \|\| 'he subscribed' \|\| {{transliteration\|ar\|yankatibu}} \|\| 'he subscribes' \|- \| VIII \|\| {{transliteration\|ar\|iktataba}} \|\| 'he copied' \|\| {{transliteration\|ar\|yaktatibu}} \|\| 'he copies' \|- \| IX \|\| {{transliteration\|ar\|iḥmarra}} \|\| 'he turned red' \|\| {{transliteration\|ar\|yaḥmarru}} \|\| 'he turns red' \|- \| X \|\| {{transliteration\|ar\|istaktaba}} \|\| 'he asked (someone) to write' \|\| {{transliteration\|ar\|yastaktibu}} \|\| 'he asks (someone) to write' \|} Form II is sometimes used to create transitive denominative verbs (verbs built from nouns); Form V is the equivalent used for intransitive denominatives. The associated participles and verbal nouns of a verb are the primary means of forming new lexical nouns in Arabic. This is similar to the process by which, for example, the English gerund "meeting" (similar to a verbal noun) has turned into a noun referring to a particular type of social, often work-related event where people gather together to have a "discussion" (another lexicalized verbal noun). Another fairly common means of forming nouns is through one of a limited number of patterns that can be applied directly to roots, such as the "nouns of location" in ma- (e.g. {{transliteration\|ar\|maktab}} 'desk, office' < {{transliteration\|ar\|k-t-b}} 'write', {{transliteration\|ar\|maṭbakh}} 'kitchen' < {{transliteration\|ar\|ṭ-b-kh}} 'cook'). The only three genuine suffixes are as follows: * The feminine suffix -ah; variously derives terms for women from related terms for men, or more generally terms along the same lines as the corresponding masculine, e.g. {{transliteration\|ar\|maktabah}} 'library' (also a writing-related place, but different from {{transliteration\|ar\|maktab}}, as above). * The nisbah suffix -iyy-. This suffix is extremely productive, and forms adjectives meaning "related to X". It corresponds to English adjectives in -ic, -al, -an, -y, -ist, etc. * The feminine nisbah suffix -iyyah. This is formed by adding the feminine suffix -ah onto nisba adjectives to form abstract nouns. For example, from the basic root {{transliteration\|ar\|š-r-k}} 'share' can be derived the Form VIII verb {{transliteration\|ar\|ishtaraka}} 'to cooperate, participate', and in turn its verbal noun {{transliteration\|ar\|ištirāk}} 'cooperation, participation' can be formed. This in turn can be made into a nisbah adjective {{transliteration\|ar\|ištirākiyy}} 'socialist', from which an abstract noun {{transliteration\|ar\|ishtirākiyyah}} 'socialism' can be derived. Other recent formations are {{transliteration\|ar\|jumhūriyyah}} 'republic' (lit. "public-ness", < {{transliteration\|ar\|jumhūr}} 'multitude, general public'), and the Gaddafi-specific variation {{transliteration\|ar\|jamāhīriyyah}} 'people's republic' (lit. "masses-ness", < {{transliteration\|ar\|jamāhīr}} 'the masses', pl. of {{transliteration\|ar\|jumhūr}}, as above). Colloquial varieties {{main\|Varieties of Arabic}} The spoken dialects have lost the case distinctions and make only limited use of the dual (it occurs only on nouns and its use is no longer required in all circumstances). They have lost the mood distinctions other than imperative, but many have since gained new moods through the use of prefixes (most often /bi-/ for indicative vs. unmarked subjunctive). They have also mostly lost the indefinite "nunation" and the internal passive. The following is an example of a regular verb paradigm in Egyptian Arabic. {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Example of a regular Form I verb in Egyptian Arabic, kátab/yíktib "write" ! colspan="2" \| Tense/Mood ! Past ! Present Subjunctive ! Present Indicative ! Future ! Imperative \|- ! style"width:100%;" colspan"7" \| Singular \|- ! colspan="2" \| 1st \| katáb-t \| á-ktib \| bá-ktib \| ḥá-ktib \| style="background: silver;" \|" \|- ! rowspan="2" \| 2nd ! <small>masculine</small> \| katáb-t \| tí-ktib \| bi-tí-ktib \| ḥa-tí-ktib \| í-ktib \|- ! <small>feminine</small> \| katáb-ti \| ti-ktíb-i \| bi-ti-ktíb-i \| ḥa-ti-ktíb-i \| i-ktíb-i \|- ! rowspan="2" \| 3rd ! <small>masculine</small> \| kátab \| yí-ktib \| bi-yí-ktib \| ḥa-yí-ktib \| rowspan"2" style"background: silver;" \|" \|- ! <small>feminine</small> \| kátab-it \| tí-ktib \| bi-tí-ktib \| ḥa-tí-ktib \|- ! style"width:100%;" colspan"7" \| Plural \|- ! colspan="2" \| 1st \| katáb-na \| ní-ktib \| bi-ní-ktib \| ḥá-ní-ktib \| style="background: silver;" \|" \|- ! colspan="2" \| 2nd \| katáb-tu \| ti-ktíb-u \| bi-ti-ktíb-u \| ḥa-ti-ktíb-u \| i-ktíb-u \|- ! colspan="2" \| 3rd \| kátab-u \| yi-ktíb-u \| bi-yi-ktíb-u \| ḥa-yi-ktíb-u \| style="background: silver;" \|" \|} Writing system {{anchor\|writing system}} {{Main\|Arabic alphabet\|Arabic Braille}} written by a Malay Muslim in Malaysia. The calligrapher is making a rough draft.]] The Arabic alphabet derives from the Aramaic through Nabatean, to which it bears a loose resemblance like that of Coptic or Cyrillic scripts to Greek script. Traditionally, there were several differences between the Western (North African) and Middle Eastern versions of the alphabet—in particular, the faʼ had a dot underneath and qaf a single dot above in the Maghreb, and the order of the letters was slightly different (at least when they were used as numerals). However, the old Maghrebi variant has been abandoned except for calligraphic purposes in the Maghreb itself, and remains in use mainly in the Quranic schools (zaouias) of West Africa. Arabic, like all other Semitic languages (except for the Latin-written Maltese, and the languages with the Ge'ez script), is written from right to left. There are several styles of scripts such as thuluth, muhaqqaq, tawqi, rayhan, and notably naskh, which is used in print and by computers, and ruqʻah, which is commonly used for correspondence.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastTabbaa\|firstYasser\|date1991\|titleThe Transformation of Arabic Writing: Part I, Qur'ānic Calligraphy\|journalArs Orientalis\|volume21\|pages119–148\|issn0571-1371\|jstor4629416}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt\|Hanna\|Greis\|1972\|p2}}</ref> Originally Arabic was made up of only rasm without diacritical marks<ref>{{cite book \|titleWhat the Koran Really Says : Language, Text & Commentary \|publisherPrometheus \|year2002 \|isbn157392945X \|editor-lastIbn Warraq \|author1Ibn Warraq \|locationNew York \|urlhttps://www.ebooklibs.co/book/view/1m41/what-the-koran-really-says.html \|translator-lastIbn Warraq \|page64 \|refWtKRS-I-IW2002 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190411194515/https://www.ebooklibs.co/book/view/1m41/what-the-koran-really-says.html \|archive-date11 April 2019 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Later diacritical points (which in Arabic are referred to as nuqaṯ) were added (which allowed readers to distinguish between letters such as b, t, th, n and y). Finally signs known as Tashkil were used for short vowels known as harakat and other uses such as final postnasalized or long vowels. {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;" ! colspan="7" \|Arabic Alphabet \|- ! rowspan="2" \|Wikipedia Romanization ! rowspan="2" \|Value in MSA (IPA) ! colspan="3" \|Contextual forms ! rowspan="2" \|Isolated form ! rowspan="2" \|No. \|- !Final !Medial !Initial \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|ā}} \|{{IPAslink\|aː}} \| colspan="2" \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـا}}}} \| colspan="2" \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ا}}}} \| data-sort-value="01." \|1 \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|b}} \|{{IPAslink\|b}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـب}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـبـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|بـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ب}}}} \| data-sort-value="02." \|2 \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|t}} \|{{IPAslink\|t}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـت}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـتـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|تـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ت}}}} \| data-sort-value="03." \|3 \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|ṯ}} or {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|th}} \|{{IPAslink\|θ}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـث}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـثـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ثـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ث}}}} \| data-sort-value="04." \|4 \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|j}} \|{{IPAslink\|d͡ʒ}}* \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـج}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـجـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|جـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ج}}}} \| data-sort-value="05." \|5 \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|ḥ}} \|{{IPAslink\|ħ}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـح}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـحـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|حـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ح}}}} \| data-sort-value="06." \|6 \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|ḵ}} or {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|kh}} \|{{IPAslink\|x}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـخ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـخـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|خـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|خ}}}} \| data-sort-value="07." \|7 \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|d}} \|{{IPAslink\|d}} \| colspan="2" \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـد}}}} \| colspan="2" \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|د}}}} \| data-sort-value="08." \|8 \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|ḏ}} or {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|dh}} \|{{IPAslink\|ð}} \| colspan="2" \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـذ}}}} \| colspan="2" \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ذ}}}} \| data-sort-value="09." \|9 \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|r}} \|{{IPAslink\|r}} \| colspan="2" \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـر}}}} \| colspan="2" \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ر}}}} \|10 \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|z}} \|{{IPAslink\|z}} \| colspan="2" \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـز}}}} \| colspan="2" \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ز}}}} \|11 \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|s}} \|{{IPAslink\|s}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـس}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـسـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|سـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|س}}}} \|12 \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|š}} or {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|sh}} \|{{IPAslink\|ʃ}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـش}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـشـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|شـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ش}}}} \|13 \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|ṣ}} \|{{IPAslink\|sˤ}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـص}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـصـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|صـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ص}}}} \|14 \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|ḍ}} \|{{IPAslink\|dˤ}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـض}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـضـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ضـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ض}}}} \|15 \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|ṭ}} \|{{IPAslink\|tˤ}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـط}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـطـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|طـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ط}}}} \|16 \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|ẓ}} \|{{IPAslink\|ðˤ}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـظ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـظـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ظـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ظ}}}} \|17 \|- \|{{Ayn}} or {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|ʕ}} \|{{IPAslink\|ʕ}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـع}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـعـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|عـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ع}}}} \|18 \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|ḡ}} or {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|gh}} \|{{IPAslink\|ɣ}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـغ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـغـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|غـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|غ}}}} \|19 \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|f}} \|{{IPAslink\|f}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـف}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـفـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|فـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ف}}}} \|20 \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|q}} \|{{IPAslink\|q}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـق}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـقـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|قـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ق}}}} \|21 \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|k}} \|{{IPAslink\|k}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـك}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـكـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|كـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ك}}}} \|22 \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|l}} \|{{IPAslink\|l}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـل}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـلـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|لـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ل}}}} \|23 \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|m}} \|{{IPAslink\|m}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـم}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـمـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|مـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|م}}}} \|24 \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|n}} \|{{IPAslink\|n}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـن}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـنـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|نـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ن}}}} \|25 \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|h}} \|{{IPAslink\|h}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـه{{lrm}}}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـهـ{{lrm}}{{lrm}}}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|هـ{{lrm}}}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ﻩ}}}} \|26 \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|w}} and {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|ū}} \|{{IPAslink\|w}}, {{IPAslink\|uː}} \| colspan="2" \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـو}}}} \| colspan="2" \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|و}}}} \|27 \|- \|{{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|y}} and {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|ī}} \|{{IPAslink\|j}}, {{IPAslink\|iː}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـي}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ـيـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|يـ}}}} \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ي}}}} \|28 \|- ! colspan="7" \| \|- \|ʾ or {{transliteration\|ar\|ALA\|ʔ}} \|{{IPAslink\|ʔ}} \| colspan="4" \|{{huge\|{{lang\|ar\|ء}}}} \| - \|} Notes: * Modern Standard Arabic (Literary Arabic) {{angle bracket\|{{lang\|ar\|ج}}}} can be pronounced {{IPAslink\|d͡ʒ}} or {{IPAslink\|ʒ}} (or {{IPAslink\|g}} only in Egypt) depending on the speaker's regional dialect. * The Hamza {{angle bracket\|{{lang\|ar\|ء}}}} can be considered a letter and plays an important role in Arabic spelling but it is not considered part of the alphabet, it has different written forms depending on its position in the word, check Hamza. Calligraphy {{Main\|Arabic calligraphy}} After Khalil ibn Ahmad al Farahidi finally fixed the Arabic script around 786, many styles were developed, both for the writing down of the Quran and other books, and for inscriptions on monuments as decoration. Arabic calligraphy has not fallen out of use as calligraphy has in the Western world, and is still considered by Arabs as a major art form; calligraphers are held in great esteem. Being cursive by nature, unlike the Latin script, Arabic script is used to write down a verse of the Quran, a hadith, or a proverb. The composition is often abstract, but sometimes the writing is shaped into an actual form such as that of an animal. One of the current masters of the genre is Hassan Massoudy.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHassan Massoudy \|urlhttps://www.barjeelartfoundation.org/artist/iraq/hassan-massoudy/ \|access-date2024-06-01 \|websiteBarjeel Art Foundation \|language=en-US}}</ref> In modern times the intrinsically calligraphic nature of the written Arabic form is haunted by the thought that a typographic approach to the language, necessary for digitized unification, will not always accurately maintain meanings conveyed through calligraphy.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastOsborn\|firstJ.R.\|year2009\|titleNarratives of Arabic Script: Calligraphic Design and Modern Spaces\|journalDesign and Culture\|volume1\|issue3\|pages289–306\|doi10.1080/17547075.2009.11643292\|s2cid147422407}}</ref> Romanization {{Main\|Romanization of Arabic}}There are a number of different standards for the romanization of Arabic, i.e. methods of accurately and efficiently representing Arabic with the Latin script. There are various conflicting motivations involved, which leads to multiple systems. Some are interested in transliteration, i.e. representing the spelling of Arabic, while others focus on transcription, i.e. representing the pronunciation of Arabic. (They differ in that, for example, the same letter {{lang\|ar\|ي}} is used to represent both a consonant, as in "you" or "yet", and a vowel, as in "me" or "eat".) Some systems, e.g. for scholarly use, are intended to accurately and unambiguously represent the phonemes of Arabic, generally making the phonetics more explicit than the original word in the Arabic script. These systems are heavily reliant on diacritical marks such as "š" for the sound equivalently written sh in English. Other systems (e.g. the Bahá'í orthography) are intended to help readers who are neither Arabic speakers nor linguists with intuitive pronunciation of Arabic names and phrases.{{citation needed\|date=November 2019}} These less "scientific" systems tend to avoid diacritics and use digraphs (like sh and kh). These are usually simpler to read, but sacrifice the definiteness of the scientific systems, and may lead to ambiguities, e.g. whether to interpret sh as a single sound, as in gash, or a combination of two sounds, as in gashouse. The ALA-LC romanization solves this problem by separating the two sounds with a prime symbol ( ′ ); e.g., as′hal 'easier'. During the last few decades and especially since the 1990s, Western-invented text communication technologies have become prevalent in the Arab world, such as personal computers, the World Wide Web, email, bulletin board systems, IRC, instant messaging and mobile phone text messaging. Most of these technologies originally had the ability to communicate using the Latin script only, and some of them still do not have the Arabic script as an optional feature. As a result, Arabic speaking users communicated in these technologies by transliterating the Arabic text using the Latin script. To handle those Arabic letters that cannot be accurately represented using the Latin script, numerals and other characters were appropriated. For example, the numeral "3" may be used to represent the Arabic letter {{angle bracket\|{{lang\|ar\|ع}}}}. There is no universal name for this type of transliteration, but some have named it Arabic Chat Alphabet or IM Arabic. Other systems of transliteration exist, such as using dots or capitalization to represent the "emphatic" counterparts of certain consonants. For instance, using capitalization, the letter {{angle bracket\|{{lang\|ar\|د}}}}, may be represented by d. Its emphatic counterpart, {{angle bracket\|{{lang\|ar\|ض}}}}, may be written as D. Numerals In most of present-day North Africa, the Western Arabic numerals (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) are used. However, in Egypt and Arabic-speaking countries to the east of it, the Eastern Arabic numerals ({{script/Arabic\|٠}} – {{script/Arabic\|١}} – {{script/Arabic\|٢}} – {{script/Arabic\|٣}} – {{script/Arabic\|٤}} – {{script/Arabic\|٥}} – {{script/Arabic\|٦}} – {{script/Arabic\|٧}} – {{script/Arabic\|٨}} – {{script/Arabic\|٩}}) are in use. When representing a number in Arabic, the lowest-valued position is placed on the right, so the order of positions is the same as in left-to-right scripts. Sequences of digits such as telephone numbers are read from left to right, but numbers are spoken in the traditional Arabic fashion, with units and tens reversed from the modern English usage. For example, 24 is said "four and twenty" just like in the German language (vierundzwanzig) and Classical Hebrew, and 1975 is said "a thousand and nine-hundred and five and seventy" or, more eloquently, "a thousand and nine-hundred five seventy". Arabic alphabet and nationalism There have been many instances of national movements to convert Arabic script into Latin script or to Romanize the language. Currently, the only Arabic variety to use Latin script is Maltese. Lebanon The Beirut newspaper La Syrie pushed for the change from Arabic script to Latin letters in 1922. The major head of this movement was Louis Massignon, a French Orientalist, who brought his concern before the Arabic Language Academy in Damascus in 1928. Massignon's attempt at Romanization failed as the academy and population viewed the proposal as an attempt from the Western world to take over their country. Sa'id Afghani, a member of the academy, mentioned that the movement to Romanize the script was a Zionist plan to dominate Lebanon.<ref name"shrivtiel179">{{cite book\|lastShrivtiel\|firstShraybom\|titleThe Question of Romanisation of the Script and The Emergence of Nationalism in the Middle East\|date1998\|publisherMediterranean Language Review\|pages179–196}}</ref><ref name"shirvtiel188">Shrivtiel, p. 188</ref> Said Akl created a Latin-based alphabet for Lebanese and used it in a newspaper he founded, Lebnaan, as well as in some books he wrote. Egypt After the period of colonialism in Egypt, Egyptians were looking for a way to reclaim and re-emphasize Egyptian culture. As a result, some Egyptians pushed for an Egyptianization of the Arabic language in which the formal Arabic and the colloquial Arabic would be combined into one language and the Latin alphabet would be used.<ref name"shrivtiel179" /><ref name"shirvtiel188" /> There was also the idea of finding a way to use Hieroglyphics instead of the Latin alphabet, but this was seen as too complicated to use.<ref name"shrivtiel179" /><ref name"shirvtiel188" /> A scholar, Salama Musa agreed with the idea of applying a Latin alphabet to Arabic, as he believed that would allow Egypt to have a closer relationship with the West. He also believed that Latin script was key to the success of Egypt as it would allow for more advances in science and technology. This change in alphabet, he believed, would solve the problems inherent with Arabic, such as a lack of written vowels and difficulties writing foreign words that made it difficult for non-native speakers to learn.<ref name"shrivtiel179" /><ref name"shirvtiel188" /> Ahmad Lutfi As Sayid and Muhammad Azmi, two Egyptian intellectuals, agreed with Musa and supported the push for Romanization.<ref name"shrivtiel179" /><ref name"shrivtiel189">Shrivtiel, p. 189</ref> The idea that Romanization was necessary for modernization and growth in Egypt continued with Abd Al-Aziz Fahmi in 1944. He was the chairman for the Writing and Grammar Committee for the Arabic Language Academy of Cairo.<ref name"shrivtiel179" /><ref name"shrivtiel189" /> This effort failed as the Egyptian people felt a strong cultural tie to the Arabic alphabet.<ref name"shrivtiel179" /><ref name"shrivtiel189" /> In particular, the older Egyptian generations believed that the Arabic alphabet had strong connections to Arab values and history, due to the long history of the Arabic alphabet (Shrivtiel, 189) in Muslim societies. Sample text {\| class="wikitable" \|+From Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights !Modern Standard Arabic, Arabic script<ref>{{Cite web \|titleOHCHR &#124; Universal Declaration of Human Rights - Arabic (Alarabia) \|urlhttps://www.ohchr.org/en/human-rights/universal-declaration/translations/arabic}}</ref> !ALA-LC transliteration !English<ref>{{cite news \|titleUniversal Declaration of Human Rights \|urlhttps://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights \|newspaper=United Nations}}</ref> \|- \|{{rtl-para\|ar\|يولد جميع الناس أحراراً متساوين في الكرامة والحقوق، وقد وهبوا عقلاً وضميراً وعليهم أن يعامل بعضهم بعضاً بروح الإخاء.}} \|{{transl\|ALA\|Yūlad jamīʻ al-nās aḥrār-an mutasāwīn fil-karāma-ti wal-huqūq-i, wa-qad wuhibū ʻaql-an wa-ḍamīr-an wa-ʻalayhim an yuʻāmil-u baʻduhum baʻd-an bi-rūh al-ikhāʼ-i.}} \|All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. \|} See also {{Portal\|Islam\|Language}} {{div col\|colwidth=25em}} * Arabic Ontology * Arabic diglossia * Arabic language influence on the Spanish language Arabic Language International Council Arabic literature * Arabic–English Lexicon * Arabist * A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic * Glossary of Islam * International Association of Arabic Dialectology * List of Arab newspapers * List of Arabic-language television channels * List of Arabic given names * List of countries where Arabic is an official language * Arabic-based creole languages * Varieties of Arabic * List of French words of Arabic origin * Replacement of loanwords in Turkish {{div col end}} Notes {{Notelist}} Further reading {{refbegin}} {{Cite JIPA\|first1Ibrahim\|first2Alfredo\|first3Amanda\|last1Al Malwi\|last2Herrero De Haro\|last3Baker\|titleAbha Arabic\|pages1&ndash;19\|doi10.1017/S0025100323000269\|onlinedate2023-12-06\|soundfiles=yes}} {{refend}} References Citations {{Reflist}} Sources {{refbegin}} {{cite book \|last1Al-Jallad \|first1Ahmad \|titleA Manual of the Historical Grammar of Arabic \|viaAcademia \|year2020a \|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/38100372 \|access-date16 July 2021 \|archive-date21 December 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191221205432/https://www.academia.edu/38100372/Al-Jallad._A_Manual_of_the_Historical_Grammar_of_Arabic \|url-statuslive }} * {{Citation \|title As-Sabil \|url https://fr.scribd.com/doc/14436546/Languages-Spoken-by-More-Than-10-Million-People \|access-date 22 June 2016 \|archive-date 25 April 2016 \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160425225639/https://fr.scribd.com/doc/14436546/Languages-Spoken-by-More-Than-10-Million-People \|url-status live }} * {{Citation \|first Mary Catherine \|last Bateson \|title Arabic Language Handbook \|publisher Georgetown University Press \|year 2003 \|isbn 978-0-87840-386-8 }} * {{cite book \|last1Birnstiel \|first1Daniel \|year2019 \|editor1-lastHuehnergard \|editor1-firstJohn \|editor-link1John Huehnergard\| editor2-lastPat-El \|editor2-firstNa'ama \|titleThe Semitic Languages \|publisherRoutledge \| pages367–402 \|chapterChapter 15: Classical Arabic \|isbn978-0-415-73195-9 \|edition2nd \|doi10.4324/9780429025563\|s2cid166512720\|oclc= 1103311755 }} * {{Citation \|last1Durand \|first1Olivier \|last2Langone \|first2Angela D. \|last3Mion \|first3Giuliano \|title Corso di Arabo Contemporaneo. 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Monographie d'un parler arabe périphérique \|location Bucharest \|publisher Editura Universitatii din Bucuresti \|isbn 978-973-737-249-9 \|url https://shamlnews.com/read.php?article1022 \|url-status dead \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20070927072656/http://www.arc-news.com/read.php?langen&id_articol1059 \|archive-date = 27 September 2007 }} * {{Citation \|title Writing Arabic: A Linguistic Approach, from Sounds to Script \|last1Hanna \|first1Sami A. \|first2Naguib \|last2Greis \|year1972 \|publisherBrill Archive \|isbn 978-90-04-03589-8 }} * {{Citation \|last1Haywood \|last2Nahmad \|title A new Arabic grammar \|locationLondon \|year1965 \|isbn 978-0-85331-585-8 \|publisher=Lund Humphries }} * {{Citation \|titleThe Semitic languages \|first1Robert \|last1Hetzron \|editionIllustrated \|publisherTaylor & Francis \|year 1997 \|isbn = 978-0-415-05767-7 }} * {{Cite book \|lastHoles \|firstClive \|titleModern Arabic: Structures, Functions, and Varieties \|publisherGeorgetown University Press \|year2004 \|isbn978-1-58901-022-2}} * {{Citation \|last1Irwin \|first1Robert \|year2006 \|titleFor Lust of Knowing \|locationLondon \|publisherAllen Lane }} * {{Citation \|first1Robert B. \|last1Kaplan \|first2Richard B. \|last2Baldauf \|titleLanguage Planning and Policy in Africa \|publisher Multilingual Matters \|year 2007 \|isbn 978-1-85359-726-8 }} * {{Citation \|first Alan S.\|last Kaye \|year 1991 \|title The Hamzat al-Waṣl in Contemporary Modern Standard Arabic \|journal Journal of the American Oriental Society \|volume 111 \|issue3 \|pages 572–574 \|doi 10.2307/604273 \|jstor 604273 }} * {{Cite journal \|last1Kirchhoff \|first1Katrin \|last2Vergyri \|first2Dimitra \|year2005 \|titleCross-dialectal data sharing for acoustic modeling in Arabic speech recognition \|journalSpeech Communication \|volume46 \|issue1 \|pages37–51 \|doi=10.1016/j.specom.2005.01.004}} * {{Citation \|firstEdward William \|lastLane \|titleArabic–English Lexicon \|year1893 \|edition2003 reprint \|urlhttp://www.studyquran.co.uk/LLhome.htm \|isbn978-81-206-0107-9 \|publisherAsian Educational Services \|locationNew Delhi \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131210194335/http://www.studyquran.co.uk/LLhome.htm \|archive-date10 December 2013 \|url-statusdead }} * {{Citation \|lastLipinski \|firstEdward \|year1997 \|titleSemitic Languages \|locationLeuven \|publisherPeeters }} * {{Citation \|lastMion \|firstGiuliano \|titleLa Lingua Araba \|languageit \|locationRome \|publisherCarocci \|year2007 \|isbn 978-88-430-4394-1 }} * {{Citation \|last Mumisa \|first Michael \|title Introducing Arabic \|publisherGoodword Books \|year2003 \|isbn 978-81-7898-211-3 }} * {{Citation \|first S. \|last Procházka \|year 2006 \|chapter "Arabic" \|title Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics \|edition 2nd }} {{cite book \|editor1-firstKarin Christina \|editor1-lastRyding \|editor2-firstDavid \|editor2-lastWilmsen \|title=The Cambridge Handbook of Arabic Linguistics \|date=2021 \|publisher=Cambridge \|location=New York \|isbn=978-1-108-41730-3}} {{Citation \|last Steingass \|first Francis Joseph \|author-link Francis Joseph Steingass \|url https://books.google.com/books?id3JXQh09i2JwC \|title Arabic–English Dictionary \|publisher Asian Educational Services \|year 1993 \|isbn 978-81-206-0855-9 \|access-date 21 September 2020 \|archive-date 3 April 2013 \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20130403155331/http://books.google.com/books?id3JXQh09i2JwC \|url-status live }} * Suileman, Yasir. Arabic, Self and Identity: A Study in Conflict and Displacement. Oxford University Press, 2011. {{ISBN\|0-19-974701-6\|978-0-19-974701-6}}. * {{cite book \|last = Thelwall \|first = Robin \|year = 2003 \|chapter = Arabic \|publisher = Cambridge University Press \|location = Cambridge \|isbn = 978-0-521-63751-0 \|title = Handbook of the International Phonetic Association a guide to the use of the international phonetic alphabet }} * {{Citation \|first R. \|last Traini \|title Vocabolario di arabo \|publisherI.P.O. \|locationRome \|trans-title Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic \|language it \|via Harassowitz \|year = 1961 }} * {{Citation \|first Laura Veccia \|last Vaglieri \|titleGrammatica teorico-pratica della lingua araba \|publisherI.P.O. \|location = Rome }} * {{cite book \| lastVersteegh \| firstC. H. M. \|author-linkKees Versteegh\| titleThe Arabic Language \| publisherEdinburgh University Press \| year2014 \| isbn978-0-7486-4528-2\|oclc872980196}} * {{Citation \|last = Watson \|first= Janet \|year= 2002 \|title= The Phonology and Morphology of Arabic \|location = New York \|publisher = Oxford University Press \|isbn = 978-0-19-824137-9 }} * {{Citation \|first Hans \|last Wehr \|title Arabisches Wörterbuch für die Schriftsprache der Gegenwart: Arabisch-Deutsch \|publisher Harassowitz \|year 1952 \|edition 1985 reprint (English) \|isbn 978-3-447-01998-9 \|title-link Arabisches Wörterbuch für die Schriftsprache der Gegenwart }} * {{Citation \|title The New York Times Almanac 2002 \|first John W. \|last Wright \|year 2001 \|publisher Routledge \|isbn 978-1-57958-348-4 }} {{refend}} External links {{InterWiki\|code=ar\|Standard Arabic}} {{InterWiki\|code=arz\|Egyptian Arabic}} {{InterWiki\|code=ary\|Moroccan Arabic}} {{Incubator\|arq\|lang=Algerian Arabic}} {{Incubator\|mey\|lang=Hassaniya Arabic}} {{Incubator\|apc\|lang=Levantine Arabic}} {{Incubator\|aeb\|lang=Tunisian Arabic}} {{Wiktionary category}} {{Wikiversity}} {{Wikibooks\|Arabic}} {{Commons category\|Arabic language}} {{Wikiquote}} {{Wikivoyage\|Arabic phrasebook\|Arabic\|a phrasebook}} {{Clear}} {{Arabic language}} {{Arabic language books}} {{Language histories}} {{Semitic languages}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Arabic Language}} Category:Languages attested from the 9th century BC Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Central Semitic languages Category:Fusional languages Category:Languages of Algeria Category:Languages of Bahrain Category:Languages of Cameroon Category:Languages of Chad Category:Languages of the Comoros Category:Languages of Djibouti Category:Languages of Eritrea Category:Languages of Gibraltar Category:Languages of Israel Category:Languages of Iran Category:Languages of Iraq Category:Languages of Jordan Category:Languages of Kurdistan Category:Languages of Kuwait Category:Languages of Lebanon Category:Languages of Libya Category:Languages of Mali Category:Languages of Mauritania Category:Languages of Morocco Category:Languages of Niger Category:Languages of Oman Category:Languages of Palestine Category:Languages of Qatar Category:Languages of Saudi Arabia Category:Languages of Senegal Category:Languages of South Sudan Category:Languages of Sicily Category:Languages of Somalia Category:Languages of Sudan Category:Languages of Syria Category:Languages of the United Arab Emirates Category:Languages of Tunisia Category:Languages of Yemen Category:Lingua francas Category:Stress-timed languages Category:Subject–verb–object languages Category:Verb–subject–object languages	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic	2025-04-05T18:25:22.718871
808	Alfred Hitchcock	{{Short description\|English film director (1899–1980)}} {{Redirect2\|Hitchcock\|Master of Suspense\|the album\|Master of Suspense (album){{!}}Master of Suspense (album)\|the police officer\|Alf Hitchcock\|\|Hitchcock (disambiguation)}} {{Good article}} {{Use British English\|date=March 2020}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=September 2024}} {{Infobox person \| honorific_prefix = Sir \| name = Alfred Hitchcock \| honorific_suffix {{post-nominals\|countryGBR\|KBE\|size=100%}} \| image = Hitchcock, Alfred 02.jpg \| image_upright \| caption Hitchcock, {{circa\|1960s}} \| alt \| birth_name Alfred Joseph Hitchcock \| birth_date {{birth date\|dfy\|1899\|8\|13}} \| birth_place = Leytonstone, Essex, England \| death_date {{death date and age\|dfy\|1980\|4\|29\|1899\|8\|13}} \| death_place = Los Angeles, California, US<!--No boroughs/neighborhoods, just cities per format.--> \| citizenship = {{ubl\|UK\|US (from 1955)}} \| occupation = {{hlist\|Film director\|producer}} \| years_active = 1919–1980 \| works = Full list \| spouse = {{marriage\|Alma Reville\|2 December 1926}} \| children = Pat Hitchcock \| awards = Full list \| signature = Alfred Hitchcock Signature.svg }} Sir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock (13 August 1899&nbsp;– 29 April 1980) was an English<!--as per MOS:BIO; In addition to notability, self identification; "I'm English": Hitchcock in a 1963 interview with Fallaci; see http://scrapsfromtheloft.com/2016/06/14/fallaci-hitchcock-interview/--> film director. He is widely regarded as one of the most influential figures in the history of cinema.<ref name"influential" /> In a career spanning six decades, he directed over 50 feature films,{{efn\|According to Gene Adair (2002), Hitchcock made 53 feature films.{{sfn\|Adair\|2002\|p9}} According to Roger Ebert in 1980, it was 54.<ref nameEbert1May1980>{{cite news \|last1Ebert \|first1Roger\|author-linkRoger Ebert \|titleThe Master of Suspense is Dead \|urlhttps://www.rogerebert.com/interviews/the-master-of-suspense-is-dead \|workChicago Sun-Times \|date1 May 1980 \|access-date26 December 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171226235234/https://www.rogerebert.com/interviews/the-master-of-suspense-is-dead\|archive-date26 December 2017\|url-statuslive}}</ref>}} many of which are still widely watched and studied today. Known as the "Master of Suspense", Hitchcock became as well known as any of his actors thanks to his many interviews, his cameo appearances in most of his films, and his hosting and producing the television anthology Alfred Hitchcock Presents (1955–65). His films garnered 46 Academy Award nominations, including six wins, although he never won the award for Best Director, despite five nominations. Hitchcock initially trained as a technical clerk and copywriter before entering the film industry in 1919 as a title card designer. His directorial debut was the British–German silent film The Pleasure Garden (1925). His first successful film, The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog (1927), helped to shape the thriller genre, and Blackmail (1929) was the first British "talkie".<ref nameBlackmail/> His thrillers The 39 Steps (1935) and The Lady Vanishes (1938) are ranked among the greatest British films of the 20th century. By 1939, he had international recognition and producer David O. Selznick persuaded him to move to Hollywood. A string of successful films followed, including Rebecca (1940), Foreign Correspondent (1940), Suspicion (1941), Shadow of a Doubt (1943) and Notorious (1946). Rebecca won the Academy Award for Best Picture, with Hitchcock nominated as Best Director.<ref nameRebecca/> He also received Oscar nominations for Lifeboat (1944), Spellbound (1945), Rear Window (1954) and Psycho (1960).<ref name"AFI top 100">{{cite web \|titleAFI's 100 Greatest American Films of All Time \|urlhttps://www.afi.com/100Years/movies10.aspx \|publisherAmerican Film Institute \|access-date8 September 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190519213359/http://afi.com/100years/movies10.aspx \|archive-date=19 May 2019}}</ref> Hitchcock's other notable films include Rope (1948), Strangers on a Train (1951), Dial M for Murder (1954), To Catch a Thief (1955), The Trouble with Harry (1955), Vertigo (1958), North by Northwest (1959), The Birds (1963), Marnie (1964) and Frenzy (1972), all of which were also financially successful and are highly regarded by film historians. Hitchcock made a number of films with some of the biggest stars in Hollywood, including four with Cary Grant, four with James Stewart, three with Ingrid Bergman and three consecutively with Grace Kelly. Hitchcock became an American citizen in 1955. In 2012, Hitchcock's psychological thriller Vertigo, starring Stewart, displaced Orson Welles' Citizen Kane (1941) as the British Film Institute's greatest film ever made based on its world-wide poll of hundreds of film critics.<ref nameChristie2012/> {{As of\|2021}}, nine of his films had been selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry,{{efn\|The films selected for the National Film Registry are Rebecca (1940), Shadow of a Doubt (1943), Notorious (1946), Strangers on a Train (1951), Rear Window (1954), Vertigo (1958), North by Northwest (1959), Psycho (1960) and The Birds (1963).<ref nameloc>{{cite web \|titleComplete National Film Registry Listing \|urlhttps://www.loc.gov/programs/national-film-preservation-board/film-registry/complete-national-film-registry-listing/ \|publisherLibrary of Congress \|access-date21 December 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161031213743/https://www.loc.gov/programs/national-film-preservation-board/film-registry/complete-national-film-registry-listing/\|archive-date31 October 2016}}{{pb}} [https://www.loc.gov/programs/national-film-preservation-board/film-registry/descriptions-and-essays/ "Brief Descriptions and Expanded Essays of National Film Registry Titles"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180101025858/https://www.loc.gov/programs/national-film-preservation-board/film-registry/descriptions-and-essays/ \|date1 January 2018 }}. Library of Congress. Retrieved 21 December 2018.</ref>}} including his personal favourite, Shadow of a Doubt (1943).{{efn\|Alfred Hitchcock (North American Newspaper Alliance, 16 July 1972): "My own favorite is Shadow of a Doubt. You never saw it? Ah. It was written by Thornton Wilder. It's a character study, a suspense thriller. The beauty of the film was it was shot in the actual town."<ref>{{cite news \|lastMorehouse \|firstRebecca \|titleAlfred Hitchcock Not a Male Chauvinist \|workLima News \|agencyNorth American Newspaper Alliance \|date16 July 1972}}</ref>}} He received the BAFTA Fellowship in 1971, the AFI Life Achievement Award in 1979, and was knighted in December of that year, four months before his death on 29 April 1980.<ref nameTodd30April1980/>BiographyEarly life: 1899–1919Early childhood and education <!--look for images of St Ignatius and Henley's--> Alfred Joseph Hitchcock was born on 13 August 1899 in the flat above his parents' leased greengrocer's shop at 517 High Road in Leytonstone, which was then part of Essex (now part of the London Borough of Waltham Forest). He was the son of greengrocer and poulterer, William Edgar Hitchcock (1862–1914) and Emma Jane (née Whelan; 1863–1942). The household was "characterised by an atmosphere of discipline".<ref>{{cite ODNB\|urlhttps://www.oxforddnb.com/display/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-31239\|titleHitchcock, Sir Alfred Joseph (1899–1980), film director\|accessdate2 July 2024\|doi10.1093/ref:odnb/3123 }}</ref> He had an older brother named William John (1888–1943) and an older sister named Ellen Kathleen (1892–1979) who used the nickname "Nellie". His parents were both Roman Catholics with English and Irish ancestry.{{sfn\|Adair\|2002\|pp11–12}}<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.irishecho.com/2011/02/st-patricks-day-2005-the-master-of-suspense-2/ \|titleSt. Patrick's Day 2005: The Master of Suspense \|workIrish Echo \|date17 February 2011 \|access-date14 February 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180215023358/https://www.irishecho.com/2011/02/st-patricks-day-2005-the-master-of-suspense-2/\|archive-date15 February 2018}}</ref> His father was a greengrocer, as his grandfather had been.<ref>{{harvnb\|Taylor\|1996\|pp21–22}}; {{harvnb\|Spoto\|1999\|pp14–15}}</ref> There was a large extended family, including uncle John Hitchcock with his five-bedroom Victorian house on Campion Road in Putney, complete with a maid, cook, chauffeur, and gardener. Every summer, his uncle rented a seaside house for the family in Cliftonville, Kent. Hitchcock said that he first became class-conscious there, noticing the differences between tourists and locals.<ref>{{harvnb\|McGilligan\|2003\|p=6}}</ref> , where Hitchcock was born; commemorative mural at nos. 527–533 (right)<ref>{{cite news \|last1Glanvill \|first1Natalie \|titleMateusz Odrobny speaks of pride after working on Hitchcock mural \|urlhttp://www.guardian-series.co.uk/news/11240741.Hitchcock_mural_a__real_honour__says_painter/ \|workEast London and West Essex Guardian \|date28 May 2014\|access-date5 January 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180106063930/http://www.guardian-series.co.uk/news/11240741.Hitchcock_mural_a__real_honour__says_painter/\|archive-date=6 January 2018}}</ref>]] Describing himself as a well-behaved boy{{snd}}his father called him his "little lamb without a spot"{{snd}}Hitchcock said he could not remember ever having had a playmate.{{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p25}} One of his favourite stories for interviewers was about his father sending him to the local police station with a note when he was five; the policeman looked at the note and locked him in a cell for a few minutes, saying, "This is what we do to naughty boys." The experience left him with a lifelong phobia of law enforcement, and he told Tom Snyder in 1973 that he was "scared stiff of anything&nbsp;... to do with the law" and that he would refuse to even drive a car in case he got a parking ticket.<ref>For the police story: {{harvnb\|Truffaut\|1983\|p25}}; {{harvnb\|Taylor\|1996\|p25}}; Cavett, Dick (8 June 1972). "Interview with Alfred Hitchcock", The Dick Cavett Show, ABC, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?vTYTx6N24tHk&t6m52s 00:06:52] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191225115833/https://www.youtube.com/watch?vTYTx6N24tHk&t6m52s \|date=25 December 2019 }}.{{pb}} For the Snyder interview: Snyder, Tom (1973). "Alfred Hitchcock interview", Tomorrow, NBC, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?voHhe2zTkeRQ&t1m55s 00:01:55] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200103162126/https://www.youtube.com/watch?voHhe2zTkeRQ&t1m55s \|date3 January 2020 }}.</ref> When he was six, the family moved to Limehouse and leased two stores at 130 and 175 Salmon Lane, which they ran as a fish-and-chip shop and fishmongers' respectively; they lived above the former.<ref nameMcG2003p13>{{harvnb\|McGilligan\|2003\|p13}}</ref> Hitchcock attended his first school, the Howrah House Convent in Poplar, which he entered in 1907, at age 7.<ref>{{harvnb\|Spoto\|1999\|pp20, 23}}</ref> According to biographer Patrick McGilligan, he stayed at Howrah House for at most two years. He also attended a convent school, the Wode Street School "for the daughters of gentlemen and little boys" run by the Faithful Companions of Jesus. He then attended a primary school near his home and was for a short time a boarder at Salesian College in Battersea.<ref>{{harvnb\|Taylor\|1996\|p29}}; {{harvnb\|McGilligan\|2003\|p=18}}</ref> The family moved again when Hitchcock was eleven, this time to Stepney, and on 5 October 1910 he was sent to St Ignatius College in Stamford Hill, a Jesuit grammar school with a reputation for discipline.<ref>{{harvnb\|Truffaut\|1983\|p25}}; {{harvnb\|Spoto\|1999\|p23}}</ref> As corporal punishment, the priests used a flat, hard, springy tool made of gutta-percha and known as a "ferula" which struck the whole palm; punishment was always at the end of the day, so the boys had to sit through classes anticipating the punishment if they had been written up for it. He later said that this is where he developed his sense of fear.<ref>{{harvnb\|Truffaut\|1983\|p26}}; {{harvnb\|Fallaci\|1963}}</ref> The school register lists his year of birth as 1900 rather than 1899; biographer Donald Spoto says he was deliberately enrolled as a ten-year-old because he was a year behind with his schooling.{{sfn\|Spoto\|1999\|pp23–24}} While biographer Gene Adair reports that Hitchcock was "an average, or slightly above-average, pupil",{{sfn\|Adair\|2002\|p15}} Hitchcock said that he was "usually among the four or five at the top of the class";{{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p26}} at the end of his first year, his work in Latin, English, French and religious education was noted.<ref>{{harvnb\|Adair\|2002\|p15}}; {{harvnb\|Truffaut\|1983\|p26}}</ref> He told Peter Bogdanovich: "The Jesuits taught me organisation, control and, to some degree, analysis."{{sfn\|Adair\|2002\|p=15}}<!--replace source--> Hitchcock's favourite subject was geography and he became interested in maps and the timetables of trains, trams and buses; according to John Russell Taylor, he could recite all the stops on the Orient Express.{{sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p31}} He had a particular interest in London trams. An overwhelming majority of his films include rail or tram scenes, in particular The Lady Vanishes, Strangers on a Train and Number Seventeen. A clapperboard shows the number of the scene and the number of takes, and Hitchcock would often take the two numbers on the clapperboard and whisper the London tram route names. For example, if the clapperboard showed "Scene 23; Take 3", he would whisper "Woodford, Hampstead"{{emdash}}Woodford being the terminus of the route 23 tram, and Hampstead the end of route 3.<ref>Patrick McGilligan, 2003. Buckley, R. J. 1984. Alfred Hitchcock: A Life in Darkness and Light ({{ISBN\|0-470-86973-9}}). Chichester, UK, John Wiley & Sons Ltd.</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://writebetter.io/examples/film+rail/extended/ \|titleHow to use "film rail" in a sentence – WriteBetter \|access-date7 November 2021 \|archive-date7 November 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211107064550/https://writebetter.io/examples/film+rail/extended/}}</ref> Henley's Hitchcock told his parents that he wanted to be an engineer,{{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p26}} and on 25 July 1913,<ref nameSpoto1999p23>{{harvnb\|Spoto\|1999\|p23}}</ref> he left St Ignatius and enrolled in night classes at the London County Council School of Engineering and Navigation in Poplar. In a book-length interview in 1962, he told François Truffaut that he had studied "mechanics, electricity, acoustics, and navigation".{{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p26}} Then, on 12 December 1914, his father, who had been suffering from emphysema and kidney disease, died at the age of 52.<ref>{{harvnb\|McGilligan\|2003\|p25}}</ref> To support himself and his mother{{snd}}his older siblings had left home by then{{snd}}Hitchcock took a job, for 15 shillings a week (£{{formatnum:{{inflation\|UK\|0.75\|1914}}}} in {{Inflation/year\|UK}}),{{inflation-fn\|UK}} as a technical clerk at the Henley Telegraph and Cable Company in Blomfield Street, near London Wall.<ref>{{harvnb\|Adair\|2002\|p15}}; {{harvnb\|Spoto\|1999\|p37}}</ref> He continued night classes, this time in art history, painting, economics and political science.<ref>{{harvnb\|Spoto\|1999\|p37}}</ref> His older brother ran the family shops, while he and his mother continued to live in Salmon Lane.{{sfn\|Ackroyd\|2015\|p=11}} Hitchcock was too young to enlist when the First World War started in July 1914, and when he reached the required age of 18 in 1917, he received a C3 classification ("free from serious organic disease, able to stand service conditions in garrisons at home&nbsp;... only suitable for sedentary work").<ref>{{harvnb\|Taylor\|1996\|pp27–28}};<!--check page--> [https://hansard.parliament.uk/Commons/1918-06-20/debates/3ec12ba9-4d13-4c03-880a-226006f28d83/MilitaryService(MedicalGrading) "Military service (medical grading")] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190224062439/https://hansard.parliament.uk/Commons/1918-06-20/debates/3ec12ba9-4d13-4c03-880a-226006f28d83/MilitaryService(MedicalGrading) \|date24 February 2019 }}, Hansard, vol. 107, 20 June 1918, 607–642.</ref> He joined a cadet regiment of the Royal Engineers and took part in theoretical briefings, weekend drills and exercises. John Russell Taylor wrote that, in one session of practical exercises in Hyde Park, Hitchcock was required to wear puttees. He could never master wrapping them around his legs, and they repeatedly fell down around his ankles.{{sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p28}} After the war, Hitchcock took an interest in creative writing. In June 1919, he became a founding editor and business manager of Henley's in-house publication, The Henley Telegraph (sixpence a copy), to which he submitted several short stories.{{sfn\|McGilligan\|2003\|p30}}{{efn\|In his first story, "Gas" (June 1919), published in the first issue, a young woman is being assaulted by a mob of men in Paris, only to find she has been hallucinating in the dentist's chair.<ref>{{harvnb\|Duncan\|2003\|p20}}; Hitchcock, Alfred (June 1919). [https://the.hitchcock.zone/wiki/Henley_Telegraph_(1919)_-_Gas "Gas"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171222220201/https://the.hitchcock.zone/wiki/Henley_Telegraph_(1919)_-_Gas \|date22 December 2017 }}, Henley Telegraph.</ref> This was followed by "The Woman's Part" (September 1919), which describes a husband watching his wife, an actor, perform on stage.<ref>{{harvnb\|Hitchcock\|2014\|p19}}; Hitchcock, Alfred (September 1919). [https://the.hitchcock.zone/wiki/Henley_Telegraph_(1919)_-_The_Woman%27s_Part "The Women's Part"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171223042537/https://the.hitchcock.zone/wiki/Henley_Telegraph_(1919)_-_The_Woman%27s_Part \|date23 December 2017 }}, Henley Telegraph; {{harvnb\|McGilligan\|2003\|p34}}</ref> "Sordid" (February 1920) concerns an attempt to buy a sword from an antiques dealer, with another twist ending.<ref>{{harvnb\|Hitchcock\|2014\|p20}}; Hitchcock, Alfred (February 1920). [https://the.hitchcock.zone/wiki/Henley_Telegraph_(1920)_-_Sordid "Sordid"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171223042506/https://the.hitchcock.zone/wiki/Henley_Telegraph_(1920)_-_Sordid \|date23 December 2017 }}, Henley Telegraph.</ref> "And There Was No Rainbow" (September 1920) finds Bob caught in flagrante with a friend's wife.<ref>{{harvnb\|Hitchcock\|2014\|p22}}; Hitchcock, Alfred (September 1920). [https://the.hitchcock.zone/wiki/Henley_Telegraph_(1920)_-_And_There_Was_No_Rainbow "And There Was No Rainbow"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171223042508/https://the.hitchcock.zone/wiki/Henley_Telegraph_(1920)_-_And_There_Was_No_Rainbow \|date23 December 2017 }}, Henley Telegraph.</ref> In "What's Who?" (December 1920), confusion reigns when a group of actors impersonate themselves.<ref>{{harvnb\|Hitchcock\|2014\|p23}}; Hitchcock, Alfred (December 1920). [https://the.hitchcock.zone/wiki/Henley_Telegraph_(1920)_-_What%27s_Who%3F "What's Who?"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191223145710/https://the.hitchcock.zone/wiki/Henley_Telegraph_(1920)_-_What%27s_Who%3F \|date23 December 2019 }}, Henley Telegraph.</ref> "The History of Pea Eating" (December 1920) is a satire on the difficulty of eating peas.<ref>{{harvnb\|Hitchcock\|2014\|p24}}; Hitchcock, Alfred (December 1920). [https://the.hitchcock.zone/wiki/Henley_Telegraph_(1920)_-_The_History_of_Pea_Eating "The History of Pea Eating"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171003030654/https://the.hitchcock.zone/wiki/Henley_Telegraph_(1920)_-_The_History_of_Pea_Eating \|date3 October 2017 }}, Henley Telegraph.</ref> His final piece, "Fedora" (March 1921) describes an unknown woman: "small, simple, unassuming, and noiseless, yet she commands profound attention on all sides".<ref>{{harvnb\|Hitchcock\|2014\|p26}}; {{harvnb\|McGilligan\|2003\|pp44–45}}; Hitchcock, Alfred (March 1921). [https://the.hitchcock.zone/wiki/Henley_Telegraph_(1921)_-_Fedora "Fedora"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171223042540/https://the.hitchcock.zone/wiki/Henley_Telegraph_(1921)_-_Fedora \|date23 December 2017 }}, Henley Telegraph.</ref>}} Henley's promoted him to the advertising department, where he wrote copy and drew graphics for electric cable advertisements. He enjoyed the job and would stay late at the office to examine the proofs; he told Truffaut that this was his "first step toward cinema".{{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p26}}{{sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p21}} He enjoyed watching films, especially American cinema, and from the age of 16 read the trade papers; he watched Charlie Chaplin, D. W. Griffith and Buster Keaton, and particularly liked Fritz Lang's Der müde Tod (released in Britain in 1921 as Destiny).{{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p26}}Inter-war career: 1919–1939Famous Players–Lasky '' in London]] While still at Henley's, he read in a trade paper that Famous Players–Lasky, the production arm of Paramount Pictures, was opening a studio in London.{{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p27}} They were planning to film The Sorrows of Satan by Marie Corelli, so he produced some drawings for the title cards and sent his work to the studio.{{sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p24}} They hired him, and in 1919 he began working for Islington Studios in Poole Street, Hoxton, as a title-card designer.{{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p=27}} Donald Spoto wrote that most of the staff were Americans with strict job specifications, but the English workers were encouraged to try their hand at anything, which meant that Hitchcock gained experience as a co-writer, art director and production manager on at least 18 silent films.{{sfn\|Spoto\|2008\|p3}} The Times wrote in February 1922 about the studio's "special art title department under the supervision of Mr. A. J. Hitchcock".<ref nameMillerBFI>{{cite web \|lastMiller \|firstHenry K. \|urlhttp://www.screenonline.org.uk/film/id/1422787/index.html \|titleAlways Tell Your Wife (1923) \|publisherBritish Film Institute Screenonline \|access-date25 August 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160303213454/http://www.screenonline.org.uk/film/id/1422787/index.html\|archive-date3 March 2016}}</ref> His work included Number 13 (1922), also known as Mrs. Peabody; it was cancelled because of financial problems - the few finished scenes are lost{{sfn\|Spoto\|1992\|p3}}{{snd}}and Always Tell Your Wife (1923), which he and Seymour Hicks finished together when Hicks was about to give up on it.{{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p27}} Hicks wrote later about being helped by "a fat youth who was in charge of the property room&nbsp;... [n]one other than Alfred Hitchcock".{{sfn\|Kerzoncuf\|Barr\|2015\|p45}}<!--check page-->Gainsborough Pictures and work in Germany, Poole Street, Hoxton, north London<ref>{{cite news \|last1Rose \|first1Steve \|titleWhere the lady vanished \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2001/jan/15/artsfeatures \|workThe Guardian \|date15 January 2001\|access-date30 December 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171231051755/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2001/jan/15/artsfeatures\|archive-date31 December 2017}}</ref>]] When Paramount pulled out of London in 1922, Hitchcock was hired as an assistant director by a new firm run in the same location by Michael Balcon, later known as Gainsborough Pictures.{{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p27}}{{sfn\|Spoto\|2008\|pp3–4}} Hitchcock worked on Woman to Woman (1923) with the director Graham Cutts, designing the set, writing the script and producing. He said: "It was the first film that I had really got my hands onto."{{sfn\|Spoto\|2008\|pp3–4}} The editor and "script girl" on Woman to Woman was Alma Reville, his future wife. He also worked as an assistant to Cutts on The White Shadow (1924), The Passionate Adventure (1924), The Blackguard (1925) and ''The Prude's Fall (1925).{{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p30}} The Blackguard'' was produced at the Babelsberg Studios in Potsdam, where Hitchcock watched part of the making of F. W. Murnau's The Last Laugh (1924).<ref>{{harvnb\|Gottlieb\|2002\|p42}}; {{harvnb\|Gottlieb\|2003\|pp157–158}}; also see {{harvnb\|Garncarz\|2002}}</ref> He was impressed with Murnau's work, and later used many of his techniques for the set design in his own productions.{{sfn\|Gottlieb\|2002\|pp=42–43}} In the summer of 1925, Balcon asked Hitchcock to direct The Pleasure Garden (1925), starring Virginia Valli, a co-production of Gainsborough and the German firm Emelka at the Geiselgasteig studio near Munich. Reville, by then Hitchcock's fiancée, was assistant director-editor.{{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|pp31, 36}}{{sfn\|Spoto\|1992\|p3}} Although the film was a commercial flop,{{sfn\|McGilligan\|2003\|pp68–71}} Balcon liked Hitchcock's work; a Daily Express headline called him the "Young man with a master mind".{{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p39}} In March 1926, the British film magazine Picturegoer ran an article entitled "Alfred the Great" by the film critic Cedric Belfrage, who praised Hitchcock for possessing "such a complete grasp of all the different branches of film technique that he is able to take far more control of his production than the average director of four times his experience."{{sfn\|Spoto\|1999\|p84}} Production of The Pleasure Garden encountered obstacles which Hitchcock would later learn from: on arrival to Brenner Pass, he failed to declare his film stock to customs and it was confiscated; one actress could not enter the water for a scene because she was on her period; budget overruns meant that he had to borrow money from the actors.{{Sfn\|McGilligan\|2003\|p70}} Hitchcock also needed a translator to give instructions to the cast and crew.{{Sfn\|McGilligan\|2003\|p=70}} In Germany, Hitchcock observed the nuances of German cinema and filmmaking which had a big influence on him.{{Sfn\|McGilligan\|2003\|p63}} When he was not working, he would visit Berlin's art galleries, concerts and museums. He would also meet with actors, writers and producers to build connections.{{Sfn\|McGilligan\|2003\|p64}} Balcon asked him to direct a second film in Munich, The Mountain Eagle (1926), based on an original story titled ''Fear o' God''.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.brentonfilm.com/articles/alfred-hitchcock-collectors-guide-the-mountain-eagle-1926 \|titleAlfred Hitchcock Collectors' Guide: The Mountain Eagle (1926) \|publisherBrenton Film \|access-date30 August 2019 \|date23 September 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191219011242/https://www.brentonfilm.com/articles/alfred-hitchcock-collectors-guide-the-mountain-eagle-1926\|archive-date19 December 2019}}</ref> The film is lost, and Hitchcock called it "a very bad movie".{{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p39}}{{sfn\|Spoto\|1992\|p5}} A year later, Hitchcock wrote and directed The Ring; although the screenplay was credited solely to his name, Elliot Stannard assisted him with the writing.{{Sfn\|McGilligan\|2003\|p98}} The Ring garnered positive reviews; the Bioscope critic called it "the most magnificent British film ever made".{{Sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p=76}} When he returned to England, Hitchcock was one of the early members of the London Film Society, newly formed in 1925.{{Sfn\|McGilligan\|2003\|p75}} Through the Society, he became fascinated by the work by Soviet filmmakers: Dziga Vertov, Lev Kuleshov, Sergei Eisenstein and Vsevolod Pudovkin. He would also socialise with fellow English filmmakers Ivor Montagu, Adrian Brunel and Walter Mycroft.{{Sfn\|McGilligan\|2003\|p76}} Hitchcock recognised the value in cultivating his own brand, with the director aggressively promoting himself during this period.<ref>{{harvnb\|Kapsis\|1992\|p20}}</ref> In a 1925 London Film Society meeting he declared directors were what mattered most in making films, with Donald Spoto writing that Hitchcock proclaimed, "We make a film succeed. The name of the director should be associated in the public's mind with a quality product. Actors come and go, but the name of the director should stay clearly in the mind of the audience."{{sfn\|Spoto\|1999\|p73}} {{Quote box \|quote = Visually, it was extraordinarily imaginative for the time, most notably in the scene in which Hitchcock installed a glass floor so that he could show the lodger pacing up and down in his room from below, as though overheard by his landlady. \|source {{snd}}BFI entry for Hitchcock's first thriller, The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog (1927)<ref>{{cite news \|titleThe Lodger A Story of the London Fog\|urlhttps://www2.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b6af1296e \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160222212308/http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b6af1296e \|url-statusdead \|archive-date22 February 2016 \|access-date2 May 2023 \|publisherBFI}}</ref> \|width= 23em \|align= right \|salign= right \|style = padding:1.2em}} Hitchcock established himself as a name director with his first thriller, The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog (1927).<ref name"Lodger BFI"/> The film concerns the hunt for a Jack the Ripper-style serial killer who, wearing a black cloak and carrying a black bag, is murdering young blonde women in London, and only on Tuesdays.{{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p45}} A landlady suspects that her lodger is the killer, but he turns out to be innocent.{{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p47}} Hitchcock had wanted the leading man to be guilty, or for the film at least to end ambiguously, but the star was Ivor Novello, a matinée idol, and the "star system" meant that Novello could not be the villain. Hitchcock told Truffaut: "You have to clearly spell it out in big letters: 'He is innocent.'" (He had the same problem years later with Cary Grant in Suspicion (1941).){{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p43}} Released in January 1927, The Lodger was a commercial and critical success in the UK.{{Sfn\|McGilligan\|2003\|p85}}<ref>{{harvnb\|Kapsis\|1992\|p19}}</ref> Upon its release, the trade journal Bioscope wrote: "It is possible that this film is the finest British production ever made".<ref name"Lodger BFI">{{cite news \|titleLodger, The: A Story of the London Fog (1926) \|urlhttp://www.screenonline.org.uk/film/id/438120/index.html \|access-date13 July 2022 \|workBFI}}</ref> Hitchcock told Truffaut that the film was the first of his to be influenced by German Expressionism: "In truth, you might almost say that The Lodger was my first picture."{{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p44}}<!--<ref>{{harvnb\|McGilligan\|2003\|p83}}</ref> in 2004 edition; is the date correct? --> In a strategy for self-publicity, The Lodger saw him make his first cameo appearance in a film, where he sat in a newsroom.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.brentonfilm.com/articles/alfred-hitchcock-collectors-guide-the-lodger-a-story-of-the-london-fog-1926 \|titleAlfred Hitchcock Collectors' Guide: The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog (1926) \|publisherBrenton Film \|access-date30 August 2019 \|date23 September 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191222033129/https://www.brentonfilm.com/articles/alfred-hitchcock-collectors-guide-the-lodger-a-story-of-the-london-fog-1926\|archive-date22 December 2019}}</ref>{{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p=49}} Continuing to market his brand following the success of The Lodger, Hitchcock wrote a letter to the London Evening News in November 1927 about his filmmaking, participated in studio-produced publicity, and by December 1927 he developed the original sketch of his widely recognised profile which he introduced by sending it to friends and colleagues as a Christmas present.<ref>{{harvnb\|Kapsis\|1992\|p20}}</ref>Marriage , 2 December 1926]] On 2 December 1926, Hitchcock married the English screenwriter Alma Reville at the Brompton Oratory in South Kensington.{{sfn\|Spoto\|1999\|p5}} The couple honeymooned in Paris, Lake Como and St. Moritz, before returning to London to live in a leased flat on the top two floors of 153 Cromwell Road, Kensington.{{sfn\|McGilligan\|2003\|pp89–90}} Reville, who was born just hours after Hitchcock,{{sfn\|Hitchcock O'Connell\|Bouzereau\|2003\|p15}} converted from Protestantism to Catholicism, apparently at the insistence of Hitchcock's mother; she was baptised on 31 May 1927 and confirmed at Westminster Cathedral by Cardinal Francis Bourne on 5 June.<ref>{{harvnb\|Hitchcock O'Connell\|Bouzereau\|2003\|p48}}; {{harvnb\|Spoto\|1999\|pp=92–93}}</ref> In 1928, when they learned that Reville was pregnant, the Hitchcocks purchased "Winter's Grace", a Tudor farmhouse set in eleven acres on Stroud Lane, Shamley Green, Surrey, for £2,500.<ref>{{harvnb\|Spoto\|1999\|p115}}; {{harvnb\|Hitchcock O'Connell\|Bouzereau\|2003\|p55}}; {{cite news \|last1Clark \|first1Ross \|titleAlfred Hitchcock: A long way from the Bates Motel \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/property/period-property/3360983/Alfred-Hitchcock-A-long-way-from-the-Bates-Motel.html \|workThe Daily Telegraph \|date13 April 2008\|access-date5 April 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171227193225/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/property/period-property/3360983/Alfred-Hitchcock-A-long-way-from-the-Bates-Motel.html\|archive-date27 December 2017}}</ref> Their daughter and only child, Patricia (Pat) Alma Hitchcock, was born on 7 July that year.{{sfn\|Hitchcock O'Connell\|Bouzereau\|2003\|pp59–60}} Pat died on 9 August 2021 at the age of 93.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Barnes \|first1Mike \|titlePat Hitchcock, 'Strangers on a Train' Actress and Daughter of Alfred Hitchcock, Dies at 93 \|urlhttps://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/pat-hitchcock-dead-alfred-daughter-1234995917/ \|websiteThe Hollywood Reporter \|date10 August 2021 \|access-date=11 August 2021}}</ref> Reville became her husband's closest collaborator; Charles Champlin wrote in 1982: "The Hitchcock touch had four hands, and two were Alma's."<ref>{{cite news \|last1Champlin \|first1Charles\|author-linkCharles Champlin \|titleAlma Reville Hitchcock, The Unsung Partner \|workLos Angeles Times \|date29 July 1982}}</ref> When Hitchcock accepted the AFI Life Achievement Award in 1979, he said that he wanted to mention "four people who have given me the most affection, appreciation and encouragement, and constant collaboration. The first of the four is a film editor, the second is a scriptwriter, the third is the mother of my daughter, Pat, and the fourth is as fine a cook as ever performed miracles in a domestic kitchen. And their names are Alma Reville."<ref>{{cite web\|titleAlfred Hitchcock Accepts the AFI Life Achievement Award in 1979\|websiteYouTube \|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vpb5VdGCQFOM&t3m14s\|access-date11 February 2023 \|date16 April 2009}}</ref> Reville wrote or co-wrote on many of Hitchcock's films, including Shadow of a Doubt, Suspicion and The 39 Steps.<ref>{{cite news \|titleReville [married name Hitchcock], Alma Lucy \|urlhttps://www.oxforddnb.com/display/10.1093/odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-109643?d%2F10.1093%2Fodnb%2F9780198614128.001.0001%2Fodnb-9780198614128-e-109643&p \|access-date29 April 2024 \|publisherOxford Dictionary of National Biography}}</ref> Early sound films (1929)]] <!--mention Hitchcock Baker Productions and cruise in 1931-->Hitchcock began work on his tenth film, Blackmail (1929), when its production company, British International Pictures (BIP), converted its Elstree studios to sound. The film was the first British "talkie"; this followed the rapid development of sound films in the United States, from the use of brief sound segments in The Jazz Singer (1927) to the first full sound feature Lights of New York (1928).<ref nameBlackmail>{{cite web \|titleBlackmail (1929) \|urlhttp://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b6a55273b \|publisherBritish Film Institute \|access-date1 January 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171231082847/http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b6a55273b\|archive-date31 December 2017}}; also see {{harvnb\|White\|Buscombe\|2003\|p94}}; {{harvnb\|Allen\|Ishii-Gonzalès\|2004\|pxv}}</ref> Blackmail began the Hitchcock tradition of using famous landmarks as a backdrop for suspense sequences, which includes an early example of a red telephone box being used for criminal activity, while the climax takes place on the dome of the British Museum.<ref name"Time Out"/> It also features one of his longest cameo appearances, which shows him being bothered by a small boy as he reads a book on the London Underground.{{sfn\|Walker\|2005\|p88}} In the PBS series The Men Who Made The Movies, Hitchcock explained how he used early sound recording as a special element of the film to create tension, with a gossipy woman (Phyllis Monkman) stressing the word "knife" in her conversation with the woman suspected of murder.<ref>{{harvnb\|McGilligan\|2003\|pp120–123}}; {{cite web \|titleAlfred Hitchcock and David O. Selznick Collaborations \|urlhttps://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/database/hitchcock_a.html \|publisherPublic Broadcasting System \|date10 January 2001 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080319043811/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/database/hitchcock_a.html \|archive-date19 March 2008\|url-statuslive}}</ref> During this period, Hitchcock directed segments for a BIP revue, Elstree Calling (1930), and directed a short film, An Elastic Affair (1930), featuring two Film Weekly scholarship winners.{{sfn\|McGilligan\|2003\|p137}} An Elastic Affair is one of the lost films.<ref nameKerzoncuf2009>{{cite journal \|last1Kerzoncuf \|first1Alain \|dateFebruary 2009 \|titleAlfred Hitchcock and The Fighting Generation \|journalSenses of Cinema \|issue49 \|urlhttp://sensesofcinema.com/2009/feature-articles/hitchcock-fighting-generation/ \|access-date15 December 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180405234711/http://sensesofcinema.com/2009/feature-articles/hitchcock-fighting-generation/ \|archive-date5 April 2018 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> (the archetypal "Hitchcock blonde") and Robert Donat in The 39 Steps (1935)]] In 1933, Hitchcock signed a multi-film contract with Gaumont-British, once again working for Michael Balcon.{{Sfn\|Spoto\|1999\|p37}}{{Sfn\|McGilligan\|2003\|p153}} His first film for the company, The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934), was a success; his second, The 39 Steps'' (1935), was acclaimed in the UK, and gained him recognition in the US. It also established the quintessential English "Hitchcock blonde" (Madeleine Carroll) as the template for his succession of ice-cold, elegant leading ladies.<ref name"Chapman">{{cite book \|last1Chapman \|first1James \|titleHitchcock and the Spy Film \|date2017 \|page54 \|publisherBloomsbury Publishing\|quoteCarroll was the archetypal 'Hitchcock blonde' – the first in a lineage that would also include Grace Kelly, Eva Marie Saint, Kim Novak and Tippi Hedren}}</ref> Screenwriter Robert Towne remarked: "It's not much of an exaggeration to say that all contemporary escapist entertainment begins with The 39 Steps".<ref>{{cite magazine \|last1Scragow \|first1Michael \|titleRewatching Hitchcock's "The 39 Steps" \|urlhttps://www.newyorker.com/culture/culture-desk/rewatching-hitchcocks-the-39-steps \|magazineThe New Yorker \|date9 July 2012\|access-date25 October 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171026110604/https://www.newyorker.com/culture/culture-desk/rewatching-hitchcocks-the-39-steps\|archive-date26 October 2017\|url-statuslive}}</ref> John Buchan, author of The Thirty-Nine Steps on which the film is loosely based, met with Hitchcock on set, and attended the high-profile premiere at the New Gallery Cinema in London. Upon viewing the film, the author said it had improved on the book.<ref name"Chapman"/> This film was one of the first to introduce the "MacGuffin" plot device, a term coined by the English screenwriter and Hitchcock collaborator Angus MacPhail.<ref>{{cite book \|lastMcArthur \|firstColin \|titleWhisky Galore! and the Maggie \|year2003 \|publisherI.B. Tauris \|locationLondon \|page21}}</ref> The MacGuffin is an item or goal the protagonist is pursuing, one that otherwise has no narrative value; in The 39 Steps, the MacGuffin is a stolen set of design plans.<ref>{{harvnb\|Truffaut\|1983\|pp=137–139}}</ref> Hitchcock released two spy thrillers in 1936. Sabotage was loosely based on Joseph Conrad's novel, The Secret Agent (1907), about a woman who discovers that her husband is a terrorist, and Secret Agent, based on two stories in Ashenden: Or the British Agent (1928) by W. Somerset Maugham.{{efn\|In 2017, a Time Out magazine poll ranked Sabotage as the 44th best British film ever.<ref name"Time Out">{{cite magazine \|urlhttps://www.timeout.com/london/film/100-best-british-films#tab_panel_4 \|titleThe 100 best British films \|magazineTime Out \|access-date24 October 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20190403073405/https://www.timeout.com/london/film/100-best-british-films%23tab_panel_4\|archive-date3 April 2019\|url-statuslive}}</ref>}} In his positive review of Sabotage for The Spectator, the writer and journalist Graham Greene identified the children's matinée scene as an "ingenious and pathetic twist stamped as Mr Hitchcock's own".<ref>{{cite journal \|lastGreene\|first Graham\|author-linkGraham Greene\|date 11 December 1936\|titleSabotage/The Tenth Man\|journal The Spectator}} (reprinted in: {{cite book\|editor-lastTaylor\|editor-first John Russell\|editor-linkJohn Russell Taylor\|date 1980\|titleThe Pleasure Dome\|url https://archive.org/details/pleasuredomegrah00gree/page/122\|publisherOxford University Press\|pages [https://archive.org/details/pleasuredomegrah00gree/page/122 122-123]\|isbn= 0192812866}})</ref> Secret Agent starred Madeleine Carroll and John Gielgud, with Peter Lorre playing Gielgud's deranged assistant, and typical Hitchcockian themes include mistaken identity, trains and a "Hitchcock blonde".<ref>"'Secret Agent' – Exciting Spy Film by Alfred Hitchcock", The Manchester Guardian, 11 May 1936, p. 13; "New Films in London", The Times, 11 May 1936, p. 10; and "'Secret Agent' at the Gaumont", The Manchester Guardian, 13 October 1936, p. 13</ref> , Joan Harrison, Hitchcock, and Pat Hitchcock, 24 August 1937]] At this time, Hitchcock also became notorious for pranks against the cast and crew. These jokes ranged from simple and innocent to crazy and maniacal. For instance, he hosted a dinner party where he dyed all the food blue because he claimed there weren't enough blue foods. He also had a horse delivered to the dressing room of his friend, actor Gerald du Maurier.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/films/2016/04/29/alfred-hitchcock-a-sadistic-prankster/ \|titleAlfred Hitchcock: a sadistic prankster \|lastChilton \|firstMartin \|date29 April 2016 \|workThe Telegraph \|access-date9 January 2019 \|issn0307-1235\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190110014406/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/films/2016/04/29/alfred-hitchcock-a-sadistic-prankster/\|archive-date10 January 2019\|url-status=live}}</ref> Hitchcock followed up with Young and Innocent in 1937, a crime thriller based on the 1936 novel A Shilling for Candles by Josephine Tey.{{Sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p137}} Starring Nova Pilbeam and Derrick De Marney, the film was relatively enjoyable for the cast and crew to make.{{Sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p137}} To meet distribution purposes in America, the film's runtime was cut and this included removal of one of Hitchcock's favourite scenes: a children's tea party which becomes menacing to the protagonists.{{Sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p=138}} (middle) and Michael Redgrave (right) in a publicity shot for The Lady Vanishes (1938)]] Hitchcock's next major success was The Lady Vanishes (1938), "one of the greatest train movies from the genre's golden era", according to Philip French, in which Miss Froy (May Whitty), a British spy posing as a governess, disappears on a train journey through the fictional European country of Bandrika.<ref>{{cite news \|firstPhilip \|lastFrench \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/filmblog/2012/jul/24/my-favourite-hitchcock-lady-vanishes \|titleMy favourite Hitchcock: The Lady Vanishes \|newspaperThe Guardian \|date24 July 2012\|access-date10 December 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170209074800/https://www.theguardian.com/film/filmblog/2012/jul/24/my-favourite-hitchcock-lady-vanishes\|archive-date9 February 2017\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The film saw Hitchcock receive the 1938 New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Director.<ref>{{cite web \|titleThe Lady Vanishes \|workTurner Classic Movies \|urlhttp://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/80706/The-Lady-Vanishes/ \|access-date24 August 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170711175302/http://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/80706/The-Lady-Vanishes/ \|archive-date11 July 2017 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Benjamin Crisler of The New York Times wrote in June 1938: "Three unique and valuable institutions the British have that we in America have not: Magna Carta, the Tower Bridge and Alfred Hitchcock, the greatest director of screen melodramas in the world."<ref>{{cite news \|last1Crisler \|first1B. R. \|titleHitchcock: Master Melodramatist \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1938/06/12/archives/hitchcock-master-melodramatist.html \|workThe New York Times \|date12 June 1938\|access-date11 June 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180612224617/https://www.nytimes.com/1938/06/12/archives/hitchcock-master-melodramatist.html\|archive-date12 June 2018\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The film was based on the novel The Wheel Spins (1936) written by Ethel Lina White, and starred Michael Redgrave (in his film debut) and Margaret Lockwood.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Holston \|first1Kim R.\|titleThe English-speaking Cinema An Illustrated History, 1927-1993 \|date1994 \|publisherMcFarland \|page33}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|date11 December 2021\|titleCrime writer Ethel Lina White's Abergavenny blue plaque\|workBBC News\|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-59550580\|access-date11 December 2021}}</ref> By 1938, Hitchcock was aware that he had reached his peak in Britain.{{Sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p140}} He had received numerous offers from producers in the United States, but he turned them all down because he disliked the contractual obligations or thought the projects were repellent.{{Sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p141}} However, producer David O. Selznick offered him a concrete proposal to make a film based on the sinking of {{RMS\|Titanic}}, which was eventually shelved, but Selznick persuaded Hitchcock to come to Hollywood. In June 1938, Hitchcock sailed to New York aboard the RMS Queen Mary,<ref name":1">{{Cite web \|date1938-06-01 \|titleWestern Morning News from Plymouth, Devon, England \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/newspage/816153978/ \|access-date2025-02-17 \|websiteNewspapers.com \|languageen-US}}</ref> and found that he was already a celebrity; he was featured in magazines and gave interviews to radio stations.{{Sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p142}} In Hollywood, Hitchcock met Selznick for the first time. Selznick offered him a four-film contract, approximately $40,000 for each picture ({{Inflation\|US\|40,000\|1938\|fmteq\|r-4}}).{{Sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p142}} Before finalising any American deal, Hitchcock had one last film to make in England, as director of the Charles Laughton-produced picture Jamaica Inn (1939), which he had signed on to make in May 1938, right before his first trip to the US.<ref name":1" /> Early Hollywood years: 1939–1945 Selznick contract Selznick signed Hitchcock to a seven-year contract beginning in April 1939,{{Sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p121}} and the Hitchcocks moved to Hollywood.<ref>{{harvnb\|Leff\|1999\|p35}}.</ref> The Hitchcocks lived in a spacious flat on Wilshire Boulevard, and slowly acclimatised themselves to the Los Angeles area. He and his wife Alma kept a low profile, and were not interested in attending parties or being celebrities.{{Sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p153}} Hitchcock discovered his taste for fine food in West Hollywood, but still carried on his way of life from England.{{Sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p154}} He was impressed with Hollywood's filmmaking culture, expansive budgets and efficiency,{{Sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p154}} compared to the limits that he had often faced in Britain.<ref>{{harvnb\|Leff\|1999\|p30}}</ref> In June that year, Life called him the "greatest master of melodrama in screen history".<ref>{{cite magazine \|magazineLife \|date19 June 1939 \|page[https://books.google.com/books?idb0kEAAAAMBAJ&pgPA66 66] \|titleAlfred Hitchcock: England's Best Director starts work in Hollywood}}</ref> Although Hitchcock and Selznick respected each other, their working arrangements were sometimes difficult. Selznick suffered from constant financial problems, and Hitchcock was often unhappy about Selznick's creative control and interference over his films. Selznick was also displeased with Hitchcock's method of shooting just what was in the script, and nothing more, which meant that the film could not be cut and remade differently at a later time.{{Sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p152}} As well as complaining about Hitchcock's "goddamn jigsaw cutting",<ref>{{harvnb\|McGilligan\|2003\|pp 251–252}}</ref> their personalities were mismatched: Hitchcock was reserved whereas Selznick was flamboyant.<ref>{{cite book\|lastBillheimer\|firstJohn\|chapterHitchcock and Selznick\|date1 May 2019\|chapter-urlhttp://kentucky.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.5810/kentucky/9780813177427.001.0001/upso-9780813177427-chapter-006\|titleHitchcock and the Censors\|pages59–63\|publisherUniversity Press of Kentucky\|doi10.5810/kentucky/9780813177427.003.0006\|isbn978-0-8131-7742-7\|s2cid213530256\|access-date21 November 2020\|archive-date29 November 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201129082758/https://kentucky.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.5810/kentucky/9780813177427.001.0001/upso-9780813177427-chapter-006\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Eventually, Selznick generously lent Hitchcock to the larger film studios.{{Sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p145}} Selznick made only a few films each year, as did fellow independent producer Samuel Goldwyn, so he did not always have projects for Hitchcock to direct. Goldwyn had also negotiated with Hitchcock on a possible contract, only to be outbid by Selznick. In a later interview, Hitchcock said: "[Selznick] was the Big Producer.&nbsp;... Producer was king. The most flattering thing Mr. Selznick ever said about me—and it shows you the amount of control—he said I was the 'only director' he'd 'trust with a film'."<ref>{{harvnb\|Gottlieb\|2003\|p=206}}</ref> Hitchcock approached American cinema cautiously; his first American film was set in England in which the "Americanness" of the characters was incidental:{{Sfn\|Wood\|2002\|p240}} Rebecca (1940) was set in a Hollywood version of England's Cornwall and based on a novel by English novelist Daphne du Maurier. Selznick insisted on a faithful adaptation of the book, and disagreed with Hitchcock with the use of humour.{{Sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p150}}{{Sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p155}} The film, starring Laurence Olivier and Joan Fontaine, concerns an unnamed naïve young woman who marries a widowed aristocrat. She lives in his large English country house, and struggles with the lingering reputation of his elegant and worldly first wife Rebecca, who died under mysterious circumstances. The film won Best Picture at the 13th Academy Awards; the statuette was given to producer Selznick. Hitchcock received his first nomination for Best Director, his first of five such nominations.<ref nameRebecca>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/1941 \|titleThe 13th Academy Awards, 1941 \|access-date30 December 2017 \|publisherAcademy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120303110034/http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/legacy/ceremony/13th-winners.html\|archive-date3 March 2012\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb\|Duncan\|2003\|p84}}</ref> Hitchcock's second American film was the thriller Foreign Correspondent (1940), set in Europe, based on Vincent Sheean's book Personal History (1935) and produced by Walter Wanger. It was nominated for Best Picture that year. Hitchcock felt uneasy living and working in Hollywood while Britain was at war; his concern resulted in a film that overtly supported the British war effort.<ref>{{harvnb\|Duncan\|2003\|p90}}</ref> Filmed in 1939, it was inspired by the rapidly changing events in Europe, as covered by an American newspaper reporter played by Joel McCrea. By mixing footage of European scenes with scenes filmed on a Hollywood backlot, the film avoided direct references to Nazism, Nazi Germany and Germans, to comply with the Motion Picture Production Code at the time.<ref>{{harvnb\|McGilligan\|2003\|p244}}</ref>{{failed verification\|dateDecember 2017}}Early war yearsIn September 1940, the Hitchcocks bought the {{convert\|200\|acre\|km2\|adjon}} Cornwall Ranch near Scotts Valley, California, in the Santa Cruz Mountains.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://history.scottsvalleychamber.com/history/history/hitchcock.htm \|titleAlfred Hitchcock Found Contentment in SV \|firstMarion \|lastPokriots \|publisherScotts Valley Historical Society \|access-date31 December 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190101100444/http://history.scottsvalleychamber.com/history/history/hitchcock.htm\|archive-date1 January 2019\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Their primary residence was an English-style home in Bel Air, purchased in 1942.<ref name"Variety obituary"/> Hitchcock's films were diverse during this period, ranging from the romantic comedy Mr. & Mrs. Smith (1941) to the bleak film noir Shadow of a Doubt (1943). and Joan Fontaine in a publicity shot for Suspicion (1941)]] {{anchor\|Suspicion}}Suspicion (1941) marked Hitchcock's first film as a producer and director. It is set in England; Hitchcock used the north coast of Santa Cruz for the English coastline sequence. The film is the first of four in which Cary Grant was cast by Hitchcock, and it is one of the rare occasions that Grant plays a sinister character. Grant plays Johnnie Aysgarth, an English conman whose actions raise suspicion and anxiety in his shy young English wife, Lina McLaidlaw (Joan Fontaine).{{sfn\|Whitty\|2016\|pp434–435}} In one scene, Hitchcock placed a light inside a glass of milk, perhaps poisoned, that Grant is bringing to his wife; the light ensures that the audience's attention is on the glass. Grant's character is actually a killer, according to the book, Before the Fact by Francis Iles, but the studio felt that Grant's image would be tarnished by that. Hitchcock would have preferred to end with the wife's murder.{{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|pp142–143}}{{efn\|Hitchcock told Bryan Forbes in 1967: "They had gone through the film in my absence and taken out every scene that indicated the possibility that Cary Grant was a murderer. So there was no film existing at all. That was ridiculous. Nevertheless, I had to compromise on the end. What I wanted to do was that the wife was aware that she was going to be murdered by her husband, so she wrote a letter to her mother saying that she was very much in love with him, she didn't want live anymore, she was going to be killed but society should be protected. She therefore brings up this fatal glass of milk, drinks it and before she does she says, "Will you mail this letter to mother?" Then she drinks the milk and dies. You then have just one final scene of a cheerful Cary Grant going to the mailbox and posting the letter.&nbsp;... But this was never permitted because of the basic error in casting."<ref nameHitchcockForbes/>}} Instead, the actions that she found suspicious are a reflection of his own despair and his plan to commit suicide. Fontaine won Best Actress for her performance.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Luther \|first1Claudia \|titleJoan Fontaine, actress who won Oscar for 'Suspicion,' dies at 96 \|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/local/obituaries/la-et-mn-joan-fontaine-actress-who-won-oscar-for-suspicion-dies-at-96-20131215-story.html \|workLos Angeles Times \|date15 December 2013\|access-date4 January 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150327063921/http://articles.latimes.com/2013/dec/15/entertainment/la-et-mn-joan-fontaine-actress-who-won-oscar-for-suspicion-dies-at-96-20131215\|archive-date27 March 2015\|url-status=live}}</ref> Saboteur (1942) is the first of two films that Hitchcock made for Universal Studios during the decade. Hitchcock wanted Gary Cooper and Barbara Stanwyck or Henry Fonda and Gene Tierney to star, but was forced by Universal to use Universal contract player Robert Cummings and Priscilla Lane, a freelancer who signed a one-picture deal with the studio, both known for their work in comedies and light dramas.<ref>{{harvnb\|Humphries\|1994\|p71}}</ref> The story depicts a confrontation between a suspected saboteur (Cummings) and a real saboteur (Norman Lloyd) atop the Statue of Liberty. Hitchcock took a three-day tour of New York City to scout for Saboteur{{'}}s filming locations.{{Sfn\|McGilligan\|2003\|p445}} He also directed Have You Heard? (1942), a photographic dramatisation for Life magazine of the dangers of rumours during wartime.<ref>{{cite magazine \|title"Have You Heard?": The Story of Wartime Rumors \|date13 July 1942 \|magazineLife \|page[https://books.google.com/books?id3E0EAAAAMBAJ&pgPA68 68]}}</ref> In 1943, he wrote a mystery story for Look, "The Murder of Monty Woolley",{{sfn\|Brunsdale\|2010\|p442}} a sequence of captioned photographs inviting the reader to find clues to the murderer's identity; Hitchcock cast the performers as themselves, such as Woolley, Doris Merrick and make-up man Guy Pearce.{{citation needed\|dateDecember 2017}} (1943) trailer with Joseph Cotten and Teresa Wright\|alt=&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;<nowiki></nowiki>&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;<nowiki>Shadow of a Doubt</nowiki>&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;<nowiki>''</nowiki>&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; trailer depicting &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;<nowiki>Joseph Cotten</nowiki>&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; and &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;<nowiki>Teresa Wright</nowiki>&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;]] Back in England, Hitchcock's mother Emma was severely ill; she died on 26 September 1942 at age 79. Hitchcock never spoke publicly about his mother, but his assistant said that he admired her.{{Sfn\|McGilligan\|2003\|p321}} Four months later, on 4 January 1943, his brother William died of an overdose at age 52.{{Sfn\|McGilligan\|2003\|p325}} Hitchcock was not very close to William,{{Sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p193}} but his death made Hitchcock conscious about his own eating and drinking habits. He was overweight and suffering from back aches. His New Year's resolution in 1943 was to take his diet seriously with the help of a physician.{{Sfn\|McGilligan\|2003\|p326}} In January that year, Shadow of a Doubt was released, which Hitchcock had fond memories of making.{{Sfn\|McGilligan\|2003\|p327}} In the film, Charlotte "Charlie" Newton (Teresa Wright) suspects her beloved uncle Charlie Oakley (Joseph Cotten) of being a serial killer. Hitchcock filmed extensively on location, this time in the Northern California city of Santa Rosa.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Leitch \|first1Thomas \|titleShadow of a Doubt \|urlhttps://www.loc.gov/programs/static/national-film-preservation-board/documents/shadow_of_doubt.pdf \|access-date31 December 2017 \|publisherLibrary of Congress\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170215151517/http://www.loc.gov/programs/static/national-film-preservation-board/documents/shadow_of_doubt.pdf\|archive-date15 February 2017\|url-statuslive}}</ref> At 20th Century Fox, Hitchcock approached John Steinbeck with an idea for a film, which recorded the experiences of the survivors of a German U-boat attack. Steinbeck began work on the script for what would become Lifeboat (1944). However, Steinbeck was unhappy with the film and asked that his name be removed from the credits, to no avail. The idea was rewritten as a short story by Harry Sylvester and published in ''Collier's'' in 1943. The action sequences were shot in a small boat in the studio water tank. The locale posed problems for Hitchcock's traditional cameo appearance; it was solved by having Hitchcock's image appear in a newspaper that William Bendix is reading in the boat, showing the director in a before-and-after advertisement for "Reduco-Obesity Slayer". He told Truffaut in 1962: {{blockquote\|At the time, I was on a strenuous diet, painfully working my way from three hundred to two hundred pounds. So I decided to immortalize my loss and get my bit part by posing for "before" and "after" pictures.&nbsp;... I was literally submerged by letters from fat people who wanted to know where and how they could get Reduco.{{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|pp=158–159}}}} Hitchcock's typical dinner before his weight loss had been a roast chicken, boiled ham, potatoes, bread, vegetables, relishes, salad, dessert, a bottle of wine and some brandy. To lose weight, his diet consisted of black coffee for breakfast and lunch, and steak and salad for dinner,{{Sfn\|McGilligan\|2003\|p326}} but it was hard to maintain; Donald Spoto wrote that his weight fluctuated considerably over the next 40 years. At the end of 1943, despite the weight loss, the Occidental Insurance Company of Los Angeles refused his application for life insurance.{{sfn\|Spoto\|1999\|pp266–267}} Wartime non-fiction films {{further\|German Concentration Camps Factual Survey}} {{Quote box \|quote = I felt the need to make a little contribution to the war effort, and I was both overweight and over-age for military service. I knew that if I did nothing, I'd regret it for the rest of my life \|source {{snd}}Alfred Hitchcock (1967){{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p159}} \|width= 25em \|align= right \|salign= right \|style = padding:1.2em}} Hitchcock returned to the UK for an extended visit in late 1943 and early 1944. While there he made two short propaganda films, Bon Voyage (1944) and Aventure Malgache (1944), for the Ministry of Information. In June and July 1945, Hitchcock served as "treatment advisor" on a Holocaust documentary that used Allied Forces footage of the liberation of Nazi concentration camps. The film was assembled in London and produced by Sidney Bernstein of the Ministry of Information, who brought Hitchcock (a friend of his) on board. It was originally intended to be broadcast to the Germans, but the British government deemed it too traumatic to be shown to a shocked post-war population. Instead, it was transferred in 1952 from the British War Office film vaults to London's Imperial War Museum and remained unreleased until 1985, when an edited version was broadcast as an episode of PBS Frontline, under the title the Imperial War Museum had given it: Memory of the Camps. The full-length version of the film, German Concentration Camps Factual Survey, was restored in 2014 by scholars at the Imperial War Museum.<ref>{{harvnb\|McGilligan\|2003\|pages372–374}}</ref><ref nameJeffries9Jan2015>{{cite news \|last1Jeffries \|first1Stuart \|titleThe Holocaust film that was too shocking to show \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2015/jan/09/holocaust-film-too-shocking-to-show-night-will-fall-alfred-hitchcock \|workThe Guardian \|date9 January 2015 \|access-date24 August 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170110022047/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2015/jan/09/holocaust-film-too-shocking-to-show-night-will-fall-alfred-hitchcock\|archive-date10 January 2017\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleMemory of the Camps: Frequently Asked Questions \|urlhttps://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/camp/faqs.html \|publisherPBS \|access-date6 March 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150222140552/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/camp/faqs.html\|archive-date22 February 2015\|url-statuslive}}</ref>Post-war Hollywood years: 1945–1953Later Selznick films and Ingrid Bergman in Spellbound (1945)]] Hitchcock worked for David Selznick again when he directed Spellbound (1945), which explores psychoanalysis and features a dream sequence designed by Salvador Dalí.<ref>{{cite web \|lastBoyd \|firstDavid \|titleThe Parted Eye: Spellbound and Psychoanalysis \|urlhttps://www.sensesofcinema.com/2000/conference-for-the-love-of-fear/spellbound/ \|year2000 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090211104103/http://archive.sensesofcinema.com:80/contents/00/6/spellbound.html \|archive-date11 February 2009}}</ref> The dream sequence as it appears in the film is ten minutes shorter than was originally envisioned; Selznick edited it to make it "play" more effectively.<ref>{{harvnb\|Leff\|1987\|pp164–165}}</ref> Gregory Peck plays amnesiac Dr. Anthony Edwardes under the treatment of analyst Dr. Peterson (Ingrid Bergman), who falls in love with him while trying to unlock his repressed past.{{sfn\|Whitty\|2016\|pp408–412}} Two point-of-view shots were achieved by building a large wooden hand (which would appear to belong to the character whose point of view the camera took) and out-sized props for it to hold: a bucket-sized glass of milk and a large wooden gun. For added novelty and impact, the climactic gunshot was hand-coloured red on some copies of the black-and-white film. The original musical score by Miklós Rózsa makes use of the theremin, and some of it was later adapted by the composer into Rozsa's Piano Concerto Op. 31 (1967) for piano and orchestra.<ref>{{cite web \|titleThe Miklos Rozsa Society Website \|urlhttp://www.miklosrozsa.info/mrs/works/aboutPianoConcerto.html \|year2017 \|access-date13 December 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160324124603/http://www.miklosrozsa.info/mrs/works/aboutPianoConcerto.html \|archive-date24 March 2016 \|url-statuslive}}</ref>{{failed verification\|dateDecember 2017}} <!--mention The Paradine Case (1947) and the Motion Picture Production Code-->The spy film Notorious followed next in 1946. Hitchcock told François Truffaut that Selznick sold him, Ingrid Bergman, Cary Grant and Ben Hecht's screenplay, to RKO Radio Pictures as a "package" for $500,000 (equivalent to ${{Inflation\|US\|0.5\|1946\|r1}}&nbsp;million in {{Inflation/year\|US}}) because of cost overruns on Selznick's Duel in the Sun (1946).{{citation needed\|dateJanuary 2018}} Notorious stars Bergman and Grant, both Hitchcock collaborators, and features a plot about Nazis, uranium and South America. His prescient use of uranium as a plot device led to him being briefly placed under surveillance by the Federal Bureau of Investigation.{{Sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p168}} According to Patrick McGilligan, in or around March 1945, Hitchcock and Hecht consulted Robert Millikan of the California Institute of Technology about the development of a uranium bomb. Selznick complained that the notion was "science fiction", only to be confronted by the news of the detonation of two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan in August 1945.{{sfn\|McGilligan\|2003\|pp370–371}} Transatlantic Pictures (1948) with James Stewart turning his back to the fixed camera\|alt=A typical scene from Rope showing James Stewart]] Hitchcock formed an independent production company, Transatlantic Pictures, with his friend Sidney Bernstein. He made two films with Transatlantic, one of which was his first colour film. With Rope (1948), Hitchcock experimented with marshalling suspense in a confined environment, as he had done earlier with Lifeboat''. The film appears as a very limited number of continuous shots, but it was actually shot in 10 ranging from {{frac\|4\|1\|2}} to 10 minutes each; a 10-minute length of film was the most that a camera's film magazine could hold at the time. Some transitions between reels were hidden by having a dark object fill the entire screen for a moment. Hitchcock used those points to hide the cut, and began the next take with the camera in the same place. The film features James Stewart in the leading role, and was the first of four films that Stewart made with Hitchcock. It was inspired by the Leopold and Loeb case of the 1920s.{{Sfn\|McGilligan\|2003\|p421}} Critical response at the time was mixed.{{sfn\|Evans\|2004\|p}} Under Capricorn (1949), set in 19th-century Australia, also uses the short-lived technique of long takes, but to a more limited extent. He again used Technicolor in this production, then returned to black-and-white for several years. Transatlantic Pictures became inactive after the last two films.{{Sfn\|Spoto\|1999\|p138}}{{Sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p179}} Hitchcock filmed Stage Fright (1950) at Elstree Studios in England, where he had worked during his British International Pictures contract many years before.<ref>{{harvnb\|Warren\|2001\|pp62, 72}}</ref> He paired one of Warner Bros.' most popular stars, Jane Wyman, with the expatriate German actor Marlene Dietrich and used several prominent British actors, including Michael Wilding, Richard Todd and Alastair Sim.<ref>{{harvnb\|Harris\|Lasky\|2002\|p150}}</ref> This was Hitchcock's first proper production for Warner Bros., which had distributed Rope and Under Capricorn, because Transatlantic Pictures was experiencing financial difficulties.<ref>{{harvnb\|McGilligan\|2003\|pp= 429, 774–775}}</ref> <!--Mention that, after falling out with Raymond Chandler, Hitchcock hired Czenzi Ormonde to work with Barbara Keon and Alma Reville; say more about the film, "crisscross", and murder in spectacles scene-->His thriller Strangers on a Train (1951) was based on the novel of the same name by Patricia Highsmith. Hitchcock combined many elements from his preceding films. He approached Dashiell Hammett to write the dialogue, but Raymond Chandler took over, then left over disagreements with the director. In the film, two men casually meet, one of whom speculates on a foolproof method to murder; he suggests that two people, each wishing to do away with someone, should each perform the other's murder. Farley Granger's role was as the innocent victim of the scheme, while Robert Walker, previously known for "boy-next-door" roles, played the villain.<ref>{{harvnb\|Leitch\|2002\|pp320, 322}}</ref> I Confess (1953) was set in Quebec with Montgomery Clift as a Catholic priest.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/78777/I-Confess/notes.html \|titleNotes: I Confess (1953) \|publisherTCM \|access-date15 December 2017 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181122032808/http://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/78777/I-Confess/notes.html \| archive-date22 November 2018 \| url-statuslive}}</ref> Peak years: 1954–1964 Dial M for Murder and Rear Window and Grace Kelly in Rear Window (1954)]] I Confess was followed by three colour films starring Grace Kelly: Dial M for Murder (1954), Rear Window (1954) and To Catch a Thief (1955). In Dial M for Murder, Ray Milland plays the villain who tries to murder his unfaithful wife (Kelly) for her money. She kills the hired assassin in self-defence, so Milland manipulates the evidence to make it look like murder. Her lover, Mark Halliday (Robert Cummings), and Police Inspector Hubbard (John Williams) save her from execution.<ref name"Leitch 2002. p. 78-80">{{harvnb\|Leitch\|2002\|p78}}</ref> Hitchcock experimented with 3D cinematography for Dial M for Murder.<ref>{{cite news \|last1French \|first1Philip \|titleDial M for Murder 3D – review \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2013/jul/28/dial-m-for-murder-3d-review \|workThe Observer \|date28 July 2013\|access-date30 December 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160722232944/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2013/jul/28/dial-m-for-murder-3d-review\|archive-date22 July 2016\|url-statuslive}}</ref> <!--when did he move to Paramount?{{snd}}Rear Window, To Catch a Thief, The Trouble with Harry (1955), The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956), Vertigo (1958), North by Northwest (1959), Psycho (1960)-->Hitchcock moved to Paramount Pictures and filmed Rear Window (1954), starring James Stewart and Grace Kelly, as well as Thelma Ritter and Raymond Burr. Stewart's character is a photographer named Jeff (based on Robert Capa) who must temporarily use a wheelchair. Out of boredom, he begins observing his neighbours across the courtyard, then becomes convinced that one of them (Raymond Burr) has murdered his wife. Jeff eventually manages to convince his policeman buddy (Wendell Corey) and his girlfriend (Kelly). As with Lifeboat and Rope, the principal characters are depicted in confined or cramped quarters, in this case Stewart's studio apartment. Hitchcock uses close-ups of Stewart's face to show his character's reactions, "from the comic voyeurism directed at his neighbours to his helpless terror watching Kelly and Burr in the villain's apartment".<ref>{{harvnb\|Leitch\|2002\|p269}}</ref>Alfred Hitchcock Presents , son-in-law, and granddaughters, c.&nbsp;1955–1956]] <!--CBS, 30 minutes weekly, $129,000 per episode; 1958, Golden Globe for best television series; see Evans-->From 1955 to 1965, Hitchcock was the host of the television series Alfred Hitchcock Presents.<ref name"Alfred Hitchcock Presents">{{cite web \|titleAlfred Hitchcock Presents \|publisherTV.COM \|urlhttp://www.tv.com/alfred-hitchcock-presents/show/238/summary.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080125154314/http://www.tv.com/alfred-hitchcock-presents/show/238/summary.html \|archive-date25 January 2008 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> With his droll delivery, gallows humour and iconic image, the series made Hitchcock a celebrity. The title-sequence of the show pictured a minimalist caricature of his profile (he drew it himself; it is composed of only nine strokes), which his real silhouette then filled.<ref>{{cite book \|titleTV in the USA: A History of Icons, Idols, and Ideas \|lastLoBrutto \|firstVincent \|publisherGreenwood Publishing Group \|year2018 \|isbn978-1-4408-2972-7 \|page6}}</ref> The series theme tune was Funeral March of a Marionette by the French composer Charles Gounod (1818–1893).<ref>{{cite web \|titleAlfred Hitchcock (suspense anthology) \|publisherMedia Management Group \|urlhttp://www.classicthemes.com/50sTVThemes/themePages/alfredHitchcock.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080221144330/http://www.classicthemes.com/50sTVThemes/themePages/alfredHitchcock.html \|archive-date21 February 2008\|url-statusdead \|access-date=7 November 2008}}</ref> His introductions always included some sort of wry humour, such as the description of a recent multi-person execution hampered by having only one electric chair, while two are shown with a sign "Two chairs—no waiting!" He directed 18 episodes of the series, which aired from 1955 to 1965. It became The Alfred Hitchcock Hour in 1962, and NBC broadcast the final episode on 10 May 1965. In the 1980s, a new version of Alfred Hitchcock Presents was produced for television, making use of Hitchcock's original introductions in a colourised form.<ref name="Alfred Hitchcock Presents"/> Hitchcock's success in television spawned a set of short-story collections in his name; these included ''Alfred Hitchcock's Anthology, Stories They Wouldn't Let Me Do on TV, and Tales My Mother Never Told Me''.{{Sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p202}} In 1956, HSD Publications also licensed the director's name to create ''Alfred Hitchcock's Mystery Magazine'', a monthly digest specialising in crime and detective fiction.{{Sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p202}} Hitchcock's television series were very profitable, and his foreign-language versions of books were bringing revenues of up to $100,000 a year ({{Inflation\|US\|100,000\|1960\|fmteq\|r-4}}).{{Sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p203}}<!--making this invisible for now; not sure where to place it: Hitchcock also appears as a character in the juvenile detective book series, Alfred Hitchcock and the Three Investigators. The long-running series was created by Robert Arthur, who wrote the first few books. The Three Investigators—Jupiter Jones, Bob Andrews and Peter Crenshaw—were amateur detectives, slightly younger than the Hardy Boys. In the introduction to each book, "Alfred Hitchcock" introduces the mystery, and he sometimes refers a case to the boys to solve. At the end of each book, the boys report to Hitchcock, and sometimes give him a memento of their case.<ref name"Alfred Hitchcock Presents"/>--> From To Catch a Thief to Vertigo In 1955, Hitchcock became a United States citizen.<ref>{{harvnb\|McGilligan\|2003\|p512}}</ref> In the same year, his third Grace Kelly film, To Catch a Thief, was released; it is set in the French Riviera, and stars Kelly and Cary Grant. Grant plays retired thief John Robie, who becomes the prime suspect for a spate of robberies in the Riviera. A thrill-seeking American heiress played by Kelly surmises his true identity and tries to seduce him. "Despite the obvious age disparity between Grant and Kelly and a lightweight plot, the witty script (loaded with double entendres) and the good-natured acting proved a commercial success."<ref name"Leitch 2002. p. 366">{{harvnb\|Leitch\|2002\|p366}}</ref> It was Hitchcock's last film with Kelly; she married Prince Rainier of Monaco in 1956, and ended her film career afterward. Hitchcock then remade his own 1934 film The Man Who Knew Too Much in 1956. This time, the film starred James Stewart and Doris Day, who sang the theme song "Que Sera, Sera", which won the Academy Award for Best Original Song and became a big hit. They play a couple whose son is kidnapped to prevent them from interfering with an assassination. As in the 1934 film, the climax takes place at the Royal Albert Hall.<ref>{{harvnb\|Brown\|1994\|p75}}</ref> The Wrong Man (1956), Hitchcock's final film for Warner Bros., is a low-key black-and-white production based on a real-life case of mistaken identity reported in Life magazine in 1953. This was the only film of Hitchcock to star Henry Fonda, playing a Stork Club musician mistaken for a liquor store thief, who is arrested and tried for robbery while his wife (Vera Miles) emotionally collapses under the strain. Hitchcock told Truffaut that his lifelong fear of the police attracted him to the subject and was embedded in many scenes.<ref name"Leitch 2002. p. 377">{{harvnb\|Leitch\|2002\|p377}}</ref><!--1957, Claude Chabrol and Éric Rohmer, first book-length study of his work--><!--moved this from the "relationship with actors" section: In the late 1950s, French New Wave critics, especially Truffaut, Claude Chabrol and Éric Rohmer, were among the first to see and promote Hitchcock's films as artistic works. Hitchcock was one of the first directors to whom they applied their auteur theory, which stresses the artistic authority of the director in the filmmaking process.<ref name"Moerbeek2006">{{harvnb\|Moerbeek\|2006\|loc}}</ref>{{page needed\|dateDecember 2017}}--> by the Golden Gate Bridge in Vertigo (1958){{efn\|A 2012 British Film Institute poll ranked Vertigo as the greatest film ever made.<ref nameChristie2012>{{cite news \|lastChristie \|firstIan \|titleThe 50 Greatest Films of All Time \|urlhttp://www.bfi.org.uk/news/50-greatest-films-all-time \|workSight & Sound \|dateSeptember 2012 \|access-date29 December 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170301135739/http://www.bfi.org.uk/news/50-greatest-films-all-time\|archive-date1 March 2017}}; also see {{cite news \|titleCritics' top 100 \|urlhttp://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/sightandsoundpoll2012/critics \|publisherBritish Film Institute \|year2012\|access-date29 December 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160207035347/http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/sightandsoundpoll2012/critics\|archive-date7 February 2016}}</ref>}}]] While directing episodes for Alfred Hitchcock Presents during the summer of 1957, Hitchcock was admitted to hospital for hernia and gallstones, and had to have his gallbladder removed. Following a successful surgery, he immediately returned to work to prepare for his next project.{{Sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p212}}{{Sfn\|Evans\|2004\|p}} Vertigo (1958) again starred James Stewart, with Kim Novak and Barbara Bel Geddes. He had wanted Vera Miles to play the lead, but she was pregnant. He told Oriana Fallaci: "I was offering her a big part, the chance to become a beautiful sophisticated blonde, a real actress. We'd have spent a heap of dollars on it, and she has the bad taste to get pregnant. I hate pregnant women, because then they have children."{{sfn\|Fallaci\|1963}} In Vertigo, Stewart plays Scottie, a former police investigator suffering from acrophobia, who becomes obsessed with a woman he has been hired to shadow (Novak). Scottie's obsession leads to tragedy, and this time Hitchcock did not opt for a happy ending. Some critics, including Donald Spoto and Roger Ebert, agree that Vertigo is the director's most personal and revealing film, dealing with the Pygmalion-like obsessions of a man who moulds a woman into the person he desires. Vertigo explores more frankly and at greater length his interest in the relation between sex and death, than any other work in his filmography.<ref>{{harvnb\|Kehr\|2011\|p=259}}</ref> Vertigo contains a camera technique developed by Irmin Roberts, commonly referred to as a dolly zoom, which has been copied by many filmmakers. The film premiered at the San Sebastián International Film Festival, and Hitchcock won the Silver Seashell prize.<ref>{{cite web\|titleSan Sebastian Film Festival\|urlhttps://www.sansebastianfestival.com:443/1958/awards_and_jury_members/awards/1/51/in\|access-date19 November 2020\|websiteSan Sebastian Film Festival\|archive-date2 October 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191002204434/https://www.sansebastianfestival.com/1958/awards_and_jury_members/awards/1/51/in}}</ref> Vertigo is considered a classic, but it attracted mixed reviews and poor box-office receipts at the time;<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Ravetto-Biagioli\|first1Kriss\|last2Beugnet\|first2Martine\|date27 September 2019\|titleVertiginous Hauntings: The Ghosts of Vertigo\|journalFilm-Philosophy\|volume23\|issue3\|pages227–246\|doi10.3366/film.2019.0114\|doi-accessfree\|issn1466-4615}}</ref> the critic from Variety opined that the film was "too slow and too long".<ref>{{cite web\|date14 May 1958\|titleVertigo\|urlhttps://variety.com/1958/film/reviews/vertigo-2-1200419207/\|access-date19 November 2020\|websiteVariety\|archive-date28 February 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170228012042/http://variety.com/1958/film/reviews/vertigo-2-1200419207/}}</ref> Bosley Crowther of the New York Times thought it was "devilishly far-fetched", but praised the cast performances and Hitchcock's direction.<ref>{{cite news\|lastCrowther\|firstBosley\|date29 May 1958\|titleVertigo,' Hitchcock's Latest; Melodrama Arrives at the Capitol (Published 1958)\|workThe New York Times\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1958/05/29/archives/vertigo-hitchcocks-latest-melodrama-arrives-at-the-capitol.html\|access-date19 November 2020\|issn0362-4331\|archive-date23 August 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190823175858/https://www.nytimes.com/1958/05/29/archives/vertigo-hitchcocks-latest-melodrama-arrives-at-the-capitol.html}}</ref> The picture was also the last collaboration between Stewart and Hitchcock.<ref name"Leitch 2002. p. 376-77">{{harvnb\|Leitch\|2002\|p376}}</ref> In the 2002 Sight & Sound polls, it ranked just behind Citizen Kane (1941); ten years later, in the same magazine, critics chose it as the best film ever made.<ref name"Christie2012" />North by Northwest and Psycho {{see also\|Psycho (franchise)}} After Vertigo, the rest of 1958 was a difficult year for Hitchcock. During pre-production of North by Northwest (1959), which was a "slow" and "agonising" process, his wife Alma was diagnosed with cancer.{{Sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p217}} While she was in hospital, Hitchcock kept himself occupied with his television work and would visit her every day. Alma underwent surgery and made a full recovery, but it caused Hitchcock to imagine, for the first time, life without her.{{Sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p217}} Hitchcock followed up with three more successful films, which are also recognised as among his best: North by Northwest, Psycho (1960) and The Birds (1963). In North by Northwest, Cary Grant portrays Roger Thornhill, a Madison Avenue advertising executive who is mistaken for a government secret agent. He is pursued across the United States by enemy agents, including Eve Kendall (Eva Marie Saint). At first, Thornhill believes Kendall is helping him, but then realises that she is an enemy agent; he later learns that she is working undercover for the CIA. During its opening two-week run at Radio City Music Hall, the film grossed $404,056 (equivalent to ${{Inflation\|US\|0.404056\|1959\|r1}}&nbsp;million in {{Inflation/year\|US}}), setting a non-holiday gross record for that theatre.<ref>{{cite magazine \|urlhttp://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,864921,00.html \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20120530114819/http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,864921,00.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-date30 May 2012 \|titleBox Office: For the Books \|date31 August 1959 \|magazineTime}}</ref> Time magazine called the film "smoothly troweled and thoroughly entertaining".<ref>{{cite magazine \|urlhttp://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,937893,00.html \|titleCinema: The New Pictures \|date17 August 1959 \|magazineTime \|access-date21 August 2017 \|archive-date30 May 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20120530114820/http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,937893,00.html \|url-statusdead }}{{pb}} {{cite news \|titleHitchcock Takes Suspenseful Cook's Tour: North by Northwest Opens at Music Hall \|urlhttps://movies.nytimes.com/movie/review?res9404E7D91631EE3BBC4F53DFBE668382649EDE \|date7 August 1959 \|workThe New York Times \|firstA.H. \|lastWeiler \|access-date21 August 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130929123524/http://movies.nytimes.com/movie/review?res9404E7D91631EE3BBC4F53DFBE668382649EDE \|archive-date=29 September 2013}}</ref> Psycho (1960) is arguably Hitchcock's best-known film.<ref name"Leitch 2002. p. 260">{{harvnb\|Leitch\|2002\|p260}}</ref> Based on Robert Bloch's 1959 novel Psycho, which was inspired by the case of Ed Gein,<ref>{{harvnb\|Rebello\|1990\|pp7–14}}</ref> the film was produced on a tight budget of $800,000 (equivalent to ${{Inflation\|US\|0.8\|1960\|r1}}&nbsp;million in {{Inflation/year\|US}}) and shot in black-and-white on a spare set using crew members from Alfred Hitchcock Presents.<ref>{{harvnb\|Leitch\|2002\|p261}}</ref> The unprecedented violence of the shower scene,{{efn\|A documentary on Psycho{{'}}s shower scene, 78/52, was released in 2017, directed by Alexandre O. Philippe; the title refers to the scene's 78 camera setups and 52 cuts.<ref>{{cite magazine \|firstOwen \|lastGleiberman \|titleFilm Review: '78/52: Hitchcock's Shower Scene' \|magazineVariety \|date24 January 2017 \|urlhttps://variety.com/2017/film/reviews/7852-review-psycho-1201966555/\|access-date12 December 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171213011034/https://variety.com/2017/film/reviews/7852-review-psycho-1201966555/\|archive-date13 December 2017}}{{pb}} {{cite news \|last1Bradshaw \|first1Peter \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2017/oct/13/7852-review-hitchcock-psycho-shower-scene \|title78/52 review – Hitchcock's Psycho shower scene gets an expert autopsy \|workThe Guardian \|date13 October 2017\|access-date27 December 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171227195616/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2017/oct/13/7852-review-hitchcock-psycho-shower-scene\|archive-date27 December 2017\|url-statuslive}}</ref>}} the early death of the heroine, and the innocent lives extinguished by a disturbed murderer became the hallmarks of a new horror-film genre.<ref>{{harvnb\|Leitch\|2002\|p262}}</ref> The film proved popular with audiences, with lines stretching outside theatres as viewers waited for the next showing. It broke box-office records in the United Kingdom, France, South America, the United States and Canada, and was a moderate success in Australia for a brief period.<ref name"Leigh 1995">{{harvnb\|Leigh\|Nickens\|1995\|loc}}</ref>{{page needed\|dateDecember 2017}} Psycho was the most profitable of Hitchcock's career, and he personally earned in excess of $15&nbsp;million (equivalent to ${{Inflation\|US\|15\|1960\|r-1}}&nbsp;million in {{Inflation/year\|US}}). He subsequently swapped his rights to Psycho and his TV anthology for 150,000 shares of MCA, making him the third largest shareholder and his own boss at Universal, in theory at least, although that did not stop studio interference.{{Sfn\|Rebello\|1990\|p182}} Following the first film, Psycho became an American horror franchise: Psycho II, Psycho III, Bates Motel, Psycho IV: The Beginning and a colour 1998 remake of the original.{{sfn\|Verevis\|2006\|p22}}Truffaut interview {{further\|Hitchcock/Truffaut\|Hitchcock/Truffaut (film)}} <!--expand-->On 13 August 1962, Hitchcock's 63rd birthday, the French director François Truffaut began a 50-hour interview of Hitchcock, filmed over eight days at Universal Studios, during which Hitchcock agreed to answer 500 questions. It took four years to transcribe the tapes and organise the images; it was published as a book in 1967, which Truffaut nicknamed the "Hitchbook". The audio tapes were used as the basis of a documentary in 2015.{{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p12}}<ref>{{cite news \|last1Jeffries \|first1Stuart \|title'Actors are cattle': when Hitchcock met Truffaut \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2015/may/12/when-hitchcock-met-truffaut-hitchcock-truffaut-documentary-cannes \|workThe Guardian \|date12 May 2015\|access-date16 January 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180117131315/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2015/may/12/when-hitchcock-met-truffaut-hitchcock-truffaut-documentary-cannes\|archive-date17 January 2018\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Truffaut sought the interview because it was clear to him that Hitchcock was not simply the mass-market entertainer the American media made him out to be. It was obvious from his films, Truffaut wrote, that Hitchcock had "given more thought to the potential of his art than any of his colleagues". He compared the interview to "Oedipus' consultation of the oracle".{{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|pp11–12}} The Birds {{further\|The Girl (2012 TV film)\|Tippi Hedren#Sexual harassment}} '' (1963), in which Hitchcock discusses humanity's treatment of "our feathered friends"]] The film scholar Peter William Evans wrote that The Birds (1963) and Marnie (1964) are regarded as "undisputed masterpieces".{{sfn\|Evans\|2004\|p}} Hitchcock had intended to film Marnie first, and in March 1962 it was announced that Grace Kelly, Princess Grace of Monaco since 1956, would come out of retirement to star in it.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Alden \|first1Robert \|titlePrincess Grace Will Star in Hitchcock Movie \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1962/03/20/archives/princess-grace-will-star-in-hitchcock-movie-she-accepts-her-first.html \|workThe New York Times \|date20 March 1962\|access-date11 June 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180612213711/https://www.nytimes.com/1962/03/20/archives/princess-grace-will-star-in-hitchcock-movie-she-accepts-her-first.html\|archive-date12 June 2018\|url-statuslive}}</ref> When Kelly asked Hitchcock to postpone Marnie until 1963 or 1964, he recruited Evan Hunter, author of The Blackboard Jungle (1954), to develop a screenplay based on a Daphne du Maurier short story, "The Birds" (1952), which Hitchcock had republished in his My Favorites in Suspense (1959). He hired Tippi Hedren to play the lead role.<ref>{{harvnb\|McGilligan\|2003\|pp611–613}}; {{harvnb\|MacDonald\|2012\|p36}}</ref> It was her first role; she had been a model in New York when Hitchcock saw her, in October 1961, in an NBC television advert for Sego, a diet drink:{{sfn\|Moral\|2013\|p15}} "I signed her because she is a classic beauty. Movies don't have them any more. Grace Kelly was the last." He insisted, without explanation, that her first name be written in single quotation marks: 'Tippi'.{{efn\|Thomas McDonald (The New York Times, 1 April 1962): "Starring in the film are Rod Taylor, Suzanne Pleshette, Jessica Tandy and 'Tippi' Hedren. Hitchcock signed Miss Hedren, a New York model, to a contract after having seen her in a television commercial. He insisted that she enclose her first name in single quotation marks, but would not explain why."<ref nameMcDonald1April1962>{{cite news \|last1McDonald \|first1Thomas \|titleWatching 'Birds': Happy Hitchcock Films Terror-Ridden Tale \|urlhttp://partners.nytimes.com/library/film/040162hitch-birds-making.html \|workThe New York Times \|date1 April 1962\|access-date3 January 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131204193415/http://partners.nytimes.com/library/film/040162hitch-birds-making.html\|archive-date4 December 2013\|url-statuslive}}</ref>{{sfn\|Spoto\|2008\|p245}}}} In The Birds, Melanie Daniels, a young socialite, meets lawyer Mitch Brenner (Rod Taylor) in a bird shop; Jessica Tandy plays his possessive mother. Hedren visits him in Bodega Bay (where The Birds was filmed)<ref nameMcDonald1April1962/> carrying a pair of lovebirds as a gift. Suddenly waves of birds start gathering, watching, and attacking. The question: "What do the birds want?" is left unanswered.{{sfn\|Rothman\|2014\|p203}} Hitchcock made the film with equipment from the Revue Studio, which made Alfred Hitchcock Presents. He said it was his most technically challenging film, using a combination of trained and mechanical birds against a backdrop of wild ones. Every shot was sketched in advance.<ref name=McDonald1April1962/> An HBO/BBC television film, The Girl (2012), depicted Hedren's experiences on set; she said that Hitchcock became obsessed with her and sexually harassed her. He reportedly isolated her from the rest of the crew, had her followed, whispered obscenities to her, had her handwriting analysed and had a ramp built from his private office directly into her trailer.<ref>{{harvnb\|Spoto\|1999\|pp451–452, 455–457, 467–468, 472–473}}; {{harvnb\|Spoto\|2008\|pp250–251, 264}}</ref><ref nameGoldman5October2012>{{cite news \|lastGoldman \|firstAndrew \|titleThe Revenge of Alfred Hitchcock's Muse \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/07/magazine/the-revenge-of-tippi-hedren-alfred-hitchcocks-muse.html \|newspaperThe New York Times \|date5 October 2012\|access-date5 February 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170623181500/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/07/magazine/the-revenge-of-tippi-hedren-alfred-hitchcocks-muse.html\|archive-date23 June 2017\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Diane Baker, her co-star in Marnie, said: "[N]othing could have been more horrible for me than to arrive on that movie set and to see her being treated the way she was."{{sfn\|Spoto\|2008\|p265}} While filming the attack scene in the attic{{snd}}which took a week to film{{snd}}she was placed in a caged room while two men wearing elbow-length protective gloves threw live birds at her. Toward the end of the week, to stop the birds' flying away from her too soon, one leg of each bird was attached by nylon thread to elastic bands sewn inside her clothes. She broke down after a bird cut her lower eyelid, and filming was halted on doctor's orders.{{sfn\|Spoto\|1999\|pp457–459}}Marnie (1964)]] In June 1962, Grace Kelly announced that she had decided against appearing in Marnie'' (1964).<!--explain why?--> Hedren had signed an exclusive seven-year, $500-a-week contract with Hitchcock in October 1961,<ref>{{harvnb\|Taylor\|1996\|p=270}}; {{harvnb\|Moral\|2013\|p16}}</ref> and he decided to cast her in the lead role opposite Sean Connery. In 2016, describing Hedren's performance as "one of the greatest in the history of cinema", Richard Brody called the film a "story of sexual violence" inflicted on the character played by Hedren: "The film is, to put it simply, sick, and it's so because Hitchcock was sick. He suffered all his life from furious sexual desire, suffered from the lack of its gratification, suffered from the inability to transform fantasy into reality, and then went ahead and did so virtually, by way of his art."<ref nameBrody17Aug2016>{{cite magazine \|last1Brody \|first1Richard\|author-linkRichard Brody \|title"Marnie" Is the Cure for Hitchcock Mania \|urlhttps://www.newyorker.com/culture/richard-brody/marnie-is-the-cure-for-hitchcock-mania \|magazineThe New Yorker \|date17 August 2016\|access-date2 January 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180103072926/https://www.newyorker.com/culture/richard-brody/marnie-is-the-cure-for-hitchcock-mania\|archive-date3 January 2018\|url-status=live}}{{pb}} {{cite magazine \|last1Brody \|first1Richard\|author-linkRichard Brody \|titleTippi Hedren's Silence \|urlhttps://www.newyorker.com/culture/richard-brody/tippi-hedrens-silence \|magazineThe New Yorker \|year2012\|access-date5 January 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180105180346/https://www.newyorker.com/culture/richard-brody/tippi-hedrens-silence\|archive-date5 January 2018\|url-statuslive}}</ref> A 1964 New York Times review called it Hitchcock's "most disappointing film in years", citing Hedren's and Connery's lack of experience, an amateurish script and "glaringly fake cardboard backdrops".<ref>{{cite news \|last1Archer \|first1Eugene \|titleHitchcock's 'Marnie,' With Tippi Hedren and Sean Connery \|urlhttp://partners.nytimes.com/library/film/072364hitch-marnie-review.html \|workThe New York Times \|date23 July 1964\|access-date3 January 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170511180850/http://partners.nytimes.com/library/film/072364hitch-marnie-review.html\|archive-date11 May 2017\|url-status=live}}</ref> In the film, Marnie Edgar (Hedren) steals $10,000 from her employer and goes on the run. She applies for a job at Mark Rutland's (Connery) company in Philadelphia and steals from there too. Earlier, she is shown having a panic attack during a thunderstorm and fearing the colour red. Mark tracks her down and blackmails her into marrying him. She explains that she does not want to be touched, but during the "honeymoon", Mark rapes her. Marnie and Mark discover that Marnie's mother had been a prostitute when Marnie was a child, and that, while the mother was fighting with a client during a thunderstorm{{snd}}the mother believed the client had tried to molest Marnie{{snd}}Marnie had killed the client to save her mother. Cured of her fears when she remembers what happened, she decides to stay with Mark.<ref nameBrody17Aug2016/><ref nameCleaver13Aug2012>{{cite news \|last1Cleaver \|first1Emily \|titleMy favourite Hitchcock: Marnie \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/filmblog/2012/aug/13/my-favourite-hitchcock-marnie \|workThe Guardian \|date13 August 2012\|access-date27 December 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171227122740/https://www.theguardian.com/film/filmblog/2012/aug/13/my-favourite-hitchcock-marnie\|archive-date27 December 2017\|url-statuslive}}</ref> and first daughter Julie Nixon Eisenhower in 1969]] Hitchcock told cinematographer Robert Burks that the camera had to be placed as close as possible to Hedren when he filmed her face.{{sfn\|Spoto\|1999\|p471}} Evan Hunter, the screenwriter of The Birds who was writing Marnie too, explained to Hitchcock that, if Mark loved Marnie, he would comfort her, not rape her. Hitchcock reportedly replied: "Evan, when he sticks it in her, I want that camera right on her face!"<ref>{{harvnb\|Moral\|2013\|p[https://books.google.com/books?id2WFCQednbTMC&pgPA37 37]}}, citing Evan Hunter (1997). Me and Hitch.</ref> When Hunter submitted two versions of the script, one without the rape scene, Hitchcock replaced him with Jay Presson Allen.{{sfn\|Moral\|2013\|pp38–39}}Later years: 1966–1980Final filmsFailing health reduced Hitchcock's output during the last two decades of his life. Biographer Stephen Rebello claimed Universal imposed two films on him, Torn Curtain (1966) and Topaz (1969), the latter of which is based on a Leon Uris novel, partly set in Cuba.{{Sfn\|Rebello\|1990\|p188}} Both were spy thrillers with Cold War-related themes. Torn Curtain, with Paul Newman and Julie Andrews, precipitated the bitter end of the twelve-year collaboration between Hitchcock and composer Bernard Herrmann.<ref>{{harvnb\|Smith\|2002\|pp272–274}}; {{cite news \|lastStephens \|firstAndrew \|titleThe sound of Hitchcock: How Bernard Herrmann's music brought his films to life \|urlhttp://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/the-sound-of-hitchcock-how-bernard-herrmanns-music-brought-his-films-to-life-20160104-glys29.html \|workThe Sydney Morning Herald \|date9 January 2016\|access-date20 December 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170319215055/http://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/the-sound-of-hitchcock-how-bernard-herrmanns-music-brought-his-films-to-life-20160104-glys29.html\|archive-date19 March 2017\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Hitchcock was unhappy with Herrmann's score and replaced him with John Addison, Jay Livingston and Ray Evans.{{sfn\|Smith\|2002\|pp273–274}} Upon release, Torn Curtain was a box office disappointment,{{Sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p328}} and Topaz was disliked by both critics and the studio.{{Sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p333}} during a press junket for Family Plot (1976)]] Hitchcock returned to Britain to make his penultimate film, Frenzy (1972), based on the novel Goodbye Piccadilly, Farewell Leicester Square (1966). After two espionage films, the plot marked a return to the murder-thriller genre. Richard Blaney (Jon Finch), a volatile barman with a history of explosive anger, becomes the prime suspect in the investigation into the "Necktie Murders", which are actually committed by his friend Bob Rusk (Barry Foster). This time, Hitchcock makes the victim and villain kindreds, rather than opposites, as in Strangers on a Train.<ref>{{harvnb\|Leitch\|2002\|pp=114–115}}</ref> In Frenzy, Hitchcock allowed nudity for the first time. Two scenes show naked women, one of whom is being raped and strangled;{{sfn\|Evans\|2004\|p}} Donald Spoto called the latter "one of the most repellent examples of a detailed murder in the history of film". Both actors, Barbara Leigh-Hunt and Anna Massey, refused to do the scenes, so models were used instead.{{sfn\|Spoto\|1999\|pp513–514}} Biographers have noted that Hitchcock had always pushed the limits of film censorship, often managing to fool Joseph Breen, the head of the Motion Picture Production Code. Hitchcock would add subtle hints of improprieties forbidden by censorship until the mid-1960s. Yet, Patrick McGilligan wrote that Breen and others often realised that Hitchcock was inserting such material and were actually amused, as well as alarmed by Hitchcock's "inescapable inferences".<ref>{{harvnb\|McGilligan\|2003\|p=249}}</ref> Family Plot (1976) was Hitchcock's last film. It relates the escapades of "Madam" Blanche Tyler, played by Barbara Harris, a fraudulent spiritualist, and her taxi-driver lover Bruce Dern, making a living from her phony powers. While Family Plot was based on the Victor Canning novel The Rainbird Pattern (1972), the novel's tone is more sinister. Screenwriter Ernest Lehman originally wrote the film, under the working title Deception, with a dark tone but was pushed to a lighter, more comical tone by Hitchcock where it took the name Deceit, then finally, Family Plot.<ref>{{cite book\|lastHollenback\|firstSharon Sue Rountree\|titleAnalysis Of Processes Involved In Screenwriting As Demonstrated In Screenplays By Ernest Lehman\|publisherAnn Arbor\|year1980\|isbn979-8644965205\|locationUnited States\|pages64}}</ref> Knighthood and death <!--add American Film Institute Life Achievement Award and speech about his wife-->]] Toward the end of his life, Hitchcock was working on the script for a spy thriller, The Short Night, collaborating with James Costigan, Ernest Lehman and David Freeman. Despite preliminary work, it was never filmed. Hitchcock's health was declining and he was worried about his wife, who had suffered a stroke. The screenplay was eventually published in Freeman's book The Last Days of Alfred Hitchcock (1999).<ref>{{harvnb\|McGilligan\|2003\|pp= 731–734}}; {{harvnb\|Freeman\|1999}}</ref> Having refused a CBE in 1962,<ref>{{cite news \|titleQueen's honours: People who have turned them down named \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-16736495 \|workBBC News \|date5 August 2015\|access-date21 July 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161126094501/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-16736495\|archive-date26 November 2016\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Hitchcock was appointed a Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (KBE) in the 1980 New Year Honours.<ref nameTodd30April1980>{{cite magazine \|urlhttps://variety.com/1980/film/news/alfred-hitchcock-dies-of-natural-causes-at-bel-air-home-1201344342/ \|titleAlfred Hitchcock Dies Of Natural Causes at Bel-Air Home \|lastMcCarthy \|firstTodd \|date30 April 1980 \|magazineVariety\|access-date12 December 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171213010210/https://variety.com/1980/film/news/alfred-hitchcock-dies-of-natural-causes-at-bel-air-home-1201344342/\|archive-date13 December 2017\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{London Gazette\|issue48041 \|suppy \|page6\|date28 December 1979}}</ref> He was too ill to travel to London—he had a pacemaker and was being given cortisone injections for his arthritis—so on 3 January 1980 the British consul general presented him with the papers at Universal Studios. Asked by a reporter after the ceremony why it had taken the Queen so long, Hitchcock quipped, "I suppose it was a matter of carelessness." Cary Grant, Janet Leigh and others attended a luncheon afterwards.<ref name"Spoto 1999 553">{{harvnb\|Spoto\|1999\|p553}}</ref><ref nameEbert2Jan1980>{{cite web \|firstRoger \|lastEbert\|author-linkRoger Ebert \|urlhttp://www.rogerebert.com/interviews/hitchcock-he-always-did-give-us-knightmares \|titleHitchcock: he always did give us knightmares \|workChicago Sun-Times \|date2 January 1980\|access-date12 December 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151222085259/http://www.rogerebert.com/interviews/hitchcock-he-always-did-give-us-knightmares\|archive-date22 December 2015\|url-status=live}}</ref> <!--add something about his estate-->His last public appearance was on 16 March 1980, when he introduced the next year's winner of the American Film Institute award.<ref name"Spoto 1999 553"/> He died of kidney failure the following month, on 29 April, in his Bel Air home.<ref name"Variety obituary">{{cite news \|lastMcCarthy \|firstTodd \|urlhttps://variety.com/1980/film/news/alfred-hitchcock-dies-of-natural-causes-at-bel-air-home-1201344342 \|titleAlfred Hitchcock Dies Of Natural Causes at Bel-Air Home \|workVariety \|date7 May 1980\|access-date12 December 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171213010210/https://variety.com/1980/film/news/alfred-hitchcock-dies-of-natural-causes-at-bel-air-home-1201344342/\|archive-date13 December 2017\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb\|McGilligan\|2003\|p745}}</ref> Donald Spoto, one of Hitchcock's biographers, wrote that Hitchcock had declined to see a priest,<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1983/03/06/books/and-suddenly-evil-erupts.html \|titleNY Times – 'And Suddenly Evil Erupts' biography review 1996 \|newspaperThe New York Times \|date6 March 1983 \|access-date16 July 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190716081110/https://www.nytimes.com/1983/03/06/books/and-suddenly-evil-erupts.html \|archive-date16 July 2019 \|url-statuslive\|last1Grenier \|first1Richard }}</ref> but according to Jesuit priest Mark Henninger, he and another priest, Tom Sullivan, celebrated Mass at the filmmaker's home, and Sullivan heard his confession.<ref>{{cite news \|firstMark \|lastHenninger \|workThe Wall Street Journal \|titleAlfred Hitchcock's Surprise Ending \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887323401904578159573738040636 \|date6 December 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130207190149/http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424127887323401904578159573738040636.html \|archive-date7 February 2013\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Hitchcock was survived by his wife and daughter. His funeral was held at Good Shepherd Catholic Church in Beverly Hills on 30 April, after which his body was cremated. His remains were scattered over the Pacific Ocean on 10 May 1980.<ref>{{cite book \| lastWydra \| firstT. \| titleGrace: A Biography \| publisherSkyhorse \| year2014 \| isbn978-1-62914-967-7 \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idv_VfBgAAQBAJ&pgPT291 \| access-date12 September 2024 \| page291}}</ref><ref name"obit">{{cite news \|lastFlint \|firstPeter B. \|titleAlfred Hitchcock Dies; A Master of Suspense \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1980/04/30/archives/alfred-hitchcock-dies-a-master-of-suspense-alfred-hitchcock-master.html \|date30 April 1980 \|workThe New York Times\|access-date25 July 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180725214925/https://www.nytimes.com/1980/04/30/archives/alfred-hitchcock-dies-a-master-of-suspense-alfred-hitchcock-master.html\|archive-date25 July 2018\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Filmmaking Style and themes {{Main\|Themes and plot devices in Hitchcock films\|List of cameo appearances by Alfred Hitchcock}} The "Hitchcockian" style includes the use of editing and camera movement to mimic a person's gaze, thereby turning viewers into voyeurs, and framing shots to maximise anxiety and fear. The film critic Robin Wood wrote that the meaning of a Hitchcock film "is there in the method, in the progression from shot to shot. A Hitchcock film is an organism, with the whole implied in every detail and every detail related to the whole."{{sfn\|Wood\|2002\|p=62}} Hitchcock's film production career evolved from small-scale silent films to financially significant sound films. Hitchcock remarked that he was influenced by early filmmakers George Méliès, D. W. Griffith and Alice Guy-Blaché.<ref>{{cite book\|lastChandler\|firstCharlotte\|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/62897583\|titleIt's only a movie : Alfred Hitchcock : a personal biography\|date2006\|publisherApplause Theatre & Cinema Books\|isbn1-55783-692-2\|locationNew York\|oclc62897583\|access-date19 May 2021\|archive-date7 November 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211107064522/https://www.worldcat.org/title/its-only-a-movie-alfred-hitchcock-a-personal-biography/oclc/62897583\|url-statuslive}}</ref> His silent films between 1925 and 1929 were in the crime and suspense genres, but also included melodramas and comedies. Whilst visual storytelling was pertinent during the silent era, even after the arrival of sound, Hitchcock still relied on visuals in cinema; he referred to this emphasis on visual storytelling as "pure cinema".<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://nofilmschool.com/alfred-hitchcock-advice-quotes\|titleGet Alfred Hitchcock's Advice, In His Own Words\|websiteNo Film School\|lastEdelman\|firstGeorge\|date13 August 2020\|accessdate17 December 2021\|quoteCinema is form. I see many good films that contain very fine dialogue. I don't deprecate these films, but to me, they're not pure cinema. Trying to make them cinema some directors find odd angles to shoot from, but they still only produce what I call 'photographs of people talking.'}}</ref> In Britain, he honed his craft so that by the time he moved to Hollywood, the director had perfected his style and camera techniques. Hitchcock later said that his British work was the "sensation of cinema", whereas the American phase was when his "ideas were fertilised".{{Sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p123}} Scholar Robin Wood writes that the director's first two films, The Pleasure Garden and The Mountain Eagle, were influenced by German Expressionism. Afterward, he discovered Soviet cinema, and Sergei Eisenstein's and Vsevolod Pudovkin's theories of montage.{{Sfn\|McGilligan\|2003\|p75}} 1926's The Lodger was inspired by both German and Soviet aesthetics, styles which solidified the rest of his career.{{Sfn\|Wood\|2002\|p207}} Although Hitchcock's work in the 1920s found some success, several British reviewers criticised Hitchcock's films for being unoriginal and conceited.{{Sfn\|Sloan\|1995\|p17}} Raymond Durgnat opined that Hitchcock's films were carefully and intelligently constructed, but thought they can be shallow and rarely present a "coherent worldview".{{Sfn\|Sloan\|1995\|p400}} Earning the title "Master of Suspense", the director experimented with ways to generate tension in his work.{{Sfn\|Sloan\|1995\|p17}} He said, "My suspense work comes out of creating nightmares for the audience. And I play with an audience. I make them gasp and surprise them and shock them. When you have a nightmare, it's awfully vivid if you're dreaming that you're being led to the electric chair. Then you're as happy as can be when you wake up because you're relieved."<ref name":0">{{cite web\|lastLightman\|firstHerb A.\|date12 June 2017\|titleHitchcock Talks About Lights, Camera, Action – The American Society of Cinematographers\|urlhttps://ascmag.com/articles/flashback-hitchcock-talks-about-lights-camera-action\|access-date25 November 2020\|websiteascmag.com\|archive-date26 November 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201126091813/https://ascmag.com/articles/flashback-hitchcock-talks-about-lights-camera-action\|url-statuslive}}</ref> During filming of North by Northwest, Hitchcock explained his reasons for recreating the set of Mount Rushmore: "The audience responds in proportion to how realistic you make it. One of the dramatic reasons for this type of photography is to get it looking so natural that the audience gets involved and believes, for the time being, what's going on up there on the screen."<ref name":0" /> In a 1963 interview with Italian journalist Oriana Fallaci, Hitchcock was asked how in spite of appearing to be a pleasant, innocuous man, he seemed to enjoy making films involving suspense and terrifying crime. He responded:{{blockquote\|I'm English. The English use a lot of imagination with their crimes. I don't get such a kick out of anything as much as out of imagining a crime. When I'm writing a story and I come to a crime, I think happily: now wouldn't it be nice to have him die like this? And then, even more happily, I think: at this point people will start yelling. It must be because I spent three years studying with the Jesuits. They used to terrify me to death, with everything, and now I'm getting my own back by terrifying other people.{{sfn\|Gottlieb\|2003\|p56}}}} ]] Hitchcock's films, from the silent to the sound era, contained a number of recurring themes that he is famous for. His films explored audience as a voyeur, notably in Rear Window, Marnie and Psycho. He understood that human beings enjoy voyeuristic activities and made the audience participate in it through the character's actions.{{Sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p216}} Of his fifty-three films, eleven revolved around stories of mistaken identity, where an innocent protagonist is accused of a crime and is pursued by police. In most cases, it is an ordinary, everyday person who finds themselves in a dangerous situation.{{Sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p48}} Hitchcock told Truffaut: "That's because the theme of the innocent man being accused, I feel, provides the audience with a greater sense of danger. It's easier for them to identify with him than with a guilty man on the run."{{Sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p48}} One of his constant themes was the struggle of a personality torn between "order and chaos";{{Sfn\|Wood\|2002\|p98}} known as the notion of "double", which is a comparison or contrast between two characters or objects: the double representing a dark or evil side.{{Sfn\|Evans\|2004\|p=}} According to Robin Wood, Hitchcock retained a feeling of ambivalence towards homosexuality, despite working with gay actors throughout his career.{{Sfn\|Wood\|2002\|p342}} Donald Spoto suggests that Hitchcock's sexually repressive childhood may have contributed to his exploration of deviancy.{{Sfn\|Wood\|2002\|p342}} During the 1950s, the Motion Picture Production Code prohibited direct references to homosexuality but the director was known for his subtle references,<ref>{{cite web\|last1Hosier\|first1Connie Russell\|last2Badman\|first2Scott\|date7 February 2017\|titleGay Coding in Hitchcock Films\|urlhttps://www.us.mensa.org/read/bulletin/features/gay-coding-in-hitchcock-films/\|access-date25 November 2020\|websiteAmerican Mensa\|archive-date7 November 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201107230929/https://www.us.mensa.org/read/bulletin/features/gay-coding-in-hitchcock-films/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> and pushing the boundaries of the censors. Moreover, Shadow of a Doubt has a double incest theme through the storyline, expressed implicitly through images.{{Sfn\|Wood\|2002\|p300}} Author Jane Sloan argues that Hitchcock was drawn to both conventional and unconventional sexual expression in his work,{{Sfn\|Sloan\|1995\|p16}} and the theme of marriage was usually presented in a "bleak and skeptical" manner.{{Sfn\|Wood\|2002\|p246}} It was also not until after his mother's death in 1942, that Hitchcock portrayed motherly figures as "notorious monster-mothers".{{Sfn\|McGilligan\|2003\|p321}} The espionage backdrop, and murders committed by characters with psychopathic tendencies were common themes too.{{Sfn\|McGilligan\|2003\|p128}} In Hitchcock's depiction of villains and murderers, they were usually charming and friendly, forcing viewers to identify with them.{{Sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p293}} The director's strict childhood and Jesuit education may have led to his distrust of authority figures such as policemen and politicians; a theme which he has explored.{{Sfn\|Evans\|2004\|p}} Also, he used the "MacGuffin"—the use of an object, person or event to keep the plot moving along even if it was non-essential to the story.{{Sfn\|Taylor\|1996\|p120}} Hitchcock appears briefly in most of his own films. For example, he is seen struggling to get a double bass onto a train (Strangers on a Train), walking dogs out of a pet shop (The Birds), fixing a neighbour's clock (Rear Window), as a shadow (Family Plot), sitting at a table in a photograph (Dial M for Murder), and riding a bus (North by Northwest, To Catch a Thief).{{sfn\|Walker\|2005\|p88}}Representation of women<!--add White, Susan (2015). "Alfred Hitchcock and Feminist Film Theory (Yet Again)". In Freedman, Jonathan. The Cambridge Companion to Alfred Hitchcock. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 109–126. And Modleski, Tania (2016) [1988]. The Women Who Knew Too Much: Hitchcock And Feminist Theory. New York and Abingdon: Routledge.-->Hitchcock's portrayal of women has been the subject of much scholarly debate. Bidisha wrote in The Guardian in 2010: "There's the vamp, the tramp, the snitch, the witch, the slink, the double-crosser and, best of all, the demon mommy. Don't worry, they all get punished in the end."<ref>{{cite news \|last1Bidisha \|author-link1Bidisha \|titleWhat's wrong with Hitchcock's women \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2010/oct/21/alfred-hitchcock-women-psycho-the-birds-bidisha \|workThe Guardian \|date21 October 2010\|access-date26 December 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171227061912/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2010/oct/21/alfred-hitchcock-women-psycho-the-birds-bidisha\|archive-date27 December 2017\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In a widely cited essay in 1975, Laura Mulvey introduced the idea of the male gaze; the view of the spectator in Hitchcock's films, she argued, is that of the heterosexual male protagonist.{{sfn\|Mulvey\|1989}} "The female characters in his films reflected the same qualities over and over again", Roger Ebert wrote in 1996: "They were blonde. They were icy and remote. They were imprisoned in costumes that subtly combined fashion with fetishism. They mesmerised the men, who often had physical or psychological handicaps. Sooner or later, every Hitchcock woman was humiliated."<ref>{{cite web \|firstRoger \|lastEbert \|urlhttp://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/great-movie-vertigo-1958 \|titleVertigo \|date13 October 1996 \|workChicago Sun-Times\|access-date26 December 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171223043656/https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/great-movie-vertigo-1958\|archive-date23 December 2017\|url-statuslive}}</ref>{{efn\|In 1967, Hitchcock told Truffaut: "I think the most interesting women, sexually, are the English women. I feel that the English women, the Swedes, the northern Germans, and Scandinavians are a great deal more exciting than the Latin, the Italian, and the French women. Sex should not be advertised. An English girl, looking like a schoolteacher, is apt to get into a cab with you and, to your surprise, she'll probably pull a man's pants open.&nbsp;... [W]ithout the element of surprise the scenes become meaningless. There's no possibility to discover sex.{{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p224}}}} and James Stewart in Vertigo (1958)]] Hitchcock's films often feature characters struggling in their relationships with their mothers, such as Norman Bates in Psycho. In North by Northwest, Roger Thornhill (Cary Grant) is an innocent man ridiculed by his mother for insisting that shadowy, murderous men are after him. In The Birds, the Rod Taylor character, an innocent man, finds his world under attack by vicious birds, and struggles to free himself from a clinging mother (Jessica Tandy). The killer in Frenzy has a loathing of women but idolises his mother. The villain Bruno in Strangers on a Train hates his father, but has an incredibly close relationship with his mother (played by Marion Lorne). Sebastian (Claude Rains) in Notorious has a clearly conflicting relationship with his mother, who is (rightly) suspicious of his new bride, Alicia Huberman (Ingrid Bergman).<ref>{{harvnb\|Kaganski\|1997\|pp1–9}}</ref><!--replace source-->Relationship with actors {{Quote box \|quote = I told her that my idea of a good actor or good actress is someone who can do nothing very well.&nbsp;... I said, "That's one of the things you've got to learn to have&nbsp;... authority." Out of authority comes control and out of control you get the range&nbsp;... Whether you do little acting, a lot of acting in a given scene. You know exactly where you're going. And these were the first things that she had to know. Emotion comes later and the control of the voice comes later. But, within herself, she had to learn authority first and foremost because out of authority comes timing. \|source {{snd}}Alfred Hitchcock (1967){{sfn\|Moral\|2013\|p18}} \|width= 25em \|align= right \|salign= right \|style = padding:1.2em}} Hitchcock became known for having remarked that "actors should be treated like cattle".{{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p140}}{{efn\|Hitchcock told Fallaci in 1963: "When they [actors] aren't cows, they're children: that's something else I've often said. And everyone knows that there are good children, bad children, and stupid children. The majority of actors, though, are stupid children. They're always quarreling, and they give themselves a lot of airs. The less I see of them, the happier I am. I had much less trouble directing fifteen hundred crows than one single actor. I've always said that Walt Disney has the right idea. His actors are made of paper; when he doesn't like them, he can tear them up."{{sfn\|Fallaci\|1963}}}} During the filming of Mr. & Mrs. Smith (1941), Carole Lombard brought three cows onto the set wearing the name tags of Lombard, Robert Montgomery, and Gene Raymond, the stars of the film, to surprise him.{{sfn\|Truffaut\|1983\|p140}} In an episode of The Dick Cavett Show, originally broadcast on 8 June 1972, Dick Cavett stated as fact that Hitchcock had once called actors cattle. Hitchcock responded by saying that, at one time, he had been accused of calling actors cattle. "I said that I would never say such an unfeeling, rude thing about actors at all. What I probably said, was that all actors should be treated like cattle...In a nice way of course." He then described Carole Lombard's joke, with a smile.<ref>{{cite web\|titleAlfred Hitchcock Talks About His Relationship With Actors {{pipe}} The Dick Cavett Show\|websiteYouTube \|date11 May 2019 \|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vGuD1yloq5pY\|access-date11 February 2023}}</ref> Hitchcock believed that actors should concentrate on their performances and leave work on script and character to the directors and screenwriters. He told Bryan Forbes in 1967: "I remember discussing with a method actor how he was taught and so forth. He said, 'We're taught using improvisation. We are given an idea and then we are turned loose to develop in any way we want to.' I said, 'That's not acting. That's writing.'"<ref nameHitchcockForbes>{{cite web \|titleAlfred Hitchcock \|publisherBritish Film Institute \|urlhttp://www.bfi.org.uk/features/interviews/hitchcock.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080210051052/http://www.bfi.org.uk/features/interviews/hitchcock.html#actors \|archive-date=10 February 2008}}</ref> Recalling their experiences on Lifeboat for Charles Chandler, author of ''It's Only a Movie: Alfred Hitchcock A Personal Biography, Walter Slezak said that Hitchcock "knew more about how to help an actor than any director I ever worked with", and Hume Cronyn dismissed the idea that Hitchcock was not concerned with his actors as "utterly fallacious", describing at length the process of rehearsing and filming Lifeboat''.<ref>{{cite book \|titleIt's Only a Movie: Alfred Hitchcock A Personal Biography \|publisherSimon and Schuster \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idoKRhkdxsFs8C&pgPT133 \|isbn978-1-84739-709-6 \|year2008 \|access-date14 December 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191222214437/https://books.google.com/books?idoKRhkdxsFs8C&pgPT133 \|archive-date22 December 2019 \|url-status=live}}</ref> Critics observed that, despite his reputation as a man who disliked actors, actors who worked with him often gave brilliant performances. He used the same actors in many of his films; Cary Grant and James Stewart both worked with Hitchcock four times,<ref>{{harvnb\|White\|2011\|p184}}</ref> and Ingrid Bergman and Grace Kelly three. James Mason said that Hitchcock regarded actors as "animated props".<ref>{{harvnb\|Whitty\|2016\|p263}}</ref> For Hitchcock, the actors were part of the film's setting. He told François Truffaut: "The chief requisite for an actor is the ability to do nothing well, which is by no means as easy as it sounds. He should be willing to be used and wholly integrated into the picture by the director and the camera. He must allow the camera to determine the proper emphasis and the most effective dramatic highlights."<ref>{{harvnb\|Truffaut\|1983\|p111}}</ref>Writing, storyboards and productionHitchcock planned his scripts in detail with his writers. In Writing with Hitchcock (2001), Steven DeRosa noted that Hitchcock supervised them through every draft, asking that they tell the story visually.<ref>{{harvnb\|DeRosa\|2001\|pxi}}</ref> Hitchcock told Roger Ebert in 1969: {{blockquote\|Once the screenplay is finished, I'd just as soon not make the film at all. All the fun is over. I have a strongly visual mind. I visualize a picture right down to the final cuts. I write all this out in the greatest detail in the script, and then I don't look at the script while I'm shooting. I know it off by heart, just as an orchestra conductor needs not look at the score. It's melancholy to shoot a picture. When you finish the script, the film is perfect. But in shooting it you lose perhaps 40 per cent of your original conception.<ref>{{cite news \|firstRoger \|lastEbert \|urlhttps://www.rogerebert.com/interviews/hitchcock-never-mess-about-with-a-dead-body-you-may-be-one \|titleHitchcock: "Never mess about with a dead body—you may be one&nbsp;.... \|workChicago Sun-Times \|date14 December 1969\|access-date11 December 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171212084523/https://www.rogerebert.com/interviews/hitchcock-never-mess-about-with-a-dead-body-you-may-be-one\|archive-date12 December 2017\|url-statuslive}}</ref>}} Hitchcock's films were extensively storyboarded to the finest detail. He was reported to have never even bothered looking through the viewfinder, since he did not need to, although in publicity photos he was shown doing so. He also used this as an excuse to never have to change his films from his initial vision. If a studio asked him to change a film, he would claim that it was already shot in a single way, and that there were no alternative takes to consider.<ref>Krohn, Bill, Hitchcock at Work (London: Phaidon, 2000), p. 9. cited in {{cite book \|last1Pallant \|first1Chris \|titleHitchcock and Storyboarding \|year2015 \|pages112\|editor-lastPallant\|editor-firstChris \|seriesPalgrave Studies in Screenwriting \|publisherPalgrave Macmillan UK \|doi10.1057/9781137027603_6 \|isbn978-1-137-02760-3 \|last2Price \|first2Steven\|editor2-lastPrice\|editor2-first=Steven}}</ref> filming North by Northwest (1959)]] This view of Hitchcock as a director who relied more on pre-production than on the actual production itself has been challenged by Bill Krohn, the American correspondent of French film magazine Cahiers du Cinéma, in his book Hitchcock at Work. After investigating script revisions, notes to other production personnel written by or to Hitchcock, and other production material, Krohn observed that Hitchcock's work often deviated from how the screenplay was written or how the film was originally envisioned.<ref name"krohn1–7">{{harvnb\|Krohn\|2000\|pp1–7}}</ref> He noted that the myth of storyboards in relation to Hitchcock, often regurgitated by generations of commentators on his films, was to a great degree perpetuated by Hitchcock himself or the publicity arm of the studios. For example, the celebrated crop-spraying sequence of North by Northwest was not storyboarded at all. After the scene was filmed, the publicity department asked Hitchcock to make storyboards to promote the film, and Hitchcock in turn hired an artist to match the scenes in detail.<ref name"Raymond Bellour 2000 p. 217">{{harvnb\|Bellour\|Penley\|2000\|p217}}</ref>{{verify source\|date=December 2017}} Even when storyboards were made, scenes that were shot differed from them significantly. Krohn's analysis of the production of Hitchcock classics like Notorious reveals that Hitchcock was flexible enough to change a film's conception during its production. Another example Krohn notes is the American remake of The Man Who Knew Too Much, whose shooting schedule commenced without a finished script and moreover went over schedule, something that, as Krohn notes, was not an uncommon occurrence on many of Hitchcock's films, including Strangers on a Train and Topaz. While Hitchcock did do a great deal of preparation for all his films, he was fully cognisant that the actual film-making process often deviated from the best-laid plans and was flexible to adapt to the changes and needs of production as his films were not free from the normal hassles faced and common routines used during many other film productions.<ref name"Raymond Bellour 2000 p. 217"/>{{verify source\|dateDecember 2017}} Krohn's work also sheds light on Hitchcock's practice of generally shooting in chronological order, which he notes sent many films over budget and over schedule and, more importantly, differed from the standard operating procedure of Hollywood in the Studio System Era. Equally important is Hitchcock's tendency to shoot alternative takes of scenes. This differed from coverage in that the films were not necessarily shot from varying angles so as to give the editor options to shape the film how they chose (often under the producer's aegis).<ref name"Heritage02-28-07">{{cite web \|lastLehman \|firstDavid \|urlhttp://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/2007/2/2007_2_28.shtml \|titleAlfred Hitchcock's America \|workAmerican Heritage \|dateApril–May 2007\|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070711184905/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/2007/2/2007_2_28.shtml \|archive-date11 July 2007}}</ref>{{Failed verification\|date=December 2017}} Rather they represented Hitchcock's tendency to give himself options in the editing room, where he would provide advice to his editors after viewing a rough cut of the work. According to Krohn, this and a great deal of other information revealed through his research of Hitchcock's personal papers, script revisions and the like refute the notion of Hitchcock as a director who was always in control of his films, whose vision of his films did not change during production, which Krohn notes has remained the central long-standing myth of Alfred Hitchcock. Both his fastidiousness and attention to detail also found their way into each film poster for his films. Hitchcock preferred to work with the best talent of his day—film poster designers such as Bill Gold<ref>{{cite news \|newspaperThe New York Times \|titlePoster Master With a Cool Hand \|firstMekado \|lastMurphy \|date3 December 2010 \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/05/movies/05posters.html\|access-date5 February 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161223132525/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/05/movies/05posters.html\|archive-date23 December 2016\|url-statuslive}}</ref> and Saul Bass—who would produce posters that accurately represented his films.<ref name"Raymond Bellour 2000 p. 217"/>LegacyAwards and honours {{See also\|List of awards and nominations received by Alfred Hitchcock}} ]] Hitchcock was inducted into the Hollywood Walk of Fame on 8 February 1960 with two stars: one for television and a second for motion pictures.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAlfred Hitchcock \|urlhttp://www.walkoffame.com/alfred-hitchcock \|publisherHollywood Walk of Fame \|access-date16 December 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161028192011/http://www.walkoffame.com/alfred-hitchcock\|archive-date28 October 2016\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 1978, John Russell Taylor described him as "the most universally recognizable person in the world" and "a straightforward middle-class Englishman who just happened to be an artistic genius".<ref nameEbert2Jan1980/> In 2002, MovieMaker named him the most influential director of all time,<ref name"MovieMaker">{{cite web \|lastWood \|firstJennifer M. \|titleThe 25 Most Influential Directors of All Time \|urlhttps://www.moviemaker.com/archives/moviemaking/directing/articles-directing/the-25-most-influential-directors-of-all-time-3358/ \|workMovieMaker \|date6 July 2002 \|access-date22 August 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170429131645/http://www.moviemaker.com/archives/moviemaking/directing/articles-directing/the-25-most-influential-directors-of-all-time-3358 \|archive-date29 April 2017 \|url-statusdead \|refnone}}</ref> and a 2007 The Daily Telegraph critics' poll ranked him Britain's greatest director.<ref>{{cite web\|last1Wicks\|first1Kevin\|titleTelegraph's Top 21 British Directors of All-Time\|urlhttps://www.bbcamerica.com/anglophenia/2007/04/telegraphs-top-21-british-directors-of-all-time\|websiteBBC America\|access-date7 July 2021\|archive-date9 July 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210709184716/https://www.bbcamerica.com/anglophenia/2007/04/telegraphs-top-21-british-directors-of-all-time\|url-statuslive}}</ref> David Gritten, the newspaper's film critic, wrote: "Unquestionably the greatest filmmaker to emerge from these islands, Hitchcock did more than any director to shape modern cinema, which would be utterly different without him. His flair was for narrative, cruelly withholding crucial information (from his characters and from us) and engaging the emotions of the audience like no one else."<ref nameAvedon14April2007>{{cite news \|lastAvedon \|firstRichard \|titleThe top 21 British directors of all time \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/starsandstories/3664474/The-top-21-British-directors-of-all-time.html \|workThe Daily Telegraph \|date14 April 2007\|access-date5 April 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160328061236/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/starsandstories/3664474/The-top-21-British-directors-of-all-time.html\|archive-date28 March 2016\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 1992, the Sight & Sound Critics' Poll ranked Hitchcock at No. 4 in its list of "Top 10 Directors" of all time.<ref>{{cite web\|titleSight and Sound Poll 1992: Critics \|publisherCalifornia Institute of Technology \|urlhttp://alumnus.caltech.edu/~ejohnson/sight/1992_1.html \|access-date29 May 2009 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150618053015/http://alumnus.caltech.edu/~ejohnson/sight/1992_1.html \|archive-date18 June 2015 }}</ref> In 2002, Hitchcock was ranked second in the critics' top ten poll<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://old.bfi.org.uk/sightandsound/topten/poll/critics-directors.html\|titleBFI {{pipe}} Sight & Sound {{pipe}} Top Ten Poll 2002 – The Critics' Top Ten Directors\|date3 March 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160303181654/http://old.bfi.org.uk/sightandsound/topten/poll/critics-directors.html\|archive-date3 March 2016}}</ref> and fifth in the directors' top ten poll<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://old.bfi.org.uk/sightandsound/topten/poll/directors-directors.html\|titleBFI {{pipe}} Sight & Sound {{pipe}} Top Ten Poll 2002 – The Directors' Top Ten Directors\|date13 October 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181013231353/http://old.bfi.org.uk/sightandsound/topten/poll/directors-directors.html\|archive-date13 October 2018}}</ref> in the list of "The Greatest Directors of All Time" compiled by Sight & Sound. Hitchcock was voted the "Greatest Director of 20th Century" in a poll conducted by Japanese film magazine kinema Junpo. In 1996, Entertainment Weekly ranked Hitchcock at No. 1 in its "50 Greatest Directors" list.<ref name"auto">{{cite web\|titleGreatest Film Directors and Their Best Films \|publisherFilmsite.org \|urlhttp://www.filmsite.org/directors5.html \|access-date19 April 2009 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150419021840/http://www.filmsite.org/directors2.html\|archive-date19 April 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|titleGreatest Film Directors\|urlhttps://www.filmsite.org/directors.html\|websitefilmsite.org\|access-date6 July 2021\|archive-date5 September 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190905115334/https://www.filmsite.org/directors.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Hitchcock was ranked at No. 2 on Empire{{'}}s "Top 40 Greatest Directors of All-Time" list in 2005.<ref name"auto"/> In 2007, Total Film ranked Hitchcock at No. 1 on its "100 Greatest Film Directors Ever" list.<ref>{{cite web\|titleThe Greatest Directors Ever by Total Film Magazine \|publisherFilmsite.org \|urlhttp://www.filmsite.org/greatdirectors-totalfilm2.html \|access-date19 April 2009 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140702113557/http://www.filmsite.org/greatdirectors-totalfilm.html\|archive-date2 July 2014 }}</ref> blue plaque marks where Hitchcock lived at 153 Cromwell Road, Kensington, London.]] He won two Golden Globes, eight Laurel Awards, and five lifetime achievement awards, including the first BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award in 1971,<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://awards.bafta.org/award/1971/film/fellowship \|title1971 Film Fellowship {{!}} BAFTA Awards\|websiteawards.bafta.org\|access-date2 February 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180203064211/http://awards.bafta.org/award/1971/film/fellowship\|archive-date3 February 2018\|url-statuslive}}</ref> and, in 1979, an AFI Life Achievement Award.<ref nameTodd30April1980/> He was nominated five times for an Academy Award for Best Director. Rebecca, nominated for eleven Oscars, won the Academy Award for Best Picture of 1940; another Hitchcock film, Foreign Correspondent, was also nominated that year.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/1941 \|titleThe 13th Academy Awards (1941) Nominees and Winners \|year2012 \|publisherAcademy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences \|access-date21 June 2012\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120303110034/http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/legacy/ceremony/13th-winners.html\|archive-date3 March 2012\|url-statuslive}}</ref> By 2021, nine of his films had been selected for preservation by the US National Film Registry: Rebecca (1940; inducted 2018), Shadow of a Doubt (1943; inducted 1991), Notorious (1946; inducted 2006), Strangers on a Train (1951; inducted 2021), Rear Window (1954; inducted 1997), Vertigo (1958; inducted 1989), North by Northwest (1959; inducted 1995), Psycho (1960; inducted 1992) and The Birds (1963; inducted 2016).<ref name=loc/> In 2001, a series of 17 mosaics of Hitchcock's life and work, which are located in Leytonstone tube station in the London Underground, was commissioned by the London Borough of Waltham Forest.<ref>{{cite news \|titleLeytonstone's Alfred Hitchcock mosaics \|urlhttps://edition.cnn.com/2012/08/02/europe/gallery/hitchcock-murals-leytonstone/index.html \|access-date10 May 2024 \|publisherCNN}}</ref> In 2012, Hitchcock was selected by artist Sir Peter Blake, author of the Beatles' ''Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band album cover, to appear in a new version of the cover, along with other British cultural figures, and he was featured that year in a BBC Radio 4 series, The New Elizabethans'', as someone "whose actions during the reign of Elizabeth II have had a significant impact on lives in these islands and given the age its character".<ref>{{cite news \|firstCaroline \|lastDavies \|titleNew faces on Sgt Pepper album cover for artist Peter Blake's 80th birthday \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2012/apr/02/peter-blake-sgt-pepper-cover-revisited \|workThe Guardian \|date4 October 2016\|access-date5 November 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161105095109/https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2012/apr/02/peter-blake-sgt-pepper-cover-revisited\|archive-date5 November 2016\|url-statuslive}}{{pb}} {{cite web \|urlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01jxs2c/features/about \|publisherBBC \|titleThe New Elizabethans – Alfred Hitchcock \|access-date24 August 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121125012450/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01jxs2c/features/about\|archive-date25 November 2012\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In June 2013 nine restored versions of Hitchcock's early silent films, including The Pleasure Garden (1925), were shown at the Brooklyn Academy of Music's Harvey Theatre; known as "The Hitchcock 9", the travelling tribute was organised by the British Film Institute.<ref nameKehr>{{cite news \|lastKehr \|firstDave \|titleHitchcock, Finding His Voice in Silents \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/23/movies/silent-hitchcock-films-come-to-the-harvey-theater-in-brooklyn.html \|newspaperThe New York Times \|date23 June 2013 \|access-date2 November 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171109035810/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/23/movies/silent-hitchcock-films-come-to-the-harvey-theater-in-brooklyn.html\|archive-date9 November 2017\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Archives The Alfred Hitchcock Collection is housed at the Academy Film Archive in Hollywood, California. It includes home movies, 16mm film shot on the set of Blackmail (1929) and Frenzy (1972), and the earliest known colour footage of Hitchcock. The Academy Film Archive has preserved many of his home movies.<ref>{{cite web\|titlePreserved Projects\|urlhttps://www.oscars.org/academy-film-archive/preserved-projects?titlehitchcock&filmmaker&categoryAll&collectionAll\|websiteAcademy Film Archive\|access-date18 September 2020\|archive-date3 October 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211003133142/https://www.oscars.org/academy-film-archive/preserved-projects?titlehitchcock&filmmaker&categoryAll&collectionAll\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 1984, Pat Hitchcock donated her father's papers to the academy's Margaret Herrick Library.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/digitised/page/singmonitor19841128-1.1.19\|titleHitchcock Treasure\|workSingapore Monitor\|date28 November 1984\|page20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleAlfred Hitchcock Collection \|urlhttp://www.oscars.org/film-archive/collections/alfred-hitchcock-collection \|websiteAcademy Film Archive \|access-date30 June 2016 \|date5 September 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160702002920/http://oscars.org/film-archive/collections/alfred-hitchcock-collection\|archive-date2 July 2016\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The David O. Selznick and the Ernest Lehman collections housed at the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center in Austin, Texas, contain material related to Hitchcock's work on the production of The Paradine Case, Rebecca, Spellbound, North by Northwest and Family Plot.<ref>{{cite web \|titleFilm \|urlhttp://www.hrc.utexas.edu/collections/film \|publisherHarry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin \|access-date17 August 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170810024043/http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/collections/film/\|archive-date10 August 2017\|url-statuslive}}</ref>Hitchcock portrayals * Anthony Hopkins in Hitchcock (2012) * Toby Jones in The Girl (2012) * Roger Ashton-Griffiths in Grace of Monaco (2014) * EpicLLOYD in the YouTube comedy series Epic Rap Battles of History (2014) Filmography Films {{Main\|Alfred Hitchcock filmography}} Silent films {{div col\|colwidth22em\|content * Number 13 (1922) (unfinished and lost) * Always Tell Your Wife (short) (1923) (partially lost) * The Pleasure Garden (1925) * The Mountain Eagle (1926) (lost) * The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog (1927) * The Ring (1927) * Downhill (1927) * ''The Farmer's Wife (1928) * Easy Virtue (1928) * Champagne (1928) * The Manxman (1929) * Blackmail (1929) }} Sound films {{div col\|colwidth22em\|content * Blackmail (1929) * An Elastic Affair (short) (1930) (lost) * Juno and the Paycock (1930) * Murder! (1930) * Elstree Calling (1930) * The Skin Game (1931) * Mary (1931) * Rich and Strange (1931) * Number Seventeen (1932) * Waltzes from Vienna (1934) * The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934) * The 39 Steps (1935) * Secret Agent (1936) * Sabotage (1936) * Young and Innocent (1937) * The Lady Vanishes (1938) * Jamaica Inn (1939) * Rebecca (1940) * Foreign Correspondent (1940) * Mr. & Mrs. Smith (1941) * Suspicion (1941) * Saboteur (1942) * Shadow of a Doubt (1943) * Lifeboat (1944) * Spellbound (1945) * Notorious (1946) * The Paradine Case (1947) * Rope (1948) * Under Capricorn (1949) * Stage Fright (1950) * Strangers on a Train (1951) * I Confess (1953) * Dial M for Murder (1954) * Rear Window (1954) * To Catch a Thief (1955) * The Trouble with Harry (1955) * The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956) * The Wrong Man (1956) * Vertigo (1958) * North by Northwest (1959) * Psycho (1960) * The Birds (1963) * Marnie (1964) * Torn Curtain (1966) * Topaz (1969) * Frenzy (1972) * Family Plot'' (1976) }} See also * Alfred Hitchcock's unrealized projects * List of cameo appearances by Alfred Hitchcock * List of film director and actor collaborations * Remakes of films by Alfred Hitchcock * List of Academy Award winners and nominees from Great Britain Notes and sources Notes {{notelist}} References {{Reflist\|25em\|refs<ref name"influential">Sources include: * {{cite web \|urlhttps://www.brentonfilm.com/alfred-hitchcock-collectors-guide-the-british-years-in-print \|titleAlfred Hitchcock Collectors' Guide: The British Years in Print \|publisherBrenton Film \|access-date3 September 2022 \|date13 August 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220106124812/https://www.brentonfilm.com/articles/alfred-hitchcock-collectors-guide-the-british-years-in-print \|archive-date6 January 2022 \|url-statuslive }} * {{cite web\|last1Ursell\|first1Joe\|titleThe Phenomenal Influence and Legacy of Alfred Hitchcock\|urlhttps://www.intofilm.org/news-and-views/articles/hitchcock-feature\|websiteInto Film\|date10 August 2016\|access-date14 July 2021\|archive-date14 July 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210714164650/https://www.intofilm.org/news-and-views/articles/hitchcock-feature\|url-statuslive}} * {{cite web\|last1Deb\|first1Sandipan\|titleThe audience as a piano: the strange case of Alfred Hitchcock\|urlhttps://www.livemint.com/opinion/columns/opinion-the-audience-as-a-piano-the-strange-case-of-alfred-hitchcock-1566141463913.html\|websiteMint\|date18 August 2019\|access-date14 July 2021\|archive-date14 July 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210714165311/https://www.livemint.com/opinion/columns/opinion-the-audience-as-a-piano-the-strange-case-of-alfred-hitchcock-1566141463913.html\|url-statuslive}} * {{cite web\|title'Like Bach in music': Alfred Hitchcock's towering influence\|urlhttps://www.dw.com/en/like-bach-in-music-alfred-hitchcocks-towering-influence/a-49997613\|websiteDW\|date13 August 2019\|access-date14 July 2021\|archive-date14 July 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210714173419/https://www.dw.com/en/like-bach-in-music-alfred-hitchcocks-towering-influence/a-49997613\|url-statuslive}} * {{cite web\|titleHow Alfred Hitchcock changed cinema forever\|urlhttps://faroutmagazine.co.uk/how-alfred-hitchcock-changed-cinema-forever/\|websiteFar Out\|date29 April 2019\|access-date15 July 2021\|archive-date15 July 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210715100438/https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/how-alfred-hitchcock-changed-cinema-forever/\|url-statuslive}} * {{cite web\|last1Calvin\|first1Thomas\|titleHitchcock Legacy As Potent as Ever\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1992/12/27/nyregion/hitchcock-legacy-as-potent-as-ever.html\|websiteThe New York Times\|date27 December 1992\|access-date15 July 2021\|archive-date4 October 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211004044523/https://www.nytimes.com/1992/12/27/nyregion/hitchcock-legacy-as-potent-as-ever.html\|url-statuslive}} * {{cite web\|last1Ebert\|first1Roger\|titleHitchcock is still on top of film world\|urlhttps://www.rogerebert.com/roger-ebert/hitchcock-is-still-on-top-of-film-world\|websiteRoger Ebert\|date13 August 1999\|access-date15 July 2021\|archive-date15 July 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210715103143/https://www.rogerebert.com/roger-ebert/hitchcock-is-still-on-top-of-film-world\|url-statuslive}}</ref> }} Works cited Biographies (chronological) {{refbegin\|30em}} * {{cite book \|lastTruffaut \|firstFrançois\|author-linkFrançois Truffaut \|titleHitchcock/Truffaut \|editionRevised \|publisherSimon & Schuster \|locationNew York \|year1983 \|isbn978-0-671-52601-6 \|orig-date1967\|title-link=Hitchcock/Truffaut}} * {{cite book \|last1Taylor \|first1John Russell\|author-linkJohn Russell Taylor \|titleHitch: The Life and Times of Alfred Hitchcock \|date1996\|orig-date1978 \|publisherDa Capo Press \|locationNew York }} * {{cite book \|lastSpoto \|firstDonald\|author-linkDonald Spoto \|titleThe Dark Side of Genius: The Life of Alfred Hitchcock \|locationNew York \|publisherDa Capo Press \|year1999\|orig-date1983 \|isbn978-0-306-80932-3 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/darksideofgenius00spot_0}} * {{cite book \|lastFreeman \|firstDavid \|titleThe Last Days of Alfred Hitchcock \|year1999 \|publisherOverlook \|isbn978-0-87951-728-1 }} * {{cite book \|lastAdair \|firstGene \|titleAlfred Hitchcock: Filming Our Fears \|publisherOxford University Press \|locationNew York \|year2002 \|isbn=978-0-19-511967-1 }} * {{cite book \|lastDuncan \|firstPaul \|titleAlfred Hitchcock: Architect of Anxiety, 1899–1980 \|year2003 \|publisherTaschen \|isbn978-3-8228-1591-5 }} * {{cite book \|lastMcGilligan \|firstPatrick\|author-linkPatrick McGilligan (biographer) \|titleAlfred Hitchcock: A Life in Darkness and Light \|publisherRegan Books \|locationNew York \|year2003 \|isbn978-0-06-039322-9 \|url=https://archive.org/details/alfredhitchcockl00mcgi}} * {{cite book \|last1Spoto \|first1Donald\|author-linkDonald Spoto \|titleSpellbound by Beauty: Alfred Hitchcock and his Leading Ladies \|date2008 \|publisherHarmony Books \|location=New York }} * {{cite book \|lastAckroyd \|firstPeter\|author-linkPeter Ackroyd \|titleAlfred Hitchcock \|date2015 \|publisherRandom House \|isbn=978-0-7011-6993-0}} {{refend}} Miscellaneous {{refbegin\|30em}} * {{cite book \|last1Allen \|first1Richard \|last2Ishii-Gonzalès \|first2S. \|titleHitchcock: Past and Future \|publisherRoutledge \|year2004 \|isbn978-0-415-27525-5}} * {{cite book \|last1Bellour \|first1Raymond \|author-linkRaymond Bellour \|last2Penley \|first2Constance \|year2000 \|titleThe Analysis of Film \|publisherIndiana University Press \|isbn=978-0-253-21364-8}} * {{cite book \|lastBrown \|firstRoyal S. \|year1994 \|titleOvertones and Undertones: Reading Film Music \|publisherUniversity of California Press \|isbn978-0-520-91477-3}} * {{cite book \|firstMitzi M. \|lastBrunsdale \|titleIcons of Mystery and Crime Detection: From Sleuths to Superheroes \|date2010 \|publisher=ABC-CLIO }} * {{cite book \|lastDeRosa \|firstSteven \|titleWriting with Hitchcock \|locationNew York \|publisherFaber and Faber \|year2001 \|isbn=978-0-571-19990-7}} * {{cite ODNB \|last1Evans \|first1Peter William \|titleHitchcock, Alfred Joseph \|doi10.1093/ref:odnb/31239 \|year=2004}} * {{cite book \|last1Fallaci \|first1Oriana \|author-linkOriana Fallaci \|titleThe Egotists: Sixteen Surprising Interviews \|chapter-urlhttp://scrapsfromtheloft.com/2016/06/14/fallaci-hitchcock-interview/ \|publisherHenry Regnery \|locationChicago \|date1963 \|chapterMr. Chastity \|pages239–256 \|access-date30 December 2017 \|archive-date31 December 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171231051651/http://scrapsfromtheloft.com/2016/06/14/fallaci-hitchcock-interview/ \|url-statuslive }} * {{cite book \|lastFaretta \|firstÁngel \|titleHitchcock en obra. \|urlhttp://www.asalallena.com.ar/libros/venta-online-hitchcock-obra-angel-faretta/ \|languagees \|year2019 \|publisherA Sala llena \|locationBuenos Aires \|isbn978-9877616354 \|access-date5 June 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190525223605/http://www.asalallena.com.ar/libros/venta-online-hitchcock-obra-angel-faretta/ \|archive-date25 May 2019 \|url-status=live }} * {{cite book \|last1Garncarz \|first1Joseph\|editor1-lastGottlieb\|editor1-firstSidney\|editor2-lastBrookhouse\|editor2-firstChristopher \|titleFraming Hitchcock: Selected Essays from the Hitchcock Annual \|date2002 \|publisherWayne State University Press \|locationDetroit \|pages59–81 \|chapterGerman Hitchcock }} * {{cite book \|last1Gottlieb \|first1Sydney\|editor1-lastGottlieb\|editor1-firstSidney\|editor2-lastBrookhouse\|editor2-firstChristopher \|titleFraming Hitchcock: Selected Essays from the Hitchcock Annual \|date2002 \|publisherWayne State University Press \|locationDetroit \|pages35–58 \|chapterEarly Hitchcock: The German Influence }} * {{cite book \|lastGottlieb \|firstSidney \|year2003 \|titleAlfred Hitchcock: Interviews \|publisherUniversity Press of Mississippi \|isbn978-1-57806-562-2}} * {{cite book \|last1Harris \|first1Robert A. \|last2Lasky \|first2Michael S. \|titleThe Complete Films of Alfred Hitchcock \|locationSecaucus, N.J \|publisherCitadel Press\|orig-date1976 \|year=2002 }} * {{cite book \|lastHitchcock \|firstAlfred\|editor-lastGottlieb\|editor-first Sidney \|titleHitchcock on Hitchcock, Volume 2: Selected Writings and Interviews \|publisherUniversity of California Press \|locationOakland \|year2014 \|isbn=978-0-520-96039-8}} * {{cite book \|last1Hitchcock O'Connell \|first1Pat\|author-linkPat Hitchcock \|last2Bouzereau \|first2Laurent \|titleAlma Hitchcock: The Woman Behind the Man \|publisherBerkley Books \|locationNew York \|year2003 \|isbn978-0-425-19005-0 }} * {{cite book \|lastHumphries \|firstPatrick \|year1994 \|titleThe Films of Alfred Hitchcock \|publisherCrescent Books \|editionreprint \|isbn=978-0-517-10292-3}} * {{cite book \|lastKaganski \|firstSerge \|titleAlfred Hitchcock \|year1997 \|publisherHazan \|locationParis }} * {{cite book \|lastKapsis \|firstRobert E. \|titleHitchcock: The Making of a Reputation \|editionillustrated \|publisherUniversity of Chicago Press \|year1992 }} * {{cite book \|lastKehr \|firstDave \|titleWhen Movies Mattered: Reviews from a Transformative Decade \|year2011 \|publisherUniversity of Chicago Press \|isbn978-0-226-42940-3 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZGgPCODtVZsC \|access-date20 December 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160629182232/https://books.google.com/books?idZGgPCODtVZsC&printsecfrontcover \|archive-date29 June 2016 \|url-statuslive }} * {{cite book \|last1Kerzoncuf \|first1Alain \|last2Barr \|first2Charles \|titleHitchcock Lost and Found: The Forgotten Films \|date2015 \|publisherUniversity Press of Kentucky \|locationLexington }} * {{cite book \|lastKrohn \|firstBill \|titleHitchcock at Work \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/hitchcockatwork0000kroh \|url-accessregistration \|publisherPhaidon \|year2000 \|isbn978-0-7148-3953-0 }} <!--Translated from the award-winning French edition. The nitty-gritty of Hitchcock's filmmaking from scripting to post-production. --> * {{cite book \|lastLeff \|firstLeonard J. \|titleHitchcock and Selznick \|isbn978-0-520-21781-2 \|year1987 \|publisherUniversity of California Press }} * {{cite book \|lastLeff \|firstLeonard \|titleThe Rich and Strange Collaboration of Alfred Hitchcock and David O. Selznick in Hollywood \|publisherUniversity of California Press \|year1999 \|isbn978-0-520-21781-2 }} * {{cite book \|last1Leigh \|first1Janet \|author-linkJanet Leigh \|first2Christopher \|last2Nickens \|titlePsycho: Behind the Scenes of the Classic Thriller \|publisherHarmony Press \|year1995 \|isbn978-0-517-70112-6 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/psychobehindscen00leig }} * {{cite book \|lastLeitch \|firstThomas \|titleThe Encyclopedia of Alfred Hitchcock \|publisherCheckmark Books \|year2002 \|isbn978-0-8160-4387-3 }} * {{cite book \|last1MacDonald \|first1Erin E. \|titleEd McBain/Evan Hunter: A Literary Companion \|date2012 \|publisherMcFarland \|locationJefferson }} * {{cite book \|last1Moral \|first1Tony Lee \|titleHitchcock and the Making of Marnie \|date2013 \|publisherScarecrow Press \|locationLanham }} * {{cite book \|last1Mulvey \|first1Laura \|author-linkLaura Mulvey\|editor1-lastMulvey\|editor1-firstLaura \|titleVisual and Other Pleasures \|date1989\|orig-date1975 \|publisherIndiana University Press \|locationBloomington \|pages14–24 \|chapterVisual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema }} [https://www.amherst.edu/system/files/media/1021/Laura%20Mulvey%2C%20Visual%20Pleasure.pdf Free PDF download] * {{cite book \|lastRebello \|firstStephen \|titleAlfred Hitchcock and the Making of Psycho \|publisherDembner Books \|locationNew York \|year1990 \|isbn=978-0-7145-2915-8}} * {{cite book \|last1Rothman \|first1William \|titleMust We Kill the Thing We Love?: Emersonian Perfectionism and the Films of Alfred Hitchcock \|date2014 \|publisherColumbia University Press \|locationNew York }} * {{cite book \|last1Sloan \|first1Jane \|titleAlfred Hitchcock: A Filmography and Bibliography \|date1995 \|publisherUniversity of California Press \|locationOakland \|isbn=978-0-520-08904-4}} * {{cite book \|last1Smith \|first1Steven C. \|titleA Heart at Fire's Center: The Life and Music of Bernard Herrmann \|date2002 \|publisherUniversity of California Press \|locationOakland }} * {{cite book \|lastSpoto \|firstDonald\|author-linkDonald Spoto \|titleThe Art of Alfred Hitchcock \|edition2nd \|locationNew York \|publisherAnchor Books \|year1992\|orig-date1976 \|isbn978-0-385-41813-3}} * {{cite book \|last1Verevis \|first1Constantine \|editor1-lastBoyd \|editor1-firstDavid \|editor2-lastPalmer \|editor2-firstR. Barton \|titleAfter Hitchcock: Influence, Imitation, and Intertextuality \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/afterhitchcockin00boyd \|url-accesslimited \|date2006 \|publisherUniversity of Texas Press \|locationAustin \|pages[https://archive.org/details/afterhitchcockin00boyd/page/n26 15]–30 \|chapterFor Ever Hitchcock: Psycho and Its Remakes }} * {{cite book \|lastWalker \|firstMichael \|year2005 \|titleHitchcock's motifs \|publisherAmsterdam University Press \|isbn978-90-5356-773-9}} * {{cite book \|lastWarren \|firstPatricia \|titleBritish Film Studios: An Illustrated History \|publisherB. T. Batsford \|year2001 \|isbn978-0-7134-7559-3}} * {{cite book \|first1Rob \|last1White \|first2Edward \|last2Buscombe \|titleBritish Film Institute Film Classics, Volume 1 \|publisherTaylor & Francis \|locationLondon \|year2003 \|isbn=978-1-57958-328-6}} * {{cite book \|last1White \|first1Susan\|editor1-lastLeitch\|editor1-firstThomas\|editor2-lastPoague\|editor2-firstLeland \|titleA Companion to Alfred Hitchcock \|date2011 \|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons \|locationChichester \|chapterA Surface Collaboration: Hitchcock and Performance \|pages181–198 }} * {{cite book \|firstStephen \|lastWhitty \|titleThe Alfred Hitchcock Encyclopedia \|publisherRowman & Littlefield \|locationLanham and London \|year2016 }} * {{cite book \|lastWood \|firstRobin\|author-linkRobin Wood (critic) \|titleHitchcock's Films Revisited \|publisherColumbia University Press \|locationNew York \|year2002 \|edition2nd \|isbn=978-0-231-12695-3 }} {{refend}} Further reading Articles * [http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tours/hitch/tour1.html Hitchcock's Style] – BFI Screenonline * [https://books.google.com/books?id90EEAAAAMBAJ&pgPA33 Alfred Hitchcock: England's Biggest and Best Director Goes to Hollywood] – Life, 20 November 1939, p.&nbsp;33-43 * [http://www.mediafire.com/view/m857g46yyn4mz3o/.png Alfred Hitchcock Now Says Actors Are Children, Not Cattle] – The Boston Globe, 1 June 1958, p. A-11 * [http://www.mediafire.com/view/y88zwog15ltx92n/.jpg 'Twas Alfred Hitchcock Week in London] – Variety, 17 August 1966, p.&nbsp;16 * McArthur, Colin, "The Critics Who Knew Too Little: Hitchcock and the Absent Class Paradigm", in Film Studies no. 2, (2000), pp. 15 - 28, {{issn\|1469-0314}} Books {{refbegin}} * {{cite encyclopedia \|lastBarson \|firstMichael \|encyclopediaEncyclopaedia Britannica \|titleSir Alfred Hitchcock \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Alfred-Hitchcock \|date29 November 2017 \|access-date16 January 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180309205946/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alfred-Hitchcock \|archive-date9 March 2018 \|url-statuslive}} * {{cite book \|lastChandler \|firstCharlotte\|author-linkCharlotte Chandler \|titleIt's only a movie: Alfred Hitchcock, A Personal Biography \|publisherHal Leonard Corporation \|year2006 \|isbn=978-1-55783-692-2}} * [https://deflem.blogspot.com/2016/01/hitchcockguilt.html Deflem, Mathieu. 2016. "Alfred Hitchcock: Visions of Guilt and Innocence."] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181021190729/https://deflem.blogspot.com/2016/01/hitchcockguilt.html \|date21 October 2018 }} pp.&nbsp;203–227 in Framing Law and Crime: An Interdisciplinary Anthology, edited by Caroline Joan S. Picart, Michael Hviid Jacobsen, and Cecil Greek. Latham, MD; Madison, NJ: Rowman & Littlefield; Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. * {{cite book \|lastDurgnat \|firstRaymond \|titleThe Strange Case of Alfred Hitchcock \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/strangecaseofalf0000durg\|url-accessregistration \|locationCambridge, Massachusetts \|publisherMIT Press \|year1974 \|isbn978-0262040419 \|oclc1233570}} * {{cite book \|last1Hedren \|first1Tippi \|titleTippi: A Memoir \|date2016 \|publisherWilliam Morrow \|locationNew York}} * {{cite book \|last1Leitch \|first1Thomas \|author-linkThomas Leitch \|titleThe Encyclopedia of Alfred Hitchcock \|date2002 \|publisherFacts on File \|locationNew York \|refnone}} * {{cite news \|last1Hutchinson \|first1Pamela \|last2Paley \|first2Tony \|titleThe Genius of Alfred Hitchcock at the BFI: 10 of his lesser-known gems \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/filmblog/2012/jul/04/alfred-hitchcock-genius-bfi-retrospective \|workThe Guardian \|date4 July 2012\|access-date1 January 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170729005824/https://www.theguardian.com/film/filmblog/2012/jul/04/alfred-hitchcock-genius-bfi-retrospective\|archive-date29 July 2017\|url-statuslive}} * {{cite book \|lastModleski \|firstTania\|author-linkTania Modleski \|titleThe Women Who Knew Too Much: Hitchcock And Feminist Theory \|publisherRoutledge \|year2016 \|edition3rd \| orig-date 1988 \|locationNew York and Abingdon \|isbn978-1-138-92032-3}} <!--A collection of critical essays on Hitchcock and his films; argues that Hitchcock's portrayal of women was ambivalent, rather than simply misogynist or sympathetic (as widely thought).--> * {{cite book \|lastMogg \|firstKen \|titleThe Alfred Hitchcock Story \|publisherTitan \|year2008 \|editionrevised \|isbn978-1-84576-708-2 \|url-accessregistration \|url=https://archive.org/details/alfredhitchcocks0000mogg_b8i9}} <!--Note: the original 1999 UK edition, from Titan, and the 2008 re-issue worldwide, also from Titan, have significantly more text than the 1999 abridged US edition from Taylor Publishing. New material on all the films. --> * {{cite book \|last1Pomerance \|first1Murray\|author-linkMurray Pomerance\|editor1-lastLeitch\|editor1-firstThomas\|editor2-lastPoague\|editor2-firstLeland \|titleA Companion to Alfred Hitchcock \|date2011 \|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons \|locationChichester \|pages237–252 \|chapter=Some Hitchcockin Shots}} * {{cite book \|last1Rohmer \|first1Eric \|last2Chabrol \|first2Claude \|titleHitchcock: The First Forty-four Films \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/hitchcockfirstfo0000rohm \|url-accessregistration \|isbn978-0-8044-2743-2 \|publisherF. Ungar \|year1979}} * {{cite book \|last1Sloan \|first1Jane E. \|titleAlfred Hitchcock: The Definitive Filmography \|urlhttp://www.labyrinth.net.au/~muffin/sloan.html \|date1993 \|publisherUniversity of California Press \|locationBerkeley\|access-date12 March 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180312205047/http://www.labyrinth.net.au/~muffin/sloan.html\|archive-date12 March 2018\|url-status=live}} * {{cite book \|lastSullivan \|firstJack \|titleHitchcock's Music \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/hitchcocksmusic0000sull\|url-accessregistration \|publisherYale University Press \|year2006 \|isbn978-0-300-11050-0}} * {{cite book \|lastWalker \|firstMichael \|titleHitchcock's Motifs \|publisherAmsterdam University Press \|locationAmsterdam \|year2005 \|doi10.25969/mediarep/4105 \|isbn978-9053567739 \|ref=none}} * {{cite book \|last1White \|first1Edward \|titleThe Twelve Lives of Alfred Hitchcock \|publisherW. W. Norton \|locationNew York \|year2021 \|isbn=978-1-324-00239-0}} * {{cite book \|last1White \|first1Susan\|editor1-lastFreedman\|editor1-firstJonathan \|titleThe Cambridge Companion to Alfred Hitchcock \|date2015 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|locationNew York \|pages109–126 \|chapterAlfred Hitchcock and Feminist Film Theory (Yet Again)}} * {{cite magazine \|lastWolcott \|firstJames \|titleDeath and the Master \|urlhttp://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/classic/features/death-and-the-master-199904 \|magazineVanity Fair \|date1 April 1999 \|issue464 \|page136 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101128042605/http://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/classic/features/death-and-the-master-199904 \|archive-date28 November 2010\|url-status=live}} * Slavoj Žižek et al.:Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Lacan But Were Afraid to Ask Hitchcock, London and New York, Verso, 2nd ed.. 2010. {{refend}} External links {{Sister project links \|auto1\|commonsCategory:Alfred Hitchcock\|d=yes}} * {{IMDb name}} * {{Screenonline person\|446568}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20230123211322/https://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b9ee3449d Alfred Hitchcock] at the British Film Institute * {{TCMDb person}} * {{NPG name}} * {{The Interviews about\|alfred-hitchcock}} * [https://digitalcollections.oscars.org/digital/collection/p15759coll7 Alfred Hitchcock Papers] from Margaret Herrick Library Digital Collections ([https://web.archive.org/web/20240918105122/https://collections.new.oscars.org/Details/Collection/529 Details (archived 2024)]) {{Alfred Hitchcock\|state=collapsed}} {{Navboxes \|title = Awards for Alfred Hitchcock \|list = {{AFI Life Achievement Award}} {{BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award}} {{Cecil B. DeMille Award}} {{DirectorsGuildofAmericaAwardLifetimeFilm}} {{Lincoln Center Gala Tribute}} {{Thalberg Award}} {{The Life Career Award}} {{National Board of Review Award for Best Director}} {{New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Director}} {{Silver Shell for Best Director}} }} {{Alma Reville}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Hitchcock, Alfred}} Category:1899 births Category:1980 deaths Category:20th-century American screenwriters Category:20th-century English screenwriters Category:20th-century Roman Catholics Category:AFI Life Achievement Award recipients Category:American horror film directors Category:American male screenwriters Category:American silent film directors Category:American television directors Category:American television producers Category:American writers of Irish descent Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Artists awarded knighthoods Category:BAFTA fellows Category:British Army personnel of World War I Category:British horror film directors Category:British silent film directors Category:Catholics from California Category:Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners Category:Deaths from kidney failure in California Category:Directors Guild of America Award winners Category:Directors of Best Picture Academy Award winners Category:Edgar Award winners Category:English emigrants to the United States Category:English male screenwriters Category:English people of Irish descent Category:English Roman Catholic writers Category:English television directors Category:English television producers Category:Film directors from London Category:Film directors from Los Angeles Category:Film producers from London Category:Film producers from Los Angeles Category:German-language film directors Category:Horror film producers Category:Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire Category:Mass media people from Essex Category:Military personnel from Essex Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States Category:People educated at St Ignatius' College, Enfield Category:People from Bel Air, Los Angeles Category:People from Leytonstone Category:People with multiple citizenship Category:Royal Engineers soldiers Category:Silent film screenwriters Category:Television producers from California Category:Television producers from London Category:Writers from Essex	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Hitchcock	2025-04-05T18:25:22.838720
809	Anaconda	{{pp\|small=yes}} {{Short description\|Genus of snakes}} {{About\|snakes}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=September 2020}} {{Automatic taxobox \| fossil_range Miocene–recent<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Hsiou \|first1Annie S. \|last2Albino \|first2Adriana M. \|date1 December 2009 \|titlePresence of the genus Eunectes (Serpentes, Boidae) in the Neogene of Southwestern Amazonia, Brazil \|journalJournal of Herpetology \|volume43 \|issue4 \|pages612–619 \|doi10.1670/08-295.1\|s2cid=55097666 }}</ref> \| image = Eunectes murinus2.jpg \| image_caption = Green anaconda (E.&nbsp;murinus) \| taxon = Eunectes \| authority Wagler, 1830<ref name"McD99">{{cite book\|last1McDiarmid\|first1R. W.\|last2Campbell\|first2J. A.\|author-link2Jonathan A. Campbell\|last3Toure\|first3T.\|year1999\|titleSnake Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference\|volume1\|locationWashington, District of Columbia\|publisherHerpetologists' League\|isbn=1-893777-01-4}}</ref> \| type_species = Boa murina \| type_species_authority (Linnaeus, 1758)<ref name"McD99"/> \| range_map = Anaconda Range.jpg \| range_map_caption = Range of Eunectes \| synonyms = Draco Oken, 1816 }} Anacondas or water boas are a group of large boas of the genus Eunectes. They are a semiaquatic group of snakes found in tropical South America. Three to five extant and one extinct species are currently recognized, including one of the largest snakes in the world, E. murinus, the green anaconda.<ref name"ITIS">{{ITIS \|id209577 \|taxonEunectes \|access-date18 July 2008}}</ref><ref name"NRDB">{{NRDB species\|genusEunectes\|speciesbeniensis\|date12 December\|year2008}}</ref><ref namerivas>{{cite journal \|last1Rivas \|first1Jesús \|last2De La Quintana \|first2Paola \|last3Mancuso \|first3Marco \|last4Pacheco \|first4Luis \|last5Rivas \|first5Gilson \|last6Mariotto \|first6Sandra \|last7Salazar-Valenzuela \|first7David \|last8Tepeña Baihua \|first8Marcelo \|last9Baihua \|first9Penti \| last10Burghardt \|first10Gordon \|last11Vonk \|first11Freek \|last12Hernandez \|first12Emil \|last13García-Pérez \|first13Juán Elías \|last14Fry \|first14Bryan \|last15Corey-Rivas \|first15Sarah \|date16 February 2024 \|titleDisentangling the Anacondas: Revealing a New Green Species and Rethinking Yellows \|journalDiversity \|volume16(2) \|issue127 \|page127 \|doi10.3390/d16020127 \|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Description Although the name applies to a group of snakes, it is often used to refer only to one species, in particular, the common or green anaconda (Eunectes murinus),{{cn\|dateMarch 2024}} which is the largest snake in the world by weight, and the second longest after the reticulated python.{{cn\|dateMarch 2024}} Origin The recent fossil record of Eunectes is relatively sparse compared to other vertebrates and other genera of snakes. The fossil record of this group is effected by an artifact called the Pull of the Recent.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Sahney \|first1Sarda \|last2Benton \|first2Michael \|date2017 \|titleThe impact of the Pull of the Recent on the fossil record of tetrapods \|urlhttps://cpb-eu-w2.wpmucdn.com/blogs.bristol.ac.uk/dist/5/537/files/2021/01/2017Sahney.pdf \|journalEvolutionary Ecology Research \|volume18 \|pages7–23 \|access-date14 March 2024 \|archive-date15 December 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221215043633/https://cpb-eu-w2.wpmucdn.com/blogs.bristol.ac.uk/dist/5/537/files/2021/01/2017Sahney.pdf \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Fossils of recent ancestors are not known, so the living species 'pull' the historical range of the genus to the present. Etymology ]] The name Eunectes is derived from {{langx\|grc\|εὐνήκτης\|eunēktēs\|good swimmer}}. The South American names anacauchoa and anacaona were suggested in an account by Peter Martyr d'Anghiera. The idea of a South American origin was questioned by Henry Walter Bates who, in his travels in South America, failed to find any similar name in use. The word anaconda is derived from the name of a snake from Ceylon (Sri Lanka) that John Ray described in Latin in his {{Lang\|la\|Synopsis Methodica Animalium}} (1693) as {{Lang\|la\|serpens indicus bubalinus anacandaia zeylonibus, ides bubalorum aliorumque jumentorum membra conterens}}.<ref>{{cite book\|lastRay\|firstJohn\|author-linkJohn Ray\|year1693\|titleSynopsis methodica animalium quadrupedum et serpentini generis\|urlhttps://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/28832440\|page332\|languagela\|publisherImpensis S. Smith & B. Walford\|locationLondon\|doi10.5962/bhl.title.41459\|viaBiodiversity Heritage Library}}</ref> Ray used a catalogue of snakes from the Leyden museum supplied by Dr. Tancred Robinson. The description of its habit was based on Andreas Cleyer, who in 1684 described a gigantic snake that crushed large animals by coiling around their bodies and crushing their bones.<ref>{{cite book\|firstCharles\|lastOwen\|year1742\|titleAn essay towards a natural history of serpents\|page114\|urlhttps://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/38946374\|locationLondon\|doi10.5962/bhl.title.58688\|viaBiodiversity Heritage Library}}</ref> Henry Yule in his 1886 work Hobson-Jobson, notes that the word became more popular due to a piece of fiction published in 1768 in the Scots Magazine by a certain R. Edwin. Edwin described a 'tiger' being crushed to death by an anaconda, when there were never any tigers in Sri Lanka.{{efn\|In South Asian languages like Hindi, the leopard and tiger may share the same name, that is Bágh ({{langx\|hi\|बाघ}}), and it is the former that occurs in Sri Lanka.<ref name"Pocock1930">{{cite journal \|lastPocock \|firstReginald I. \|author-linkReginald Innes Pocock \|titleThe Panthers and Ounces of Asia \|journalJournal of the Bombay Natural History Society \|volume34 \|issue2 \|urlhttps://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48295762 \|pages307–336 \|year1930 \|via=Biodiversity Heritage Library}}</ref>}} Yule and Frank Wall noted that the snake was a python and suggested a Tamil origin {{Transliteration\|ta\|anai-kondra}} meaning elephant killer.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastWall \|firstFrank \|author-linkFrank Wall (herpetologist) \|year1921 \|titleOphidia Taprobanica or the Snakes of Ceylon \|publisherH. R. Cottle, Government Printer\|placeCeylon \|urlhttps://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/37045831 \|page48 \|doi10.5962/bhl.title.53694 \|viaBiodiversity Heritage Library}}</ref> A Sinhalese origin was also suggested by Donald Ferguson who pointed out that the word {{Transliteration\|si\|Henakandaya}} ({{Transliteration\|si\|hena}} lightning/large and {{Transliteration\|si\|kanda}} stem/trunk) was used in Sri Lanka for the small whip snake (Ahaetulla pulverulenta)<ref>{{cite journal \|lastWilley \|firstArthur \|author-linkArthur Willey \|titleSome rare snakes of Ceylon \|journalSpolia Zeylanica \|year1904 \|volume1 \|issue3 \|urlhttps://archive.org/stream/spoliazeylanica01nati#page/84/mode/1up/ \|pages81–89\|viaInternet Archive}}</ref> and somehow got misapplied to the python before myths were created.<ref>{{cite journal\|journalNotes and Queries\|volume12\|issue294\|year1897\|lastFerguson\|firstDonald \|pages123–124 \|titleThe derivation of "Anaconda"\|urlhttps://archive.org/stream/s8notesqueries12londuoft#page/123/mode/1up\|doi10.1093/nq/s8-XII.294.123\|viaInternet Archive}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|titleA concise etymological dictionary of the English Language\|lastSkeat\|firstWalter W.\|author-linkWalter William Skeat\|publisherOxford University Press\|year1882\|page16\|urlhttps://archive.org/stream/conciseetymologi00skea#page/16/mode/1up\|viaInternet Archive}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://archive.org/stream/hobsonjobsonagl02croogoog#page/n76/mode/1up\|pages24–25\|titleHobson-Jobson\|last1Yule\|first1Henry\|author-link1Henry Yule\|first2Arthur C.\|last2Burnell\|author-link2Arthur Coke Burnell\|publisherJohn Murray\|placeLondon\|year1903\|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> The name commonly used for the anaconda in Brazil is sucuri, sucuriju or sucuriuba.<ref>{{cite web\|titleDicionário online de português: sucuriju\|urlhttp://www.dicio.com.br/sucuriju/\|languagept\|access-date19 February 2014\|archive-date27 February 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140227093051/http://www.dicio.com.br/sucuriju/\|url-status=live}}</ref> , alongside other species for comparison]] Distribution and habitat Found in tropical South America from Ecuador, Brazil, Colombia and Venezuela south to Argentina.<ref name"McD99"/>FeedingAll five species are aquatic snakes that prey on other aquatic animals, including fish, river fowl, and caiman. Videos exist of anacondas preying on domestic animals such as goats and sometimes even young jaguars<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.anacondas.org/faqs.htm \|lastRivas \|firstJesús \|titleFrequently Asked Questions \|access-date30 July 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161221225940/http://anacondas.org/faqs.htm \|archive-date21 December 2016}}</ref> that venture too close to the water. Relationship with humans While encounters between people and anacondas may be dangerous, they do not regularly hunt humans. Nevertheless, threat from anacondas is a familiar trope in comics, movies, and adventure stories (often published in pulp magazines or adventure magazines) set in the Amazon jungle. Local communities and some European explorers have given accounts of giant anacondas, legendary snakes of much greater proportion than any confirmed specimen. Although charismatic, there is little known on the biology of wild anacondas. Most of our knowledge comes from the work of Dr. Jesús A. Rivas and his team working in the Venezuelan Llanos.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.anacondas.org \|lastRivas \|firstJesús \|titleLife history and conservation of the green anaconda (Eunectes murinus) \|url-statuslive \|access-date30 July 2012\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180306104316/http://anacondas.org/ \|archive-date6 March 2018}}</ref> Species {\|cellspacing0 cellpadding2 class="wikitable" !Species !Taxon author !Common name !Geographic range !Image \|- \|E. akayima \|Rivas et al., 2024<ref name=rivas /> \|Northern green anaconda \|Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and northern Brazil<ref name=natgeo /> \| \|- \|E. beniensis (=E. notaeus?) \|Dirksen, 2002<ref>{{cite book\|last1Dirksen\|first1Lutz\|year2002\|titleAnakondas. Monographische Revision der Gattung Eunectes (Wagler, 1830)\|publisherNatur und Tier-Verlag\|locationMünster\|languageGerman\|isbn3-931587-43-6}}</ref> \|Bolivian anaconda \|style="width:40%"\|South America in the Departments of Beni and Pando in Bolivia \| \|- \|E. deschauenseei (=E. notaeus?) \|Dunn and Conant, 1936<ref name="ITIS"/> \|Dark-spotted anaconda \|style"width:40%"\|South America in northern Brazil and coastal French Guiana<ref name"McD99"/> \| \|- \|E. murinus \|(Linnaeus, 1758)<ref name="ITIS"/> \|Green anaconda \|Peru, Bolivia, French Guiana, Suriname and Brazil<ref namenatgeo>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/new-green-anaconda-species-discovered\|date16 February 2024\|titleThe world's heaviest snake has been hiding a big secret\|authorJason Bittel\|websiteNational Geographic\|access-date14 March 2024\|archive-date19 February 2024\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240219155233/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/new-green-anaconda-species-discovered\|url-statuslive}}</ref> \| \|- \|E. notaeus \|Cope, 1862<ref name="ITIS"/> \|Yellow anaconda \|South America in eastern Bolivia, central-western Brazil, Paraguay and northeastern Argentina<ref name="McD99"/> \| \|- \|†E. stirtoni \|Hoffstetter and Rage, 1977<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Hoffstetter \|first1R. \|last2Rage \|first2J. C. \|year1977 \|titleLe gisement de vertébrés miocènes de La Venta (Colombie) et sa faune de serpents \|journalAnnales de Paléontologie (Vertébrés) \|languageFrench \|volume63 \|pages161–190}}</ref> \| \|This species is extinct; its fossils have been found in the La Venta fauna (Miocene) in Colombia. Its validity, however, is questionable. \| \|- \|} Rivas et al.<ref name="rivas" /> revised the taxonomy of Eunectes, describing a new species of green anaconda (Eunectes akayima) and merging E. deschauenseei and E. beniensis with E. notaeus, which resulted in the recognition of only three species of anaconda. The result of their phylogenetic analysis is represented below: {{Clade \|label1=Green anacondas \|1={{clade \|1=Eunectes murinus \|2=Eunectes akayima }} \|label2=Eunectes notaeus \|2={{clade \|1=Eunectes notaeus \|2={{clade \|1=Eunectes notaeus \|2={{clade \|1="Eunectes beniensis" \|2={{clade \|1=Eunectes notaeus \|2="Eunectes deschauenseei" }} }} }} }} }} In a response paper, Dubois et al. questioned the results of the mtDNA analysis above and the validity of Eunectes akayima. The name of the new species was considered a nomen nudum.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastDubois \|firstAlain \|last2Denzer \|first2Wolfgang \|last3Entiauspe-Neto \|first3Omar M. \|last4Frétey \|first4Thierry \|last5Ohler \|first5Annemarie \|last6Bauer \|first6Aaron M. \|last7Pyron \|first7R. Alexander \|date2024-03-15 \|titleNomenclatural problems raised by the recent description of a new anaconda species (Squamata, Serpentes, Boidae), with a nomenclatural review of the genus Eunectes \|urlhttps://mapress.com/bn/article/view/bionomina.37.1.2 \|journalBionomina \|languageen \|volume37 \|issue1 \|pages8–58 \|doi10.11646/bionomina.37.1.2 \|issn1179-7657}}</ref> Mating system The mating seasons in Eunectes varies both between species and within species depending on locality, although the trend appears to be the dry season.<ref name"ReedRodda">{{cite book\|last1Reed\|first1Robert N.\|last2Rodda\|first2Gordon H.\|titleGiant constrictors: Biological and management profiles and an establishment risk assessment for nine large species of pythons, anacondas, and the boa constrictor\|seriesU.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2009-1202\|publisherU.S. Geological Survey\|locationReston, Virginia\|year2009\|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/259932038}}</ref><ref namePizzatto>{{Cite journal \|last1Pizzatto \|first1Lígia \|last2Marques \|first2Otavio A. V. \|date2007 \|titleReproductive ecology of Boine snakes with emphasis on Brazilian species and a comparison to Pythons \|journalSouth American Journal of Herpetology \|volume2 \|issue2 \|pages107–122 \|doi10.2994/1808-9798(2007)2[107:reobsw]2.0.co;2\|s2cid86033920 }}</ref> The green anaconda (E. murinus) is the most well-studied species of Eunectes in terms of their mating system, followed by the yellow anaconda (E. notaeus); unfortunately E. deschauenseei and E. beniensis are much less common, making the specific details of their mating systems less well understood.<ref name"ReedRodda" />Sexual dimorphismSexual size dimorphism in Eunectes is the opposite of most other vertebrates. Females are larger than males in most snakes, and green anacondas (E. murinus) have one of the most extreme size differences, where females average roughly {{convert\|32\|kg\|lb\|-1\|abbron}} and males average only around {{convert\|7\|kg\|lb\|abbron}}.<ref name"Pizzatto" /><ref name"Rivas_etal_2007">{{cite book\|last1Rivas\|first1Jesús A.\|last2Muñoz\|first2M. C.\|last3Burghardt\|first3G. M.\|last4Thorbjarnarson\|first4J. B.\|chapterSexual size dimorphism and the mating system of the green anaconda (Eunectes murinus)\|pages461–473\|titleBiology of the Boas and Pythons\|year2007\|editor-last1Henderson\|editor-first1Robert W.\|editor-last2Powell\|editor-first2Robert\|locationEagle Mountain, Utah\|publisherEagle Mountain Publishing\|isbn978-0-9720154-3-1}}</ref> This size difference has several benefits for both sexes. Large size in females leads to higher fecundity and larger offspring; as a result male mate choice favours larger females.<ref name"Rivas2001">{{Cite journal \|last1Rivas \|first1Jesús A. \|last2Burghardt \|first2Gordon M. \|date2001 \|titleUnderstanding sexual size dimorphism in snakes: wearing the snake's shoes \|journalAnimal Behaviour \|volume62 \|issue3 \|pagesF1–F6 \|doi10.1006/anbe.2001.1755\|s2cid5374924 }}</ref> Large size is also favoured in males because larger males tend to be more successful at reproducing, both because of their size advantage in endurance rivalry and their advantage in sperm competition because larger males are able to produce more sperm.<ref name"Rivas2001" /> One reason that males are so much smaller in Eunectes is that large males can be confused for females, which interferes with their ability to mate when smaller males mistakenly coil them in breeding balls; as a result, there is an optimum size for males where they are large enough to successfully compete, but not large enough to risk other males trying to mate with them.<ref name"Rivas2001" />Breeding ballsDuring the mating season female anacondas release pheromones to attract males for breeding, which can result in polyandrous breeding balls; these breeding balls have been observed in E. murinus, E. notaeus, and E. deschauenseei, and likely also occur in E. beniensis.<ref name"Rivas_etal_2007" /><ref name"Rivas2001" /><ref name"Waller2007">{{cite book\|last1Waller\|first1T.\|last2Micucci\|first2P. A.\|last3Alvarenga\|first3E.\|chapterConservation biology of the yellow anaconda (Eunectes notaeus) in Northeastern Argentina\|pages340–362\|titleBiology of the Boas and Pythons\|year2007\|editor-last1Henderson\|editor-first1Robert W.\|editor-last2Powell\|editor-first2Robert\|locationEagle Mountain, Utah\|publisherEagle Mountain Publishing\|isbn978-0-9720154-3-1}}</ref><ref name"Rivas2005">{{Cite journal \|last1Rivas \|first1Jesús A. \|last2Burghardt \|first2Gordon M. \|date2005 \|titleSnake mating systems, behavior, and evolution: The revisionary implications of recent findings \|journalJournal of Comparative Psychology \|volume119 \|issue4 \|pages447–454 \|doi10.1037/0735-7036.119.4.447 \|pmid16366778}}</ref> In the green anaconda (E. murinus), up to 13 males have been observed in a breeding ball, which have been recorded to last two weeks on average.<ref name"Rivas_etal_2007" /> In anaconda breeding balls, several males coil around one female and attempt to position themselves as close to her cloaca as possible where they use their pelvic spurs to "tickle" and encourage her to allow penetration.<ref name"Rivas_etal_2007" /> Since there are often many males present and only one male can mate with the female at a time, the success of a male often depends on his persistence and endurance, because physical combat is not a part of the Eunectes mating ritual, apart from firmly pushing against other males in an attempt to secure the best position on the female.<ref name"Rivas_etal_2007" /><ref name"Rivas2001" /> Sexual cannibalism with other squamates and reptiles.]] Cannibalism is quite easy in anacondas since females are so much larger than males, but sexual cannibalism has only been confirmed in E. murinus.<ref name"Quintana">{{cite journal \| last1 De la Quintana \| first1 Paola \| last2 Pacheco \| first2 Luis \| last3 Rivas \| first3 Jesús \| title Eunectes beniensis (Beni Anaconda). Diet: Cannibalism \|dateJanuary 2011 \| url https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274698904 \| journal Herpetological Review \| volume 42 \| issue 4\| page 614 }}</ref> Females gain the direct benefit of a post-copulatory high-protein meal when they consume their mates, along with the indirect benefit of additional resources to use for the formation of offspring; cannibalism in general (outside of the breeding season) has been confirmed in all but E. deschauenseei, although it is likely that it occurs in all Eunectes species.<ref name"ReedRodda" /><ref name"Quintana" /> Asexual reproduction Although sexual reproduction is by far the most common in Eunectes, E. murinus has been observed to undergo facultative parthenogenesis.<ref name"ReedRodda" /><ref name"Shibata">{{Cite journal \|last1Shibata \|first1Hiroki \|last2Sakata \|first2Shuichi \|last3Hirano \|first3Yuzo \|last4Nitasaka \|first4Eiji \|last5Sakabe \|first5Ai \|date2017 \|titleFacultative parthenogenesis validated by DNA analyses in the green anaconda (Eunectes murinus) \|journalPLOS ONE \|volume12 \|issue12 \|pagese0189654 \|doi10.1371/journal.pone.0189654 \|pmc5728508 \|pmid29236745\|bibcode2017PLoSO..1289654S \|doi-accessfree }}</ref> In both cases, the females had lived in isolation from other anacondas for over eight years, and DNA analysis showed that the few fully formed offspring were genetically identical to the mothers; although this is not commonly observed, it is likely possible in all species of Eunectes and several other species of Boidae.Indigenous mythologyAccording to the founding myth of the Huni Kuin, a man named Yube fell in love with an anaconda woman and was turned into an anaconda as well. He began to live with her in the deep world of waters. In this world, Yube discovered a hallucinogenic drink with healing powers and access to knowledge. One day, without telling his anaconda wife, Yube decided to return to the land of men and resume his old human form. The myth also explains the origin of cipó or ayahuasca — a hallucinogenic drink taken ritualistically by the Huni Kuin.<ref>[http://www.letras.puc-rio.br/unidades&nucleos/catedra/revista/7Sem_16.html As visões da anaconda: a narrativa escrita indígena no Brasil.] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141024064655/http://www.letras.puc-rio.br/unidades%26nucleos/catedra/revista/7Sem_16.html \|date24 October 2014 }} Por Lynn Mario T. Menezes de Souza. Revista Semear n°7</ref><ref>[http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0104-93132002000100002 O que nos diz a arte Kaxinawa sobre a relação entre identidade e alteridade?] Por Elsje Maria Lagrou. Mana vol. 8 n°1 Rio de Janeiro abril de 2002 ISSN 0104-9313.</ref><ref>{{cite periodical \|access-date17 June 2018 \|authorEliane Camargo \|titleYube, o homem-sucuriju: Relato caxinauá \|periodicalAmerindia \|number24 \|date1999 \|urlhttp://celia.cnrs.fr/FichExt/Am/A_24_12.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050131192653/http://celia.cnrs.fr/FichExt/Am/A_24_12.pdf \|archive-date2005-01-31 \|languagept}}</ref>See also Jaguar, a competitor or predatorNotes{{Notelist}}References{{Reflist}}Further reading {{Refbegin}} {{cite journal \|authorDirksen L. \|author2 Böhme W. \|year2005\|titleStudies on anacondas III. A reappraisal of Eunectes beniensis Dirksen, 2002, from Bolivia, and a key to the species of the genus Eunectes Wagler, 1830 (Serpentes: Boidae)\|journalRussian Journal of Herpetology \|volume12\|issue3\|pages223–229}} {{cite book\|lastWagler\|firstJohann Georg\|author-linkJohann Georg Wagler\|year1830\|titleNatürliches System der Amphibien, mit vorangehender Classification der Säugetiere und Vögel. Ein Beitrag zur vergleichenden Zoologie\|urlhttps://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/120243#page/178/mode/1up\|publisherJ. G. Cotta'schen Buchhandlung\|locationMünchen, Stuttgart & Tübingen\|page167\|languageGerman\|doi10.5962/bhl.title.58730\|viaBiodiversity Heritage Library\|access-date14 March 2024\|archive-date27 March 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220327232337/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/120243#page/178/mode/1up\|url-statuslive}} {{cite book\|last1Rivas\|first1Jesús\|last2Muñoz\|first2María C.\|last3Thorbjarnarson\|first3John B.\|last4Burghardt\|first4Gordon M.\|last5Holmstrom\|first5William\|last6Calle\|first6Paul P.\|chapterNatural History of the green anaconda (Eunectes murinus) in the Venezuelan llanos\|titleBiology of the Boas and Pythons\|year2007\|editor-last1Henderson\|editor-first1Robert W.\|editor-last2Powell\|editor-first2Robert\|locationEagle Mountain, Utah\|publisherEagle Mountain Publishing\|isbn978-0-9720154-3-1\|pages129–138\|urlhttp://www.anacondas.org/nathist.pdf\|access-date2012-07-30\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110718092615/http://www.anacondas.org/nathist.pdf\|archive-date=2011-07-18}} {{Refend}} External links {{Americana Poster\|Anaconda}} {{Wiktionary inline}} {{Commons}} * {{cite web\|urlhttp://www.anacondas.org/\|publisheranacondas.org\|last1Rivas\|first1Jesús\|titleLife history and conservation of the green anaconda (Eunectes murinus)\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190306150313/http://anacondas.org/\|archive-date6 March 2019\|url-statuslive}} {{Boidae}} {{Taxonbar\|from1Q188622\|from2Q3306164}} {{Authority control}} Category:Snakes of South America Category:Reptiles of Trinidad and Tobago Category:Taxa named by Johann Georg Wagler	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaconda	2025-04-05T18:25:22.858499
824	Altaic languages	{{Short description\|Hypothetical language family of Eurasia}} {{Distinguish\|Altai languages}} {{Redirect\|Altaic}} {{Undue weight\|date=June 2023}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=May 2020}} {{Infobox language family \| name = Altaic \| acceptance highly controversial<ref>{{cite book \|lastGeorg \|firstStefan \|year2023 \|chapterConnections between Uralic and Other Language Families \|editor1Daniel Abondolo \|editor2Riitta-Liisa Valijärvi \|titleThe Uralic Languages \|locationLondon \|publisherRoutledge \|pages176–209 \|doi10.4324/9781315625096-4\|doi-broken-date14 December 2024 \|isbn9781315625096 }}</ref> \| region = Northern and Central Asia \| familycolor = Altaic \| family = Proposed as a major language family by some, but more often viewed as a sprachbund \| child1 = Turkic \| child2 = Mongolic \| child3 = Tungusic \| child4 = Koreanic (sometimes included) \| child5 = Japonic (sometimes included) \| child6 = Ainu (rarely included) \| iso2 = tut \| iso5 = tut \| glotto = none \| map = Lenguas altaicas.png \| mapcaption = {{Legend\|#00008B\|Turkic languages}} {{Legend\|#32CD32\|Mongolic languages}} {{Legend\|#FF0000\|Tungusic languages}} {{Legend\|#FFD700\|Koreanic languages}} (sometimes included) {{Legend\|#8B008B\|Japonic languages}} (sometimes included) {{Legend\|#8B0000\|Ainu languages}} (rarely included) \| protoname = Proto-Altaic }} The Altaic ({{IPAc-en\|æ\|l\|ˈ\|t\|eɪ\|.\|ᵻ\|k}}) languages are a group of languages comprising the Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic language families, with some linguists including the Koreanic and Japonic families.<ref namegeorg1999>{{cite journal \|given1Stefan \|surname1Georg \|author-link1Stefan Georg\|given2Peter A. \|surname2Michalove \|given3Alexis Manaster \|surname3Ramer \|given4Paul J. \|surname4Sidwell \|year1999 \|titleTelling general linguists about Altaic \|journalJournal of Linguistics \|volume35 \|issue1 \|pages65–98 \|doi10.1017/S0022226798007312 \|s2cid144613877 }}</ref>{{rp\|73}} These languages share agglutinative morphology, head-final word order and some vocabulary. The once-popular theory attributing these similarities to a common ancestry has long been rejected by most comparative linguists in favor of language contact, although it continues to be supported by a small but stable scholarly minority.<ref name"georg1999"/><ref>{{Cite book\|lastCampbell\|firstLyle\|titleGlossary of Historical Linguistics\|publisherEdinburgh University Press\|year2007\|isbn978-0-7486-3019-6\|pages7\|quoteWhile 'Altaic' is repeated in encyclopedias and handbooks most specialists in these languages no longer believe that the three traditional supposed Altaic groups ... are related. In spite of this, Altaic does have a few dedicated followers.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|lastStarostin\|firstGeorge\|date2016\|titleAltaic Languages\|urlhttps://oxfordre.com/linguistics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.001.0001/acrefore-9780199384655-e-35\|websiteOxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics\|doi10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.35\|isbn9780199384655\|quoteDespite the validity of many of these objections, it remains unclear whether they are sufficient to completely discredit the hypothesis of a genetic connection between the various branches of 'Altaic,' which continues to be actively supported by a small, but stable scholarly minority.}}</ref> Like the Uralic language family, which is named after the Ural Mountains, the group is named after the Altai mountain range in the center of Asia. The core grouping of Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic is sometimes called "Micro-Altaic", with the expanded group including Koreanic and Japonic labelled as "Macro-Altaic" or "Transeurasian".<ref>{{Cite book \|titleTranseurasian Linguistics \|date2016-09-30 \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn978-0-415-82560-3 \|editor-lastRobbeets \|editor-firstMartine \|edition1st \|languageEnglish}}</ref> The Altaic family was first proposed in the 18th century. It was widely accepted until the 1960s and is still listed in many encyclopedias and handbooks, and references to Altaic as a language family continue to percolate to modern sources through these older sources.<ref namegeorg1999/> Since the 1950s, most comparative linguists have rejected the proposal, after supposed cognates were found not to be valid, hypothesized sound shifts were not found, and Turkic and Mongolic languages were found to have been converging rather than diverging over the centuries.<ref>Lyle Campbell and Mauricio J. Mixco (2007): A Glossary of Historical Linguistics; University of Utah Press. Page 7: "While 'Altaic' is repeated in encyclopedias and handbooks most specialists in these languages no longer believe that the three traditional supposed Altaic groups, Turkic, Mongolian and Tungusic, are related."</ref><ref>Johanna Nichols (1992) Linguistic Diversity in Space and Time. Chicago University Press. Page 4: "When cognates proved not to be valid, Altaic was abandoned and the received view now is that Turkic, Mongolian and Tungusic are unrelated."</ref><ref nameperel2012>Asya Pereltsvaig (2012) Languages of the World, An Introduction. Cambridge University Press. Pages 211–216: "[...T]his selection of features does not provide good evidence for common descent" [...] "we can observe convergence rather than divergence between Turkic and Mongolic languages—a pattern than is easily explainable by borrowing and diffusion rather than common descent"</ref> The relationship between the Altaic languages is now generally accepted to be the result of a sprachbund rather than common ancestry, with the languages showing influence from prolonged contact.<ref>{{Citation \|lastStarostin \|firstGeorge \|titleAltaic Languages \|date2016-04-05 \|urlhttps://oxfordre.com/linguistics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.001.0001/acrefore-9780199384655-e-35 \|encyclopediaOxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics \|access-date2023-07-11 \|languageen \|doi10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.35 \|isbn978-0-19-938465-5}}</ref><ref>R. M. W. Dixon (1997): The Rise and Fall of Languages. Cambridge University Press. Page 32: "Careful examination indicates that the established families, Turkic, Mongolian and Tungusic, form a linguistic area (called Altaic)...Sufficient criteria have not been given that would justify talking of a genetic relationship here."</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|lastDe la Fuente \|firstJosé Andrés Alonso \|year2016 \|titleReview of Robbeets, Martine (2015): Diachrony of verb morphology. Japanese and the Transeurasian languages \|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/30240029 \|journalDiachronica \|volume33 \|issue4 \|pages530–537 \|doi10.1075/dia.33.4.04alo \|quote=For now, shared material between Transeurasian [i.e. Altaic] languages is undoubtedly better explained as the result of language contact. But if researchers provide cogent evidence of genealogical relatedness, that will be the time to re-evaluate old positions. That time, however, has not yet come.}}</ref> Altaic has maintained a limited degree of scholarly support, in contrast to some other early macrofamily proposals. Continued research on Altaic is still being undertaken by a core group of academic linguists, but their research has not found wider support. In particular it has support from the Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences and remains influential as a substratum of Turanism, where a hypothetical common linguistic ancestor has been used in part as a basis for a multiethnic nationalist movement.<ref name"Aytürk 2004 pp. 1–25">{{cite journal \| lastAytürk \| firstİlker \| titleTurkish Linguists against the West: The Origins of Linguistic Nationalism in Atatürk's Turkey \| journalMiddle Eastern Studies \| publisherTaylor & Francis, Ltd. \| volume40 \| issue6 \| year2004 \| issn0026-3206 \| jstor4289950 \| pages1–25 \| doi10.1080/0026320042000282856 \| s2cid144968896 \| urlhttp://www.jstor.org/stable/4289950 \| access-date2023-07-11\| hdl11693/49528 \| hdl-accessfree }}</ref> Earliest attestations<span class"anchor" id"Earliest attestations of the languages"></span> The earliest attested expressions in Proto-Turkic are recorded in various Chinese sources. Anna Dybo identifies in Shizi (330 BCE) and the Book of Han (111 CE) several dozen Proto-Turkic exotisms in Chinese Han transcriptions.<ref>Anna Dybo (2012) Early contacts of Turks and problems of Proto-Turkic reconstruction.</ref> Lanhai Wei and Hui Li reconstruct the name of the Xiōngnú ruling house as PT Alayundluğ /alajuntˈluγ/ 'piebald horse clan.'<ref>Lanhai Wei and Hui Li (2018) About the names of Chanyu family and branch tribes of Xiongnu.</ref> The earliest known texts in a Turkic language are the Orkhon inscriptions, 720–735 AD.<ref name=miller71/>{{rp\|3}} They were deciphered in 1893 by the Danish linguist Vilhelm Thomsen in a scholarly race with his rival, the German–Russian linguist Wilhelm Radloff. However, Radloff was the first to publish the inscriptions. The first Tungusic language to be attested is Jurchen, the language of the ancestors of the Manchus. A writing system for it was devised in 1119 AD and an inscription using this system is known from 1185 (see List of Jurchen inscriptions). The earliest Mongolic language of which we have written evidence is known as Middle Mongol. It is first attested by an inscription dated to 1224 or 1225 AD, the Stele of Yisüngge, and by the Secret History of the Mongols, written in 1228 (see Mongolic languages). The earliest Para-Mongolic text is the Memorial for Yelü Yanning, written in the Khitan large script and dated to 986 AD. However, the Inscription of Hüis Tolgoi, discovered in 1975 and analysed as being in an early form of Mongolic, has been dated to 604–620 AD. The Bugut inscription dates back to 584 AD. Japanese is first attested in the form of names contained in a few short inscriptions in Classical Chinese from the 5th century AD, such as found on the Inariyama Sword. The first substantial text in Japanese, however, is the Kojiki, which dates from 712 AD. It is followed by the Nihon shoki, completed in 720, and then by the ''Man'yōshū, which dates from c. 771–785, but includes material that is from about 400 years earlier.<ref name=miller71/>{{rp\|4}} The most important text for the study of early Korean is the Hyangga, a collection of 25 poems, of which some go back to the Three Kingdoms period (57 BC–668 AD), but are preserved in an orthography that only goes back to the 9th century AD.<ref namemiller96/>{{rp\|60}} Korean is copiously attested from the mid-15th century on in the phonetically precise Hangul system of writing.<ref namemiller96/>{{rp\|61}} History of the Altaic family concept in East-Central Asia give their name to the proposed language family.]] Origins The earliest known reference to a unified language group of Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic languages is from the 1692 work of Nicolaes Witsen which may be based on a 1661 work of Abu al-Ghazi Bahadur, Genealogy of the Turkmens.<ref namerobeets31>{{cite book \|last1Robeets \|first1Martine \|titleThe Classification of Transeurasian languages \|date2020 \|publisherOxford University Press \|page=31}}</ref> A proposed grouping of the Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages was published in 1730 by Philip Johan von Strahlenberg, a Swedish officer who traveled in the eastern Russian Empire while a prisoner of war after the Great Northern War.<ref namepoppe65>Nicholas Poppe (1965): Introduction to Altaic Linguistics. Volume 14 of Ural-altaische Bibliothek''. Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden.</ref>{{rp\|page 125}} However, he may not have intended to imply a closer relationship among those languages.<ref nameramer>Alexis Manaster Ramer and Paul Sidwell (1997): "The truth about Strahlenberg's classification of the languages of Northeastern Eurasia." Journal de la Société finno-ougrienne, volume 87, pages 139–160.</ref> Later proposals to include the Korean and Japanese languages into a "Macro-Altaic" family have always been controversial. The original proposal was sometimes called "Micro-Altaic" by retronymy. Most proponents of Altaic continue to support the inclusion of Korean, but fewer do for Japanese.<ref name"China 2008">Roger Blench and Mallam Dendo (2008): "[https://web.archive.org/web/20190227035752/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7b96/c6177913c04c7972abe56fcd86a9b6294686.pdf Stratification in the peopling of China: how far does the linguistic evidence match genetics and archaeology?]" In Alicia Sanchez-Mazas et al., eds. Human migrations in continental East Asia and Taiwan: genetic, linguistic and archaeological evidence, chapter 4. Taylor & Francis.</ref> Some proposals also included Ainuic but this is not widely accepted even among Altaicists themselves.<ref name"georg1999" /> A common ancestral Proto-Altaic language for the "Macro" family has been tentatively reconstructed by Sergei Starostin and others.<ref name="staro2003" /> Micro-Altaic includes about 66 living languages,<ref>{{cite web \|titleBrowse by Language Family \|urlhttp://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid7-16 \|access-date18 June 2013 \|publisherEthnologue}}</ref> to which Macro-Altaic would add Korean, Jeju, Japanese, and the Ryukyuan languages, for a total of about 74 (depending on what is considered a language and what is considered a dialect). These numbers do not include earlier states of languages, such as Middle Mongol, Old Korean, or Old Japanese.Uralo-Altaic hypothesis {{see also \|Ural-Altaic languages}} In 1844, the Finnish philologist Matthias Castrén proposed a broader grouping which later came to be called the Ural–Altaic family, which included Turkic, Mongolian, and Manchu-Tungus (Tungusic) as an "Altaic" branch, and also the Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic languages as the "Uralic" branch (though Castrén himself used the terms "Tataric" and "Chudic").<ref namepoppe65/>{{rp\|126–127}} The name "Altaic" referred to the Altai Mountains in East-Central Asia, which are approximately the center of the geographic range of the three main families. The name "Uralic" referred to the Ural Mountains. While the Ural-Altaic family hypothesis can still be found in some encyclopedias, atlases, and similar general references, since the 1960s it has been heavily criticized. Even linguists who accept the basic Altaic family, such as Sergei Starostin, completely discard the inclusion of the "Uralic" branch.<ref name=staro2003/>{{rp\|8–9}} The term continues to be used for the central Eurasian typological, grammatical and lexical convergence zone.<ref>BROWN, Keith and OGILVIE, Sarah eds.:Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. 2009. p. 722.</ref> Indeed, "Ural-Altaic" may be preferable to "Altaic" in this sense. For example, Juha Janhunen states that "speaking of 'Altaic' instead of 'Ural-Altaic' is a misconception, for there are no areal or typological features that are specific to 'Altaic' without Uralic."<ref name"Georg">{{Cite journal \|lastGeorg \|firstStefan \|date2017-05-19 \|titleThe Role of Paradigmatic Morphology in Historical, Areal and Genealogical Linguistics: Thoughts and Observations in the Margin of Paradigm Change. In the Transeurasian languages and Beyond \|urlhttps://brill.com/view/journals/jlc/10/2/article-p353_5.xml \|journalJournal of Language Contact \|languageen \|volume10 \|issue2 \|pages353–381 \|doi10.1163/19552629-01002005 \|issn1877-4091\|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Korean and Japanese languages In 1857, the Austrian scholar Anton Boller suggested adding Japanese to the Ural–Altaic family.<ref name=miller86>Roy Andrew Miller (1986): Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. {{ISBN\|0-485-11251-5}}.</ref>{{rp\|34}} In the 1920s, G.J. Ramstedt and E.D. Polivanov advocated the inclusion of Korean. Decades later, in his 1952 book, Ramstedt rejected the Ural–Altaic hypothesis but again included Korean in Altaic, an inclusion followed by most leading Altaicists (supporters of the theory) to date.<!--Which date?--><ref name=rams>Gustaf John Ramstedt (1952): Einführung in die altaische Sprachwissenschaft ("Introduction to Altaic Linguistics"). Volume I, Lautlehre ("Phonology").</ref> His book contained the first comprehensive attempt to identify regular correspondences among the sound systems within the Altaic language families. In 1960, Nicholas Poppe published what was in effect a heavily revised version of Ramstedt's volume on phonology<ref namepoppe60>Nicholas Poppe (1960): Vergleichende Grammatik der altaischen Sprachen. Teil I. Vergleichende Lautlehre, ('Comparative Grammar of the Altaic Languages, Part 1: Comparative Phonology'). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. (Only part to appear of a projected larger work.)</ref><ref>Roy Andrew Miller (1991): "Genetic connections among the Altaic languages." In Sydney M. Lamb and E. Douglas Mitchell (editors), Sprung from Some Common Source: Investigations into the Prehistory of Languages, 1991, 293–327. {{ISBN\|0-8047-1897-0}}.</ref> that has since set the standard in Altaic studies. Poppe considered the issue of the relationship of Korean to Turkic-Mongolic-Tungusic not settled.<ref namepoppe65/>{{rp\|148}} In his view, there were three possibilities: (1) Korean did not belong with the other three genealogically, but had been influenced by an Altaic substratum; (2) Korean was related to the other three at the same level they were related to each other; (3) Korean had split off from the other three before they underwent a series of characteristic changes. Roy Andrew Miller's 1971 book Japanese and the Other Altaic Languages convinced most Altaicists that Japanese also belonged to Altaic.<ref namepoppe76>Nicholas Poppe (1976): "[https://www.jstor.org/pss/132066 Review of Karl H. Menges, Altajische Studien II. Japanisch und Altajisch (1975)]". In The Journal of Japanese Studies, volume 2, issue 2, pages 470–474.</ref><ref namemiller71>Roy Andrew Miller (1971): Japanese and the Other Altaic Languages. University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN\|0-226-52719-0}}.</ref> Since then, the "Macro-Altaic" has been generally assumed to include Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japanese. In 1990, Unger, emphasizing the need to establish language relationships rigorously "from the bottom up," advocated comparing Tungusic with the common ancestor of Korean and Japanese before seeking connections with Turkic or Mongolic.<ref name=unger90>J. Marshall Unger (1990): "Summary report of the Altaic panel." In Philip Baldi, ed., Linguistic Change and Reconstruction Methodology, pages 479–482. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin.</ref> However, many linguists dispute the alleged affinities of Korean and Japanese to the other three groups. Some authors instead tried to connect Japanese to the Austronesian languages.<ref name=staro2003/>{{rp\|8–9}} In 2017, Martine Robbeets proposed that Japanese (and possibly Korean) originated as a hybrid language. She proposed that the ancestral home of the Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages was somewhere in northwestern Manchuria. A group of those proto-Altaic ("Transeurasian") speakers would have migrated south into the modern Liaoning province, where they would have been mostly assimilated by an agricultural community with an Austronesian-like language. The fusion of the two languages would have resulted in proto-Japanese and proto-Korean.<ref namerobbe>Martine Irma Robbeets (2017): "[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320915864_Austronesian_influence_and_Transeurasian_ancestry_in_Japanese_A_case_of_farminglanguage_dispersal Austronesian influence and Transeurasian ancestry in Japanese: A case of farming/language dispersal]". Language Dynamics and Change, volume 7, issue 2, pages 201–251, {{doi\|10.1163/22105832-00702005}}</ref><ref namerobb2015>Martine Irma Robbeets (2015): Diachrony of verb morphology – Japanese and the Transeurasian languages. Mouton de Gruyter.</ref> In a typological study that does not directly evaluate the validity of the Altaic hypothesis, Yurayong and Szeto (2020) discuss for Koreanic and Japonic the stages of convergence to the Altaic typological model and subsequent divergence from that model, which resulted in the present typological similarity between Koreanic and Japonic. They state that both are "still so different from the Core Altaic languages that we can even speak of an independent Japanese-Korean type of grammar. Given also that there is neither a strong proof of common Proto-Altaic lexical items nor solid regular sound correspondences but, rather, only lexical and structural borrowings between languages of the Altaic typology, our results indirectly speak in favour of a “Paleo-Asiatic” origin of the Japonic and Koreanic languages."<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastYurayong, Szeto\|dateAugust 2020\|titleAltaicization and De-Altaicization of Japonic and Koreanic\|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/343576887\|journalInternational Journal of Eurasian Linguistics\|volume2 \|pages108–148 \|doi10.1163/25898833-12340026 \|s2cid225358117 \|quoteDespite the conventional classification of Japonic and Koreanic languages as examples of the Altaic typology (Janhunen 2007, 2014, Tranter 2012a), these languages, both today and in the past, are still so different from the Core Altaic languages that we can even speak of an independent Japanese-Korean type of grammar (see also Vovin 2015a). Given also that there is neither a strong proof of common Proto-Altaic lexical items nor solid regular sound correspondences (Janhunen 1999: 10, 2010: 296, cf. Robbeets 2005) but, rather, only lexical and structural borrowings between languages of the Altaic typology, our results indirectly speak in favour of a “Paleo-Asiatic” origin of the Japonic and Koreanic languages (see also Janhunen 2010, Vovin 2015a). However, through later intense language contacts, Japanese and Koreanic converged by the phenomena of Altaicization and de-Altaicization during the first millennium BC and AD, respectively (see also Janhunen 2010: 290, Vovin 2010: 239–240).}}</ref> The Ainu language In 1962, John C. Street proposed an alternative classification, with Turkic-Mongolic-Tungusic in one grouping and Korean-Japanese-Ainu in another, joined in what he designated as the "North Asiatic" family.<ref namestreet>John C. Street (1962): "Review of N. Poppe, Vergleichende Grammatik der altaischen Sprachen, Teil I (1960)". Language, volume 38, pages 92–98.</ref> The inclusion of Ainu was adopted also by James Patrie in 1982.<ref namepatrie78>James Tyrone Patrie (1978): The genetic relationship of the Ainu language. PhD thesis, University of Hawaii.</ref><ref name=patrie82>James Tyrone Patrie (1982): The Genetic Relationship of the Ainu Language. University of Hawaii Press. {{ISBN\|0-8248-0724-3}}</ref> The Turkic-Mongolic-Tungusic and Korean-Japanese-Ainu groupings were also posited in 2000–2002 by Joseph Greenberg. However, he treated them as independent members of a larger family, which he termed Eurasiatic.<ref name=grenberg2000>Joseph Greenberg (2000–2002): Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family, 2 volumes. Stanford University Press.</ref> The inclusion of Ainu is not widely accepted by Altaicists.<ref namegeorg1999/> In fact, no convincing genealogical relationship between Ainu and any other language family has been demonstrated, and it is generally regarded as a language isolate.<ref>{{cite book \|lastDougherty \|firstThomas \|year2018 \|chapterAinu \|editor-lastCampbell \|editor-firstLyle \|editor-linkLyle Campbell \|titleLanguage Isolates \|seriesRoutledge Language Family Series \|locationLondon \|publisherRoutledge \|pages=100–116 }}</ref> <!-- NOTE: Please leave the following IDs, which were the previous titles of this section. Many pages link to these section titles. --><span id"Controversy" ></span> <span id"The controversy over Altaic" ></span> Early criticism and rejection Starting in the late 1950s, some linguists became increasingly critical of even the minimal Altaic family hypothesis, disputing the alleged evidence of genetic connection between Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic languages. Among the earlier critics were Gerard Clauson (1956), Gerhard Doerfer (1963), and Alexander Shcherbak. They claimed that the words and features shared by Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages were for the most part borrowings and that the rest could be attributed to chance resemblances.<ref nameclauson56/><ref namedoerfer63/><ref nameshche63/> In 1988, Doerfer again rejected all the genetic claims over these major groups.<ref namedoerfer88>Gerhard Doerfer (1988): Grundwort und Sprachmischung: Eine Untersuchung an Hand von Körperteilbezeichnungen. Franz Steiner. Wiesbaden:</ref> Modern controversy A major continuing supporter of the Altaic hypothesis has been Sergei Starostin, who published a comparative lexical analysis of the Altaic languages in 1991. He concluded that the analysis supported the Altaic grouping, although it was "older than most other language families in Eurasia, such as Indo-European or Finno-Ugric, and this is the reason why the modern Altaic languages preserve few common elements".<ref name=staro91/> In 1991 and again in 1996, Roy Miller defended the Altaic hypothesis and claimed that the criticisms of Clauson and Doerfer apply exclusively to the lexical correspondences, whereas the most pressing evidence for the theory is the similarities in verbal morphology.<ref namemiller91>Roy Andrew Miller (1991), page 298<!--Bibliographic data needed--></ref><ref namemiller96>Roy Andrew Miller (1996): Languages and History: Japanese, Korean and Altaic. Oslo: Institute for Comparative Research in Human Culture. {{ISBN\|974-8299-69-4}}. Pages 98–99</ref> In 2003, Claus Schönig published a critical overview of the history of the Altaic hypothesis up to that time, siding with the earlier criticisms of Clauson, Doerfer, and Shcherbak.<ref name=schon03/> In 2003, Starostin, Anna Dybo and Oleg Mudrak published the Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages, which expanded the 1991 lexical lists and added other phonological and grammatical arguments.<ref name=staro2003/> Starostin's book was criticized by Stefan Georg in 2004 and 2005,<ref namegeorg2004>Stefan Georg (2004): "[Review of Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages (2003)]". Diachronica volume 21, issue 2, pages 445–450. {{doi\|10.1075/dia.21.2.12geo}}</ref><ref namegeorg2005>Stefan Georg (2005): "[http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/jbp/dia/2005/00000022/00000002/art00009?token005418488f488b387e2a46762c47655d76702a252c2a766c7b673f7b2f267738703375686f4997755709 Reply (to Starostin response, 2005)]". Diachronica volume 22, issue 2, pages 455–457.</ref> and by Alexander Vovin in 2005.<ref namevovin2005>Alexander Vovin (2005): "The end of the Altaic controversy" [review of Starostin et al. (2003)]. Central Asiatic Journal volume 49, issue 1, pages 71–132.</ref> Other defenses of the theory, in response to the criticisms of Georg and Vovin, were published by Starostin in 2005,<ref namestaro2005>Sergei A. Starostin (2005): "[http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/jbp/dia/2005/00000022/00000002/art00008?token00541ba51aae7dd8d6c573d257025255c232b465340514d3874747c4e7547543c7e386f642f466fad2e3 Response to Stefan Georg's review of the Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages]". Diachronica volume 22, issue 2, pages 451–454. {{doi\|10.1075/dia.22.2.09sta}}</ref> Blažek in 2006,<ref nameblazek2006>Václav Blažek (2006): "[http://www.phil.muni.cz/linguistica/art/blazek/bla-004.pdf Current progress in Altaic etymology.]" Linguistica Online, 30 January 2006. Accessed on 2019-03-22.</ref> Robbeets in 2007,<ref namerobb2007>Martine Robbeets (2007): "How the actional suffix chain connects Japanese to Altaic." In Turkic Languages, volume 11, issue 1, pages 3–58.</ref> and Dybo and G. Starostin in 2008.<ref name=staro2008>Anna V. Dybo and Georgiy S. Starostin (2008): "[http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/compmeth.pdf In defense of the comparative method, or the end of the Vovin controversy.]" Aspects of Comparative Linguistics, volume 3, pages 109–258. RSUH Publishers, Moscow</ref> In 2010, Lars Johanson echoed Miller's 1996 rebuttal to the critics, and called for a muting of the polemic.<ref namejohans2010>Lars Johanson (2010): "The high and low spirits of Transeurasian language studies" in Johanson and Robbeets, eds. [https://books.google.com/books?id9zcxQqmkgE0C Transeurasian Verbal Morphology in a Comparative Perspective: Genealogy, Contact, Chance.], pages 7–20. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden. Quote: "The dark age of pro and contra slogans, unfair polemics, and humiliations is not yet completely over and done with, but there seems to be some hope for a more constructive discussion."</ref> List of supporters and critics of the Altaic hypothesis {{more citations needed section\|date=April 2024}} The list below comprises linguists who have worked specifically on the Altaic problem since the publication of the first volume of Ramstedt's Einführung in 1952. The dates given are those of works concerning Altaic. For supporters of the theory, the version of Altaic they favor is given at the end of the entry, if other than the prevailing one of Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean–Japanese. Major supporters Pentti Aalto (1955). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean. Anna V. Dybo (S. Starostin et al. 2003, A. Dybo and G. Starostin 2008). Frederik Kortlandt (2010). Karl H. Menges (1975). Common ancestor of Korean, Japanese and traditional Altaic dated back to the 7th or 8th millennium BC (1975: 125). Roy Andrew Miller (1971, 1980, 1986, 1996). Supported the inclusion of Korean and Japanese. Oleg A. Mudrak (S. Starostin et al. 2003). Nicholas Poppe (1965). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic and perhaps Korean. Alexis Manaster Ramer. Martine Robbeets (2004, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2015, 2021) (in the form of "Transeurasian"). G. J. Ramstedt (1952–1957). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean. George Starostin (A. Dybo and G. Starostin 2008). Sergei Starostin (1991, S. Starostin et al. 2003). John C. Street (1962). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic and Korean–Japanese–Ainu, grouped as "North Asiatic". Talât Tekin (1994). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean. Major critics Gerard Clauson (1956, 1959, 1962) * Gerhard Doerfer (1963, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1981, 1985, 1988, 1993) * Susumu Ōno (1970, 2000) * Juha Janhunen (1992, 1995) (tentative support of Mongolic-Tungusic) * Claus Schönig (2003)<ref name=schon03/> * Stefan Georg (2004, 2005) * Alexander Vovin (2005, 2010, 2017) - Formerly an advocate of Altaic (1994, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2001), later a critic * Alexander Shcherbak * Alexander B. M. Stiven (2008, 2010) Advocates of alternative hypotheses <!-- "Macro-Tungusic" redirects here --> James Patrie (1982) and Joseph Greenberg (2000–2002). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic and Korean–Japanese–Ainu, grouped in a common taxon (cf. John C. Street 1962). J. Marshall Unger (1990). Tungusic–Korean–Japanese ("Macro-Tungusic"), with Turkic and Mongolic as separate language families. Lars Johanson (2010). Agnostic, proponent of a "Transeurasian" verbal morphology not necessarily genealogically linked. "Transeurasian" renaming In Robbeets and Johanson (2010), there was a proposal to replace the name "Altaic" with the name "Transeurasian". While "Altaic" has sometimes included Japonic, Koreanic, and other languages or families, but only on the consideration of particular authors, "Transeurasian" was specifically intended to always include Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Japonic, and Koreanic. Robbeets and Johanson gave as their reasoning for the new term: 1) to avoid confusion between the different uses of Altaic as to which group of languages is included, 2) to reduce the counterproductive polarization between "Pro-Altaists" and "Anti-Altaists"; 3) to broaden the applicability of the term because the suffix -ic implies affinity while -an leaves room for an areal hypothesis; and 4) to eliminate the reference to the Altai mountains as a potential homeland.<ref>Martin Robbeets & Alexander Savelyev. "Introduction," The Oxford Guide to the Transeurasian Languages (2020, Oxford University Press), page 1.</ref> In Robbeets and Savelyev, ed. (2020) there was a concerted effort to distinguish "Altaic" as a subgroup of "Transeurasian" consisting only of Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic, while retaining "Transeurasian" as "Altaic" plus Japonic and Koreanic. Arguments For the Altaic grouping Phonological and grammatical features The original arguments for grouping the "micro-Altaic" languages within a Uralo-Altaic family were based on such shared features as vowel harmony and agglutination. According to Roy Miller, the most pressing evidence for the theory is the similarities in verbal morphology.<ref name=miller96/> The Etymological Dictionary by Starostin and others (2003) proposes a set of sound change laws that would explain the evolution from Proto-Altaic to the descendant languages. For example, although most of today's Altaic languages have vowel harmony, Proto-Altaic as reconstructed by them lacked it; instead, various vowel assimilations between the first and second syllables of words occurred in Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japonic. They also included a number of grammatical correspondences between the languages.<ref namestaro2003/>Shared lexiconStarostin claimed in 1991 that the members of the proposed Altaic group shared about 15–20% of apparent cognates within a 110-word Swadesh-Yakhontov list; in particular, Turkic–Mongolic 20%, Turkic–Tungusic 18%, Turkic–Korean 17%, Mongolic–Tungusic 22%, Mongolic–Korean 16%, and Tungusic–Korean 21%.<ref namestaro91>Sergei A. Starostin (1991): Altajskaja problema i proisxoždenie japonskogo jazyka ('The Altaic Problem and the Origin of the Japanese Language'). Nauka, Moscow.</ref> The 2003 Etymological Dictionary includes a list of 2,800 proposed cognate sets, as well as a few important changes to the reconstruction of Proto-Altaic. The authors tried hard to distinguish loans between Turkic and Mongolic and between Mongolic and Tungusic from cognates; and suggest words that occur in Turkic and Tungusic but not in Mongolic. All other combinations between the five branches also occur in the book. It lists 144 items of shared basic vocabulary, including words for such items as 'eye', 'ear', 'neck', 'bone', 'blood', 'water', 'stone', 'sun', and 'two'.<ref name=staro2003>Sergei Starostin, Anna V. Dybo, and Oleg A. Mudrak (2003): Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages, 3 volumes. {{ISBN\|90-04-13153-1}}.</ref> Robbeets and Bouckaert (2018) use Bayesian phylolinguistic methods to argue for the coherence of the "narrow" Altaic languages (Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic) together with Japonic and Koreanic, which they refer to as the Transeurasian languages.<ref name"Robbeets2018">Robbeets, M.; Bouckaert, R.: [https://pure.mpg.de/pubman/item/item_2630213_5/component/file_2630221/shh1046.pdf?modedownload Bayesian phylolinguistics reveals the internal structure of the Transeurasian family]. Journal of Language Evolution 3 (2), pp. 145–162 (2018) {{doi\|10.1093/jole/lzy007}}</ref> Their results include the following phylogenetic tree:<ref>[https://www.shh.mpg.de/1025823/transeurasian-bayesian Structure of Transeurasian language family revealed by computational linguistic methods] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191222112331/https://www.shh.mpg.de/1025823/transeurasian-bayesian \|date22 December 2019 }}. 2018. Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.</ref> {{clade \|label1=Transeurasian \|1={{clade \|label1=Japano-Koreanic \|1={{clade \|1=Japonic \|2=Koreanic }} \|label2=Altaic \|2={{clade \|1=Tungusic \|2={{clade \|1=Mongolic \|2=Turkic }} }} }} }} Martine Robbeets et al. (2021) argues that early Transeurasian speakers were originally agriculturalists in Northeastern Asia, only becoming pastoralists later on.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Robbeets \|first1Martine \|last2Bouckaert \|first2Remco \|last3Conte \|first3Matthew \|last4Savelyev \|first4Alexander \|last5Li \|first5Tao \|last6An \|first6Deog-Im \|last7Shinoda \|first7Ken-ichi \|last8Cui \|first8Yinqiu \|last9Kawashima \|first9Takamune \|last10Kim \|first10Geonyoung \|last11Uchiyama \|first11Junzo \|last12Dolińska \|first12Joanna \|last13Oskolskaya \|first13Sofia \|last14Yamano \|first14Ken-Yōjiro \|last15Seguchi \|first15Noriko \|date2021 \|titleTriangulation supports agricultural spread of the Transeurasian languages \|journalNature \|languageen \|volume599 \|issue7886 \|pages616–621 \|doi10.1038/s41586-021-04108-8 \|issn1476-4687\|doi-accessfree \|pmid34759322 \|pmc8612925 }}</ref> The analysis conducted by Kassian et al. (2021) on a 110-item word list, specifically developed for each of the languages — Proto-Turkic, Proto-Mongolic, Proto-Tungusic, Middle Korean and Proto-Japonic — indicated partial support for the Altaic macrofamily, with Korean seemingly excluded. While acknowledging that prehistoric contacts are a plausible alternative explanation for the positive results, they deem such a scenario less likely for the lexical matches between Turkic and Japonic languages, which are better explained by genealogical relationship because of the substantial geographical distances involved.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Kassian \|first1Alexei S. \|last2Starostin \|first2George \|last3Egorov \|first3Ilya M. \|last4Logunova \|first4Ekaterina S. \|last5Dybo \|first5Anna V. \|date2021 \|titlePermutation test applied to lexical reconstructions partially supports the Altaic linguistic macrofamily \|journalEvolutionary Human Sciences \|languageen \|volume3 \|pagese32 \|doi10.1017/ehs.2021.28 \|issn2513-843X\|doi-accessfree \|pmid37588568 \|pmc10427268 }} Quote: "Korean shows no positive results with any of its potential Altaic relatives....Korean emerges as either unrelated to any of these four taxa or impervious to the efficacy of the algorithm owing to major mutations undergone by non-initial consonants in Pre-Proto-Korean."</ref>Against the groupingWeakness of lexical and typological dataAccording to G. Clauson (1956), G. Doerfer (1963), and A. Shcherbak (1963), many of the typological features of the supposed Altaic languages, particularly agglutinative strongly suffixing morphology and subject–object–verb (SOV) word order,<ref>Hawkins and Gilligan (1988): "The suffixing preference", in The Final-Over-Final Condition: A Syntactic Universal, page 326. MIT Press. {{isbn\|978-0262036696}}; According to the table, among the surveyed languages, 75% of OV languages are mainly suffixing, and more than 70% of mainly suffixing languages are OV.</ref> often occur together in languages.<ref nameclauson56/><ref namedoerfer63/><ref nameshche63/> Those critics also argued that the words and features shared by Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages were for the most part borrowings and that the rest could be attributed to chance resemblances. They noted that there was little vocabulary shared by Turkic and Tungusic languages, though more shared with Mongolic languages. They reasoned that, if all three families had a common ancestor, we should expect losses to happen at random, and not only at the geographical margins of the family; and that the observed pattern is consistent with borrowing.<ref nameclauson56/><ref namedoerfer63/><ref name=shche63/> According to C. Schönig (2003), after accounting for areal effects, the shared lexicon that could have a common genetic origin was reduced to a small number of monosyllabic lexical roots, including the personal pronouns and a few other deictic and auxiliary items, whose sharing could be explained in other ways; not the kind of sharing expected in cases of genetic relationship.<ref nameschon03>Schönig (2003): "Turko-Mongolic Relations." In The Mongolic Languages, edited by Juha Janhunen, pages 403–419. Routledge.</ref>The Sprachbund hypothesis{{Expand section\|withThe Sprachbund hypothesis is the primary understanding of Altaic at present and needs to be much more prominent\|smallyes\|dateJuly 2023}} {{see\|Sprachbund}} Instead of a common genetic origin, Clauson, Doerfer, and Shcherbak proposed (in 1956–1966) that Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages form a Sprachbund: a set of languages with similarities due to convergence through intensive borrowing and long contact, rather than common origin.<ref nameclauson56>Gerard Clauson (1956). "[http://altaica.ru/LIBRARY/CLAUSON/Clauson_against.pdf The case against the Altaic theory]". Central Asiatic Journal volume 2, pages 181–187</ref><ref namedoerfer63>Gerhard Doerfer (1963): "Bemerkungen zur Verwandtschaft der sog. altaische Sprachen" ('Remarks on the relationship of the so-called Altaic languages') In Gerhard Doerfer ed.: Türkische und mongolische Elemente im Neupersischen, Bd. I: Mongolische Elemente im Neupersischen, pages 51–105. Franz Steiner, Wiesbaden</ref><ref nameshche63>Alexander Shcherbak (1963).<!--Bibliographic data needed-->{{full citation needed\|dateOctober 2023}}</ref> Asya Pereltsvaig further observed in 2011 that, in general, genetically related languages and families tend to diverge over time: the earlier forms are more similar than modern forms. However, she claims that an analysis of the earliest written records of Mongolic and Turkic languages shows the opposite, suggesting that they do not share a common traceable ancestor, but rather have become more similar through language contact and areal effects.<ref nameperel2012/><ref>{{Cite journal \|lastJanhunen \|firstJuha A. \|date2023-01-17 \|titleThe Unity and Diversity of Altaic \|urlhttps://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-030521-042356 \|journalAnnual Review of Linguistics \|languageen \|volume9 \|issue1 \|pages135–154 \|doi10.1146/annurev-linguistics-030521-042356 \|hdl10138/355895 \|s2cid256126714 \|issn2333-9683\|hdl-accessfree }}</ref> Hypothesis about the original homeland<span class"anchor" id"Postulated Urheimat"></span> {{see\|Ural-Altaic}} The prehistory of the peoples speaking the "Altaic" languages is largely unknown. Whereas for certain other language families, such as the speakers of Indo-European, Uralic, and Austronesian, it is possible to frame substantial hypotheses, in the case of the proposed Altaic family much remains to be done.<ref>Miller (1991), page 319–320</ref> <!--Urheimat: In the absence of written records, there are several ways to study the (pre)history of a people: Identification of archaeological cultures: the material remains found at dwelling sites, burial grounds, and other places where people left traces of their activity. Physical anthropology, which studies the physical characteristics of peoples, ancient and modern. Genetics, particularly the study of ancient DNA. Philology, which studies the evidence in language families for their primitive locations and the nature of their cultures. (For an example, see Proto-Uralic language.) Mythology and legend often contain important clues to the earlier history of peoples. Glottochronology, which attempts to estimate the time depth of a language family based on an assumed rate of change in languages. Related to this is lexicostatistics, which attempts to determine the degree of relation between a set of languages by comparing the percentage of basic vocabulary (words like "I", "you", "heart", "stone", "two", "be", "and") they share in common. The development of a family tree of languages that notes the relative distance of the splits that occur in it. The observation of evidence for contact between languages, which may approximate when and where they were adjacent to each other. All of these methods remain to be applied to the languages attributed to Altaic with the same degree of focus and intensity with which they have been applied to the Indo-European family (e.g. Mallory 1989, Anthony 2007).<ref name=mall1989>J. P. Mallory (1989) In Search of the Indo-Europeans. Thames and Hudson.</ref> --> Some scholars have hypothesised a possible Uralic and Altaic homeland in the Central Asian steppes.<ref>Nikoloz Silagadze, "[http://www.spekali.tsu.ge/index.php/en/article/viewArticle/2/16 The Homeland Problem of Indo-European Language-Speaking Peoples]", 2010. Faculty of Humanities at Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University. {{ISSN\|1987-8583}}.</ref><ref>Y.N. Matyuishin (2003), pages 368–372.<!--Bibliographic data needed--></ref> Chaubey and van Driem propose that the dispersal of ancient Altaic language communities is reflected by the early Holocene dissemination of haplogroup C2 (M217): "If the paternal lineage C2 (M217) is correlated with Altaic linguistic affinity, as appears to be the case for Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic, then Japanese is no Father Tongue, and neither is Korean. This Y-chromosomal haplogroup accounts for 11% of Korean paternal lineages, and the frequency of the lineage is even more reduced in Japan. Yet this molecular marker may still be a tracer for the introduction of Altaic language to the archipelago, where the paternal lineage has persisted, albeit in a frequency of just 6%."<ref name=chaubey2020>Gyaneshwer Chaubey and George van Driem (2020) Munda languages are father tongues, but Japanese and Korean are not. (p. 11)</ref> Juha Janhunen hypothesized that the ancestral languages of Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japanese were spoken in a relatively small area comprising present-day North Korea, Southern Manchuria, and Southeastern Mongolia.<ref namejohrob2010>Lars Johanson and Martine Irma Robbeets (2010): [https://books.google.com/books?id9zcxQqmkgE0C Transeurasian Verbal Morphology in a Comparative Perspective: Genealogy, Contact, Chance.]. Introduction to the book, pages 1–5.</ref> However Janhunen is sceptical about an affiliation of Japanese to Altaic,<ref namejahu1992>Juha Janhunen (1992): "Das Japanische in vergleichender Sicht". Journal de la Société finno-ougrienne, volume 84, pages 145–161.</ref> while András Róna-Tas remarked that a relationship between Altaic and Japanese, if it ever existed, must be more remote than the relationship of any two of the Indo-European languages.<ref nametas1988>András Róna-Tas (1988).<!--Bibliographic data needed--></ref>{{rp\|77}} Ramsey stated that "the genetic relationship between Korean and Japanese, if it in fact exists, is probably more complex and distant than we can imagine on the basis of our present state of knowledge".<ref>S. Robert Ramsey (2004): "Accent, Liquids, and the Search for a Common Origin for Korean and Japanese". Japanese Language and Literature, volume 38, issue 2, page 340. American Association of Teachers of Japanese.</ref> Supporters of the Altaic hypothesis formerly set the date of the Proto-Altaic language at around 4000 BC, but today at around 5000 BC<ref namestaro2003/> or 6000 BC.<ref>Elena E. Kuz'mina (2007): [https://books.google.com/books?idx5J9rn8p2-IC&pg=PP1 The Origin of the Indo-Iranians], page 364. Brill. {{ISBN\|978-9004160-54-5}}</ref> This would make Altaic a language family older than Indo-European (around 3000 to 4000 BC according to mainstream hypotheses) but considerably younger than Afroasiatic (c. 10,000 BC<ref>Igor M. Diakonoff (1988): Afrasian Languages. Nauka, Moscow.</ref>{{rp\|33}} or 11,000 to 16,000 BC<ref>Ehret (2002)<!--Bibliographic data needed--></ref>{{rp\|35–36}} according to different sources). <!--- The Transeurasian expansion hypothesis According to a study on genetic distance measurements from a large scale genetic study from 2021 titled 'Genomic insights into the formation of human populations in East Asia', hunter-gatherers of Mongolia and the Amur River Basin have ancestry shared by Mongolic and Tungusic language speakers, but they did not carry West Liao River farmer ancestry, contradicting the Transeurasian hypothesis proposed by Martine Robbeets that the expansion of West Liao River farmers spread these proto-languages.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastWang \|firstChuan-Chao \|date2021 \|titleGenomic insights into the formation of human populations in East Asia \|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/349510968 \|journalNature \|volume591 \|issue7850 \|pages413–419 \|doi10.1038/s41586-021-03336-2 \|pmc7993749 \|pmid33618348}}</ref>---> See also * Classification of the Japonic languages * Nostratic languages * Pan-Turanism * Turco-Mongol * Uralo-Siberian languages * Xiongnu * Comparison of Japanese and Korean References Citations {{Reflist}} Sources {{refbegin}} Aalto, Pentti. 1955. "On the Altaic initial p-." Central Asiatic Journal 1, 9–16. Anonymous. 2008. [title missing]. Bulletin of the Society for the Study of the Indigenous Languages of the Americas, 31 March 2008, 264:&nbsp;____. {{cite journal \|last1Antonov \|first1Anton\|last2Jacques\|first2Guillaume \|titleTurkic kümüš 'silver' and the lambdaism vs sigmatism debate \|journalTurkic Languages \|volume15 \|issue 2 \|pages151–170 \|year2012 \|url = https://www.academia.edu/1495118 }} Anthony, David W. 2007. The Horse, the Wheel, and Language. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Boller, Anton. 1857. Nachweis, daß das Japanische zum ural-altaischen Stamme gehört. Wien. Clauson, Gerard. 1959. "The case for the Altaic theory examined." Akten des vierundzwanzigsten internationalen Orientalisten-Kongresses, edited by H. Franke. Wiesbaden: Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft, in Komission bei Franz Steiner Verlag. Clauson, Gerard. 1968. "A lexicostatistical appraisal of the Altaic theory." Central Asiatic Journal 13: 1–23. Doerfer, Gerhard. 1973. "Lautgesetze und Zufall: Betrachtungen zum Omnicomparativismus." Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft 10. Doerfer, Gerhard. 1974. "Ist das Japanische mit den altaischen Sprachen verwandt?" Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 114.1. Doerfer, Gerhard. 1985. Mongolica-Tungusica. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. Georg, Stefan. 1999 / 2000. "Haupt und Glieder der altaischen Hypothese: die Körperteilbezeichnungen im Türkischen, Mongolischen und Tungusischen" ('Head and members of the Altaic hypothesis: The body-part designations in Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic'). Ural-altaische Jahrbücher, neue Folge B 16, 143–182. {{cite book \|lastKortlandt \|firstFrederik \|year2010 \|chapterIndo-Uralic and Altaic revisited \|editor1Johanson L \|editor2Robbeets M \|titleTranseurasian verbal morphology in a comparative perspective: genealogy, contact, chance \|locationWiesbaden \|publisherHarrassowitz \|pages153–164 }}. Lee, Ki-Moon and S. Robert Ramsey. 2011. A History of the Korean Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Menges, Karl. H. 1975. Altajische Studien II. Japanisch und Altajisch. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag. Miller, Roy Andrew. 1980. Origins of the Japanese Language: Lectures in Japan during the Academic Year 1977–1978. Seattle: University of Washington Press. {{ISBN\|0-295-95766-2}}. Ramstedt, G.J. 1952. Einführung in die altaische Sprachwissenschaft I. Lautlehre, 'Introduction to Altaic Linguistics, Volume 1: Phonology', edited and published by Pentti Aalto. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura. Ramstedt, G.J. 1957. Einführung in die altaische Sprachwissenschaft II. Formenlehre, 'Introduction to Altaic Linguistics, Volume 2: Morphology', edited and published by Pentti Aalto. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura. Ramstedt, G.J. 1966. Einführung in die altaische Sprachwissenschaft III. Register, 'Introduction to Altaic Linguistics, Volume 3: Index', edited and published by Pentti Aalto. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura. Robbeets, Martine. 2004. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110719105517/http://www.orientalistik.uni-mainz.de/robbeets/2004_Swadesh_100.pdf "Swadesh 100 on Japanese, Korean and Altaic."] Tokyo University Linguistic Papers, TULIP 23, 99–118. Robbeets, Martine. 2005. Is Japanese related to Korean, Tungusic, Mongolic and Turkic? Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. Strahlenberg, P.J.T. von. 1730. Das nord- und ostliche Theil von Europa und Asia.... Stockholm. (Reprint: 1975. Studia Uralo-Altaica. Szeged and Amsterdam.) Strahlenberg, P.J.T. von. 1738. Russia, Siberia and Great Tartary, an Historico-geographical Description of the North and Eastern Parts of Europe and Asia.... (Reprint: 1970. New York: Arno Press.) English translation of the previous. Tekin, Talat. 1994. "Altaic languages." In The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Vol. 1, edited by R.E. Asher. Oxford and New York: Pergamon Press. Vovin, Alexander. 1993. "About the phonetic value of the Middle Korean grapheme ᅀ." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 56(2), 247–259. Vovin, Alexander. 1994. "Genetic affiliation of Japanese and methodology of linguistic comparison." Journal de la Société finno-ougrienne 85, 241–256. Vovin, Alexander. 2001. "Japanese, Korean, and Tungusic: evidence for genetic relationship from verbal morphology." Altaic Affinities (Proceedings of the 40th Meeting of PIAC, Provo, Utah, 1997), edited by David B. Honey and David C. Wright, 83–202. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. Vovin, Alexander. 2010. Koreo-Japonica: A Re-Evaluation of a Common Genetic Origin. University of Hawaii Press. Whitney Coolidge, Jennifer. 2005. Southern Turkmenistan in the Neolithic: A Petrographic Case Study. Oxbow Books. {{refend}} Further reading {{refbegin}} Blažek, Václav. "[http://hdl.handle.net/11222.digilib/122994 Altaic numerals]". In: Blažek, Václav. Numerals: comparative-etymological analyses of numeral systems and their implications: (Saharan, Nubian, Egyptian, Berber, Kartvelian, Uralic, Altaic and Indo-European languages). Vyd. 1. V Brně: Masarykova univerzita, 1999, pp.&nbsp;102–140. {{ISBN\|8021020709}}; * Dybo, Anna. "New trends in European studies on the Altaic problem". In: Journal of Language Relationship 14, no. 1-2 (2017): 71–106. https://doi.org/10.31826/jlr-2017-141-208 * Finch, Roger. "Gender Distinctions in Nouns and Pronouns of the Altaic Languages". Expressions of Gender in the Altaic World: Proceedings of the 56th Annual Meeting of the Permanent International Altaistic Conference (PIAC), Kocaeli, Turkey, July 7–12, 2013. Edited by Münevver Tekcan and Oliver Corff. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2021. pp. 57–84. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110748789-008 Greenberg, Joseph H. 1997. "Does Altaic exist?". In: Irén Hegedus, Peter A. Michalove, and Alexis Manaster Ramer (editors), Indo-European, Nostratic and Beyond: A Festschrift for Vitaly V. Shevoroshkin, Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of Man, 1997, 88–93. (Reprinted in Joseph H. Greenberg, Genetic Linguistics, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, 325–330.) Hahn, Reinhard F. 1994. [https://linguistlist.org/issues/5/5-908/ LINGUIST List 5.908, 18 August 1994.] Janhunen, Juha. 1995. "Prolegomena to a Comparative Analysis of Mongolic and Tungusic". Proceedings of the 38th Permanent International Altaistic Conference (PIAC), 209–218. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. Janhunen, Juha A. 2023. "The Unity and Diversity of Altaic", Annual Review of Linguistics 9:135–154 (January 2023) {{doi\|10.1146/annurev-linguistics-030521-042356}} Johanson, Lars. 1999. [http://www.turkiclanguages.com/www/Johanson1999AltaicVerb.pdf "Cognates and copies in Altaic verb derivation"]. In: Language and Literature – Japanese and the Other Altaic Languages: Studies in Honour of Roy Andrew Miller on His 75th Birthday, edited by Karl H. Menges and Nelly Naumann, 1–13. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. (Also: [https://web.archive.org/web/20061111112943/http://www.turkiclanguages.com/www/Johanson1999AltaicVerb.pdf HTML version].) Johanson, Lars. 1999. [http://www.turkiclanguages.com/www/Johanson2000.pdf "Attractiveness and relatedness: Notes on Turkic language contacts"]. Proceedings of the Twenty-Fifth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society: Special Session on Caucasian, Dravidian, and Turkic Linguistics, edited by Jeff Good and Alan C.L. Yu, 87–94. Berkeley: Berkeley Linguistics Society. Johanson, Lars. 2002. Structural Factors in Turkic Language Contacts, translated by Vanessa Karam. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press. {{Cite journal\|last1Kim\|first1Jangsuk\|last2Park\|first2Jinho\|date2020\|titleMillet vs rice: an evaluation of the farming/language dispersal hypothesis in the Korean context\|journalEvolutionary Human Sciences\|languageen\|volume2\|pagese12 \|doi10.1017/ehs.2020.13\|pmid37588344 \|pmc10427441 \|issn2513-843X\|doi-access=free}} Kortlandt, Frederik. 1993. [http://www.kortlandt.nl/publications/art125e.pdf "The origin of the Japanese and Korean accent systems"]. Acta Linguistica Hafniensia 26, 57–65. {{cite journal\|doi10.2307/411687\|jstor411687\|titleLexical Evidence Relating Korean to Japanese\|journalLanguage\|volume42\|issue2\|pages185–251\|year1966\|last1Martin\|first1Samuel E.}} {{cite book\|doi10.7208/chicago/9780226580593.001.0001\|titleLinguistic Diversity in Space and Time\|year1992\|last1Nichols\|first1Johanna\|isbn9780226580579}} Robbeets, Martine. 2004. [http://www.hmn.bun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/eurasia/newsletter/08.pdf "Belief or argument? The classification of the Japanese language."] Eurasia Newsletter 8. Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto University. Ruhlen, Merritt. 1987. ''A Guide to the World's Languages. Stanford University Press. Sinor, Denis. 1990. Essays in Comparative Altaic Linguistics''. Bloomington: Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. {{ISBN\|0-933070-26-8}}. Vovin, Alexander. 2009. "Japanese, Korean, and other 'non-Altaic' languages". In: Central Asiatic Journal 53 (1): 105–147. {{Cite journal\|last1Yurayong\|first1Chingduang\|last2Szeto\|first2Pui Yiu\|date2020-08-05\|titleAltaicization and De-Altaicization of Japonic and Koreanic\|urlhttps://brill.com/view/journals/jeal/2/1/article-p108_5.xml\|journalInternational Journal of Eurasian Linguistics\|languageen\|volume2\|issue1\|pages108–148\|doi10.1163/25898833-12340026\|s2cid225358117\|issn=2589-8833}} {{refend}} External links {{sister project \|projectwiktionary \|textWiktionary has word lists at Appendix:Altaic word lists}} {{commons category}} [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists_for_Altaic_languages Swadesh vocabulary lists for Altaic languages] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110824201448/http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists_for_Altaic_languages \|date24 August 2011 }} (from Wiktionary's [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists Swadesh-list appendix]) [http://altaica.ru Monumenta altaica] Altaic linguistics website, maintained by Ilya Gruntov [http://starling.rinet.ru/maps/maps23.php?lan=en Altaic Etymological Dictionary, database version] by Sergei A. Starostin, Anna V. Dybo, and Oleg A. Mudrak (does not include introductory chapters) [https://linguistlist.org/issues/5/5-911/ LINGUIST List 5.911] defense of Altaic by Alexis Manaster Ramer (1994) *[https://linguistlist.org/issues/5/5-926/ LINGUIST List 5.926] 1. Remarks by Alexander Vovin. 2. Clarification by J. Marshall Unger. (1994) {{Template group \|title = Articles related to Altaic languages \|list = {{Altaic languages}} {{Language families}} {{Eurasian languages}} {{Long-range comparative linguistics}} }} {{Portal bar\|Language}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Altaic Languages}} Category:Agglutinative languages Category:Central Asia Category:Eurocentrism Category:Proposed language families Category:Sprachbund	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altaic_languages	2025-04-05T18:25:23.351721
825	Austrian German	{{short description\|Variety of Standard German}} {{Distinguish\|Austro-Bavarian dialects}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=May 2020}} {{More citations needed\|date=April 2020}} {{Infobox language \| name = Austrian German (Austrian) \| altname = Austrian Standard German<br>Austrian High German \| nativename = {{lang\|de\|Österreichisches Standarddeutsch}}<br>{{lang\|de\|Österreichisches Hochdeutsch}} \| pronunciation = {{IPA\|de-AT\|ˈøːstɐraɪçɪʃəs ˈʃtandardˌdɔʏtʃ, - ˈstan-\|}}<br>{{IPA\|de\|ˈøːstɐraɪçɪʃəs ˈhoːxdɔʏtʃ\|}} \| nation \| region Austria \| ethnicity = Austrians \| speakers = ? \| familycolor = Indo-European \| fam2 = Germanic \| fam3 = West Germanic \| fam4 = High German \| fam5 = Standard German \| isoexception = dialect \| ietf = de-AT<ref>de-AT is an IETF language tag that conforms with the current specification [https://tools.ietf.org/rfc/bcp/bcp47.txt BCP 47 Language Tags] (where de-AT happens to be mentioned explicitly). It is often used, for instance in major operating systems (e.g. [https://developer.apple.com/library/ios/documentation/MacOSX/Conceptual/BPInternational/LanguageandLocaleIDs/LanguageandLocaleIDs.html], [https://www.microsoft.com/resources/msdn/goglobal/default.mspx])</ref> \| map = Languages and ethnic groups in austria3.png \| glotto = none }} Austrian German<ref name"eurotopics">{{cite web \|titleThe problems of Austrian German in Europe \|publishereuro{{!}}topics \|urlhttp://www.eurotopics.net/pl/home/presseschau/archiv/article/ARTICLE15377-The-problems-of-Austrian-German-in-Europe\|websiteeurotopics.net\|date16 March 2006 \|access-date13 May 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150518084732/http://www.eurotopics.net/pl/home/presseschau/archiv/article/ARTICLE15377-The-problems-of-Austrian-German-in-Europe \|archive-date18 May 2015 \|url-status dead}}</ref> ({{langx\|de\|Österreichisches Deutsch}}), Austrian Standard German (ASG),<ref>{{Harvcoltxt\|Russ\|1994\|pp7, 61–65, 69, 70}}</ref><ref>{{Citation \|lastSanders \|firstRuth H. \|titleGerman: Biography of a Language \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idd8YTDAAAQBAJ&pgPA197 \|pages197–198 \|year2010 \|placeNew York \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-19-538845-9}}</ref> Standard Austrian German<ref name":0">{{Citation\|lastMoosmüller\|firstSylvia\|year2007\|titleVowels in Standard Austrian German: An Acoustic-Phonetic and Phonological Analysis\|urlhttp://www.kfs.oeaw.ac.at/publications/habil_2007may28_tableofcontents_zus_final.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.kfs.oeaw.ac.at/publications/habil_2007may28_tableofcontents_zus_final.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|access-date13 May 2015}}</ref> ({{lang\|de\|Österreichisches Standarddeutsch}}), Austrian High German<ref name"eurotopics"/><ref>{{Citation\|editor-lastPerfetti\|editor-firstCharles A.\|editor2-lastRieben\|editor2-firstLaurence\|editor3-lastFayol\|editor3-firstMichel\|year1997\|titleLearning to Spell: Research, Theory, and Practice Across Languages\|publisherLawrence Erlbaum Associates\|page88\|isbn978-1-4106-0458-3}}</ref> ({{lang\|de\|Österreichisches Hochdeutsch}}), or simply just Austrian ({{lang\|de\|Österreichisch}}), is the variety of Standard German written and spoken in Austria and South Tyrol.<ref>Dollinger, Stefan. 2021. Österreichisches Deutsch oder Deutsch in Österreich? Identitäten im 21. Jahrhundert. 3rd ed. Vienna: nap, p. 14, <nowiki>https://www.nid-library.com/Home/ViewBook/512/16/view</nowiki></ref> It has the highest sociolinguistic prestige locally, as it is the variation used in the media and for other formal situations. In less formal situations, Austrians use Bavarian and Alemannic dialects, which are traditionally spoken but rarely written in Austria. It has been standardized with the publishing of the Österreichisches Wörterbuch in 1951.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastEbner \|firstJakob \|date2008 \|titleDuden: Österreichisches Deutsch \|publisherDudenverl. \|urlhttps://www.oesterreichinstitut.at/fileadmin/content/vienna/Themenschwerpunkte/ebner_duden_oesterreichisches_deutsch.pdf \|access-dateDecember 25, 2023 \|at11-13 \|isbn978-3-411-73131-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|last1Moosmüller \|first1Sylvia \|last2Soukup \|first2Barbara \|titleStandard language in Austria \|urlhttps://lanchart.hum.ku.dk/research/slice/publications-and-news-letters/publications/standard_languages/Soukup_and_Moosm_ller_-_Standard_language_in_Austria_-_p_39-46.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231225032410/https://lanchart.hum.ku.dk/research/slice/publications-and-news-letters/publications/standard_languages/Soukup_and_Moosm_ller_-_Standard_language_in_Austria_-_p_39-46.pdf \|archive-dateDecember 25, 2023 \|access-dateDecember 25, 2023}}</ref> History Austrian German has its beginning in the mid-18th century, when Empress Maria Theresa and her son Joseph II introduced compulsory schooling in 1774, and several reforms of administration in their multilingual Habsburg Empire. At the time, the written standard was Oberdeutsche Schreibsprache (Upper German written language), which was highly influenced by the Bavarian and Alemannic dialects of Austria. Another option was to create a new standard based on the Southern German dialects, as proposed by the linguist Johann Siegmund Popowitsch. Instead they decided for pragmatic reasons to adopt the already-standardized chancellery language of Saxony (Sächsische Kanzleisprache or Meißner Kanzleideutsch), which was based on the administrative language of the non-Austrian area of Meißen and Dresden. Austria High German (Hochdeutsch in Österreich, not to be confused with the Bavarian Austria German dialects) has the same geographic origin as the Swiss High German (Schweizer Hochdeutsch, not to be confused with the Alemannic Swiss German dialects). The process of introducing the new written standard was led by Joseph von Sonnenfels. Since 1951, the standardized form of Austrian German for official governmental use and in schools has been defined by the {{Lang\|de\|Österreichisches Wörterbuch}} ("Austrian Dictionary"), published originally at the behest of the Austrian Federal Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture (in the 1950s the "Unterrichtsministerium", under minister Felix Hurdes) with Verlag Jugend & Volk, then by the Österreichischer Bundesverlag.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastDollinger \|firstStefan \|urlhttps://www.nid-library.com/Home/ViewBook/512/127/view \|titleÖsterreichisches Deutsch oder Deutsch in Österreich? \|publisherNew Academic Press \|year2021 \|edition3rd \|locationVienna \|pages125–128 \|languageDE}}</ref> Standard Austrian German The German language is a plurientric language and Austrian German is one of its standardized forms. The official Austrian dictionary, {{Lang\|de\|Österreichisches Wörterbuch}}, prescribes spelling rules that define the official language.<ref name=":0" /> Austrian delegates participated in the international working group that drafted the German spelling reform of 1996 and several conferences leading up to the reform were hosted in Vienna at the invitation of the Austrian federal government. Austria adopted it as a signatory, along with Germany, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein, of an international memorandum of understanding ({{lang\|de\|Wiener Absichtserklärung\|italic=no}}) signed in Vienna in 1996. The eszett (ß) is used in Austria and Germany but not in Switzerland.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastJoyce \|firstPaul \|titleGerman Alphabet: Umlauts and 'ß' - Paul Joyce \|urlhttp://joycep.myweb.port.ac.uk/abinitio/alphabet/umlautsz.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231225033105/http://joycep.myweb.port.ac.uk/abinitio/alphabet/umlautsz.html \|archive-date2023-12-25 \|access-date2023-12-25 \|websitejoycep.myweb.port.ac.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastZui \|date2022-11-05 \|titleThe story of Eszett (ß) \|urlhttps://thelanguagecloset.com/2022/11/05/the-story-of-eszett-s/ \|access-date2023-12-25 \|websiteThe Language Closet \|languageen}}</ref> In Austria, it is usually only called "scharfes s" ("sharp s").<ref>{{Cite web \|titleDein Österreichisches Wörterbuch: ß sprich scharfes s - ß sprich sz \|urlhttps://www.oesterreichisch.net/wort/2897/ss-sprich-scharfes-s \|access-date2025-03-26 \|websiteDein Österreichisches Wörterbuch: ß sprich scharfes s - ß sprich sz \|languagede}}</ref> (instead of SS) became standard in both nations in 2017, but SS remains valid.]] Distinctions in vocabulary persist, for example, in culinary terms, for which communication with Germans is frequently difficult, and administrative and legal language because of Austria's exclusion from the development of a German nation-state in the late 19th century and its manifold particular traditions. A comprehensive collection of Austrian-German legal, administrative and economic terms is offered in Markhardt, Heidemarie: Wörterbuch der österreichischen Rechts-, Wirtschafts- und Verwaltungsterminologie (Peter Lang, 2006). Because of German's pluricentric nature, German dialects in Austria should not be confused with the variety of Standard Austrian German spoken by most Austrians, which is distinct from that of Germany or Switzerland. In the field of German dialectology, the notion of Standard Austrian German has been both debated and defended by German linguists since the 1970s. A One Standard German Axiom, effectively preventing the development of newer standards of German, has recently been offered as a characteristic of the field but remains to be discussed discipline-internally.<ref>Dollinger, S. (2024). Eberhard Kranzmayer’s dovetailing with Nazism: His fascist years and the ‘One Standard German Axiom (OSGA)’. Discourse & Society, 36(2), 147-179. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/09579265241259094</nowiki> (Original work published 2025)</ref> Former spoken standard Until 1918, the spoken standard in Austria was the {{lang\|de\|Schönbrunner Deutsch}}, a sociolect spoken by the imperial Habsburg family and the nobility of Austria-Hungary. The sociolect, a variety of Standard German, is influenced by Viennese German and other Austro-Bavarian dialects spoken in eastern Austria but is slightly nasalized.<ref>{{cite book \| last Johnston \| first William M.\| title The Austrian Mind: An Intellectual and Social History, 1848-1938 \| publisher University of California Press \| date 1972 \| pages 127 \| isbn 9780520049550 \| url https://books.google.com/books?id-dmH7FjxassC}}</ref><ref>{{Citation \| last Rennison \| first J.R. \| contribution Austria: Language Situation \| year 2005 \| title Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics \| editor-last Brown \| editor-first Keith \| publisher Elsevier Science\| isbn 9780080547848}}</ref>{{refn\|groupnote\|1 Some examples of {{lang\|de\|Schönbrunner Deutsch}}: * Otto von Habsburg (2004), former crown prince: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GEIHAl01GP4 Quo vadis Integration lecture] * Emperor Charles I of Austria (1916–1918): [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jMU9FFzez1A Recording] (1.5 min) * Emperor Franz Joseph (1848–1916): [https://www.youtube.com/watch?vjecUwMPk8pE Speech for a military fund] (30 sec)}}Special written forms For many years, Austria had a special form of the language for official government documents that is known as {{lang\|de\|Österreichische Kanzleisprache}}, or "Austrian chancellery language". It is a very traditional form of the language, probably derived from medieval deeds and documents, and has a very complex structure and vocabulary generally reserved for such documents. For most speakers (even native speakers), this form of the language is generally difficult to understand, as it contains many highly specialised terms for diplomatic, internal, official, and military matters. There are no regional variations because the special written form has been used mainly by a government that has now for centuries been based in Vienna. {{lang\|de\|Österreichische Kanzleisprache}} is now used less and less because of various administrative reforms that reduced the number of traditional civil servants ({{lang\|de\|Beamte}}). As a result, Standard Austrian German is replacing it in government and administrative texts. European Union When Austria became a member of the European Union on 1 January 1995, 23 food-related terms were listed in its accession agreement as having the same legal status as the equivalent terms used in Germany,<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uriOJ:C:1994:241:TOC \|titleDocuments concerning the accession of the Republic of Austria, the Kingdom of Sweden, the Republic of Finland and the Kingdom of Norway to the European Union \|access-date 24 October 2015 \|date29 August 1994 \|work European Commission \|page370 \|quote The specific Austrian terms of the German language contained in the Austrian legal order and listed in the Annex [Protocol No. 10] to this Protocol shall have the same status and may be used with the same legal effect as the corresponding terms used in Germany listed in that Annex.}}</ref> for example, the words for "potato", "tomato", and "Brussels sprouts".{{refn\|groupnote\|The 23 food terms of {{lang\|de\|Protokoll Nr. 10}} is quoted in this article:<ref>{{cite journal \|lastGröller \|firstHarald \|titleDeutsch oder Österreichisch - Ein kurzer Überblick über die österreichische Sprachpolitik \|journalInternet-Zeitschrift für Kulturwissenschaften \|date2006 \|volume16 \|urlhttp://www.inst.at/trans/16Nr/07_3/groeller16.htm \|language=de}}</ref>}} (Examples in "Vocabulary") Austrian German is the only variety of a pluricentric language recognized under international law or EU primary law.<ref>Markhardt's Das österreichische Deutsch im Rahmen der EU, Peter Lang, 2005.</ref> The focus on food-related vocabulary in "Protocol 23" is owed to trade requirements and therefore utterly accidental.<ref>De Cillia, Rudolf. 1998. "Burenwurst bleibt Burenwurst": Sprachpolitik und Gesellschaftliche Mehrsprachigkeit in Österreich. Klagenfurt: Drava.</ref> Grammar Verbs In Austria, as in the German-speaking parts of Switzerland and in southern Germany, verbs that express a state tend to use {{lang\|de\|sein}} as the auxiliary verb in the perfect, as well as verbs of movement. Verbs which fall into this category include {{Lang\|de\|sitzen\|italicyes}} (to sit), {{Lang\|de\|liegen\|italicyes}} (to lie) and, in parts of Styria and Carinthia, {{Lang\|de\|schlafen\|italicyes}} (to sleep). Therefore, the perfect of these verbs would be {{Lang\|de\|ich bin gesessen\|italicyes}}, {{Lang\|de\|ich bin gelegen\|italicyes}} and {{Lang\|de\|ich bin geschlafen\|italicyes}}, respectively. In Germany, the words {{Lang\|de\|stehen}} (to stand) and {{Lang\|de\|gestehen}} (to confess) are identical in the present perfect: {{Lang\|de\|habe gestanden}}. The Austrian variant avoids that potential ambiguity ({{Lang\|de\|bin gestanden}} from {{Lang\|de\|stehen}}, "to stand"; and {{Lang\|de\|habe gestanden}} from {{Lang\|de\|gestehen}}, "to confess": {{Lang\|de\|"der Verbrecher ist vor dem Richter gestanden und hat gestanden"}}). In addition, the preterite (simple past) is very rarely used in Austria, especially in the spoken language, with the exception of some modal verbs ({{Lang\|de\|ich sollte}}, {{Lang\|de\|ich wollte}}). Vocabulary There are many official terms that differ in Austrian German from their usage in most parts of Germany. Words used in Austria are {{Lang\|de\|Jänner}} (January) rather than {{Lang\|de\|Januar}},<ref>{{Cite web \|lastDollinger \|firstStefan \|date2021 \|titleÖsterreichisches Deutsch oder Deutsch in Österreich? {{!}} NID - NetInteractive Documents \|urlhttps://www.nid-library.com/Home/ViewBook/512/15/view \|access-date2025-03-26 \|website\|pages13 \|quoteUnd 'Jänner' ist hierzulande viel gebräuchlicher als das steife 'Januar'.}}</ref> {{Lang\|de\|Feber}} (more rare than Jänner) in variation with {{Lang\|de\|Februar}}, {{Lang\|de\|heuer}} (this year) along with {{Lang\|de\|dieses Jahr}}, {{Lang\|de\|Stiege}} (stairs) along with {{Lang\|de\|Treppen}}, {{Lang\|de\|Rauchfang}} (chimney) instead of {{Lang\|de\|Schornstein}}, many administrative, legal and political terms, and many food terms, including the following:<ref>Otto Back, Erich Benedikt, Karl Blüml, et al.: Österreichisches Wörterbuch (neue Rechtschreibung). Herausgegeben im Auftrag des Bundesministeriums für Unterricht, Kunst und Kultur. Auf der Grundlage des amtlichen Regelwerks. 41. circulation, Österreichischer Bundesverlag, Wien 2009, {{ISBN\|978-3-209-06875-0}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/35613261\|title Austriazismen in der mitteleuropäischen Küche\|journal Intra- und Interlinguale Zugänge zum Kulinarischen Diskurs I\|last1 Tölgyesi\|first1 Tamás\| date=January 2017 }}</ref> {{anchor\|Vocab difference}} {\| class="wikitable sortable" !Austrian Standard German !Standard German !English \|- \|Brandteigkrapferl \|Windbeutel \|Cream puff \|- \|\|Eierspeise \|\| Rühreier\|\| Scrambled eggs \|- \|\|Erdapfel (also Bavarian and Southern German) \| Kartoffel \|\| Potato \|- \|\|Faschiertes \|\| Hackfleisch \|\| Minced meat/Ground beef \|- \|\|Fisolen \|\| Gartenbohnen <br>or Grüne Bohnen \|\| Common beans /green beans \|- \|\|Karfiol (also Bavarian and Southern German) \| Blumenkohl \|\| Cauliflower \|- \|\|Kohlsprossen \|\| Rosenkohl \|\| Brussel sprouts \|- \|\|Kren (also Bavarian and Southern German) \| Meerrettich \|\| Horseradish \|- \|Kukuruz (southeastern and western Austria) \|Mais \| Maize/corn \|- \|\|Marille \|\| Aprikose \|\| Apricot \|- \|Melange \|Milchkaffee \|Milk heavy coffee drink \|- \|Melanzani \|Aubergine \|Aubergine/eggplant \|- \|\|Palatschinke \|\| Pfannkuchen \|\| Pancake \|- \|\|Paradeiser <br>(Vienna, Eastern Austria)\|\|Tomate\|\| Tomato \|- \|Pfefferoni \|Peperoni or Chili \|Chili pepper \|- \|\|Rote Rübe \|\| Rote Bete \|\| Beetroot \|- \|\|Sauce Tartare \|\| Remoulade \|\| Tartar Sauce \|- \|\|Schlagobers \|\| Schlagsahne \|\| Whipped cream \|- \|Stanitzel \|Eiswaffel \|Ice cream cone \|- \|Staubzucker \|Puderzucker \|Icing sugar/powdered sugar \|- \|\|Topfen (also Bavarian) \|\| Quark \|\| Quark, a semi-sweet cottage cheese \|- \|Weckerl (also Bavarian) \|Brötchen \|Roll (bread) \|} There are, however, some false friends between the two regional varieties: {{Lang\|de\|Kasten}} (wardrobe) along with or instead of {{Lang\|de\|Schrank}} (and, similarly, {{Lang\|de\|Eiskasten}} along with {{Lang\|de\|Kühlschrank}}, fridge), as opposed to {{Lang\|de\|Kiste}} (box) instead of {{Lang\|de\|Kasten}}. {{Lang\|de\|Kiste}} in Germany means both "box" and "chest". {{Lang\|de\|Sessel}} (chair) instead of {{Lang\|de\|Stuhl}}. {{Lang\|de\|Sessel}} means "{{linktext\|easy chair}}" in Germany and {{Lang\|de\|Stuhl}} means "stool (faeces)" in both varieties. Dialects Classification Dialects of the Austro-Bavarian group, which also comprises dialects from Bavaria Central Austro-Bavarian (along the main rivers Isar and Danube, spoken in the northern parts of the State of Salzburg, Upper Austria, Lower Austria, and northern Burgenland) Viennese German Southern Austro-Bavarian (in Tyrol, South Tyrol, Carinthia, Styria, and the southern parts of Salzburg and Burgenland) Vorarlbergerisch, spoken in Vorarlberg, is a High Alemannic dialect. Regional accents In addition to the standard variety, in everyday life most Austrians speak one of a number of Upper German dialects. While strong forms of the various dialects are not fully mutually intelligible to northern Germans, communication is much easier in Bavaria, especially rural areas, where the Bavarian dialect still predominates as the mother tongue. The Central Austro-Bavarian dialects are more intelligible to speakers of Standard German than the Southern Austro-Bavarian dialects of Tyrol. Viennese, the Austro-Bavarian dialect of Vienna, is seen for many in Germany as quintessentially Austrian. The people of Graz, the capital of Styria, speak yet another dialect which is not very Styrian and more easily understood by people from other parts of Austria than other Styrian dialects, for example from western Styria. Simple words in the various dialects are very similar, but pronunciation is distinct for each and, after listening to a few spoken words, it may be possible for an Austrian to realise which dialect is being spoken. However, in regard to the dialects of the deeper valleys of the Tyrol, other Tyroleans are often unable to understand them. Speakers from the different provinces of Austria can easily be distinguished from each other by their particular accents (probably more so than Bavarians), those of Carinthia, Styria, Vienna, Upper Austria, and the Tyrol being very characteristic. Speakers from those regions, even those speaking Standard German, can usually be easily identified by their accent, even by an untrained listener. Several of the dialects have been influenced by contact with non-Germanic linguistic groups, such as the dialect of Carinthia, where, in the past, many speakers were bilingual (and, in the southeastern portions of the state, many still are even today) with Slovene, and the dialect of Vienna, which has been influenced by immigration during the Austro-Hungarian period, particularly from what is today the Czech Republic. The German dialects of South Tyrol have been influenced by local Romance languages, particularly noticeable with the many loanwords from Italian and Ladin. The geographic borderlines between the different accents (isoglosses) coincide strongly with the borders of the states and also with the border with Bavaria, with Bavarians having a markedly different rhythm of speech in spite of the linguistic similarities. References Notes {{reflist\|groupnote}}Citations{{Reflist}}Works cited{{Citation\|lastRuss\|firstCharles\|year1994\|titleThe German Language Today: A Linguistic Introduction\|publisherRoutledge\|placeLondon\|isbn978-0-203-42577-0}} Further reading * Ammon, Ulrich: Die deutsche Sprache in Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz: Das Problem der nationalen Varietäten. de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 1995. * Ammon, Ulrich / Hans Bickel, Jakob Ebner u.&nbsp;a.: Variantenwörterbuch des Deutschen. Die Standardsprache in Österreich, der Schweiz und Deutschland sowie in Liechtenstein, Luxemburg, Ostbelgien und Südtirol. Berlin/New York 2004, {{ISBN\|3-11-016574-0}}. * Dollinger, Stefan: Österreichisches Deutsch oder Deutsch in Österreich? Identitäten im 21. Jahrhundert. New Academic Press, 2021. Available online, 3rd ed.:https://www.nid-library.com/Home/BookDetail/512 {{ISBN\|978-3-99036-023-1}} * Grzega, Joachim: „Deutschländisch und Österreichisches Deutsch: Mehr Unterschiede als nur in Wortschatz und Aussprache.“ In: Joachim Grzega: Sprachwissenschaft ohne Fachchinesisch. Shaker, Aachen 2001, S. 7–26. {{ISBN\|3-8265-8826-6}}. * Grzega, Joachim: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928223322/http://www.linguistik-online.com/3_00/grzega.html "On the Description of National Varieties: Examples from (German and Austrian) German and (English and American) English".] In: Linguistik Online 7 (2000). * Grzega, Joachim: "Nonchalance als Merkmal des Österreichischen Deutsch". In: Muttersprache 113 (2003): 242–254. * Muhr, Rudolf / Schrodt, Richard: Österreichisches Deutsch und andere nationale Varietäten plurizentrischer Sprachen in Europa. Wien, 1997 * {{cite book\|last1Krech\|first1Eva Maria\|last2Stock\|first2Eberhard\|last3Hirschfeld\|first3Ursula\|last4Anders\|first4Lutz-Christian\|year2009\|titleDeutsches Aussprachewörterbuch\|chapterDie Standardaussprache in Österreich\|locationBerlin, New York\|publisherWalter de Gruyter\|isbn978-3-11-018202-6\|ref=none}} * Muhr, Rudolf/Schrodt, Richard/Wiesinger, Peter (eds.): Österreichisches Deutsch: Linguistische, sozialpsychologische und sprachpolitische Aspekte einer nationalen Variante des Deutschen. Wien, 1995. * Pohl, Heinz Dieter: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070608103554/http://members.chello.at/heinz.pohl/Identitaet_Sprache.htm „Österreichische Identität und österreichisches Deutsch“] aus dem „Kärntner Jahrbuch für Politik 1999“ * Wiesinger, Peter: Die deutsche Sprache in Österreich. Eine Einführung, In: Wiesinger (Hg.): Das österreichische Deutsch. Schriften zur deutschen Sprache. Band 12. (Wien, Köln, Graz, 1988, Verlag, Böhlau) External links [http://www.ostarrichi.org/ Austrian German – German Dictionary] [https://www.volkswoerterbuch.at/ Das Österreichische Volkswörterbuch] {{Languages of Austria}} {{Authority control}} Category:Bavarian language Category:German dialects German Category:National varieties of German	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_German	2025-04-05T18:25:23.400359
840	Axiom of choice	thumb\|250px\|Illustration of the axiom of choice, with each set Si represented as a jar and its elements represented as marbles. Each element xi is represented as a marble on the right. Colors are used to suggest a functional association of marbles after adopting the choice axiom. The existence of such a choice function is in general independent of ZF for collections of infinite cardinality, even if all Si are finite. thumb\|250px\|(Si) is an infinite indexed family of sets indexed over the real numbers R; that is, there is a set Si for each real number i, with a small sample shown above. Each set contains at least one, and possibly infinitely many, elements. The axiom of choice allows us to select a single element from each set, forming a corresponding family of elements (xi) also indexed over the real numbers, with xi drawn from Si. In general, the collections may be indexed over any set I, (called index set whose elements are used as indices for elements in a set) not just R. In mathematics, the axiom of choice, abbreviated AC or AoC, is an axiom of set theory equivalent to the statement that a Cartesian product of a collection of non-empty sets is non-empty. Informally put, the axiom of choice says that given any collection of sets, each containing at least one element, it is possible to construct a new set by choosing one element from each set, even if the collection is infinite. Formally, it states that for every indexed family (S_i)_{i \in I} of nonempty sets, there exists an indexed set (x_i)_{i \in I} such that x_i \in S_i for every i \in I. The axiom of choice was formulated in 1904 by Ernst Zermelo in order to formalize his proof of the well-ordering theorem. The axiom of choice is equivalent to the statement that every partition has a transversal. In many cases, a set created by choosing elements can be made without invoking the axiom of choice, particularly if the number of sets from which to choose the elements is finite, or if a canonical rule on how to choose the elements is available — some distinguishing property that happens to hold for exactly one element in each set. An illustrative example is sets picked from the natural numbers. From such sets, one may always select the smallest number, e.g. given the sets {{4, 5, 6}, {10, 12}, {1, 400, 617, 8000}}, the set containing each smallest element is {4, 10, 1}. In this case, "select the smallest number" is a choice function. Even if infinitely many sets are collected from the natural numbers, it will always be possible to choose the smallest element from each set to produce a set. That is, the choice function provides the set of chosen elements. But no definite choice function is known for the collection of all non-empty subsets of the real numbers. In that case, the axiom of choice must be invoked. Bertrand Russell coined an analogy: for any (even infinite) collection of pairs of shoes, one can pick out the left shoe from each pair to obtain an appropriate collection (i.e. set) of shoes; this makes it possible to define a choice function directly. For an infinite collection of pairs of socks (assumed to have no distinguishing features such as being a left sock rather than a right sock), there is no obvious way to make a function that forms a set out of selecting one sock from each pair without invoking the axiom of choice. Although originally controversial, the axiom of choice is now used without reservation by most mathematicians, and is included in the standard form of axiomatic set theory, Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with the axiom of choice (ZFC). One motivation for this is that a number of generally accepted mathematical results, such as Tychonoff's theorem, require the axiom of choice for their proofs. Contemporary set theorists also study axioms that are not compatible with the axiom of choice, such as the axiom of determinacy. The axiom of choice is avoided in some varieties of constructive mathematics, although there are varieties of constructive mathematics in which the axiom of choice is embraced. Statement A choice function (also called selector or selection) is a function f, defined on a collection X of nonempty sets, such that for every set A in X, f(A) is an element of A. With this concept, the axiom can be stated: Formally, this may be expressed as follows: \forall X \left[ \varnothing \notin X \implies \exists f \colon X \rightarrow \bigcup_{A\in X} A \quad \forall A \in X \, ( f(A) \in A ) \right] \,. Thus, the negation of the axiom may be expressed as the existence of a collection of nonempty sets which has no choice function. Formally, this may be derived making use of the logical equivalence of \neg \forall X \left[ P(X)\to Q(X) \right] \quad \iff \quad \exists X \left[ P(X)\land \neg Q(X) \right]. Each choice function on a collection X of nonempty sets is an element of the Cartesian product of the sets in X. This is not the most general situation of a Cartesian product of a family of sets, where a given set can occur more than once as a factor; however, one can focus on elements of such a product that select the same element every time a given set appears as factor, and such elements correspond to an element of the Cartesian product of all distinct sets in the family. The axiom of choice asserts the existence of such elements; it is therefore equivalent to: Given any family of nonempty sets, their Cartesian product is a nonempty set. Nomenclature In this article and other discussions of the Axiom of Choice the following abbreviations are common: AC – the Axiom of Choice. More rarely, AoC is used. ZF – Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory omitting the Axiom of Choice. ZFC – Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, extended to include the Axiom of Choice. Variants There are many other equivalent statements of the axiom of choice. These are equivalent in the sense that, in the presence of other basic axioms of set theory, they imply the axiom of choice and are implied by it. One variation avoids the use of choice functions by, in effect, replacing each choice function with its range: Given any set X, if the empty set is not an element of X and the elements of X are pairwise disjoint, then there exists a set C such that its intersection with any of the elements of X contains exactly one element. This can be formalized in first-order logic as: \begin{align} \forall x (& \\ &\exists e (e \in x \and \lnot\exists y (y \in e)) \or \\ &\exists a \, \exists b \, \exists c \, (a \in x \and b \in x \and c \in a \and c \in b \and \lnot(a = b)) \or \\ &\exists c \, \forall e \, (e \in x \implies \exists a \, (a \in e \and a \in c \and \forall b \, ((b \in e \and b \in c) \implies a = b)))) \end{align} Note that P \or Q \or R is logically equivalent to (\lnot P \and \lnot Q) \implies R. In English, this first-order sentence reads: Given any set X, X contains the empty set as an element or the elements of X are not pairwise disjoint or there exists a set X such that its intersection with any of the elements of X contains exactly one element. This guarantees for any partition of a set X the existence of a subset C of X containing exactly one element from each part of the partition. Another equivalent axiom only considers collections X that are essentially powersets of other sets: For any set A, the power set of A (with the empty set removed) has a choice function. Authors who use this formulation often speak of the choice function on A, but this is a slightly different notion of choice function. Its domain is the power set of A (with the empty set removed), and so makes sense for any set A, whereas with the definition used elsewhere in this article, the domain of a choice function on a collection of sets is that collection, and so only makes sense for sets of sets. With this alternate notion of choice function, the axiom of choice can be compactly stated as Every set has a choice function. which is equivalent to For any set A there is a function f:\mathcal P(A)\setminus\{ \emptyset \} \to A such that for any non-empty subset B of A, f(B) lies in B. The negation of the axiom can thus be expressed as: There is a set A such that for all functions f (on the set of non-empty subsets of A), there is a subset B such that f(B) does not lie in B. Restriction to finite sets The usual statement of the axiom of choice does not specify whether the collection of nonempty sets is finite or infinite, and thus implies that every finite collection of nonempty sets has a choice function. However, that particular case is a theorem of the Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory without the axiom of choice (ZF); it is easily proved by the principle of finite induction. In the even simpler case of a collection of one set, a choice function just corresponds to an element, so this instance of the axiom of choice says that every nonempty set has an element; this holds trivially. The axiom of choice can be seen as asserting the generalization of this property, already evident for finite collections, to arbitrary collections. Usage Until the late 19th century, the axiom of choice was often used implicitly, although it had not yet been formally stated. For example, after having established that the set X contains only non-empty sets, a mathematician might have said "let F(s) be one of the members of s for all s in X" to define a function F. In general, it is impossible to prove that F exists without the axiom of choice, but this seems to have gone unnoticed until Zermelo. i : i∈ω) of nonempty sets, a function is obtained at each finite stage, but there is no stage at which a choice function for the entire family is constructed, and no "limiting" choice function can be constructed, in general (within ZF). Countable transfinite induction (a.k.a. the axiom of dependent choice) essentially guarantees the existence of such a "limiting" choice function, and thus implies the axiom of countable choice. It is however weaker than the full axiom of choice.--> Examples The nature of the individual nonempty sets in the collection may make it possible to avoid the axiom of choice even for certain infinite collections. For example, suppose that each member of the collection X is a nonempty subset of the natural numbers. Every such subset has a smallest element, so to specify our choice function we can simply say that it maps each set to the least element of that set. This gives us a definite choice of an element from each set, and makes it unnecessary to add the axiom of choice to our axioms of set theory. The difficulty appears when there is no natural choice of elements from each set. If we cannot make explicit choices, how do we know that our selection forms a legitimate set (as defined by the other ZF axioms of set theory)? For example, suppose that X is the set of all non-empty subsets of the real numbers. First we might try to proceed as if X were finite. If we try to choose an element from each set, then, because X is infinite, our choice procedure will never come to an end, and consequently we shall never be able to produce a choice function for all of X. Next we might try specifying the least element from each set. But some subsets of the real numbers do not have least elements. For example, the open interval (0,1) does not have a least element: if x is in (0,1), then so is x/2, and x/2 is always strictly smaller than x. So this attempt also fails. Additionally, consider for instance the unit circle S, and the action on S by a group G consisting of all rational rotations, that is, rotations by angles which are rational multiples of π. Here G is countable while S is uncountable. Hence S breaks up into uncountably many orbits under G. Using the axiom of choice, we could pick a single point from each orbit, obtaining an uncountable subset X of S with the property that all of its translates by G are disjoint from X. The set of those translates partitions the circle into a countable collection of pairwise disjoint sets, which are all pairwise congruent. Since X is not measurable for any rotation-invariant countably additive finite measure on S, finding an algorithm to form a set from selecting a point in each orbit requires that one add the axiom of choice to our axioms of set theory. See non-measurable set for more details. In classical arithmetic, the natural numbers are well-ordered: for every nonempty subset of the natural numbers, there is a unique least element under the natural ordering. In this way, one may specify a set from any given subset. One might say, "Even though the usual ordering of the real numbers does not work, it may be possible to find a different ordering of the real numbers which is a well-ordering. Then our choice function can choose the least element of every set under our unusual ordering." The problem then becomes that of constructing a well-ordering, which turns out to require the axiom of choice for its existence; every set can be well-ordered if and only if the axiom of choice holds. Criticism and acceptance A proof requiring the axiom of choice may establish the existence of an object without explicitly defining the object in the language of set theory. For example, while the axiom of choice implies that there is a well-ordering of the real numbers, there are models of set theory with the axiom of choice in which no individual well-ordering of the reals is definable. Similarly, although a subset of the real numbers that is not Lebesgue measurable can be proved to exist using the axiom of choice, it is consistent that no such set is definable. The axiom of choice asserts the existence of these intangibles (objects that are proved to exist, but which cannot be explicitly constructed), which may conflict with some philosophical principles. Because there is no canonical well-ordering of all sets, a construction that relies on a well-ordering may not produce a canonical result, even if a canonical result is desired (as is often the case in category theory). This has been used as an argument against the use of the axiom of choice. Another argument against the axiom of choice is that it implies the existence of objects that may seem counterintuitive. One example is the Banach–Tarski paradox, which says that it is possible to decompose the 3-dimensional solid unit ball into finitely many pieces and, using only rotations and translations, reassemble the pieces into two solid balls each with the same volume as the original. The pieces in this decomposition, constructed using the axiom of choice, are non-measurable sets. Despite these seemingly paradoxical results, most mathematicians accept the axiom of choice as a valid principle for proving new results in mathematics. But the debate is interesting enough that it is considered notable when a theorem in ZFC (ZF plus AC) is logically equivalent (with just the ZF axioms) to the axiom of choice, and mathematicians look for results that require the axiom of choice to be false, though this type of deduction is less common than the type that requires the axiom of choice to be true. Theorems of ZF hold true in any model of that theory, regardless of the truth or falsity of the axiom of choice in that particular model. The implications of choice below, including weaker versions of the axiom itself, are listed because they are not theorems of ZF. The Banach–Tarski paradox, for example, is neither provable nor disprovable from ZF alone: it is impossible to construct the required decomposition of the unit ball in ZF, but also impossible to prove there is no such decomposition. Such statements can be rephrased as conditional statements—for example, "If AC holds, then the decomposition in the Banach–Tarski paradox exists." Such conditional statements are provable in ZF when the original statements are provable from ZF and the axiom of choice. In constructive mathematics As discussed above, in the classical theory of ZFC, the axiom of choice enables nonconstructive proofs in which the existence of a type of object is proved without an explicit instance being constructed. In fact, in set theory and topos theory, Diaconescu's theorem shows that the axiom of choice implies the law of excluded middle. The principle is thus not available in constructive set theory, where non-classical logic is employed. The situation is different when the principle is formulated in Martin-Löf type theory. There and higher-order Heyting arithmetic, the appropriate statement of the axiom of choice is (depending on approach) included as an axiom or provable as a theorem. A cause for this difference is that the axiom of choice in type theory does not have the extensionality properties that the axiom of choice in constructive set theory does. The type theoretical context is discussed further below. Different choice principles have been thoroughly studied in the constructive contexts and the principles' status varies between different school and varieties of the constructive mathematics. Some results in constructive set theory use the axiom of countable choice or the axiom of dependent choice, which do not imply the law of the excluded middle. Errett Bishop, who is notable for developing a framework for constructive analysis, argued that an axiom of choice was constructively acceptable, saying Although the axiom of countable choice in particular is commonly used in constructive mathematics, its use has also been questioned. Independence It has been known since as early as 1922 that the axiom of choice may fail in a variant of ZF with urelements, through the technique of permutation models introduced by Abraham Fraenkel and developed further by Andrzej Mostowski. The basic technique can be illustrated as follows: Let xn and yn be distinct urelements for , and build a model where each set is symmetric under the interchange xn ↔ yn for all but a finite number of n. Then the set can be in the model but sets such as cannot, and thus X cannot have a choice function. In 1938, Kurt Gödel showed that the negation of the axiom of choice is not a theorem of ZF by constructing an inner model (the constructible universe) that satisfies ZFC, thus showing that ZFC is consistent if ZF itself is consistent. In 1963, Paul Cohen employed the technique of forcing, developed for this purpose, to show that, assuming ZF is consistent, the axiom of choice itself is not a theorem of ZF. He did this by constructing a much more complex model that satisfies ZF¬C (ZF with the negation of AC added as axiom) and thus showing that ZF¬C is consistent. Cohen's model is a symmetric model, which is similar to permutation models, but uses "generic" subsets of the natural numbers (justified by forcing) in place of urelements. Together these results establish that the axiom of choice is logically independent of ZF. The assumption that ZF is consistent is harmless because adding another axiom to an already inconsistent system cannot make the situation worse. Because of independence, the decision whether to use the axiom of choice (or its negation) in a proof cannot be made by appeal to other axioms of set theory. It must be made on other grounds. One argument in favor of using the axiom of choice is that it is convenient because it allows one to prove some simplifying propositions that otherwise could not be proved. Many theorems provable using choice are of an elegant general character: the cardinalities of any two sets are comparable, every nontrivial ring with unity has a maximal ideal, every vector space has a basis, every connected graph has a spanning tree, and every product of compact spaces is compact, among many others. Frequently, the axiom of choice allows generalizing a theorem to "larger" objects. For example, it is provable without the axiom of choice that every vector space of finite dimension has a basis, but the generalization to all vector spaces requires the axiom of choice. Likewise, a finite product of compact spaces can be proven to be compact without the axiom of choice, but the generalization to infinite products (Tychonoff's theorem) requires the axiom of choice. The proof of the independence result also shows that a wide class of mathematical statements, including all statements that can be phrased in the language of Peano arithmetic, are provable in ZF if and only if they are provable in ZFC. Statements in this class include the statement that P = NP, the Riemann hypothesis, and many other unsolved mathematical problems. When attempting to solve problems in this class, it makes no difference whether ZF or ZFC is employed if the only question is the existence of a proof. It is possible, however, that there is a shorter proof of a theorem from ZFC than from ZF. The axiom of choice is not the only significant statement that is independent of ZF. For example, the generalized continuum hypothesis (GCH) is not only independent of ZF, but also independent of ZFC. However, ZF plus GCH implies AC, making GCH a strictly stronger claim than AC, even though they are both independent of ZF. Stronger axioms The axiom of constructibility and the generalized continuum hypothesis each imply the axiom of choice and so are strictly stronger than it. In class theories such as Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory and Morse–Kelley set theory, there is an axiom called the axiom of global choice that is stronger than the axiom of choice for sets because it also applies to proper classes. The axiom of global choice follows from the axiom of limitation of size. Tarski's axiom, which is used in Tarski–Grothendieck set theory and states (in the vernacular) that every set belongs to Grothendieck universe, is stronger than the axiom of choice. Equivalents There are important statements that, assuming the axioms of ZF but neither AC nor ¬AC, are equivalent to the axiom of choice. The most important among them are Zorn's lemma and the well-ordering theorem. In fact, Zermelo initially introduced the axiom of choice in order to formalize his proof of the well-ordering theorem. Set theory Tarski's theorem about choice: For every infinite set A, there is a bijective map between the sets A and A×A. Trichotomy: If two sets are given, then either they have the same cardinality, or one has a smaller cardinality than the other. Given two non-empty sets, one has a surjection to the other. Every surjective function has a right inverse. The Cartesian product of any family of nonempty sets is nonempty. In other words, every family of nonempty sets has a choice function (i.e. a function which maps each of the nonempty sets to one of its elements). König's theorem: Colloquially, the sum of a sequence of cardinals is strictly less than the product of a sequence of larger cardinals. (The reason for the term "colloquially" is that the sum or product of a "sequence" of cardinals cannot itself be defined without some aspect of the axiom of choice.) Well-ordering theorem: Every set can be well-ordered. Consequently, every cardinal has an initial ordinal. Zorn's lemma: Every non-empty partially ordered set in which every chain (i.e., totally ordered subset) has an upper bound contains at least one maximal element. Hausdorff maximal principle: Every partially ordered set has a maximal chain. Equivalently, in any partially ordered set, every chain can be extended to a maximal chain. Tukey's lemma: Every non-empty collection of finite character has a maximal element with respect to inclusion. Antichain principle: Every partially ordered set has a maximal antichain. Equivalently, in any partially ordered set, every antichain can be extended to a maximal antichain. The powerset of any ordinal can be well-ordered. Abstract algebra Every vector space has a basis (i.e., a linearly independent spanning subset). In other words, vector spaces are equivalent to free modules. Krull's theorem: Every unital ring (other than the trivial ring) contains a maximal ideal. Equivalently, in any nontrivial unital ring, every ideal can be extended to a maximal ideal. For every non-empty set S there is a binary operation defined on S that gives it a group structure. (A cancellative binary operation is enough, see group structure and the axiom of choice.) Every free abelian group is projective. Baer's criterion: Every divisible abelian group is injective. Functional analysis The closed unit ball of the dual of a normed vector space over the reals has an extreme point. Point-set topology The Cartesian product of any family of connected topological spaces is connected. Tychonoff's theorem: The Cartesian product of any family of compact topological spaces is compact. In the product topology, the closure of a product of subsets is equal to the product of the closures. Mathematical logic If S is a set of sentences of first-order logic and B is a consistent subset of S, then B is included in a set that is maximal among consistent subsets of S. The special case where S is the set of all first-order sentences in a given signature is weaker, equivalent to the Boolean prime ideal theorem; see the section "Weaker forms" below. Lowenheim-Skolem theorem: If first-order theory has infinite model, then it has infinite model of every possible cardinality greater than cardinality of language of this theory. Graph theory Every connected graph has a spanning tree. Equivalently, every nonempty graph has a spanning forest. Category theory Several results in category theory invoke the axiom of choice for their proof. These results might be weaker than, equivalent to, or stronger than the axiom of choice, depending on the strength of the technical foundations. For example, if one defines categories in terms of sets, that is, as sets of objects and morphisms (usually called a small category), then there is no category of all sets, and so it is difficult for a category-theoretic formulation to apply to all sets. On the other hand, other foundational descriptions of category theory are considerably stronger, and an identical category-theoretic statement of choice may be stronger than the standard formulation, à la class theory, mentioned above. Examples of category-theoretic statements which require choice include: Every small category has a skeleton. If two small categories are weakly equivalent, then they are equivalent. Every continuous functor on a small-complete category which satisfies the appropriate solution set condition has a left-adjoint (the Freyd adjoint functor theorem). Weaker forms There are several weaker statements that are not equivalent to the axiom of choice but are closely related. One example is the axiom of dependent choice (DC). A still weaker example is the axiom of countable choice (ACω or CC), which states that a choice function exists for any countable set of nonempty sets. These axioms are sufficient for many proofs in elementary mathematical analysis, and are consistent with some principles, such as the Lebesgue measurability of all sets of reals, that are disprovable from the full axiom of choice. Given an ordinal parameter α ≥ ω+2 — for every set S with rank less than α, S is well-orderable. Given an ordinal parameter α ≥ 1 — for every set S with Hartogs number less than ωα, S is well-orderable. As the ordinal parameter is increased, these approximate the full axiom of choice more and more closely. Other choice axioms weaker than axiom of choice include the Boolean prime ideal theorem and the axiom of uniformization. The former is equivalent in ZF to Tarski's 1930 ultrafilter lemma: every filter is a subset of some ultrafilter. Results requiring AC (or weaker forms) but weaker than it One of the most interesting aspects of the axiom of choice is the large number of places in mathematics where it shows up. Here are some statements that require the axiom of choice in the sense that they are not provable from ZF but are provable from ZFC (ZF plus AC). Equivalently, these statements are true in all models of ZFC but false in some models of ZF. Set theory The ultrafilter lemma (with ZF) can be used to prove the Axiom of choice for finite sets: Given I \neq \varnothing and a collection \left(X_i\right)_{i \in I} of non-empty sets, their product \prod_{i \in I} X_{i} is not empty. The union of any countable family of countable sets is countable (this requires countable choice but not the full axiom of choice). If the set A is infinite, then there exists an injection from the natural numbers N to A (see Dedekind infinite). Eight definitions of a finite set are equivalent. Every infinite game G_S in which S is a Borel subset of Baire space is determined. Every infinite cardinal κ satisfies 2×κ = κ. Measure theory The Vitali theorem on the existence of non-measurable sets, which states that there exists a subset of the real numbers that is not Lebesgue measurable. There exist Lebesgue-measurable subsets of the real numbers that are not Borel sets. That is, the Borel σ-algebra on the real numbers (which is generated by all real intervals) is strictly included the Lebesgue-measure σ-algebra on the real numbers. The Hausdorff paradox. The Banach–Tarski paradox. Algebra Every field has an algebraic closure. Every field extension has a transcendence basis. Every infinite-dimensional vector space contains an infinite linearly independent subset (this requires dependent choice, but not the full axiom of choice). Stone's representation theorem for Boolean algebras needs the Boolean prime ideal theorem. The Nielsen–Schreier theorem, that every subgroup of a free group is free. The additive groups of R and C are isomorphic. Functional analysis The Hahn–Banach theorem in functional analysis, allowing the extension of linear functionals. The theorem that every Hilbert space has an orthonormal basis. The Banach–Alaoglu theorem about compactness of sets of functionals. The Baire category theorem about complete metric spaces, and its consequences, such as the open mapping theorem and the closed graph theorem. On every infinite-dimensional topological vector space there is a discontinuous linear map. General topology A uniform space is compact if and only if it is complete and totally bounded. Every Tychonoff space has a Stone–Čech compactification. Mathematical logic Gödel's completeness theorem for first-order logic: every consistent set of first-order sentences has a completion. That is, every consistent set of first-order sentences can be extended to a maximal consistent set. The compactness theorem: If \Sigma is a set of first-order (or alternatively, zero-order) sentences such that every finite subset of \Sigma has a model, then \Sigma has a model. Possibly equivalent implications of AC There are several historically important set-theoretic statements implied by AC whose equivalence to AC is open. Zermelo cited the partition principle, which was formulated before AC itself, as a justification for believing AC. In 1906, Russell declared PP to be equivalent, but whether the partition principle implies AC is the oldest open problem in set theory, and the equivalences of the other statements are similarly hard old open problems. In every known model of ZF where choice fails, these statements fail too, but it is unknown whether they can hold without choice. Set theory Partition principle: if there is a surjection from A to B, there is an injection from B to A. Equivalently, every partition P of a set S is less than or equal to S in size. Converse Schröder–Bernstein theorem: if two sets have surjections to each other, they are equinumerous. Weak partition principle: if there is an injection and a surjection from A to B, then A and B are equinumerous. Equivalently, a partition of a set S cannot be strictly larger than S. If WPP holds, this already implies the existence of a non-measurable set. Each of the previous three statements is implied by the preceding one, but it is unknown if any of these implications can be reversed. There is no infinite decreasing sequence of cardinals. The equivalence was conjectured by Schoenflies in 1905. Abstract algebra Hahn embedding theorem: Every ordered abelian group G order-embeds as a subgroup of the additive group \mathbb{R}^\Omega endowed with a lexicographical order, where Ω is the set of Archimedean equivalence classes of G. This equivalence was conjectured by Hahn in 1907. Stronger forms of the negation of AC If we abbreviate by BP the claim that every set of real numbers has the property of Baire, then BP is stronger than ¬AC, which asserts the nonexistence of any choice function on perhaps only a single set of nonempty sets. Strengthened negations may be compatible with weakened forms of AC. For example, ZF + DC + BP is consistent, if ZF is. It is also consistent with ZF + DC that every set of reals is Lebesgue measurable, but this consistency result, due to Robert M. Solovay, cannot be proved in ZFC itself, but requires a mild large cardinal assumption (the existence of an inaccessible cardinal). The much stronger axiom of determinacy, or AD, implies that every set of reals is Lebesgue measurable, has the property of Baire, and has the perfect set property (all three of these results are refuted by AC itself). ZF + DC + AD is consistent provided that a sufficiently strong large cardinal axiom is consistent (the existence of infinitely many Woodin cardinals). Quine's system of axiomatic set theory, New Foundations (NF), takes its name from the title ("New Foundations for Mathematical Logic") of the 1937 article that introduced it. In the NF axiomatic system, the axiom of choice can be disproved. Statements implying the negation of AC There are models of Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory in which the axiom of choice is false. We shall abbreviate "Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory plus the negation of the axiom of choice" by ZF¬C. For certain models of ZF¬C, it is possible to validate the negation of some standard ZFC theorems. As any model of ZF¬C is also a model of ZF, it is the case that for each of the following statements, there exists a model of ZF in which that statement is true. The negation of the weak partition principle: There is a set that can be partitioned into strictly more equivalence classes than the original set has elements, and a function whose domain is strictly smaller than its range. In fact, this is the case in all known models. There is a function f from the real numbers to the real numbers such that f is not continuous at a, but f is sequentially continuous at a, i.e., for any sequence {xn} converging to a, limn f(xn)=f(a). There is an infinite set of real numbers without a countably infinite subset. The real numbers are a countable union of countable sets. This does not imply that the real numbers are countable: As pointed out above, to show that a countable union of countable sets is itself countable requires the Axiom of countable choice. There is a field with no algebraic closure. In all models of ZF¬C there is a vector space with no basis. There is a vector space with two bases of different cardinalities. There is a free complete Boolean algebra on countably many generators. There is a set that cannot be linearly ordered. There exists a model of ZF¬C in which every set in Rn is measurable. Thus it is possible to exclude counterintuitive results like the Banach–Tarski paradox which are provable in ZFC. Furthermore, this is possible whilst assuming the Axiom of dependent choice, which is weaker than AC but sufficient to develop most of real analysis. In all models of ZF¬C, the generalized continuum hypothesis does not hold. For proofs, see . Additionally, by imposing definability conditions on sets (in the sense of descriptive set theory) one can often prove restricted versions of the axiom of choice from axioms incompatible with general choice. This appears, for example, in the Moschovakis coding lemma. Axiom of choice in type theory In type theory, a different kind of statement is known as the axiom of choice. This form begins with two types, σ and τ, and a relation R between objects of type σ and objects of type τ. The axiom of choice states that if for each x of type σ there exists a y of type τ such that R(x,y), then there is a function f from objects of type σ to objects of type τ such that R(x,f(x)) holds for all x of type σ: (\forall x^\sigma)(\exists y^\tau) R(x,y) \to (\exists f^{\sigma \to \tau})(\forall x^\sigma) R(x,f(x)). Unlike in set theory, the axiom of choice in type theory is typically stated as an axiom scheme, in which R varies over all formulas or over all formulas of a particular logical form. Notes References Per Martin-Löf, "100 years of Zermelo's axiom of choice: What was the problem with it?", in Logicism, Intuitionism, and Formalism: What Has Become of Them?, Sten Lindström, Erik Palmgren, Krister Segerberg, and Viggo Stoltenberg-Hansen, editors (2008). , available as a Dover Publications reprint, 2013, . Herman Rubin, Jean E. Rubin: Equivalents of the axiom of choice. North Holland, 1963. Reissued by Elsevier, April 1970. . Herman Rubin, Jean E. Rubin: Equivalents of the Axiom of Choice II. North Holland/Elsevier, July 1985, . George Tourlakis, Lectures in Logic and Set Theory. Vol. II: Set Theory, Cambridge University Press, 2003. Ernst Zermelo, "Untersuchungen über die Grundlagen der Mengenlehre I," Mathematische Annalen 65: (1908) pp. 261–81. PDF download via digizeitschriften.de Translated in: Jean van Heijenoort, 2002. From Frege to Gödel: A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879–1931. New edition. Harvard University Press. 1904. "Proof that every set can be well-ordered," 139-41. 1908. "Investigations in the foundations of set theory I," 199–215. External links Axiom of Choice entry in the Springer Encyclopedia of Mathematics. Axiom of Choice and Its Equivalents entry at ProvenMath. Includes formal statement of the Axiom of Choice, Hausdorff's Maximal Principle, Zorn's Lemma and formal proofs of their equivalence down to the finest detail. Consequences of the Axiom of Choice , based on the book by Paul Howard and Jean Rubin. .	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom_of_choice	2025-04-05T18:25:23.571817
841	Attila	{{redirect2\|Atilla\|Attila the Hun\|\|Attila (disambiguation)\|and\|Atilla (disambiguation)\|and\|Attila the Hun (disambiguation)}} {{Short description\|Ruler of the Hunnic Empire from 434 to 453}} {{pp-move}} {{pp\|small=yes}} {{Use American English\|date=August 2015}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=June 2021}} {{Use list-defined references\|date=August 2015}} <!-- NOTE: Please name all references and put the full citation template in the References section, with just the ref name tag in the text. See the beginning of the References section for information on the ref naming convention used in this article. For information about list-defined references, see WP:LDRHOW. --> {{Infobox royalty \| name = Attila \| image = Attila (Képes krónika).jpg \| image_size = 250 \| alt = Gold depiction of a bearded king with a crown on his head, a sabre in his right hand and an orb in his left hand within a blue circle \| caption = King Attila (Chronicon Pictum, 1358) \| succession = King and chieftain of the Hunnic Empire \| reign = 434{{endash}}453 \| predecessor = Bleda and Ruga \| successor = Ellac, Dengizich, Ernak \| birth_date Unknown date, {{circa\|406}}{{r\|Harvey\|p208}}{{r\|Cooper\|p=202}} \| birth_place \| death_date {{nowrap\|{{circa\|453}} (aged 46–47)}} \| death_place \| burial_place \| spouse = Kreka and Ildico \| issue \| father Mundzuk \| religion \| module }} Attila ({{IPAc-en\|ə\|ˈ\|t\|ɪ\|l\|ə}} {{respell\|ə\|TIL\|ə}}<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia \|urlhttp://www.lexico.com/definition/Attila \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210607052223/https://www.lexico.com/definition/Attila \|url-statusdead \|archive-date7 June 2021 \|titleAttila \|dictionaryLexico UK English Dictionary \|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> or {{IPAc-en\|ˈ\|æ\|t\|ɪ\|l\|ə}} {{respell\|AT\|il\|ə}};<ref>{{MW\|Attila}}</ref> {{Circa\|406 – 453}}), frequently called Attila the Hun, was the ruler of the Huns from 434 until his death in early 453. He was also the leader of an empire consisting of Huns, Ostrogoths, Alans, and Gepids, among others, in Central and Eastern Europe. As nephews to Rugila, Attila and his elder brother Bleda succeeded him to the throne in 435, ruling jointly until the death of Bleda in 445. During his reign, Attila was one of the most feared enemies of the Western and Eastern Roman Empires. He crossed the Danube twice and plundered the Balkans but was unable to take Constantinople. In 441, he led an invasion of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, the success of which emboldened him to invade the West.{{r\|Peterson}} He also attempted to conquer Roman Gaul (modern France), crossing the Rhine in 451 and marching as far as Aurelianum (Orléans), before being stopped in the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains. He subsequently invaded Italy, devastating the northern provinces, but was unable to take Rome. He planned for further campaigns against the Romans but died in 453. After Attila's death, his close adviser, Ardaric of the Gepids, led a Germanic revolt against Hunnic rule, after which the Hunnic Empire quickly collapsed. Attila lived on as a character in Germanic heroic legend.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia \|lastReyhner \|firstJon \|editor-lastDanver \|editor-firstSteven \|editor-linkSteven L. Danver \|encyclopediaNative Peoples of the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures, and Contemporary Issues \|titleGenocide \|date2013 \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn978-0765682222 \|oclc905985948 \|doi10.4324/9781315702155 \|page732}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|lastHedeager \|firstLotte \|author-linkLotte Hedeager \|year2011 \|chapterHistorical framework: the impact of the Huns \|titleIron Age Myth and Materiality: An Archaeology of Scandinavia AD 400–1000 \|publisherTaylor & Francis \|page192 \|isbn978-0415606028}}</ref> Etymology Many scholars have argued that the name Attila derives from East Germanic origin; Attila is formed from the Gothic or Gepidic noun atta, "father", by means of the diminutive suffix -ila, meaning "little father", compare Wulfila from wulfs "wolf" and -ila, i.e. "little wolf".{{r\|Maenchen-Helfen\|p386}}{{r\|Doerfer\|p29}}{{r\|Lehmann\|p46}} The Gothic etymology was first proposed by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm in the early 19th century.{{r\|Snaedal\|p211}} Maenchen-Helfen notes that this derivation of the name "offers neither phonetic nor semantic difficulties",{{r\|Maenchen-Helfen\|p386}} and Gerhard Doerfer notes that the name is simply correct Gothic.{{r\|Doerfer\|p29}} Alexander Savelyev and Choongwon Jeong (2020) similarly state that Attila's name "must have been Gothic in origin."<ref nameSavelyev /> The name has sometimes been interpreted as a Germanization of a name of Hunnic origin.{{r\|Doerfer\|pp29–32}} Other scholars have argued for a Turkic origin of the name. Omeljan Pritsak considered Ἀττίλα (Attíla) a composite title-name which derived from Turkic es (great, old), and til (sea, ocean), and the suffix /a/.{{r\|Pritsak\|p444}} The stressed back syllabic til assimilated the front member es, so it became as.{{r\|Pritsak\|p444}} It is a nominative, in form of attíl- (< etsíl < es tíl) with the meaning "the oceanic, universal ruler".{{r\|Pritsak\|p444}} J. J. Mikkola connected it with Turkic āt (name, fame).{{r\|Snaedal\|p216}} As another Turkic possibility, H. Althof (1902) considered it was related to Turkish atli (horseman, cavalier), or Turkish at (horse) and dil (tongue).{{r\|Snaedal\|p216}} Maenchen-Helfen argues that Pritsak's derivation is "ingenious but for many reasons unacceptable",{{r\|Maenchen-Helfen\|p387}} while dismissing Mikkola's as "too farfetched to be taken seriously".{{r\|Maenchen-Helfen\|p390}} M. Snædal similarly notes that none of these proposals has achieved wide acceptance.{{r\|Snaedal\|pp215–216}} Criticizing the proposals of finding Turkic or other etymologies for Attila, Doerfer notes that King George VI of the United Kingdom had a name of Greek origin, and Süleyman the Magnificent had a name of Arabic origin, yet that does not make them Greek or Arab: it is therefore plausible that Attila would have a name not of Hunnic origin.{{r\|Doerfer\|pp31–32}} Historian Hyun Jin Kim, however, has argued that the Turkic etymology is "more probable".{{r\|Kim\|p30}} M. Snædal, in a paper that rejects the Germanic derivation but notes the problems with the existing proposed Turkic etymologies, argues that Attila's name could have originated from Turkic-Mongolian at, adyy/agta (gelding, warhorse) and Turkish atlı (horseman, cavalier), meaning "possessor of geldings, provider of warhorses".{{r\|Snaedal\|pp216–217}} Historiography and sources , Museum of Ventura County, USA.]] 's 19th century painting of The Feast of Attila, based on a fragment of Priscus.]] The historiography of Attila is faced with a major challenge, in that the only complete sources are written in Greek and Latin by the enemies of the Huns. Attila's contemporaries left many testimonials of his life, but only fragments of these remain.{{r\|Lebedynsky:Report\|p=25}} Priscus was a Byzantine diplomat and historian who wrote in Greek, and he was both a witness to and an actor in the story of Attila, as a member of the embassy of Theodosius&nbsp;II at the Hunnic court in 449. He was obviously biased by his political position, but his writing is a major source for information on the life of Attila, and he is the only person known to have recorded a physical description of him. He wrote a history of the late Roman Empire in eight books covering the period from 430 to 476.{{r\|Given}} Only fragments of Priscus' work remain. It was cited extensively by 6th-century historians Procopius and Jordanes,{{r\|Rouche\|p413}} especially in Jordanes' The Origin and Deeds of the Goths, which contains numerous references to Priscus's history, and it is also an important source of information about the Hunnic empire and its neighbors. He describes the legacy of Attila and the Hunnic people for a century after Attila's death. Marcellinus Comes, a chancellor of Justinian during the same era, also describes the relations between the Huns and the Eastern Roman Empire.{{r\|Lebedynsky:Report\|p30}} Numerous ecclesiastical writings contain useful but scattered information, sometimes difficult to authenticate or distorted by years of hand-copying between the 6th and 17th centuries. The Hungarian writers of the 12th century wished to portray the Huns in a positive light as their glorious ancestors, and so repressed certain historical elements and added their own legends.{{r\|Lebedynsky:Report\|p=32}} The literature and knowledge of the Huns themselves was transmitted orally, by means of epics and chanted poems that were handed down from generation to generation.{{r\|Rouche\|p354}} Indirectly, fragments of this oral history have reached us via the literature of the Scandinavians and Germans, neighbors of the Huns who wrote between the 9th and 13th centuries. Attila is a major character in many Medieval epics, such as the Nibelungenlied, as well as various Eddas and sagas.{{r\|Lebedynsky:Report\|p32}}{{r\|Rouche\|p=354}} Archaeological investigation has uncovered some details about the lifestyle, art, and warfare of the Huns. There are a few traces of battles and sieges, but the tomb of Attila and the location of his capital have not yet been found.{{r\|Lebedynsky:Report\|p33–37}} Appearance and character There is no surviving first-hand account of Attila's appearance, but there is a possible second-hand source provided by Jordanes, who cites a description given by Priscus.{{r\|Bakker}}{{r\|Wolfram}} {{blockquote\|He was a man born into the world to shake the nations, the scourge of all lands, who in some way terrified all mankind by the dreadful rumors noised abroad concerning him. He was haughty in his walk, rolling his eyes hither and thither, so that the power of his proud spirit appeared in the movement of his body. He was indeed a lover of war, yet restrained in action, mighty in counsel, gracious to suppliants and lenient to those who were once received into his protection. Short of stature, with a broad chest and a large head; his eyes were small, his beard thin and sprinkled with grey; and he had a flat nose and swarthy skin, showing evidence of his origin.{{r\|Jordanes\|p=182–183}}}} Some scholars have suggested that these features are typically East Asian, because in combination they fit the physical type of people from Eastern Asia, so Attila's ancestors may have come from there.{{r\|Wolfram}}{{r\|Sinor\|p202}} Other historians have suggested that the same features may have been typical of some Scythian people.<ref>Wolff, Larry. Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment. Stanford University Press; (1994). pp. 299–230. {{ISBN\|978-0-8047-2702-0}}</ref><ref>Fields, Nic. Attila the Hun (Command). Osprey Publishing; UK ed. (2015). pp. 58–60. {{ISBN\|978-1-4728-0887-5}}</ref> Early life and background {{Main\|Huns}} . An 1870s engraving after a drawing by Johann Nepomuk Geiger (1805–1880).]] The Huns were a group of Eurasian nomads, appearing from east of the Volga, who migrated further into Western Europe c.&nbsp;370{{r\|Grousset}} and built up an enormous empire there. Their main military techniques were mounted archery and javelin throwing. They were in the process of developing settlements before their arrival in Western Europe, yet the Huns were a society of pastoral warriors{{r\|Rouche\|p=259}} whose primary form of nourishment was meat and milk, products of their herds. The origin and language of the Huns has been the subject of debate for centuries. According to some theories, their leaders at least may have spoken a Turkic language, perhaps closest to the modern Chuvash language.{{r\|Pritsak\|p=444}} According to the Encyclopedia of European Peoples, "the Huns, especially those who migrated to the west, may have been a combination of central Asian Turkic, Mongolic, and Ugric stocks".{{r\|Waldman}} Attila's father Mundzuk was the brother of kings Octar and Ruga, who reigned jointly over the Hunnic empire in the early fifth century. This form of diarchy was recurrent with the Huns, but historians are unsure whether it was institutionalized, merely customary, or an occasional occurrence.{{r\|Lebedynsky:Report\|p80}} His family was from a noble lineage, but it is uncertain whether they constituted a royal dynasty. Attila's birthdate is debated; journalist Éric Deschodt and writer Herman Schreiber have proposed a date of 395.{{r\|Deschodt}}{{r\|Schreiber}} However, historian Iaroslav Lebedynsky and archaeologist Katalin Escher prefer an estimate between the 390s and the first decade of the fifth century.{{r\|Lebedynsky:Report\|p40}} Several historians have proposed 406 as the date.{{r\|Harvey\|p92}}{{r\|Cooper\|p202}} Attila grew up in a rapidly changing world. His people were nomads who had only recently arrived in Europe.{{r\|Bona}} They crossed the Volga river during the 370s and annexed the territory of the Alans, then attacked the Gothic kingdom between the Carpathian Mountains and the Danube. They were a very mobile people, whose mounted archers had acquired a reputation for invincibility, and the Germanic tribes seemed unable to withstand them.{{r\|Rouche\|p133–151}} Vast populations fleeing the Huns moved from Germania into the Roman Empire in the west and south, and along the banks of the Rhine and Danube. In 376, the Goths crossed the Danube, initially submitting to the Romans but soon rebelling against Emperor Valens, whom they killed in the Battle of Adrianople in 378.{{r\|Rouche\|p100}} Large numbers of Vandals, Alans, Suebi, and Burgundians crossed the Rhine and invaded Roman Gaul on December&nbsp;31, 406, to escape the Huns.{{r\|Lebedynsky:Report\|p233}} The Roman Empire had been split in half since 395 and was ruled by two distinct governments, one based in Ravenna in the West, and the other in Constantinople in the East. The Roman Emperors, both East and West, were generally from the Theodosian family in Attila's lifetime (despite several power struggles).{{r\|Lebedynsky:Campaign\|p13}} The Huns dominated a vast territory with nebulous borders determined by the will of a constellation of ethnically varied peoples. Some were assimilated to Hunnic nationality, whereas many retained their own identities and rulers but acknowledged the suzerainty of the king of the Huns.{{r\|Lebedynsky:Campaign\|p11}} The Huns were also the indirect source of many of the Romans' problems, driving various Germanic tribes into Roman territory, yet relations between the two empires were cordial: the Romans used the Huns as mercenaries against the Germans and even in their civil wars. Thus, the usurper Joannes was able to recruit thousands of Huns for his army against Valentinian&nbsp;III in 424. It was Aëtius, later Patrician of the West, who managed this operation. They exchanged ambassadors and hostages, the alliance lasting from 401 to 450 and permitting the Romans numerous military victories.{{r\|Rouche\|p111}} The Huns considered the Romans to be paying them tribute, whereas the Romans preferred to view this as payment for services rendered. The Huns had become a great power by the time that Attila came of age during the reign of his uncle Ruga, to the point that Nestorius, the Patriarch of Constantinople, deplored the situation with these words: "They have become both masters and slaves of the Romans".{{r\|Rouche\|p128}} Campaigns against the Eastern Roman Empire The death of Rugila (also known as Rua or Ruga) in 434 left the sons of his brother Mundzuk, Attila and Bleda, in control of the united Hun tribes. At the time of the two brothers' accession, the Hun tribes were bargaining with Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius&nbsp;II's envoys for the return of several renegades who had taken refuge within the Eastern Roman Empire, possibly Hunnic nobles who disagreed with the brothers' assumption of leadership. The following year, Attila and Bleda met with the imperial legation at Margus (Požarevac), all seated on horseback in the Hunnic manner,{{r\|Howarth}} and negotiated an advantageous treaty. The Romans agreed to return the fugitives, to double their previous tribute of 350 Roman pounds (c.&nbsp;115&nbsp;kg) of gold, to open their markets to Hunnish traders, and to pay a ransom of eight solidi for each Roman taken prisoner by the Huns. The Huns, satisfied with the treaty, decamped from the Roman Empire and returned to their home in the Great Hungarian Plain, perhaps to consolidate and strengthen their empire. Theodosius used this opportunity to strengthen the walls of Constantinople, building the city's first sea wall, and to build up his border defenses along the Danube. The Huns remained out of Roman sight for the next few years while they invaded the Sassanid Empire. They were defeated in Armenia by the Sassanids, abandoned their invasion, and turned their attentions back to Europe. In 440, they reappeared in force on the borders of the Roman Empire, attacking the merchants at the market on the north bank of the Danube that had been established by the treaty of 435. Crossing the Danube, they laid waste to the cities of Illyricum and forts on the river, including (according to Priscus) Viminacium, a city of Moesia. Their advance began at Margus, where they demanded that the Romans turn over a bishop who had retained property that Attila regarded as his. While the Romans discussed the bishop's fate, he slipped away secretly to the Huns and betrayed the city to them. While the Huns attacked city-states along the Danube, the Vandals (led by Geiseric) captured the Western Roman province of Africa and its capital of Carthage. Africa was the richest province of the Western Empire and a main source of food for Rome. The Sassanid Shah Yazdegerd&nbsp;II invaded Armenia in 441.{{citation needed\|dateJanuary 2021}}<ref>{{Cite web\|lastFoundation\|firstEncyclopaedia Iranica\|titleWelcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica\|urlhttps://iranicaonline.org/\|access-date3 June 2021\|websiteiranicaonline.org\|languageen-US}}</ref> The Romans stripped the Balkan area of forces, sending them to Sicily in order to mount an expedition against the Vandals in Africa. This left Attila and Bleda a clear path through Illyricum into the Balkans, which they invaded in 441. The Hunnish army sacked Margus and Viminacium, and then took Singidunum (Belgrade) and Sirmium. During 442, Theodosius recalled his troops from Sicily and ordered a large issue of new coins to finance operations against the Huns. He believed that he could defeat the Huns and refused the Hunnish kings' demands. Attila responded with a campaign in 443.{{r\|Dupuy}} For the first time (as far as the Romans knew) his forces were equipped with battering rams and rolling siege towers, with which they successfully assaulted the military centers of Ratiara and Naissus (Niš) and massacred the inhabitants. Priscus said "When we arrived at Naissus we found the city deserted, as though it had been sacked; only a few sick persons lay in the churches. We halted at a short distance from the river, in an open space, for all the ground adjacent to the bank was full of the bones of men slain in war."<ref>{{cite web\|titlePriscus at the court of Attila\|websiteucalgary.ca\|url=https://www.ucalgary.ca/~vandersp/Courses/texts/prisfr8.html}}</ref> Advancing along the Nišava River, the Huns next took Serdica (Sofia), Philippopolis (Plovdiv), and Arcadiopolis (Lüleburgaz). They encountered and destroyed a Roman army outside Constantinople but were stopped by the double walls of the Eastern capital. They defeated a second army near Callipolis (Gelibolu). Theodosius, unable to make effective armed resistance, admitted defeat, sending the Magister militum per Orientem Anatolius to negotiate peace terms. The terms were harsher than the previous treaty: the Emperor agreed to hand over 6,000 Roman pounds (c. 2000&nbsp;kg) of gold as punishment for having disobeyed the terms of the treaty during the invasion; the yearly tribute was tripled, rising to 2,100 Roman pounds (c. 700&nbsp;kg) in gold; and the ransom for each Roman prisoner rose to 12 solidi. Their demands were met for a time, and the Hun kings withdrew into the interior of their empire. Bleda died following the Huns' withdrawal from Byzantium (probably around 445). Attila then took the throne for himself, becoming the sole ruler of the Huns.{{r\|Haas}} Solitary kingship In 447, Attila again rode south into the Eastern Roman Empire through Moesia. The Roman army, under Gothic magister militum Arnegisclus, met him in the Battle of the Utus and was defeated, though not without inflicting heavy losses. The Huns were left unopposed and rampaged through the Balkans as far as Thermopylae. Constantinople itself was saved by the Isaurian troops of magister militum per Orientem Zeno and protected by the intervention of prefect Constantinus, who organized the reconstruction of the walls that had been previously damaged by earthquakes and, in some places, to construct a new line of fortification in front of the old. Callinicus, in his Life of Saint Hypatius, wrote: {{blockquote\|The barbarian nation of the Huns, which was in Thrace, became so great that more than a hundred cities were captured and Constantinople almost came into danger and most men fled from it.&nbsp;... And there were so many murders and blood-lettings that the dead could not be numbered. Ay, for they took captive the churches and monasteries and slew the monks and maidens in great numbers.}} In the west .]] In 450, Attila proclaimed his intent to attack the Visigoth kingdom of Toulouse by making an alliance with Emperor Valentinian&nbsp;III. He had previously been on good terms with the Western Roman Empire and its influential general Flavius Aëtius. Aëtius had spent a brief exile among the Huns in 433, and the troops that Attila provided against the Goths and Bagaudae had helped earn him the largely honorary title of magister militum in the west. The gifts and diplomatic efforts of Geiseric, who opposed and feared the Visigoths, may also have influenced Attila's plans. However, Valentinian's sister was Honoria, who had sent the Hunnish king a plea for help—and her engagement ring—in order to escape her forced betrothal to a Roman senator in the spring of 450. Honoria may not have intended a proposal of marriage, but Attila chose to interpret her message as such. He accepted, asking for half of the western Empire as dowry. When Valentinian discovered the plan, only the influence of his mother Galla Placidia convinced him to exile Honoria, rather than killing her. He also wrote to Attila, strenuously denying the legitimacy of the supposed marriage proposal. Attila sent an emissary to Ravenna to proclaim that Honoria was innocent, that the proposal had been legitimate, and that he would come to claim what was rightfully his. Attila interfered in a succession struggle after the death of a Frankish ruler. Attila supported the elder son, while Aëtius supported the younger. (The location and identity of these kings is not known and subject to conjecture.) Attila gathered his vassals—Gepids, Ostrogoths, Rugians, Scirians, Heruls, Thuringians, Alans, Burgundians, among others—and began his march west. In 451, he arrived in Belgica with an army exaggerated by Jordanes to half a million strong. in Gaul sacked by Attila's hordes, by French historial painter Georges Rochegrosse]] On April&nbsp;7, he captured Metz. He also captured Strasbourg. Other cities attacked can be determined by the hagiographic vitae written to commemorate their bishops: Nicasius was slaughtered before the altar of his church in Rheims; Servatus is alleged to have saved Tongeren with his prayers, as Saint Genevieve is said to have saved Paris.{{r\|Hodgkin}} Lupus, bishop of Troyes, is also credited with saving his city by meeting Attila in person.{{r\|"Peterson" }}{{r\|Goyau}} Aëtius moved to oppose Attila, gathering troops from among the Franks, the Burgundians, and the Celts. A mission by Avitus and Attila's continued westward advance convinced the Visigoth king Theodoric&nbsp;I (Theodorid) to ally with the Romans. The combined armies reached Orléans ahead of Attila, thus checking and turning back the Hunnish advance. Aëtius gave chase and caught the Huns at a place usually assumed to be near Catalaunum (modern Châlons-en-Champagne). Attila decided to fight the Romans on plains where he could use his cavalry.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/magazine/2017/01-02/roman-empire-decline-attila-the-hun\|titleRome Halts the Huns\|date17 January 2017\|access-date28 January 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170128140948/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/magazine/2017/01-02/roman-empire-decline-attila-the-hun/\|archive-date28 January 2017\|url-status=dead}}</ref> The two armies clashed in the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, the outcome of which is commonly considered to be a strategic victory for the Visigothic-Roman alliance. Theodoric was killed in the fighting, and Aëtius failed to press his advantage, according to Edward Gibbon and Edward Creasy, because he feared the consequences of an overwhelming Visigothic triumph as much as he did a defeat. From Aëtius' point of view, the best outcome was what occurred: Theodoric died, Attila was in retreat and disarray, and the Romans had the benefit of appearing victorious. Invasion of Italy and death Aquileia (Chronicon Pictum, 1358).]] 's The Meeting between Leo the Great and Attila depicts Leo, escorted by Saint Peter and Saint Paul, meeting with the Hun emperor outside Rome.]] Attila returned in 452 to renew his marriage claim with Honoria, invading and ravaging Italy along the way. Communities became established in what would later become Venice as a result of these attacks when the residents fled to small islands in the Venetian Lagoon. His army sacked numerous cities and razed Aquileia so completely that it was afterwards hard to recognize its original site.{{r\|Thompson\|p159}} Aëtius lacked the strength to offer battle, but managed to harass and slow Attila's advance with only a shadow force. Attila finally halted at the River Po. By this point, disease and starvation may have taken hold in Attila's camp, thus hindering his war efforts and potentially contributing to the cessation of invasion.<ref>{{Cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idU8Muzx1VrbwC&qsite%3A+edu+starvation+stops+attila%27s+invasion&pgPA471\|titleA Roman Villa and a Late Roman Infant Cemetery: Excavation at Poggio Gramignano, Lugnano in Teverina\|last1Soren\|first1David\|last2Soren\|first2Noelle\|date1999\|publisherL'Erma di Bretschenider \|isbn978-88-7062-989-7\|pages472\|language=en}}</ref> Emperor Valentinian&nbsp;III sent three envoys, the high civilian officers Gennadius Avienus and Trigetius, as well as Pope Leo I, who met Attila at Mincio in the vicinity of Mantua and obtained from him the promise that he would withdraw from Italy and negotiate peace with the Emperor.{{r\|Kirsch}} Prosper of Aquitaine gives a short description of the historic meeting, but gives all the credit to Leo for the successful negotiation. Priscus reports that superstitious fear of the fate of Alaric gave him pause—as Alaric died shortly after sacking Rome in 410. Italy had suffered from a terrible famine in 451 and her crops were faring little better in 452. Attila's devastating invasion of the plains of northern Italy this year did not improve the harvest.{{r\|Thompson\|p161}} To advance on Rome would have required supplies which were not available in Italy, and taking the city would not have improved Attila's supply situation. Therefore, it was more profitable for Attila to conclude peace and retreat to his homeland.{{r\|Thompson\|p160–161}} Furthermore, an East Roman force had crossed the Danube under the command of another officer also named Aetius—who had participated in the Council of Chalcedon the previous year—and proceeded to defeat the Huns who had been left behind by Attila to safeguard their home territories. Attila, hence, faced heavy human and natural pressures to retire "from Italy without ever setting foot south of the Po".{{r\|Thompson\|p=163}} As Hydatius writes in his Chronica Minora: {{blockquote\|The Huns, who had been plundering Italy and who had also stormed a number of cities, were victims of divine punishment, being visited with heaven-sent disasters: famine and some kind of disease. In addition, they were slaughtered by auxiliaries sent by the Emperor Marcian and led by Aetius, and at the same time, they were crushed in their [home] settlements&nbsp;... Thus crushed, they made peace with the Romans.<ref>{{cite book \|year1993 \|editor1-lastBurgess \|editor1-firstR. W. \|titleThe Chronicle of Hydatius and the Consularia Constantinopolitana \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjW1oAAAAMAAJ&q%22Thus+crushed+they+made%22 \|locationOxford \|publisherClarendon Press \|page103 \|isbn978-0-19-814787-9 \|access-date22 March 2018 }}</ref>}} Death , led by Attila, invade Italy (Attila, the Scourge of God, by Ulpiano Checa, 1887).]] In the Eastern Roman Empire, Emperor Marcian succeeded Theodosius II, and stopped paying tribute to the Huns. Attila withdrew from Italy to his palace across the Danube, while making plans to strike at Constantinople once more to reclaim tribute.<ref name="Kershaw">Kershaw, Stephen P. (2013). A Brief History of the Roman Empire: Rise and Fall. London. Constable & Robinson Ltd. pp. 398, 402–403. {{ISBN\|978-1-78033-048-8}}.</ref> However, he died in the early months of 453. The conventional account from Priscus says that Attila was at a feast celebrating his latest marriage, this time to the beautiful young Ildico (the name suggests Gothic or Ostrogoth origins).{{r\|Thompson\|p=164}} In the midst of the revels, however, he suffered severe bleeding and died. He may have had a nosebleed and choked to death in a stupor. Or he may have succumbed to internal bleeding, possibly due to ruptured esophageal varices. Esophageal varices are dilated veins that form in the lower part of the esophagus, often caused by years of excessive alcohol consumption; they are fragile and can easily rupture, leading to death by hemorrhage.{{r\|Man}} Another account of his death was first recorded 80 years after the events by Roman chronicler Marcellinus Comes. It reports that "Attila, King of the Huns and ravager of the provinces of Europe, was pierced by the hand and blade of his wife".{{r\|Chadwick}} One modern analyst suggests that he was assassinated,{{r\|Babcock}} but most reject these accounts as no more than hearsay, preferring instead the account given by Attila's contemporary Priscus, recounted in the 6th century by Jordanes: {{blockquote\|On the following day, when a great part of the morning was spent, the royal attendants suspected some ill and, after a great uproar, broke in the doors. There they found the death of Attila accomplished by an effusion of blood, without any wound, and the girl with downcast face weeping beneath her veil. Then, as is the custom of that race, they plucked out the hair of their heads and made their faces hideous with deep wounds, that the renowned warrior might be mourned, not by effeminate wailings and tears, but by the blood of men. Moreover a wondrous thing took place in connection with Attila's death. For in a dream some god stood at the side of Marcian, Emperor of the East, while he was disquieted about his fierce foe, and showed him the bow of Attila broken in that same night, as if to intimate that the race of Huns owed much to that weapon. This account the historian Priscus says he accepts upon truthful evidence. For so terrible was Attila thought to be to great empires that the gods announced his death to rulers as a special boon. His body was placed in the midst of a plain and lay in state in a silken tent as a sight for men's admiration. The best horsemen of the entire tribe of the Huns rode around in circles, after the manner of circus games, in the place to which he had been brought and told of his deeds in a funeral dirge in the following manner: "The chief of the Huns, King Attila, born of his sire Mundiuch, lord of bravest tribes, sole possessor of the Scythian and German realms—powers unknown before—captured cities and terrified both empires of the Roman world and, appeased by their prayers, took annual tribute to save the rest from plunder. And when he had accomplished all this by the favor of fortune, he fell, not by wound of the foe, nor by treachery of friends, but in the midst of his nation at peace, happy in his joy and without sense of pain. Who can rate this as death, when none believes it calls for vengeance?" When they had mourned him with such lamentations, a strava, as they call it, was celebrated over his tomb with great reveling. They gave way in turn to the extremes of feeling and displayed funereal grief alternating with joy. Then in the secrecy of night they buried his body in the earth. They bound his coffins, the first with gold, the second with silver and the third with the strength of iron, showing by such means that these three things suited the mightiest of kings; iron because he subdued the nations, gold and silver because he received the honors of both empires. They also added the arms of foemen won in the fight, trappings of rare worth, sparkling with various gems, and ornaments of all sorts whereby princely state is maintained. And that so great riches might be kept from human curiosity, they slew those appointed to the work—a dreadful pay for their labor; and thus sudden death was the lot of those who buried him as well as of him who was buried.{{r\|Jordanes\|p254–259}}}} DescendantsAttila's sons Ellac, Dengizich and Ernak, "in their rash eagerness to rule they all alike destroyed his empire".{{r\|Jordanes\|p259}} They "were clamoring that the nations should be divided among them equally and that warlike kings with their peoples should be apportioned to them by lot like a family estate".{{r\|Jordanes\|p259}} Against the treatment as "slaves of the basest condition" a Germanic alliance led by the Gepid ruler Ardaric (who was noted for great loyalty to Attila{{r\|Jordanes\|p199}}) revolted and fought with the Huns in Pannonia in the Battle of Nedao 454 AD.{{r\|Jordanes\|p260–262}} Attila's eldest son Ellac was killed in that battle.{{r\|Jordanes\|p262}} Attila's sons "regarding the Goths as deserters from their rule, came against them as though they were seeking fugitive slaves", attacked Ostrogothic co-ruler Valamir (who also fought alongside Ardaric and Attila at the Catalaunian Plains{{r\|Jordanes\|p199}}), but were repelled, and some group of Huns moved to Scythia (probably those of Ernak).{{r\|Jordanes\|pp268–269}} His brother Dengizich attempted a renewed invasion across the Danube in 468 AD, but was defeated at the Battle of Bassianae by the Ostrogoths.{{r\|Jordanes\|p272–273}} Dengizich was killed by Roman-Gothic general Anagast the following year, after which the Hunnic dominion ended.{{r\|Maenchen-Helfen\|p168}} Many of Attila's close relatives are known by name, and some even by deeds, but valid genealogical sources are rare, and there seems to be no verifiable way to trace Attila's descendants beyond a few generations. This has not stopped many genealogists from attempting to reconstruct a valid line of descent to various medieval rulers. One of the most credible claims has been that of the Nominalia of the Bulgarian khans for mythological Avitohol and Irnik from the Dulo clan of the Bulgars.{{r\|Golden\|p103}}{{r\|Kim\|p59, 142}}{{r\|Biliarsky}} The Hungarian Árpád dynasty also claimed to be a direct descendant of Attila.<ref name":02">{{Cite book \|last1Horváth-Lugossy \|first1Gábor \|urlhttps://mki.gov.hu/assets/pdf/MKI_EN_006_kings_and_saints_B5_web.pdf \|titleKings and Saints – The Age of the Árpáds \|last2Makoldi \|first2Miklós \|last3Neparáczki \|first3Endre \|publisherInstitute of Hungarian Research \|year2022 \|isbn978-615-6117-65-6 \|locationBudapest, Székesfehérvár}}</ref> Medieval Hungarian chronicles from the Hungarian royal court like Gesta Hungarorum, Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum, Chronicon Pictum, Buda Chronicle, Chronica Hungarorum claimed that the Árpád dynasty and the Aba clan are the descendants of Attila.<ref name":0">{{Cite book \|last1Neparáczki \|first1Endre \|urlhttps://mki.gov.hu/assets/pdf/MKI_EN_006_kings_and_saints_B5_web.pdf \|titleKings and Saints – The Age of the Árpáds \|publisherInstitute of Hungarian Research \|year2022 \|isbn978-615-6117-65-6 \|locationBudapest, Székesfehérvár \|page243}}</ref> Later folklore and iconography {{further\|Attila in popular culture}} The name has many variants in several languages: Atli and Atle in Old Norse; Etzel in Middle High German (Nibelungenlied); Ætla in Old English; Attila, Atilla, and Etele in Hungarian (Attila is the most popular); Attila, Atilla, Atilay, or Atila in Turkish; and Adil and Edil in Kazakh or Adil ("same/similar") or Edil ("to use") in Mongolian. Attila and Hun tradition in the medieval Hungarian Royal Court , 1358).]] The basic premise of the Hungarian medieval chronicle tradition that the Huns, i.e. the Hungarians coming out twice from Scythia, the guiding principle of the chronicles was the Hun-Hungarian continuity.<ref name":32">{{Cite book \|lastDr. Szabados \|firstGyörgy \|urlhttp://real-j.mtak.hu/13031/1/EPA00001_ITK_1998_05-06.pdf \|titleIrodalomtörténeti Közlemények, 102 (5–6) \|publisherMTA Irodalomtudományi Intézet (Institute for Literary Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences) \|year1998 \|pages615–641 \|languagehu \|chapterA krónikáktól a Gestáig – Az előidő-szemlélet hangsúlyváltásai a 15–18. században \|trans-chapterFrom the chronicles to the Gesta – Shifts in emphasis of the pre-time perspective in the 15th–18th centuries \|issn0021-1486 \|chapter-urlhttps://www.academia.edu/28283729}}</ref> The Hungarian state founder royal dynasty, the Árpád dynasty claimed to be a direct descendant of the great Hun leader Attila.<ref name":02" /><ref name":1">{{Cite journal \|last1Neparáczki \|first1Endre \|last2Maróti \|first2Zoltán \|last3Kalmár \|first3Tibor \|last4Maár \|first4Kitti \|last5Nagy \|first5István \|last6Latinovics \|first6Dóra \|last7Kustár \|first7Ágnes \|last8Pálfi \|first8György \|last9Molnár \|first9Erika \|last10Marcsik \|first10Antónia \|last11Balogh \|first11Csilla \|last12Lőrinczy \|first12Gábor \|last13Tomka \|first13Péter \|last14Kovacsóczy \|first14Bernadett \|last15Kovács \|first15László \|date12 November 2019 \|titleY-chromosome haplogroups from Hun, Avar and conquering Hungarian period nomadic people of the Carpathian Basin \|journalScientific Reports \|last16Török \|first16Tibor\|volume9 \|issue1 \|page16569 \|doi10.1038/s41598-019-53105-5 \|pmid31719606 \|pmc6851379 \|bibcode2019NatSR...916569N }}</ref><ref name":2">{{Cite journal \|last1Neparáczki \|first1Endre \|last2Maróti \|first2Zoltán \|last3Kalmár \|first3Tibor \|last4Kocsy \|first4Klaudia \|last5Maár \|first5Kitti \|last6Bihari \|first6Péter \|last7Nagy \|first7István \|last8Fóthi \|first8Erzsébet \|last9Pap \|first9Ildikó \|last10Kustár \|first10Ágnes \|last11Pálfi \|first11György \|last12Raskó \|first12István \|last13Zink \|first13Albert \|last14Török \|first14Tibor \|date18 October 2018 \|titleMitogenomic data indicate admixture components of Central-Inner Asian and Srubnaya origin in the conquering Hungarians \|journalPLOS ONE\|volume13 \|issue10 \|pagese0205920 \|doi10.1371/journal.pone.0205920 \|pmid30335830 \|pmc6193700 \|bibcode2018PLoSO..1305920N \|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Medieval Hungarian chronicles claimed that Grand Prince Árpád of Hungary was the descendant of Attila.<ref name":0" /> {{Blockquote\|''In the 401st year of Our Lord's birth, in the 28th year since the arrival of the Hungarians in Pannonia, according to the custom of the Romans, the Huns, namely the Hungarians exalted Attila as king above themselves, the son of Bendegúz, who was before among the captains. And he made his brother Buda a prince and a judge from the River Tisza to the River Don. Calling himself the King of the Hungarians, the Fear of the World, the Scourge of God: Attila, King of the Huns, Medes, Goths and Danes…\|Mark of Kalt: Chronicon Pictum<ref name="mek.oszk.hu">Mark of Kalt: Chronicon Pictum https://mek.oszk.hu/10600/10642/10642.htm</ref>}} Árpád, Grand Prince of the Hungarians says in the Gesta Hungarorum:{{Blockquote\|The land stretching between the Danube and the Tisza used to belong to my forefather, the mighty Attila.\|Anonymus: Gesta Hungarorum<ref name="discovery.ucl.ac.uk">Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians'' https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/18975/1/18975.pdf</ref>}} King Matthias of Hungary (1458–1490) was happy to be described as "the second Attila".<ref>{{Cite book \|lastMalcolm \|firstNoel \|titleUseful Enemies: Islam and The Ottoman Empire in Western Political Thought, 1450–1750 \|publisherOxford University Press \|year2019 \|isbn978-0198830139 \|quoteIn Hungary, King Matthias Corvinus (r. 1458–90) was happy to be described as 'the second Attila', and the tradition of identifying the Hungarians with 'Scythian' Huns, already present in the writings of earlier Hungarian chroniclers but greatly strengthened in his reign, would continue for hundreds of years.}}</ref> The Chronica Hungarorum by Johannes Thuróczy set the goal of glorifying Attila, which was undeservedly neglected, moreover, he introduced the famous "Scourge of God" characterization to the later Hungarian writers, because the earlier chronicles remained hidden for a long time. Thuróczy worked hard to endear Attila, the Hun king with an effort far surpassing his predecessor chroniclers. He made Attila a model for his victorious ruler, King Matthias of Hungary who had Attila's abilities, with this he almost brought "the hammer of the world" to life.<ref name":32" /> Legends about Attila and the sword of Mars Jordanes embellished the report of Priscus, reporting that Attila had possessed the "Holy War Sword of the Scythians", which was given to him by Mars and made him a "prince of the entire world".{{r\|Geary}}{{r\|Oakeshott}} Lampert of Hersfeld's contemporary chronicles report that shortly before the year 1071, the Sword of Attila had been presented to Otto of Nordheim by the exiled queen of Hungary, Anastasia of Kiev.{{r\|Rona-Tas}} This sword, a cavalry sabre now in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, appears to be the work of Hungarian goldsmiths of the ninth or tenth century.{{r\|Fillitz}} Legends about Attila and his meeting with Pope Leo I (Chronicon Pictum, 1358).]] An anonymous chronicler of the medieval period represented the meeting of Pope Leo and Atilla as attended also by Saint Peter and Saint Paul, "a miraculous tale calculated to meet the taste of the time"{{r\|Robinson}} This apotheosis was later portrayed artistically by the Renaissance artist Raphael and sculptor Algardi, whom eighteenth-century historian Edward Gibbon praised for establishing "one of the noblest legends of ecclesiastical tradition".{{r\|Gibbon}} According to a version of this narrative related in the Chronicon Pictum, a mediaeval Hungarian chronicle, the Pope promised Attila that if he left Rome in peace, one of his successors would receive a holy crown (which has been understood as referring to the Holy Crown of Hungary). Attila in Germanic heroic legend Some histories and chronicles describe Attila as a great and noble king, and he plays major roles in three Norse texts: Atlakviða,{{r\|Atlakvitha }} Volsunga saga,{{r\|Volsunga }} and Atlamál.{{r\|Atlakvitha }} The Polish Chronicle represents Attila's name as Aquila.<ref>{{Cite book\|titleEarly christianity in central and east Europe: Volume 1 of Christianity in east central Europe and its relations with the west and the east\|lastUrbańczyk\|firstPrzemysław\|publisherInstytut Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej\|year1997\|isbn978-83-86951-33-8\|page=200}}</ref> Frutolf of Michelsberg and Otto of Freising pointed out that some songs as "vulgar fables" and made Theoderic the Great, Attila and Ermanaric contemporaries, when any reader of Jordanes knew that this was not the case.{{r\|Innes}} This refers to the so-called historical poems about Dietrich von Bern (Theoderic), in which Etzel (German for Attila) is Dietrich's refuge in exile from his wicked uncle Ermenrich (Ermanaric). Etzel is most prominent in the poems Dietrichs Flucht and the Rabenschlacht. Etzel also appears as Kriemhild's second noble husband in the Nibelungenlied, in which Kriemhild causes the destruction of both the Hunnish kingdom and that of her Burgundian relatives. Early modern and modern reception (1798–1863).]] In 1812, Ludwig van Beethoven conceived the idea of writing an opera about Attila and approached August von Kotzebue to write the libretto. It was, however, never written.{{r\|Thayer}} In 1846, Giuseppe Verdi wrote the opera, loosely based on episodes in Attila's invasion of Italy. In World War&nbsp;I, Allied propaganda referred to Germans as the "Huns", based on a 1900 speech by Emperor Wilhelm&nbsp;II praising Attila the Hun's military prowess, according to Jawaharlal Nehru's Glimpses of World History.{{r\|Nehru}} Der Spiegel commented on 6 November 1948, that the Sword of Attila was hanging menacingly over Austria.{{r\|DerSpiegel}} American writer Cecelia Holland wrote The Death of Attila (1973), a historical novel in which Attila appears as a powerful background figure whose life and death deeply affect the protagonists, a young Hunnic warrior and a Germanic one. In modern Hungary and in Turkey, "Attila" and its Turkish variation "Atilla" are commonly used as a male first name. In Hungary, several public places are named after Attila; for instance, in Budapest there are 10 Attila Streets, one of which is an important street behind the Buda Castle. When the Turkish Armed Forces invaded Cyprus in 1974, the operations were named after Attila ("The Attila Plan").{{r\|Martin}} The 1954 Universal International film Sign of the Pagan starred Jack Palance as Attila. See also {{Div col\|colwidth=30em}} Onegesius * Bleda * Mundzuk{{div col end}} Notes <!-- ALL REFERENCES are listed here in alphabetical order so as to avoid cluttering up the text of the article. Use {{r\|refname}} to insert a note in the text to the citation. Use {{r\|refname\|p=#}} to specify a page number. This will display as "[9]:12" Use {{r\|refname\|p#, #}} or {{r\|refname\|p#–#}}to specify a range page number(s). This will display as "[9]:12, 14" or "[9]:12–14", respectively See the Talk page for more information on list-defined references. Thanks! --> {{Reflist\|30em\|refs<ref nameAtlakvitha>{{Cite web \|titleAtlakvitha en Grönlenzka\|trans-titleThe Greenland Lay of Atli \|urlhttp://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/poe/poe34.htm \|workThe Poetic Edda \|publisherInternet Sacred Text Archive \|access-date20 May 2014 \|translatorBellows, Henry Adams \|translator-linkHenry Adams Bellows (businessman) \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140409212740/http://sacred-texts.com/neu/poe/poe34.htm \|archive-date9 April 2014 \|year1936 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> <ref nameBabcock>{{Cite book \|lastBabcock \|firstMichael A. \|titleThe Night Attila Died: Solving the Murder of Attila the Hun \|year2005 \|publisherBerkley Books \|isbn978-0-425-20272-2 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/nightattiladieds00babc }}</ref> <ref nameBakker>{{Cite web \|lastBakker \|firstMarco \|titleAttila the Hun \|urlhttp://www.reportret.info/gallery/attilathehun1.html \|workGallery of reconstructed portraits \|publisherReportret \|access-date9 March 2013}}</ref><!-- archive unavailable --> <ref nameBiliarsky>{{Cite book \|lastBiliarsky \|firstIvan \|date2013 \|titleThe Tale of the Prophet Isaiah: The Destiny and Meanings of an Apocryphal Text \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idmbevAAAAQBAJ \|publisherBrill \|pages255–257 \|isbn978-90-04-25438-1}}</ref> <ref nameBona>{{Cite book \|lastBóna \|firstIstván \|titleLes Huns: le grand empire barbare d'Europe (IVe–Ve siècles) \|trans-titleThe Huns: The Great Empire of Barbaric Europe IVth–Vth Century \|date8 April 2002 \|publisherErrance \|locationParis \|pages15 \|isbn978-2-87772-223-0 \|othersEscher, Katalin (translation of the Hungarian) \|languagefr}}</ref> <ref nameChadwick>{{Cite book \|lastChadwick \|firstHector Munro \|author-linkHector Munro Chadwick \|titleThe Heroic Age \|publisherCambridge University Press \|locationLondon \|year1926 \|page=39, n&nbsp;1}}</ref> <ref name"Cooper">{{cite book \|first1Alan D \|last1Cooper \|titleThe Geography of Genocide \|date2008 \|isbn978-0-7618-4097-8 \|publisher=University Press of America}}</ref> <ref nameDerSpiegel>{{Cite magazine \|titleAttilas Schwert über Oesterreich: Mit ferngelenktem "New Look" \|volume45 \|urlhttp://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-44419693.html \|magazineVol. 45/1948 \|publisherDer Spiegel \|access-date20 May 2014 \|languagede \|formatOnline \|date6 November 1948 \|trans-titleAttila's Sword over Austria: With remote-controlled "New Look" \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140520220209/http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-44419693.html \|archive-date20 May 2014 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> <ref nameDeschodt>{{Cite book \|lastDeschodt \|firstÉric \|titleFolio Biographies (Book 13): Attila \|date1 May 2006 \|publisherÉditions Gallimard \|locationParis \|isbn978-2-07-030903-0 \|page24 \|languagefr}}</ref> <ref nameDoerfer>{{cite journal \|lastDoerfer \|firstGerhard \|titleZur Sprache der Hunnen \|journalCentral Asiatic Journal \|volume17 \|issue1 \|pages1–50 \|year=1973 }}</ref> <ref nameDupuy>{{Cite book \|last1Dupuy \|first1R. Ernest \|titleThe Harper Encyclopedia of Military History: From 3500 BC to the Present \|dateMarch 1993 \|publisherHarperCollins \|isbn978-0-06-270056-8 \|page[https://archive.org/details/harperencycloped0000dupu/page/189 189] \|edition4th \|last2Dupuy \|first2Trevor N. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/harperencycloped0000dupu/page/189 }}</ref> <ref nameFillitz>{{Cite book \|lastFillitz \|firstHermann \|titleDie Schatzkammer in Wien: Symbole abendländischen Kaisertums \|year1986 \|publisherResidenz \|locationSalzburg \|isbn978-3-7017-0443-9 \|languagede \|trans-titleThe Vault in Vienna: Symbols of Occidental Imperial Rule \|urlhttp://www.chicagohungarians.com/radics/Origin2a.htm \|access-date10 March 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130602155719/http://www.chicagohungarians.com/radics/Origin2a.htm \|archive-date2 June 2013 \|url-status=live }}</ref> <ref nameGeary>{{Cite book \|lastGeary \|firstPatrick J. \|author-linkPatrick J. Geary \|titleLiving with the Dead in the Middle Ages \|date28 October 1994 \|publisherCornell University Press \|isbn978-0-8014-8098-0 \|page63 \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6z9p464GbZgC&pgPA63 \|chapter=Chapter 3. Germanic Tradition and Royal Ideology in the Ninth Century: The Visio Karoli Magni}}</ref> <ref nameGibbon>{{Cite book \|lastGibbon \|firstEdward \|titleHistory of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire \|othersMilman, Rev. H. H. (notes) \|year1776–1789 \|publisherStrahan & Cadell \|locationLondon \|urlhttp://www.gutenberg.org/files/733/733-h/733-h.htm#link352HCH0001 \|access-date20 May 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130327115248/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/733/733-h/733-h.htm#link352HCH0001 \|archive-date27 March 2013 \|url-status=live }}</ref> <ref nameGiven>{{Cite book \|lastGiven \|firstJohn \|titleThe Fragmentary History of Priscus: Attila, the Huns and the Roman Empire, AD 430–476. \|date2014 \|publisherArx Publishing \|isbn978-1-935228-14-1 \|typePaperback}}</ref> <ref nameGolden>{{Cite book \|lastGolden \|firstPeter Benjamin \|author-linkPeter Benjamin Golden \|date1992 \|titleAn introduction to the History of the Turkic peoples: ethnogenesis and state formation in medieval and early modern Eurasia and the Middle East \|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/12545004 \|publisherOtto Harrassowitz \|placeWiesbaden \|isbn978-3-447-03274-2}}</ref> <ref nameGoyau>{{Cite book \|lastGoyau \|firstGeorges \|author-linkGeorges Goyau \|titleThe Catholic Encyclopedia vol. 15 \|year1912 \|publisherRobert Appleton Company \|locationNew York \|chapter-urlhttp://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15067a.htm \|chapterTroyes \|access-date19 May 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140525134819/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15067a.htm \|archive-date25 May 2014 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> <ref nameGrousset>{{Cite book \|lastGrousset \|firstRene \|titleThe Empire of the Steppes \|publisherRutgers University Press \|year1970 \|isbn978-0-8135-1304-1 \|pages[https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/38 38] \|url=https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/38 }}</ref> <ref nameHaas>{{Cite web \|lastHaas \|firstChristopher \|urlhttp://www29.homepage.villanova.edu/christopher.haas/embassy.htm \|titleEmbassy to Attila: Priscus of Panium \|publisherVillanova University \|access-date18 May 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140221065932/http://www29.homepage.villanova.edu/christopher.haas/embassy.htm \|archive-date21 February 2014 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> <ref nameHarvey>{{cite book \|last1Harvey \|first1Bonnie \|titleAttila the Hun (Ancient World Leaders) \|date2003 \|publisherInfobase Publishing \|asinB01FJ1LTIQ \|orig-year1st Published in 1821 by Chelsea House Publications}}</ref> <ref nameHodgkin>{{Cite book \|lastHodgkin \|firstThomas \|author-linkThomas Hodgkin (historian) \|titleItaly and Her Invaders: 376–476. \|volumeII. Book 2. The Hunnish Invasion; Book 3. The Vandal Invasion and the Herulian Mutiny \|year2011 \|publisherAdegi Graphics LLC \|locationNew York \|isbn978-0-543-95157-1}}</ref> <ref nameHowarth>{{Cite book \|lastHowarth \|firstPatrick \|titleAttila, King of the Huns: The Man and The Myth \|year1995 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/attilakingofhuns0000howa_s0a2 \|url-accessregistration \|publisherBarnes & Noble Books \|isbn978-0-7607-0033-4 \|pages[https://archive.org/details/attilakingofhuns0000howa_s0a2/page/36 36]–37}}</ref> <ref nameInnes>{{Cite book \|lastInnes \|firstMatthew \|author-linkMatthew Innes \|titleThe Uses of the Past in the Early Middle Ages \|year2000 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn978-0-521-63998-9 \|page[https://archive.org/details/usesofpastinearl00heny/page/245 245] \|editorHen, Yitzhak \|editor-linkYitzhak Hen \|editor2Innes, Matthew \|url=https://archive.org/details/usesofpastinearl00heny/page/245 }}</ref> <ref nameJordanes>{{Cite book \|authorJordanes \|author-linkJordanes \|translator-lastMierow \|translator-firstCharles Christopher\|date1908 \|urlhttp://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/14809 \|titleThe Origin and Deeds of the Goths \|publisherPrinceton University \|placePrinceton \|viaProject Gutenberg \|access-date24 November 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160119205648/http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/14809 \|archive-date19 January 2016 \|url-status=live }}</ref> <ref nameKim>{{Cite book \|authorHyun Jin Kim \|year2013 \|titleThe Huns, Rome and the Birth of Europe \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjCpncXFzoFgC \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn978-1-107-00906-6}}</ref> <ref nameKirsch>{{Cite book \|lastKirsch \|firstJohann Peter \|author-linkJohann Peter Kirsch \|titleThe Catholic Encyclopedia vol. 9 \|year1910 \|publisherRobert Appleton Company \|locationNew York \|chapter-urlhttp://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09154b.htm \|chapterPope St. Leo I (the Great) \|access-date20 May 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140701235354/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09154b.htm \|archive-date1 July 2014 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> <ref nameLebedynsky:Campaign>{{Cite book \|lastLebedynsky \|firstIaroslav \|titleLa campagne d'Attila en Gaule \|trans-titleThe Campaign of Attila in Gaul \|year2011 \|publisherLemme edit \|locationClermont-Ferrand \|isbn978-2-917575-21-5 \|author-linkIaroslav Lebedynsky \|language=fr}}</ref> <ref nameLebedynsky:Report>{{Cite book \|last1Lebedynsky \|first1Iaroslav \|author-linkIaroslav Lebedynsky \|last2Escher \|first2Katalin \|titleLe dossier Attila \|trans-titleThe Attila Report \|date1 December 2007 \|publisherEditions Errance \|isbn978-2-87772-364-0 \|languagefr \|type=Paperback}}</ref> <ref nameLehmann>{{cite book\|lastLehmann \|firstW. \|titleA Gothic Etymological Dictionary \|year1986 \|locationLeiden}}</ref> <ref nameMaenchen-Helfen>{{Cite book \|lastMaenchen-Helfen \|firstOtto \|author-linkOtto J. Maenchen-Helfen \|dateAugust 1973 \|titleThe World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/bub_gb_CrUdgzSICxcC_2 \|publisherUniversity of California Press \|isbn=978-0-520-01596-8}}</ref> <ref nameMan>{{Cite book \|lastMan \|firstJohn \|author-linkJohn Man (author) \|titleAttila: the Barbarian King Who Challenged Rome \|year2009 \|publisherThomas Dunne Books/St. Martin's Press \|locationNew York \|isbn978-0-312-53939-9 \|page264}}</ref> <ref nameMartin>{{Cite book \|titleA Dictionary of World History \|dateDecember 2006 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-19-920247-8 \|page41 \|edition2nd \|editorMartin, Elizabeth \|quote=The invasion, which was likened to the action of Attila the Hun, put into effect Turkey's scheme for the partition of Cyprus (Atilla Plan).}}</ref> <ref nameNehru>{{Cite book \|lastNehru \|firstJawaharlal \|author-linkJawaharlal Nehru \|titleGlimpses of World History \|year1934 \|publisherPenguin Books India \|locationLondon \|isbn978-0-14-303105-5 \|page919 \|publication-date=30 March 2004}}</ref> <ref nameOakeshott>{{Cite book \|lastOakeshott \|firstEwart \|author-linkEwart Oakeshott \|titleEuropean Weapons and Armour: From the Renaissance to the Industrial Revolution \|date17 May 2012 \|publisherBoydell Press \|locationWoodbridge, UK \|isbn978-1-84383-720-6 \|page151 \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNkD86JPgCS4C&pgPA151 \|chapterChapter Eight. The Curved and Single-Edged Swords of the Sixteenth Century}}</ref> <ref namePeterson>{{Cite book \|lastPeterson \|firstJohn Bertram \|titleThe Catholic Encyclopedia vol. 2 \|year1907 \|publisherRobert Appleton Company \|locationNew York \|chapter-urlhttp://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02061b.htm \|author-linkJohn Bertram Peterson \|access-date18 May 2014 \|chapterAttila \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140707095032/http://newadvent.org/cathen/02061b.htm \|archive-date7 July 2014 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> <ref namePritsak>{{Cite journal \|lastPritsak \|firstOmeljan \|titleThe Hunnic Language of the Attila Clan \|journalHarvard Ukrainian Studies \|dateDecember 1982 \|volumeVI \|issue4 \|pages428–476 \|urlhttp://www.huri.harvard.edu/images/pdf/hus_volumes/vVI_n4_dec1982.pdf \|access-date18 May 2014 \|author-linkOmeljan Pritsak \|issn0363-5570 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140203165626/http://www.huri.harvard.edu/images/pdf/hus_volumes/vVI_n4_dec1982.pdf \|archive-date3 February 2014 \|url-statusdead }}</ref><!-- No archive available. --> <ref nameRobinson>{{Cite web \|lastRobinson \|firstJames Harvey \|author-linkJames Harvey Robinson \|urlhttp://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/attila2.html \|titleMedieval Sourcebook: Leo I and Attila \|publisherFordham University \|dateJanuary 1996 \|access-date20 May 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140128165207/http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/source/attila2.asp \|archive-date28 January 2014 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> <ref nameRona-Tas>{{Cite book \|lastRóna-Tas \|firstAndrás \|author-linkAndrás Róna-Tas \|titleHungarians and Europe in the Early Middle Ages: An Introduction to Early Hungarian History \|year1999 \|publisherCentral European University Press \|locationBudapest \|isbn978-963-9116-48-1 \|page425 \|othersBodoczky, Nicholas (translator) \|chapterChapter XIV. Historical Traditions, Attila and the Hunnish-Magyar Kinship}}</ref> <ref nameRouche>{{Cite book \|lastRouche \|firstMichel \|titleAttila: la violence nomade \|date3 July 2009 \|publisherFayard \|location[Paris] \|isbn978-2-213-60777-1 \|languagefr \|typePaperback \|trans-title=Attila: the Nomadic Violence}}</ref> <ref nameSavelyev>{{cite journal \| last1Savelyev \| first1Alexander \| last2Jeong \| first2Choongwon \| titleEarly nomads of the Eastern Steppe and their tentative connections in the West \| journalEvolutionary Human Sciences \| publisherCambridge University Press (CUP) \| volume2 \| year2020 \| issn2513-843X \| doi10.1017/ehs.2020.18\| pmid35663512 \| pmc7612788 \| doi-access=free }}</ref> <ref nameSchreiber>{{Cite book \|lastSchreiber \|firstHermann \|titleDie Hunnen: Attila probt den Weltuntergang \|year1976 \|publisherEcon \|locationDüsseldorf \|isbn978-3-430-18045-0 \|page314 \|languagede \|typeHardcover \|trans-titleThe Huns: Attila Rehearses the End of the World}}</ref> <ref nameSinor>{{Cite book \|lastSinor \|firstDenis\|author-linkDenis Sinor \|date1990 \|titleThe Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idST6TRNuWmHsC \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn978-0-521-24304-9}}</ref> <ref nameSnaedal>{{Cite journal \|lastSnædal \|firstMagnús \|titleAttila \|date2015 \|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/15210847 \|journalStudia Etymologica Cracoviensia \|volume20 \|issue3 \|pages211–219 \|formatPDF \|url-accessregistration }}</ref> <ref nameThayer>{{Cite book \|lastThayer \|firstAlexander Wheelock \|author-linkAlexander Wheelock Thayer\|titleThayer's Life of Beethoven \|orig-year1921 \|year1991 \|publisherPrinceton University Press \|isbn978-0-691-02717-3 \|page524 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idj8RIq67v51cC&pgPA524 \|editionRevised 1967 \|editorForbes, Elliot \|editor-linkElliot Forbes \|quote=...&nbsp;I could not refrain from the lively wish to possess an opera from your unique talent&nbsp;.... I should prefer&nbsp;one from the darker periods, Attila, etc., for instance,&nbsp;...}}</ref> <ref nameThompson>{{Cite book \|lastThompson \|firstEdward Arthur \|author-linkEdward Arthur Thompson \|titleThe Huns \|orig-year1948 \|year1999 \|publisherWiley-Blackwell \|locationOxford \|seriesPeoples of Europe Series \|isbn978-0-631-21443-4 \|url-accessregistration \|url=https://archive.org/details/hunspeoplesofeur00eath }}</ref> <ref nameVolsunga>{{Cite web \|titleVölsunga Saga \|urlhttp://www.northvegr.org/sagas%20annd%20epics/legendary%20heroic%20and%20imaginative%20sagas/volsunga%20saga/index.html \|publisherThe Northvegr Foundation \|access-date20 May 2014 \|translator1Morris, William \|translator1-linkWilliam Morris \|translator2Magnússon, Eiríkr \|translator2-linkEiríkr Magnússon \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130725102614/http://www.northvegr.org/sagas%20annd%20epics/legendary%20heroic%20and%20imaginative%20sagas/volsunga%20saga/index.html \|archive-date25 July 2013 \|formatOnline \|year1888 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> <!-- <ref nameVovin>{{Cite journal \|lastVovin \|firstAlexander \|year2000 \|titleDid the Xiongnu speak a Yeniseian language? \|journalCentral Asiatic Journal \|volume44 \|issue1 \|author-linkAlexander Vovin \|issn0008-9192 \|isbn978-3-447-09164-0\|title-linkXiongnu }}</ref> --> <ref nameWaldman>{{Cite book \|last1Waldman \|first1Carl \|titleEncyclopedia of European Peoples \|date1 April 2006 \|publisherFacts On File \|page393 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkfv6HKXErqAC&pgPA393 \|last2Mason \|first2Catherine \|isbn=978-0-8160-4964-6}}</ref> <ref nameWolfram>{{Cite book \|lastWolfram \|firstHerwig \|titleThe Roman Empire and its Germanic Peoples \|year1997 \|publisherUniversity of California Press \|isbn978-0-520-08511-4 \|page143 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtOnQDfRU-poC&pgPA143 \|edition1st \|author-linkHerwig Wolfram \|othersDunlap, Thomas (translator) \|access-date18 May 2014 \|typeHardcover}}</ref> }} Sources * {{Cite book \|lastFrazee \|firstCharles A. \|titleTwo Thousand Years Ago: the World at the Time of Jesus \|year2002 \|publisherWilliam B. Eerdmans Publishing Company \|isbn978-0-8028-4805-5}} * {{Cite book \|lastHeather \|firstPeter \|author-linkPeter Heather \|date2010 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgbUlnaHlHS0C&q228 \|titleEmpires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-19-975272-0}} * {{Cite book \|lastHeather \|firstPeter \|author-linkPeter Heather \|date2007 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMmXFrafifw0C \|titleThe Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-19-532541-6}} External links {{Commons category\|2Attila}} {{Wikiquote}} * {{Cite EB1911 \|wstitleAttila \|volume 2 \|last1Hodgkin \|first1 Thomas \|author1-linkThomas Hodgkin (historian)\|pages885-886 \|short=1}} * {{OL subject\|person:attila_(d._453)}} * [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/subject/14637 Works about Attila] at Project Gutenberg * {{Internet Archive author}} {{s-start}} {{s-reg}} {{s-bef\|before = Rugila}} {{s-ttl\|title Ruler of the Huns\|years 435–453}} {{s-aft\|after = Ellac}} {{s-end}} {{Huns}} {{The Dietrich von Bern Cycle}} {{German folklore}} {{Authority control}} Category:5th-century Hunnic kings Category:5th-century monarchs in Europe Category:400s births Category:453 deaths Category:Deaths from choking Category:Attilid dynasty Category:Characters in the Divine Comedy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attila	2025-04-05T18:25:23.651925
842	Aegean Sea	{{Short description\|Mediterranean between Greece and Turkey}} {{About\|\|the oil tanker Aegean Sea\|Aegean Sea oil spill\|the theme of the Byzantine Empire\|Aegean Sea (theme)}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=February 2020}} {{Infobox body of water \| name = Aegean Sea \| image = Aegean Sea map.png \| alt = Location of the Aegean Sea \| location = Mediterranean Sea \| type = Sea \| etymology = From Greek mythological character Aegeus \| basin_countries Greece, Turkey; North Macedonia, Serbia, Bulgaria (drainage basins for inflow rivers)<ref>{{cite report \|chapter-urlhttps://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/water/publications/assessment/English/J_PartIV_Chapter6_En.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/water/publications/assessment/English/J_PartIV_Chapter6_En.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|chapterDrainage Basin of the Mediterranean Sea \|titleSecond Assessment of Ocean\|publisherUNECE \|date = November 2011}}</ref> \| area {{convert\|214,000\|km2\|abbron}} \| caption = The location of the Aegean Sea \| coordinates {{coord\|39\|N\|25\|E\|type:waterbody_dim:500000\|displayinline,title}} \| inflow = Inachos, Ilisos, Spercheios, Pineios, Haliacmon, Vardar, Struma, Nestos, Maritsa \| islands = 150+ \| length {{convert\|700\|km\|abbron}} \| outflow = Mediterranean Sea \| width {{convert\|400\|km\|abbron}} \| cities = Alexandroupolis, Athens, Ayvalık, Bodrum, Çanakkale, Çeşme, Chania, Didim, Heraklion, İzmir, Kavala, Kuşadası, Nafplio, Thessaloniki, Volos \| max-depth 2,639 m (8,658 feet)<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://data.europa.eu/data/datasets/emodnet_bathymetry?localeen \|titleEMODnet Digital Bathymetry (DTM) \|publisherEuropean Union \|accessdate23 September 2022 \|archive-date23 September 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220923145943/https://data.europa.eu/data/datasets/emodnet_bathymetry?localeen \|url-statuslive }}</ref> <!-- Map --> \| pushpin_map = Aegean Sea }} ]] The Aegean Sea{{efn\|{{IPAc-en\|i\|ˈ\|dʒ\|iː\|ə\|n\|audioen-us-Aegean.ogg}}, {{respell\|ee\|JEE\|ən}}; {{langx\|el\|Αιγαίο Πέλαγος\|Eyéo Pélagos}} {{IPA\|el\|eˈʝeo ˈpelaɣos\|\|Ell-Aigaio Pelagos.ogg}}; {{langx\|tr\|Ege Denizi}} {{IPA\|tr\|eˈɟe deniˈzi\|}}}} is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea between Europe and Asia. It is located between the Balkans and Anatolia, and covers an area of some {{Convert\|215,000\|km2\|sqmi\|abbron}}.<ref name":0">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/place/Aegean-Sea \|titleAegean Sea {{!}} Mediterranean Sea \|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica \|access-date14 June 2019 \|archive-date28 May 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230528110411/https://www.britannica.com/place/Aegean-Sea \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In the north, the Aegean is connected to the Marmara Sea, which in turn connects to the Black Sea, by the straits of the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, respectively. The Aegean Islands are located within the sea and some bound it on its southern periphery, including Crete and Rhodes. The sea reaches a maximum depth of 2,639 m (8,658 ft) to the west of Karpathos. The Thracian Sea and the Sea of Crete are main subdivisions of the Aegean Sea. The Aegean Islands can be divided into several island groups, including the Dodecanese, the Cyclades, the Sporades, the Saronic islands and the North Aegean Islands, as well as Crete and its surrounding islands. The Dodecanese, located to the southeast, includes the islands of Rhodes, Kos, and Patmos; the islands of Delos and Naxos are within the Cyclades to the south of the sea. Lesbos is part of the North Aegean Islands. Euboea, the second-largest island in Greece, is located in the Aegean, despite being administered as part of Central Greece. Nine out of twelve of the Administrative regions of Greece border the sea, along with the Turkish provinces of Edirne, Çanakkale, Balıkesir, İzmir, Aydın and Muğla to the east of the sea. Various Turkish islands in the sea are Imbros, Tenedos, Cunda Island, and the Foça Islands. The Aegean Sea has been historically important, especially regarding the civilization of Ancient Greece, which inhabited the area around the coast of the Aegean and the Aegean islands. The Aegean islands facilitated contact between the people of the area and between Europe and Asia. Along with the Greeks, Thracians lived along the northern coasts. The Romans conquered the area under the Roman Empire, and later the Byzantine Empire held it against advances by the First Bulgarian Empire. The Fourth Crusade weakened Byzantine control of the area, and it was eventually conquered by the Ottoman Empire, with the exception of Crete, which was a Venetian colony until 1669. The Greek War of Independence allowed a Greek state on the coast of the Aegean from 1829 onwards. The Ottoman Empire held a presence over the sea for over 500 years until it was replaced by modern Turkey. The rocks making up the floor of the Aegean are mainly limestone, though often greatly altered by volcanic activity that has convulsed the region in relatively recent geologic times. Of particular interest are the richly colored sediments in the region of the islands of Santorini and Milos, in the south Aegean.<ref name=":0" /> Notable cities on the Aegean coastline include Athens, Thessaloniki, Volos, Kavala, and Heraklion in Greece, and İzmir and Bodrum in Turkey. Several issues concerning sovereignty within the Aegean Sea are disputed between Greece and Turkey. The Aegean dispute has had a large effect on Greece-Turkey relations since the 1970s. Issues include the delimitation of territorial waters, national airspace, exclusive economic zones, and flight information regions.<ref>{{cite web \|titleThe Greco -Turkish dispute over the Aegean Sea \|publisherIndian Council of World Affairs (Government of India) \|urlhttps://www.icwa.in/show_content.php?lang1&level1&ls_id8622&lid5627 \|access-date14 January 2024 \|archive-date28 February 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240228132826/https://www.icwa.in/show_content.php?lang1&level1&ls_id8622&lid5627 \|url-statuslive }}</ref>Name and etymology The name Aegaeus, used by Late Latin authors, referred to Aegeus, who was said to have jumped into that sea to drown himself (rather than throw himself from the Athenian acropolis, as told by some Greek authors). He was the father of Theseus, the mythical king and founder-hero of Athens. Aegeus had told Theseus to put up white sails when returning if he was successful in killing the Minotaur. When Theseus returned, he forgot these instructions, and Aegeus thought his son had died, so he drowned himself in the sea.<ref>Hyginus, Fab. 43; Serv. Verg. A. 3.74; Scriptores rerum mythicarum Latini, ed. Bode, i. p. 117 (Second Vatican Mythographer 125).</ref> The sea was known in Latin as Mare Aegaeum while under the control of the Roman Empire. The Venetians, who ruled many Greek islands in the High and Late Middle Ages, popularized the name Archipelago ({{langx\|el\|αρχιπέλαγος}}, meaning "main sea" or "chief sea"), a name that held on in many European countries until the early modern period. In South Slavic languages, the Aegean is called White Sea ({{langx\|bg\|Бяло море\|Byalo more}}; {{langx\|mk\|Бело море\|Belo more}}; {{lang-sh-Latn-Cyrl\|separator" / "\|Belo more\|Бело море}}).<ref>Zbornik Matice srpske za društvene nauke: (1961), Volumes 28–31, [https://books.google.com/books?idGwIdAQAAMAAJ p.74] {{in lang\|sr}}</ref> The Turkish name for the sea is Ege Denizi, which is derived from the Greek name, and Adalar Denizi meaning "Sea of Islands". Geography The Aegean Sea is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea and covers about {{convert\|214000\|km2}} in area, measuring about {{convert\|670\|km}} longitudinally and {{convert\|390\|km}} latitudinal. The sea's maximum depth is {{convert\|2639\|m}}, located at a point west of Karpathos. The Aegean Islands are found within its waters, with the following islands delimiting the sea on the south, generally from west to east: Kythera, Antikythera, Crete, Kasos, Karpathos and Rhodes. The Anatolian peninsula marks the eastern boundary of the sea, while the Greek mainland marks the west. Several seas are contained within the Aegean Sea; the Thracian Sea is a section of the Aegean located to the north, the Icarian Sea to the east, the Myrtoan Sea to the west, while the Sea of Crete is the southern section. The Greek regions that border the sea, in alphabetical order, are Attica, Central Greece, Central Macedonia, Crete, Eastern Macedonia and Thrace, North Aegean, Peloponnese, South Aegean, and Thessaly. The traditional Greek region of Macedonia also borders the sea, to the north. The Aegean Islands, which almost all belong to Greece, can be divided into seven groups: # Northeastern Aegean Islands, which lie in the Thracian Sea<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/place/Aegean-Sea#ref170179\|titleAegean Sea {{!}} Mediterranean Sea\|workEncyclopædia Britannica\|access-date18 October 2017\|languageen\|archive-date28 May 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230528110411/https://www.britannica.com/place/Aegean-Sea#ref170179\|url-statuslive}}</ref> # East Aegean Islands (Euboea) # Northern Sporades # Cyclades # Saronic Islands (or Argo-Saronic Islands) # Dodecanese (or Southern Sporades)<ref>Administratively, the Greek Dodecanese also contains Kastellorizo, situated further east outside the Aegean proper.</ref> # Crete Many of the Aegean islands or island chains, are geographical extensions of the mountains on the mainland. One chain extends across the sea to Chios, another extends across Euboea to Samos, and a third extends across the Peloponnese and Crete to Rhodes, dividing the Aegean from the Mediterranean. The bays and gulfs of the Aegean beginning at the South and moving clockwise include on Crete, the Mirabello, Almyros, Souda and Chania bays or gulfs, on the mainland the Myrtoan Sea to the west with the Argolic Gulf, the Saronic Gulf northwestward, the Petalies Gulf which connects with the South Euboic Sea, the Pagasetic Gulf which connects with the North Euboic Sea, the Thermian Gulf northwestward, the Chalkidiki Peninsula including the Cassandra and the Singitic Gulfs, northward the Strymonian Gulf and the Gulf of Kavala and the rest are in Turkey; Saros Gulf, Edremit Gulf, Dikili Gulf, Gulf of Çandarlı, Gulf of İzmir, Gulf of Kuşadası, Gulf of Gökova, Güllük Gulf. The Aegean Sea is connected to the Sea of Marmara by the Dardanelles, also known from Classical Antiquity as the Hellespont. The Dardanelles are located to the northeast of the sea. It ultimately connects with the Black Sea through the Bosporus strait, upon which lies the city of Istanbul. The Dardanelles and the Bosporus are known as the Turkish Straits. Extent According to the International Hydrographic Organization, the limits of the Aegean Sea as follows:<ref name"iho">{{cite web\|urlhttps://iho.int/uploads/user/pubs/standards/s-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf#page20\|titleLimits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition\|formatPDF\|year1953\|publisherInternational Hydrographic Organization\|access-date20 October 2021\|page18\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111008191433/http://www.iho.int/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf#page20\|archive-date8 October 2011}}</ref> * On the south: A line running from Cape Aspro (28°16′E) in Asia Minor, to Cum Burnù (Capo della Sabbia) the Northeast extreme of the Island of Rhodes, through the island to Cape Prasonisi, the Southwest point thereof, on to Vrontos Point (35°33′N) in Skarpanto <nowiki>[</nowiki>Karpathos<nowiki>]</nowiki>, through this island to Castello Point, the South extreme thereof, across to Cape Plaka (East extremity of Crete), through Crete to Agria Grabusa, the Northwest extreme thereof, thence to Cape Apolytares in Antikythera Island, through the island to Psira Rock (off the Northwest point) and across to Cape Trakhili in Kythira Island, through Kythira to the Northwest point (Cape Karavugia) and thence to Cape Santa Maria ({{coord\|36\|28\|N\|22\|57\|E\|display=inline}}) in the Morea. * In the Dardanelles: A line joining Kum Kale (26°11′E) and Cape Helles. Hydrography Aegean surface water circulates in a counterclockwise gyre, with hypersaline Mediterranean water moving northward along the west coast of Turkey, before being displaced by less dense Black Sea outflow. The dense Mediterranean water sinks below the Black Sea inflow to a depth of {{convert\|23\|-\|30\|m}}, then flows through the Dardanelles Strait and into the Sea of Marmara at velocities of {{cvt\|5\|-\|15\|cm/s\|in/s\|0}}. The Black Sea outflow moves westward along the northern Aegean Sea, then flows southwards along the east coast of Greece.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Aksu \|first1A.E. \|last2Yaşar \|first2D. \|last3Mudie \|first3P.J. \|last4Gillespie \|first4H. \|titleLate glacial-Holocene paleoclimatic and paleoceanographic evolution of the Aegean Sea: micropaleontological and stable isotopic evidence \|journalMarine Micropaleontology \|dateApril 1995 \|volume25 \|issue1 \|pages1–28 \|doi10.1016/0377-8398(94)00026-J \|bibcode1995MarMP..25....1A }}</ref> The physical oceanography of the Aegean Sea is controlled mainly by the regional climate, the fresh water discharge from major rivers draining southeastern Europe, and the seasonal variations in the Black Sea surface water outflow through the Dardanelles Strait. Analysis<ref>Yagar, D., 1994. Late glacial-Holocene evolution of the Aegean Sea. Ph.D. Thesis, Inst. Mar. Sci. Technol., Dokuz Eyltil Univ., 329 pp. (Unpubl.){{unreliable source?\|date=December 2020}}</ref> of the Aegean during 1991 and 1992 revealed three distinct water masses: * Aegean Sea Surface Water&nbsp;– {{convert\|40\|-\|50\|m}} thick veneer, with summer temperatures of 21–26&nbsp;°C and winter temperatures ranging from {{convert\|10\|°C}} in the north to {{convert\|16\|°C}} in the south. * Aegean Sea Intermediate Water&nbsp;– Aegean Sea Intermediate Water extends from {{convert\|40\|-\|50\|m\|abbron}} to {{convert\|200\|-\|300\|m\|abbron}} with temperatures ranging from {{convert\|11\|-\|18\|C}}. * Aegean Sea Bottom Water&nbsp;– occurring at depths below {{convert\|500\|-\|1000\|m\|abbron}} with a very uniform temperature ({{convert\|13\|-\|14\|C}}) and salinity (3.91–3.92%).Climate The climate of the Aegean Sea largely reflects the climate of Greece and Western Turkey, which is to say, predominantly Mediterranean. According to the Köppen climate classification, most of the Aegean is classified as Hot-summer Mediterranean (Csa), with hotter and drier summers along with milder and wetter winters. However, high temperatures during summers are generally not quite as high as those in arid or semiarid climates due to the presence of a large body of water. This is most predominant in the west and east coasts of the Aegean, and within the Aegean islands. In the north of the Aegean Sea, the climate is instead classified as Cold semi-arid (BSk), which feature cooler summers than Hot-summer Mediterranean climates. The Etesian winds are a dominant weather influence in the Aegean Basin. The below table lists climate conditions of some major Aegean cities: {\| class="wikitable" \|+Climate characteristics of some major cities on the Aegean coast ! rowspan="3" \|City ! colspan="4" \|Mean temperature (daily high) ! colspan="6" \|Mean total rainfall \|- ! colspan="2" \|January ! colspan="2" \|July ! colspan="3" \|January ! colspan="3" \|July \|- !°C !°F !°C !°F !mm !in !days !mm !in !days \|- \|Alexandroupolis \|8.4 \|47.1 \|30.1 \|86.2 \|60.4 \|2.38 \|6.8 \|17.6 \|0.69 \|2.5 \|- \|Bodrum \|15.1 \|59.2 \|34.2 \|93.6 \|134.1 \|5.28 \|12.3 \|1.3 \|0.05 \|1.5 \|- \|Heraklion \|15.2 \|59.4 \|28.6 \|83.5 \|91.5 \|3.6 \|10.1 \|1.0 \|0.04 \|0.1 \|- \|İzmir \|12.4 \|54.3 \|33.2 \|91.8 \|132.7 \|5.22 \|12.6 \|1.7 \|0.07 \|0.4 \|- \|Thessaloniki \|9.3 \|48.7 \|32.5 \|90.5 \|35.2 \|1.39 \|8.8 \|27.3 \|1.07 \|3.8 \|- \| colspan"11" \|Source: World Meteorological Organization,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://worldweather.wmo.int/europe.htm\|titleWorld Weather Information Service – Europe\|websiteworldweather.wmo.int\|access-date16 June 2019\|archive-date25 November 2005\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051125063413/https://worldweather.wmo.int/europe.htm\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Turkish State Meteorological Service<ref>[https://www.mgm.gov.tr/veridegerlendirme/il-ve-ilceler-istatistik.aspx?mIZMIR "Resmi İstatistikler: İllerimize Ait Genel İstatistik Verileri"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190416120845/https://www.mgm.gov.tr/veridegerlendirme/il-ve-ilceler-istatistik.aspx?mIZMIR \|date16 April 2019 }} (in Turkish). Turkish State Meteorological Service. Retrieved 4 May 2019.</ref> \|} Population Numerous Greek and Turkish settlements are located along their mainland coast, as well as on towns on the Aegean islands. The largest cities are Athens and Thessaloniki in Greece and İzmir in Turkey. The most populated of the Aegean islands is Crete, followed by Euboea and Rhodes.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastCoughlin \|firstTara \|title10 Largest Islands in Greece \|urlhttps://www.touropia.com/largest-islands-in-greece/ \|access-date2024-06-12 \|websiteTouropia \|languageen-US \|archive-date22 February 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240222150629/https://www.touropia.com/largest-islands-in-greece/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> {\|class"wikitable" style"text-align:center; margin-right:10px; font-size:90%" \|+Most populous urban areas on the Aegean coast ! style="text-align:center; background:#f5f5f5;"\|Rank ! style="text-align:center; background:#f5f5f5;"\|City ! style="text-align:center; background:#f5f5f5;"\|Country ! style="text-align:center; background:#f5f5f5;"\|Region/County ! style="text-align:center; background:#f5f5f5;"\|Population (urban) \|- \| style"text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"\|1\|\|alignleft\|Athens\|\|Greece\|\|Central Greece\|\|3,090,508 \|- \| style"text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"\|2\|\|alignleft\|İzmir\|\|Turkey\|\|İzmir Province\|\|2,948,609 \|- \| style"text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"\|3\|\|alignleft\|Thessaloniki\|\|Greece\|\|Macedonia\|\|824,676 \|- \| style"text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"\|4\|\|alignleft\|Bodrum\|\|Turkey\|\|Muğla Province\|\|198,335 \|- \| style"text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"\|5\|\|alignleft\|Çanakkale\|\|Turkey\|\|Çanakkale Province\|\|182,389 \|- \| style"text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"\|6\|\|alignleft\|Heraklion\|\|Greece\|\|Crete\|\|173,993 \|- \| style"text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"\|7\|\|alignleft\|Volos\|\|Greece\|\|Thessaly\|\|144,449 \|- \| style"text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"\|8\|\|alignleft\|Kuşadası\|\|Turkey\|\|Aydın Province\|\|133,177 \|- \| style"text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"\|9\|\|alignleft\|Chania\|\|Greece\|\|Crete\|\|108,642 \|- \| style"text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"\|10\|\|alignleft\|Didim\|\|Turkey\|\|Aydın Province\|\|100,189 \|} {{clear}} Biogeography and ecology Protected areas Greece has established several marine protected areas along its coasts. According to the Network of Managers of Marine Protected Areas in the Mediterranean (MedPAN), four Greek MPAs are participating in the Network. These include Alonnisos Marine Park, while the Missolonghi–Aitoliko Lagoons and the island of Zakynthos are not on the Aegean.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.mpatlas.org/region/country/GRC/\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180911105630/http://mpatlas.org/region/country/GRC/\|url-statusdead\|archive-date11 September 2018\|titleMPAtlas » Greece\|websitewww.mpatlas.org\|access-date16 June 2019}}</ref>HistoryAncient history (2800–2300 BC)]] The current coastline dates back to about 4000&nbsp;BC. Before that time, at the peak of the last ice age (about 18,000 years ago) sea levels everywhere were {{Convert\|130\|m}} lower, and there were large well-watered coastal plains instead of much of the northern Aegean. When they were first occupied, the present-day islands including Milos with its important obsidian production were probably still connected to the mainland. The present coastal arrangement appeared around 9,000 years ago, with post-ice age sea levels continuing to rise for another 3,000 years after that.<ref>{{cite journal\|author1Tjeerd H. van Andel \|author2Judith C. Shackleton \|titleLate Paleolithic and Mesolithic Coastlines of Greece and the Aegean\|journalJournal of Field Archaeology \|volume9\|issue4\|dateWinter 1982\|pages445–454\|jstor529681 \|doi10.1179/009346982791504454}}</ref> The subsequent Bronze Age civilizations of Greece and the Aegean Sea have given rise to the general term Aegean civilization. In ancient times, the sea was the birthplace of two ancient civilizations&nbsp;– the Minoans of Crete and the Mycenaeans of the Peloponnese.<ref>Tracey Cullen, Aegean Prehistory: A Review (American Journal of Archaeology. Supplement, 1); Oliver Dickinson, The Aegean Bronze Age (Cambridge World Archaeology).</ref> The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age civilization on the island of Crete and other Aegean islands, flourishing from around 3000 to 1450 BC before a period of decline, finally ending at around 1100 BC. It represented the first advanced civilization in Europe, leaving behind massive building complexes, tools, stunning artwork, writing systems, and a massive network of trade.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195389661/obo-9780195389661-0071.xml;jsessionid34C7E22759BF3739960486FE75375115\|titleAncient Crete – Classics \|websiteOxford Bibliographies \|languageen \|doi10.1093/obo/9780195389661-0071 \|first1Angelos \|last1Chaniotis \|first2Antonis \|last2Kotsonas \|access-date17 June 2019 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190617030905/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195389661/obo-9780195389661-0071.xml;jsessionid34C7E22759BF3739960486FE75375115 \|archive-date= 17 June 2019 }}</ref> The Minoan period saw extensive trade between Crete, Aegean, and Mediterranean settlements, particularly the Near East. The most notable Minoan palace is that of Knossos, followed by that of Phaistos. The Mycenaean Greeks arose on the mainland, becoming the first advanced civilization in mainland Greece, which lasted from approximately 1600 to 1100 BC. It is believed that the site of Mycenae, which sits close to the Aegean coast, was the center of Mycenaean civilization. The Mycenaeans introduced several innovations in the fields of engineering, architecture and military infrastructure, while trade over vast areas of the Mediterranean, including the Aegean, was essential for the Mycenaean economy. Their syllabic script, the Linear B, offers the first written records of the Greek language and their religion already included several deities that can also be found in the Olympic Pantheon. Mycenaean Greece was dominated by a warrior elite society and consisted of a network of palace-centered states that developed rigid hierarchical, political, social and economic systems. At the head of this society was the king, known as wanax. The civilization of Mycenaean Greeks perished with the collapse of Bronze Age culture in the eastern Mediterranean, to be followed by the so-called Greek Dark Ages. It is undetermined what cause the collapse of the Mycenaeans. During the Greek Dark Ages, writing in the Linear B script ceased, vital trade links were lost, and towns and villages were abandoned. Ancient Greece {{See also\|Ancient Greece}} ]] , a Roman structure in important sea port Ephesus]] The Archaic period followed the Greek Dark Ages in the 8th century BC. Greece became divided into small self-governing communities, and adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. By the 6th century BC several cities had emerged as dominant in Greek affairs: Athens, Sparta, Corinth, and Thebes, of which Athens, Sparta, and Corinth were closest to the Aegean Sea. Each of them had brought the surrounding rural areas and smaller towns under their control, and Athens and Corinth had become major maritime and mercantile powers as well. In the 8th and 7th centuries BC many Greeks migrated to form colonies in Magna Graecia (Southern Italy and Sicily), Asia Minor and further afield. The Aegean Sea was the setting for one of the most pivotal naval engagements in history, when, on 20 September 480 B.C., the Athenian fleet gained a decisive victory over the Persian fleet of the Xerxes II of Persia at the Battle of Salamis. Thus ending any further attempt of western expansion by the Achaemenid Empire.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastHerodotus \|titleHistories. Book VIII \|date2007 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|othersBowie, Angus M. \|isbn978-0-521-57328-3 \|locationCambridge, UK \|oclc159628612 }}</ref> The Aegean Sea would later come to be under the control, albeit briefly, of the Kingdom of Macedonia. Philip II and his son Alexander the Great led a series of conquests that led not only to the unification of the Greek mainland and the control of the Aegean Sea under his rule, but also the destruction of the Achaemenid Empire. After Alexander the Great's death, his empire was divided among his generals. Cassander became king of the Hellenistic kingdom of Macedon, which held territory along the western coast of the Aegean, roughly corresponding to modern-day Greece. The Kingdom of Lysimachus had control over the sea's eastern coast. Greece had entered the Hellenistic period. Roman rule The Macedonian Wars were a series of conflicts fought by the Roman Republic and its Greek allies in the eastern Mediterranean against several different major Greek kingdoms. They resulted in Roman control or influence over the eastern Mediterranean basin, including the Aegean, in addition to their hegemony in the western Mediterranean after the Punic Wars. During Roman rule, the land around the Aegean Sea fell under the provinces of Achaea, Macedonia, Thracia, Asia and Creta et Cyrenaica (island of Crete) Medieval period , after early conquest of Arabs]] The fall of the Western Roman Empire allowed its successor state, the Byzantine Empire, to continue Roman control over the Aegean Sea. However, their territory would later be threatened by the early Muslim conquests initiated by Muhammad in the 7th century. Although the Rashidun Caliphate did not manage to obtain land along the coast of the Aegean Sea, its conquest of the Eastern Anatolian peninsula as well as Egypt, the Levant, and North Africa left the Byzantine Empire weakened. The Umayyad Caliphate expanded the territorial gains of the Rashidun Caliphate, conquering much of North Africa, and threatened the Byzantine Empire's control of Western Anatolia, where it meets the Aegean Sea. During the 820s, Crete was conquered by a group of Berbers Andalusians exiles led by Abu Hafs Umar al-Iqritishi, and it became an independent Islamic state.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastMakrypoulias \|firstChristos \|date2000-01-01 \|titleByzantine Expeditions against the Emirate of Crete c.825-949 \|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/108025355 \|journalGraeco-Arabica \|archive-date26 December 2024 \|access-date24 October 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241226220315/https://www.academia.edu/108025355 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The Byzantine Empire launched a campaign that took most of the island back in 842 and 843 under Theoktistos, but the re-conquest was not completed and was soon reversed. Later attempts by the Byzantine Empire to recover the island were without success. For the approximately 135 years of its existence, the emirate of Crete was one of the major foes of Byzantium. Crete commanded the sea lanes of the Eastern Mediterranean and functioned as a forward base and haven for Muslim corsair fleets that ravaged the Byzantine-controlled shores of the Aegean Sea. Crete returned to Byzantine rule under Nikephoros II Phokas, who launched a huge campaign against the Emirate of Crete in 960 to 961.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastNorwich \|firstJohn Julius \|titleByzantium. 2: The apogee \|date1993 \|publisherKnopf \|isbn978-0-394-53779-5 \|locationNew York \|pages175–178}}</ref> Meanwhile, the Bulgarian Empire threatened Byzantine control of Northern Greece and the Aegean coast to the south. Under Presian and his successor Boris I, the Bulgarian Empire managed to obtain a small portion of the northern Aegean coast.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Findlay \|first1Ronald \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idv1oU3DEpsd8C \|titlePower and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium \|last2O'Rourke \|first2Kevin H. \|date2009-08-10 \|publisherPrinceton University Press \|isbn978-1-4008-3188-3 \|pages14 \|languageen}}</ref> Simeon I of Bulgaria led Bulgaria to its greatest territorial expansion, and managed to conqueror much of the northern and western coasts of the Aegean. The Byzantines later regained control. The Second Bulgarian Empire achieved similar success along, again, the northern and western coasts, under Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria. ]] The Seljuk Turks, under the Seljuk Empire, invaded the Byzantine Empire in 1068, from which they annexed almost all the territories of Anatolia, including the east coast of the Aegean Sea, during the reign of Alp Arslan, the second Sultan of the Seljuk Empire. After the death of his successor, Malik Shah I, the empire was divided, and Malik Shah was succeeded in Anatolia by Kilij Arslan I, who founded the Sultanate of Rum. The Byzantines yet again recaptured the eastern coast of the Aegean. After Constantinople was occupied by Western European and Venetian forces during the Fourth Crusade, the area around the Aegean Sea was fragmented into multiple entities, including the Latin Empire, the Kingdom of Thessalonica, the Empire of Nicaea, the Principality of Achaea, and the Duchy of Athens. The Venetians created the maritime state of the Duchy of the Archipelago, which included all the Cyclades except Mykonos and Tinos. The Empire of Nicaea, a Byzantine rump state, managed to affect the Recapture of Constantinople from the Latins in 1261 and defeat Epirus. Byzantine successes were not to last; the Ottomans would conquer the area around the Aegean coast, but before their expansion the Byzantine Empire had already been weakened from internal conflict. By the late 14th century, the Byzantine Empire had lost all control of the coast of the Aegean Sea and could exercise power around their capital, Constantinople. The Ottoman Empire then gained control of all the Aegean coast with the exception of Crete, which was a Venetian colony until 1669. Modern Period during the WW2]] The Greek War of Independence allowed a Greek state on the coast of the Aegean from 1829 onward. The Ottoman Empire held a presence over the sea for over 500 years until its dissolution following World War I, when it was replaced by modern Turkey. During the war, Greece gained control over the area around the northern coast of the Aegean. By the 1930s, Greece and Turkey had about resumed their present-day borders. In the Italo-Turkish War of 1912, Italy captured the Dodecanese islands, and had occupied them since, reneging on the 1919 Venizelos–Tittoni agreement to cede them to Greece. The Greco-Italian War took place from October 1940 to April 1941 as part of the Balkans Campaign of World War II. The Italian war aim was to establish a Greek puppet state, which would permit the Italian annexation of the Sporades and Cyclades islands in the Aegean Sea, to be administered as a part of the Italian Aegean Islands. The German invasion resulted in the Axis occupation of Greece. The German troops evacuated Athens on 12 October 1944, and by the end of the month, they had withdrawn from mainland Greece. Greece was then liberated by Allied troops. Economy and politics Many of the islands in the Aegean have safe harbours and bays. In ancient times, navigation through the sea was easier than travelling across the rough terrain of the Greek mainland, and to some extent, the coastal areas of Anatolia. Many of the islands are volcanic, and marble and iron are mined on other islands. The larger islands have some fertile valleys and plains. Of the main islands in the Aegean Sea, two belong to Turkey&nbsp;– Bozcaada (Tenedos) and Gökçeada (Imbros); the rest belong to Greece. Between the two countries, there are political disputes over several aspects of political control over the Aegean space, including the size of territorial waters, air control and the delimitation of economic rights to the continental shelf. These issues are known as the Aegean dispute. Transport Multiple ports are located along the Greek and Turkish coasts of the Aegean Sea. The port of Piraeus in Athens is the chief port in Greece, the largest passenger port in Europe<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081220151552/http://www.olp.gr/INDEXen.htm "Presentation"]. http://www.olp.gr. Archived from [http://www.olp.gr/en/INDEXen.htm the original] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081220151552/http://www.olp.gr/INDEXen.htm \|date20 December 2008 }} on 20 December 2008. Retrieved 27 December 2008.</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.maritime-database.com/port.php?pid2239\|titlePiraeus by Maritime Database\|websitewww.maritime-database.com\|access-date17 June 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190416152404/http://www.maritime-database.com/port.php?pid2239\|archive-date16 April 2019\|url-statusdead}}</ref> and the third largest in the world,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081203132339/http://www.anek.gr/english/dromol/pireaus1.html "ANEK Lines – Piraeus"]. http://www.anek.gr. Archived from [https://www.anek.gr/en/english/dromol/pireaus1.html the original]{{Dead link\|dateAugust 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }} on 3 December 2008. Retrieved 27 December 2008.</ref> servicing about 20 million passengers annually. With a throughput of 1.4&nbsp;million TEUs, Piraeus is placed among the top ten ports in container traffic in Europe and the top container port in the Eastern Mediterranean.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081220151552/http://www.olp.gr/INDEXen.htm "Container terminal"]. http://www.olp.gr {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160731043505/http://www.olp.gr/ \|date31 July 2016 }}. Archived from [http://www.olp.gr/en/INDEXen.htm the original] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081220151552/http://www.olp.gr/INDEXen.htm \|date20 December 2008 }} on 20 December 2008. Retrieved 27 December 2008.</ref> Piraeus is also the commercial hub of Greek shipping. Piraeus bi-annually acts as the focus for a major shipping convention, known as Posidonia, which attracts maritime industry professionals from all over the world. Piraeus is currently Greece's third-busiest port in terms of tons of goods transported, behind Agioi Theodoroi and Thessaloniki.<ref>{{cite web \|year2010 \|titleMaritime transport – Goods (gross weight) – Annual data – All ports – by direction \|urlhttp://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?datasetmar_go_aa&langen \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120121143656/http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?datasetmar_go_aa&langen \|archive-date21 January 2012 \|access-date2 December 2011 \|publisherEurostat}}</ref>{{verify source\|dateAugust 2019\|reasonThis ref was deleted (Special:Diff/902179474) by a bug in VisualEditor and later restored by a bot from the original cite at Special:Permalink/901463900 cite #27 – please verify the cite's accuracy and remove this {verify source} template. User:GreenC bot/Job 18}} The central port serves ferry routes to almost every island in the eastern portion of Greece, the island of Crete, the Cyclades, the Dodecanese, and much of the northern and the eastern Aegean Sea, while the western part of the port is used for cargo services. As of 2007, the Port of Thessaloniki was the second-largest container port in Greece after the port of Piraeus, making it one of the busiest ports in Greece. In 2007, the Port of Thessaloniki handled 14,373,245 tonnes of cargo and 222,824 TEU's. Paloukia, on the island of Salamis, is a major passenger port. Fishing Fish are Greece's second-largest agricultural export, and Greece has Europe's largest fishing fleet.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/a-way-of-life-drowned-by-greeces-crisis-1440051334 \|titleA Way of Life Drowned by Greece's Crisis \|last1Forelle \|first1Charles \|last2Kantchev \|first2Georgi \|last3Kelly \|first3Mark \|workThe Wall Street Journal \|date20 August 2015 \|access-date16 June 2019 \|issn0099-9660 \|archive-date12 March 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200312034946/https://www.wsj.com/articles/a-way-of-life-drowned-by-greeces-crisis-1440051334 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Fish captured include sardines, mackerel, grouper, grey mullets, sea bass, and seabream. There is a considerable difference between fish catches between the pelagic and demersal zones;<ref>{{cite journal \|lastStergiou, Pollard \|dateAugust 1994 \|titleA spatial analysis of the commercial fisheries catches from the Greek Aegean Sea \|journalFisheries Research \|volume20 \|issue2–3\|pages109–135 \|doi10.1016/0165-7836(94)90078-7\|bibcode1994FishR..20..109S }}</ref> with respect to pelagic fisheries, the catches from the northern, central and southern Aegean area groupings are dominated, respectively, by anchovy, horse mackerels, and boops. For demersal fisheries, the catches from the northern and southern Aegean area groupings are dominated by grey mullets and pickerel (Spicara smaris) respectively. The industry has been impacted by the Great Recession.{{clarify\|dateAugust 2019}} Overfishing and habitat destruction is also a concern, threatening grouper, and seabream populations, resulting in perhaps a 50% decline of fish catch.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-greece-fishing-idUSKBN1JS1HK \|titleAs stocks deplete, Greek fishermen scrap boats and livelihoods \|publisherReuters \|date3 July 2018 \|access-date16 June 2019 \|archive-date26 March 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220326163001/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-greece-fishing-idUSKBN1JS1HK \|url-statuslive }}</ref> To address these concerns, Greek fishermen have been offered a compensation by the government. Although some species are defined as protected or threatened under EU legislation, several illegal species such as the molluscs Pinna nobilis, Charonia tritonis and Lithophaga lithophaga, can be bought in restaurants and fish markets around Greece.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://archipelago.gr/en/our-work/marine-conservation/fisheries/ \|titleFisheries \|websiteArchipelagos \|access-date16 June 2019 \|archive-date15 June 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220615190235/https://archipelago.gr/en/our-work/marine-conservation/fisheries/ \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Tourism , part of the Cyclades]] The Aegean islands within the Aegean Sea are significant tourist destinations. Tourism to the Aegean islands contributes a significant portion of tourism in Greece, especially since the second half of the 20th century.<ref>{{cite book \|lastBramwell \|firstBill \|titleCoastal Mass Tourism: Diversification and Sustainable Development in Southern Europe \|publisherChannel View Publications \|year2004 \|isbn1845413733}}</ref> A total of five UNESCO World Heritage sites are located the Aegean Islands; these include the Monastery of Saint John the Theologian and the Cave of the Apocalypse on Patmos,<ref>Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "The Historic Centre (Chorá) with the Monastery of Saint-John the Theologian and the Cave of the Apocalypse on the Island of Pátmos". whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 8 September 2016.</ref> the Pythagoreion and Heraion of Samos in Samos,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://whc.unesco.org/en/list/595/\|titlePythagoreion and Heraion of Samos\|websiteUNESCO World Heritage Centre\|languageen\|access-date15 June 2019\|archive-date22 July 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220722065336/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/595/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> the Nea Moni of Chios,<ref>"Monasteries of Daphni, Hosios Loukas and Nea Moni of Chios". UNESCO. Retrieved 30 September 2012.</ref> the island of Delos,<ref>Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Delos". whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 7 September 2016.</ref> and the Medieval City of Rhodes.<ref>Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Medieval City of Rhodes". whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 7 September 2016.</ref> Greece is one of the most visited countries in Europe and the world with over 33&nbsp;million visitors in 2018,<ref>[https://hellasjournal.com/2019/01/entyposiazoyn-ta-stoicheia-toy-ypoyrgeioy-toyrismoy-ta-esoda-xepernoyn-ta-21-dis-eyro/ "Tourism Ministry statistics impress".] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190422114729/https://hellasjournal.com/2019/01/entyposiazoyn-ta-stoicheia-toy-ypoyrgeioy-toyrismoy-ta-esoda-xepernoyn-ta-21-dis-eyro/ \|date22 April 2019 }} Retrieved 30 January 2019.</ref> and the tourism industry around a quarter of Greece's Gross Domestic Product.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.marketinggreece.com/blog/o-toyrismos-einai-ypothesi-olon-mas\|titleΑλέξανδρος Βασιλικός: Ο τουρισμός είναι υπόθεση όλων μας\|date5 February 2019\|websiteMarketing Greece\|access-date15 June 2019\|archive-date25 September 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190925165536/https://www.marketinggreece.com/blog/o-toyrismos-einai-ypothesi-olon-mas\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The islands of Santorini, Crete, Lesbos, Delos, and Mykonos are common tourist destinations. An estimated 2&nbsp;million tourists visit Santorini annually.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/aug/28/santorini-popularity-soars-but-locals-say-it-has-hit-saturation-point\|titleSantorini's popularity soars but locals say it has hit saturation point\|lastSmith\|firstHelena\|date28 August 2017\|workThe Guardian\|access-date15 June 2019\|languageen-GB\|issn0261-3077\|archive-date28 August 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170828161359/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/aug/28/santorini-popularity-soars-but-locals-say-it-has-hit-saturation-point\|url-statuslive}}</ref> However, concerns relating to overtourism have arisen in recent years, such as issues of inadequate infrastructure and overcrowding.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.traveller.com.au/greece-tourism-numbers-europes-latest-victim-of-overtourism-h110v6\|titleOverwhelmed: Greece the latest country to be overrun by tourists\|lastSmith\|firstOliver\|date6 June 2018\|websiteTraveller\|languageen-au\|access-date15 June 2019\|archive-date7 October 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221007094724/https://www.traveller.com.au/greece-tourism-numbers-europes-latest-victim-of-overtourism-h110v6\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Alongside Greece, Turkey has also been successful in developing resort areas and attracting large number of tourists,<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Gülcan \|first1Yaprak \|last2Kuştepeli \|first2Yeşim \|last3Akgüngör \|first3Sedef \|titlePublic Policies and Development of the Tourism Industry in the Aegean Region \|journalEuropean Planning Studies \|dateOctober 2009 \|volume17 \|issue10 \|pages1509–1523 \|doi10.1080/09654310903141722 \|s2cid154452680 }}</ref> contributing to tourism in Turkey. The phrase "Blue Cruise" refers to recreational voyages along the Turkish Riviera, including across the Aegean.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/02/travel/02sailingbx.html\|titleWhere to Raise the Sails, or Just a Glass\|lastHolliday\|firstTaylor\|date2 July 2006\|workThe New York Times\|access-date15 June 2019\|languageen-US\|issn0362-4331\|archive-date6 January 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180106164506/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/02/travel/02sailingbx.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The ancient city of Troy, a World Heritage Site, is on the Turkish coast of the Aegean.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://whc.unesco.org/en/list/849/\|titleArchaeological Site of Troy\|websiteUNESCO World Heritage Centre\|languageen\|access-date15 June 2019\|archive-date8 December 2005\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051208060954/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/849/\|url-status=live}}</ref> Greece and Turkey both take part in the Blue Flag beach certification programme of the Foundation for Environmental Education. The certification is awarded for beaches and marinas meeting strict quality standards including environmental protection, water quality, safety and services criteria.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.fee-international.org/en\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080815203855/http://www.fee-international.org/en\|url-statusdead\|archive-date15 August 2008\|titleFEE – Foundation for Environmental Education\|date15 August 2008\|access-date15 June 2019}}</ref> As of 2015, the Blue Flag has been awarded to 395 beaches and 9 marinas in Greece. Southern Aegean beaches on the Turkish coast include Muğla, with 102 beaches awarded with the blue flag, along with İzmir and Aydın, who have 49 and 30 beaches awarded respectively.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.goturkeytourism.com/things-to-do/blue-flag-beaches-in-turkey.html\|titleBlue Flag Beaches in Turkey {{!}} Go Turkey Tourism\|websitewww.goturkeytourism.com\|access-date15 June 2019\|archive-date27 June 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180627063039/https://www.goturkeytourism.com/things-to-do/blue-flag-beaches-in-turkey.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1D'Alessandro \|first1W. \|last2Bellomo \|first2S. \|last3Brusca \|first3L. \|last4Kyriakopoulos \|first4K. \|last5Calabrese \|first5S. \|last6Daskalopoulou \|first6K. \|titleThe impact of natural and anthropogenic factors on groundwater quality in an active volcanic/geothermal system under semi-arid climatic conditions: The case study of Methana peninsula (Greece) \|journalJournal of Geochemical Exploration \|dateApril 2017 \|volume175 \|pages110–119 \|doi10.1016/j.gexplo.2017.01.003 \|bibcode2017JCExp.175..110D }}</ref>See also {{portal\|Oceans}} * Exclusive economic zone of Greece * Geography of Turkey * List of Greek place names * Aegean Boat Report References {{notelist}} {{Reflist}} External links {{sister project links\|auto=yes}} {{EB1911 poster\|Aegean Sea}} * {{cite web\|titleCultural Portal of the Aegean Archipelago \|publisherFoundation of the Hellenic World \|urlhttp://www.egeonet.gr/index_en.html \|access-date9 July 2012 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120810001316/http://www.egeonet.gr/index_en.html \|archive-date=10 August 2012 }} {{Ancient Greece topics}} {{Marginal seas of the Atlantic Ocean}} {{Aegean Sea}} {{List of seas}} {{Authority control}} Category:Seas of Greece Category:Seas of Turkey Category:Marginal seas of the Mediterranean Category:European seas Category:Seas of Asia Category:Geography of Europe Category:Geography of West Asia Category:Landforms of Çanakkale Province Category:Landforms of Muğla Province Category:Landforms of İzmir Province Category:Landforms of Balıkesir Province Category:Landforms of Edirne Province Category:Landforms of Aydın Province	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_Sea	2025-04-05T18:25:23.705087
843	A Clockwork Orange (novel)	{{short description\|1962 novel by Anthony Burgess}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=December 2024}} {{Use British English\|date=October 2012}} {{Infobox book \| name = A Clockwork Orange \| image = Clockwork orange.jpg \| caption = Dust jacket from the first edition \| cover_artist = Barry Trengove \| author = Anthony Burgess \| country = United Kingdom \| language = English \| genre = Science fiction, dystopian fiction, satire, black comedy \| published = March 17, 1962 (William Heinemann, UK) \| media_type = Print (hardback & paperback) & audio book (cassette, CD) \| pages = 192 pages (hardback edition)<br />176 pages (paperback edition) \| isbn = 978-0-434-09800-2 \| oclc = 4205836 }} A Clockwork Orange is a dystopian satirical black comedy novel by English writer Anthony Burgess, published in March 17, 1962. It is set in a near-future society that has a youth subculture of extreme violence. The teenage protagonist, Alex, narrates his violent exploits and his experiences with state authorities intent on reforming him.<ref>{{cite news \|workThe New York Times \|titleBooks of The Times \|date19 March 1963 \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/books/97/11/30/home/burgess-orange.html \|access-date4 February 2017 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170202042027/http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/11/30/home/burgess-orange.html \|archive-date2 February 2017}}</ref> The book is partially written in a Russian-influenced argot called "Nadsat", which takes its name from the Russian suffix that is equivalent to '-teen' in English.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:A_Clockwork_Orange \|titleAppendix:A Clockwork Orange – Wiktionary \|websiteen.wiktionary.org \|access-date12 June 2018 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180612184759/https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:A_Clockwork_Orange \|archive-date12 June 2018}}</ref> According to Burgess, the novel was a ''jeu d'esprit written in just three weeks.<ref name":1">{{cite web \|titleA Clockwork Orange – The book versus the Film \|urlhttp://litreactor.com/columns/book-vs-film-a-clockwork-orange \|access-date19 September 2013 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130817035031/http://litreactor.com/columns/book-vs-film-a-clockwork-orange \|archive-date17 August 2013}}</ref> In 2005, A Clockwork Orange was included on Time'' magazine's list of the 100 best English-language novels written since 1923,<ref nameTime100>{{cite magazine \|titleAll-Time 100 Novels: The Complete List \|magazineTime \|last1Grossman \|first1Lev \|last2Lacayo \|first2Richard \|date16 October 2005 \|urlhttps://entertainment.time.com/2005/10/16/all-time-100-novels/slide/all/}}</ref> and it was named by Modern Library and its readers as one of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century.<ref>[http://www.modernlibrary.com/top-100/100-best-novels/ "100 Best Novels"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151123233204/http://www.modernlibrary.com/top-100/100-best-novels/ \|date23 November 2015}}. Modern Library. Retrieved 31 October 2012</ref> The original manuscript of the book has been kept at McMaster University's William Ready Division of Archives and Research Collections in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada since the institution purchased the documents in 1971.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://news.nationalpost.com/2012/11/11/a-clockwork-orange-original-manuscript/ \|titleA clockwork original: McMaster University bought manuscript of iconic novel for $250 \|newspaperNational Post \|date11 November 2012 \|firstAdrian \|lastHumphreys \|access-date13 November 2012 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttp://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20121225043936/http://news.nationalpost.com/2012/11/11/a%2Dclockwork%2Dorange%2Doriginal%2Dmanuscript/ \|archive-date=25 December 2012}}</ref> It is considered one of the most influential dystopian books. In 2022, the novel was included on the "Big Jubilee Read" list of 70 books by Commonwealth authors selected to celebrate the Platinum Jubilee of Elizabeth II.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/2Ynpj933DJ2YG5nsMS6fn8k/a-literary-celebration-of-queen-elizabeth-iis-record-breaking-reign \|titleThe Big Jubilee Read: A literary celebration of Queen Elizabeth II's record-breaking reign \|publisherBBC \|date17 April 2022 \|access-date14 July 2022}}</ref>Plot summaryPart 1: Alex's world Alex is a 15-year-old gang leader living in a near-future dystopian city. His friends ("droogs" in the novel's Anglo-Russian slang, "Nadsat") and fellow gang members are Dim, a slow-witted bruiser, who is the gang's muscle; Georgie, an ambitious second-in-command; and Pete, who mostly plays along as the droogs indulge their taste for "ultra-violence" (random, violent mayhem). Characterised as a sociopath and hardened juvenile delinquent, Alex is also intelligent, quick-witted, and enjoys classical music; he is particularly fond of Beethoven, whom he calls "Lovely Ludwig Van". The droogs sit in their favourite hangout, the Korova Milk Bar, drinking "milk-plus" (milk laced with the customer's drug of choice) to prepare for a night of ultra-violence. They assault a scholar walking home from the public library; rob a shop, leaving the owner and his wife bloodied and unconscious; beat up a beggar; then scuffle with a rival gang. Joyriding through the countryside in a stolen car, they break into an isolated cottage and terrorise the young couple living there, beating the husband and gang-raping his wife. The husband is a writer working on a manuscript entitled A Clockwork Orange, and Alex contemptuously reads out a paragraph that states the novel's main theme before shredding the manuscript. At the Korova, Alex strikes Dim for his crude response to a woman's singing of an operatic passage, and strains within the gang become apparent. At home in his parents' flat, Alex plays classical music at top volume, which he describes as giving him orgasmic bliss before falling asleep. Alex feigns illness to his parents to stay out of school the next day. Following an unexpected visit from P. R. Deltoid, his "post-corrective adviser", Alex visits a record store, where he meets two pre-teen girls. He invites them back to the flat, where he drugs and rapes them. That night after a nap, Alex finds his droogs in a mutinous mood, waiting downstairs in the torn-up and graffitied lobby. Georgie challenges Alex for leadership of the gang, demanding that they focus on higher-value targets in their robberies. Alex quells the rebellion by slashing Dim's hand and fighting with Georgie, then soothes the gang by agreeing to Georgie's plan to rob the home of a wealthy elderly woman. Alex breaks in and knocks the woman unconscious, but when he hears sirens and opens the door to flee, Dim strikes him as revenge for the earlier fight. The gang abandons Alex on the front step to be arrested by the police; while in custody, he learns that the woman has died from her injuries. Part 2: The Ludovico Technique {{Redirect\|Ludovico Technique\|the band\|Ludovico Technique (band)\|the company\|Ludovico Technique LLC}} Alex is convicted of murder and sentenced to 14 years in prison. His parents visit one day to inform him that Georgie has been killed in a botched robbery. Two years into his term, he has obtained a job in one of the prison chapels, playing music on the stereo to accompany the Sunday Christian services. After his fellow cellmates blame him for beating a troublesome cellmate to death, he is chosen to undergo an experimental behaviour modification treatment called the Ludovico Technique in exchange for having the remainder of his sentence commuted. The technique is a form of aversion therapy in which Alex is injected with nausea-inducing drugs while watching graphically violent films, eventually conditioning him to become severely ill at the mere thought of violence. As an unintended consequence, the soundtrack to one of the films, Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, renders Alex unable to enjoy his beloved classical music as before. The technique's effectiveness is demonstrated to a group of VIPs, who watch as Alex collapses before a man who slaps him and abases himself before a scantily clad young woman. Although the prison chaplain accuses the state of stripping Alex of free will, the government officials on the scene are pleased with the results, and Alex is released from prison. Part 3: After prison Alex returns to his parents' flat, only to find that they are letting his room to a lodger. Now homeless, he wanders the streets and enters a public library, hoping to learn of a painless method for committing suicide. The old scholar whom Alex had assaulted in Part 1 finds him and beats him with the help of several friends. Two policemen come to Alex's rescue, but they turn out to be Dim and Billyboy, a former rival gang leader. They take Alex outside town, brutalise him, and abandon him there. Alex collapses at the door of an isolated cottage, realising too late that it is the one he and his droogs invaded in Part 1. The writer, F. Alexander, still lives here, but his wife has since died of what he believes to be injuries she sustained in the rape. He does not recognise Alex but gives him shelter and questions him about the conditioning he has undergone. Alexander and his colleagues, all highly critical of the government, plan to use Alex as a symbol of state brutality and thus prevent the incumbent government from being re-elected. After Alex inadvertently reveals that he was the ringleader of the home invasion, he is removed from the cottage and locked in an upper-storey bedroom as a relentless barrage of classical music plays over speakers. He attempts suicide by leaping from the window. Alex wakes up in a hospital, where he is courted by government officials, anxious to counter the bad publicity created by his suicide attempt. He is informed that F. Alexander has been "put away" for Alex's protection and his own. Alex is offered a well-paying job if he agrees to side with the government once discharged. A round of tests reveals that his old violent impulses have returned, indicating that the hospital doctors have undone the effects of his conditioning. As photographers snap pictures, Alex daydreams of orgiastic violence and reflects, "I was cured all right." In the final chapter, Alex—now 18 years old and working for the nation's musical recording archives—finds himself halfheartedly preparing for another night of crime with a new gang (Len, Rick, and Bully). After a chance encounter with Pete, who has reformed and married, Alex finds himself taking less and less pleasure in acts of senseless violence. He begins contemplating giving up crime himself to become a productive member of society and start a family of his own while reflecting on the notion that his children could end up being just as destructive as he has been, if not more so. Omission of the final chapter in the US<!--linked from 'A Clockwork Orange (film)'--> The book has three parts, each with seven chapters. Burgess has stated that the total of 21 chapters was an intentional nod to the age of 21 being recognised as a milestone in human maturation.<ref name":0">{{cite web \|titleBurgess' Myopic Morality: Why Anthony Burgess' Infamous A Clockwork Orange is Stronger Without its Original Last Chapter \|lastPodgorski \|firstDaniel \|websiteThe Gemsbok \|date1 March 2016 \|urlhttps://thegemsbok.com/art-reviews-and-articles/tuesday-tome-clockwork-orange-anthony-burgess/ \|access-date14 April 2016 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160414201532/http://thegemsbok.com/art-reviews-and-articles/tuesday-tome-clockwork-orange-anthony-burgess \|archive-date14 April 2016}}</ref> The 21st chapter was omitted from the editions published in the United States prior to 1986.<ref>{{cite book \|titleA Clockwork Orange \|lastBurgess \|firstAnthony \|publisherW. W. Norton & Company \|year1995 \|locationNew York \|pagesix-xv \|chapter=Introduction: A Clockwork Orange Resucked}}</ref> In the introduction to the updated American text (these newer editions include the missing 21st chapter), Burgess explains that when he first brought the book to an American publisher, he was told that US audiences would never go for the final chapter, in which Alex sees the error of his ways, decides he has lost his taste for violence and resolves to turn his life around. At the American publisher's insistence, Burgess allowed its editors to cut the redeeming final chapter from the US version, so that the tale would end on a darker note, with Alex becoming his old, ultraviolent self again – an ending which the publisher insisted would be "more realistic" and appealing to a US audience. The film adaptation, directed by Stanley Kubrick, is based on the American edition of the book, and is considered to be "badly flawed" by Burgess.{{Citation needed\|dateApril 2023\|reasonThe article on the film adaptation of the novel claims, with citations, that Burgess praised the film, yet this article fashions Burgess' opinions in a negative way--that he believed the film was flawed.}} Kubrick called Chapter 21 "an extra chapter" and claimed that he had not read the original version until he had virtually finished the screenplay and that he had never given serious consideration to using it.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.visual-memory.co.uk/amk/doc/interview.aco.html \|titleKubrick on A Clockwork Orange \|lastCiment \|firstMichel \|year1981 \|websiteThe Kubrick Site \|access-date14 April 2016 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121224095523/http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/amk/doc/interview.aco.html \|archive-date24 December 2012}}</ref> In Kubrick's opinion – as in the opinion of other readers, including the original American editor – the final chapter was unconvincing and inconsistent with the book.<ref name":0"/> Kubrick's stance was unusual when compared to the standard Hollywood practice of producing films with the familiar tropes of resolving moral messages and good triumphing over evil before the film's end.Characters * Alex: The novel's protagonist and leader among his droogs. He often refers to himself as "Your Humble Narrator". Having coaxed two ten-year-old girls into his bedroom, Alex refers to himself as "Alexander the Large" while raping them; this was later the basis for Alex's claimed surname DeLarge in the 1971 film. * George, Georgie or Georgie Boy: Effectively Alex's greedy second-in-command. Georgie attempts to undermine Alex's status as leader of the gang and take over their gang as the new leader. He is later killed during a botched robbery while Alex is in prison. * Pete: The only one who does not take particular sides when the droogs fight among themselves. He later meets and marries a girl named Georgina, renouncing his violent ways and even losing his former (Nadsat) speech patterns. A chance encounter with Pete in the final chapter influences Alex to realise that he has grown bored with violence and recognise that human energy is better expended on creation than destruction.<ref>[http://thefloatinglibrary.com/2009/04/20/a-clockwork-orange-resucked/ A Clockwork Orange Resucked] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130622064313/http://thefloatinglibrary.com/2009/04/20/a-clockwork-orange-resucked/ \|date22 June 2013}}. The Floating Library. Retrieved on 2013-10-31.</ref> * Dim: An idiotic and thoroughly gormless member of the gang, persistently condescended to by Alex, but respected to some extent by his droogs for his formidable fighting abilities, his weapon of choice being a length of bike chain. He later becomes a police officer, exacting his revenge on Alex for the abuse he once suffered under his command. * P. R. Deltoid: A criminal rehabilitation social worker assigned the task of keeping Alex on the straight and narrow. He seemingly has no clue about dealing with young people, and is devoid of empathy or understanding for his troublesome charge. Indeed, when Alex is arrested for murdering an old woman and then ferociously beaten by several police officers, Deltoid simply spits on him. * Prison Chaplain: The character who first questions whether it is moral to turn a violent person into a behavioural automaton who can make no choice in such matters. This is the only character who is truly concerned about Alex's welfare; he is not taken seriously by Alex, though. He is nicknamed by Alex "prison charlie" or "chaplin", a pun on Charlie Chaplin. * Billyboy: A rival of Alex's. Early on in the story, Alex and his droogs battle Billyboy and his droogs, which ends abruptly when the police arrive. Later, after Alex is released from prison, Billyboy (along with Dim, who like Billyboy has become a police officer) rescues Alex from a mob, then subsequently beats him in a location out of town. * Prison Governor: The man who decides to let Alex "choose" to be the first reformed by the Ludovico technique. * The Minister of the Interior: The government high-official who determined that the Ludovico's technique will be used to cut recidivism. He is referred to as the Minister of Interior or Inferior by Alex. * Dr Branom: A scientist, co-developer of the Ludovico technique. He appears friendly and almost paternal towards Alex at first, before forcing him into the theatre and what Alex calls the "chair of torture". * Dr Brodsky: Branom's colleague and co-developer of the Ludovico technique. He seems much more passive than Branom and says considerably less. * F. Alexander: An author who was in the process of typing his magnum opus A Clockwork Orange when Alex and his droogs broke into his house, beat him, tore up his work and then brutally gang-raped his wife, which caused her subsequent death. He is left deeply scarred by these events and when he encounters Alex two years later, he uses him as a guinea pig in a sadistic experiment intended to prove the Ludovico technique unsound. The government imprisons him afterwards. He is given the name Frank Alexander in the film. * Cat Woman: An indirectly named woman who blocks Alex's gang's entrance scheme, and threatens to shoot Alex and set her cats on him if he does not leave. After Alex breaks into her house, she fights with him, ordering her cats to join the melee, but reprimands Alex for fighting them off. She sustains a fatal blow to the head during the scuffle. She is given the name Miss Weathers in the film. Analysis Background A Clockwork Orange was written in Hove, then a senescent English seaside town.<ref nameautogenerated1>{{cite interview \|lastAhmed \|firstSamira \|titleA Clockwork Orange – interview with Will Self \|publisherBBC \|urlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/radio/player/b01k9v1y \|date3 July 2012 \|workNightwaves \|access-date31 December 2014 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190903144636/http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio/player/b01k9v1y \|archive-date3 September 2019}}</ref> Burgess had arrived back in Britain after his stint abroad to see that much had changed. A youth culture had developed, based around coffee bars, pop music and teenage gangs.<ref>A Clockwork Orange (Penguin Modern Classics) (Paperback) by Anthony Burgess, Blake Morrison xv</ref> England was gripped by fears over juvenile delinquency.<ref nameautogenerated1/> Burgess stated that the novel's inspiration was his first wife Lynne's beating by a gang of drunk American servicemen stationed in England during World War II. She subsequently miscarried.<ref nameautogenerated1/><ref>Burgess, A. A Clockwork Orange, Penguin UK, 2011, introduction by Blake Morrison, [https://books.google.com/books?idqUI8pbpCNJUC&pgPT17 page 17] : " his first wife, Lynne, was beaten, kicked and robbed in London by a gang of four GI deserters ".</ref> In its investigation of free will, the book's target is ostensibly the concept of behaviourism, pioneered by such figures as B. F. Skinner.<ref>A Clockwork Orange (Hardback) by Anthony Burgess, Will Self</ref> Burgess later stated that he wrote the book in three weeks.<ref nameautogenerated1/>Title<!--linked from 'A Clockwork Orange (film)'--> Burgess has offered several clarifications about the meaning and origin of its title: * He had overheard the phrase "as queer as a clockwork orange" in a London pub in 1945 and assumed it was a Cockney expression. In Clockwork Marmalade, an essay published in the Listener in 1972, he said that he had heard the phrase several times since that occasion. He also explained the title in response to a question from William Everson on the television programme Camera Three in 1972, {{blockquote \|text = Well, the title has a very different meaning but only to a particular generation of London Cockneys. It's a phrase which I heard many years ago and so fell in love with, I wanted to use it, the title of the book. But the phrase itself I did not make up. The phrase "as queer as a clockwork orange" is good old East London slang and it didn't seem to me necessary to explain it. Now, obviously, I have to give it an extra meaning. I've implied an extra dimension. I've implied the junction of the organic, the lively, the sweet – in other words, life, the orange – and the mechanical, the cold, the disciplined. I've brought them together in this kind of oxymoron, this sour-sweet word. \|author = Anthony Burgess \|title An examination of Kubrick's A Clockwork Orange<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?vejM3odcn3Tk#t7m23s ''An examination of Kubrick's A Clockwork Orange] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161109093620/https://www.youtube.com/watch?vejM3odcn3Tk7m23s \|date9 November 2016}} Camera Three: Creative Arts Television, 2010-08-04. (Video)</ref><ref>[http://www.malcolmtribute.freeiz.com/aco/review.html Clockwork Orange: A review with William Everson] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120710224804/http://www.malcolmtribute.freeiz.com/aco/review.html \|date=10 July 2012}}. Retrieved: 2012-03-11.</ref>}} No other record of the expression being used before 1962 has ever appeared,<ref namedexter>{{cite book \|lastDexter \|firstGary \|titleWhy Not Catch-21?: The Stories Behind the Titles \|publisherFrances Lincoln Ltd. \|year2008 \|pages[https://archive.org/details/whynotcatch2100gary/page/200 200–203] \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/whynotcatch2100gary/page/200 \|isbn978-0-7112-2925-9}}</ref> with Kingsley Amis going so far as to note in his Memoirs'' (1991) that no trace of it appears in Eric Partridge's Dictionary of Historical Slang. However, saying "as queer as&nbsp;..." followed by an improbable object: "... a clockwork orange", or "... a four-speed walking stick" or "... a left-handed corkscrew" etc. predates Burgess's novel.<ref>{{cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbbcBCgAAQBAJ&pgPA1811 \|titleThe New Partridge Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English \|isbn978-1-317-37252-3 \|last1Dalzell \|first1Tom \|last2Victor \|first2Terry \|date26 June 2015 \|publisherRoutledge \|access-date30 June 2020 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200708011846/https://books.google.com/books?idbbcBCgAAQBAJ&pgPA1811 \|archive-date8 July 2020}}</ref> An early example, "as queer as Dick's hatband", appeared in 1796,<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTbJKAAAAMAAJ&pgPT184 \|titleA Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue \|last1Grose \|first1Francis \|year1796 \|access-date30 June 2020 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200711235412/https://books.google.com/books?idTbJKAAAAMAAJ&pgPT184 \|archive-date11 July 2020}}</ref> and was alluded to in 1757.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idABw3AAAAMAAJ&qdick's+hat+band&pgPA152 \|titleThe Diarian Miscellany: Consisting of All the Useful and Entertaining Parts, Both Mathematical and Poetical, Extracted from the Ladies' Diary, from the Beginning of that Work in the Year 1704, Down to the End of the Year 1773. With Many Additional Solutions and Improvements \|last1Hutton \|first1Charles \|year=1775}}</ref> * His second explanation was that it was a pun on the Malay word orang, meaning "man". The novella contains no other Malay words or links.<ref name=dexter/> * In a prefatory note to A Clockwork Orange: A Play with Music, he wrote that the title was a metaphor for "an organic entity, full of juice and sweetness and agreeable odour, being turned into a mechanism".<ref name=dexter/> * In his essay Clockwork Oranges, Burgess asserts that "this title would be appropriate for a story about the application of Pavlovian or mechanical laws to an organism which, like a fruit, was capable of colour and sweetness".<ref>{{cite book \|last1Burgess \|first1Anthony \|title1985 \|date2013 \|publisherProfile Books \|isbn978-1-84765-893-7 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4dB-zMYQJR0C&pgPT86 \|languageen \|access-date30 June 2020 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210225000135/https://books.google.com/books?id4dB-zMYQJR0C&pgPT86 \|archive-date25 February 2021}}</ref> * While addressing the reader in a letter before some editions of the book, the author says that when a man ceases to have free will, they are no longer a man. "Just a clockwork orange", a shiny, appealing object, but "just a toy to be wound-up by either God or the Devil, or (what is increasingly replacing both) the State." This title alludes to the protagonist's negative emotional responses to feelings of evil which prevent the exercise of his free will subsequent to the administration of the Ludovico Technique. To induce this conditioning, Alex is forced to watch scenes of violence on a screen that are systematically paired with negative physical stimulation. The negative physical stimulation takes the form of nausea and "feelings of terror", which are caused by an emetic medicine administered just before the presentation of the films.<ref name=":1" /> In its original drafts, Burgess used the working title 'The Ludovico Technique,' as he himself described in the foreword in the April 1995 publication. Along with removing the 21st chapter as insisted by his publisher in the original 1962 edition, he would also change the finished product's name to its current title. Use of slang<!--"Ultra-violence" redirects here, please update if renamed --> {{Main\|Nadsat}} The book, narrated by Alex, contains many words in a slang argot which Burgess invented for the book, called Nadsat. It is a mix of modified Slavic words, Cockney rhyming slang and derived Russian (like baboochka). For instance, these terms have the following meanings in Nadsat: droog (друг) friend; moloko (молоко) milk; gulliver (голова) head; malchick (мальчик) or malchickiwick boy; soomka (сумка) sack or bag; Bog (Бог) God; horrorshow (хорошо) good; prestoopnick (преступник) criminal; rooker (рука) hand; cal (кал) crap; veck (человек) man or guy; litso (лицо) face; malenky (маленький) = little; and so on. Some words Burgess invented himself or just adapted from existing languages. Compare Polari. One of Alex's doctors explains the language to a colleague as "odd bits of old rhyming slang; a bit of gypsy talk, too. But most of the roots are Slav propaganda. Subliminal penetration." Some words are not derived from anything, but merely easy to guess, e.g. "in-out, in-out" or "the old in-out" means sexual intercourse. Cutter, however, means "money", because "cutter" rhymes with "bread-and-butter"; this is rhyming slang, which is intended to be impenetrable to outsiders (especially eavesdropping policemen). Additionally, slang like appypolly loggy ("apology") seems to derive from school boy slang. This reflects Alex's age of 15. In the first edition of the book, no key was provided, and the reader was left to interpret the meaning from the context. In his appendix to the restored edition, Burgess explained that the slang would keep the book from seeming dated, and served to muffle "the raw response of pornography" from the acts of violence. The term {{anchor\|Ultraviolence}}"ultraviolence", referring to excessive or unjustified violence, was coined by Burgess in the book, which includes the phrase "do the ultra-violent". The term's association with aesthetic violence has led to its use in the media.<ref>{{cite news \|agencyAgence France-Presse \|titleGruesome 'Saw 4' slashes through North American box-office \|urlhttp://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5gKh4MPBUr7_ZFvg7tyPFe1IXCAXw \|date29 October 2007 \|access-date2008-01-15 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080116054923/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5gKh4MPBUr7_ZFvg7tyPFe1IXCAXw \|archive-date16 January 2008 \|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleQ&A With 'Hostel' Director Eli Roth and Quentin Tarantino \|workNew York \|date29 December 2005 \|urlhttp://nymag.com/nymetro/movies/features/15436/ \|access-date2008-01-15 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080109171639/http://nymag.com/nymetro/movies/features/15436/ \|archive-date9 January 2008 \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleADV Announces New Gantz Collection, Final Guyver & More: Nov 6 Releases \|urlhttp://www.animenewsnetwork.com/press-release/2007-09-06/adv-announces-new-gantz-collection-final-guyver-and-more-nov-6-releases \|access-date2008-01-15 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080205150753/http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/press-release/2007-09-06/adv-announces-new-gantz-collection-final-guyver-and-more-nov-6-releases \|archive-date5 February 2008 \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/10/30/eveningnews/eyeontech/main3433101.shtml \|title"Manhunt 2": Most Violent Game Yet?, Critics Say New Video Game Is Too Realistic; Players Must Torture, Kill \|date30 October 2007 \|publisherCBS News \|access-date2008-01-15 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080102153252/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/10/30/eveningnews/eyeontech/main3433101.shtml \|archive-date2 January 2008 \|url-statusdead}}</ref> Banning and censorship history in the US The first major incident of censorship of A Clockwork Orange took place in 1973, when a bookseller was arrested for selling the novel (although the charges were later dropped).<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.ala.org/advocacy/bbooks/frequentlychallengedbooks/classics \|titleBanned & Challenged Classics \|date26 March 2013 \|publisherAmerican Library Association \|access-date11 October 2018 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181011084759/http://www.ala.org/advocacy/bbooks/frequentlychallengedbooks/classics \|archive-date11 October 2018}}</ref> In 1976, A Clockwork Orange was removed from an Aurora, Colorado high school because of "objectionable language". A year later in 1977 it was removed from high school classrooms in Westport, Massachusetts over similar concerns with "objectionable" language. In 1982, it was removed from two Anniston, Alabama libraries, later to be reinstated on a restricted basis. However, each of these instances came after the release of Stanley Kubrick's popular 1971 film adaptation of A Clockwork Orange, itself the subject of much controversy after exposing a much larger part of the populace to the themes of the novel. In 2024 the book was banned in Texas by the Katy Independent School District on the basis that the novel is "adopting, supporting, or promoting gender fluidity"<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.houstonchronicle.com/neighborhood/katy/article/katy-isd-new-banned-books-19932193.php \|titleKaty ISD bans 14 new books, from 'Slaughterhouse-Five' to 'Wicked.' Here's what to know. \|firstClaire \|lastGoodman \|date2024-11-27 \|websiteHouston Chronicle \|url-statuslive \|access-date2025-02-21 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20250120054320/https://www.houstonchronicle.com/neighborhood/katy/article/katy-isd-new-banned-books-19932193.php \|archive-date2025-01-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.katyisd.org/Page/4310#:~:textNo%20materials%20in%20elementary%20and,opt%2Din%20for%20student%20access. \|titleInstructional Resources Information \|website Katy Independent School District \|url-statuslive \|access-date2025-02-21 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241129023613/https://www.katyisd.org/Page/4310 \|archive-date2024-11-29}}</ref> despite also pronouncing a bullying policy that protects infringements on the rights of the student.<ref>https://www.katyisd.org/Page/4123</ref> Reception Initial response The Sunday Telegraph review was positive, and described the book as "entertaining&nbsp;... even profound".<ref>Chitty, Susan. "Is That the Lot?" Sunday Telegraph, 13 May 1962, p. 9.</ref> Kingsley Amis in The Observer acclaimed the novel as "cheerful horror", writing "Mr Burgess has written a fine farrago of outrageousness, one which incidentally suggests a view of juvenile violence I can't remember having met before".<ref>Amis, Kingsley [https://www.theguardian.com/news/2012/may/13/kingsley-amis-a-clockwork-orange-review From the Observer archive, 13 May 1962: A Clockwork Orange reviewed] The Guardian</ref> Malcolm Bradbury wrote "All of Mr Burgess's powers as a comic writer, which are considerable, have gone into the rich language of his inverted Utopia. If you can stomach the horrors, you'll enjoy the manner". Roald Dahl called it "a terrifying and marvellous book".<ref name"critics">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.anthonyburgess.org/a-clockwork-orange/a-clockwork-orange-and-the-critics/ \|titleA Clockwork Orange and the Critics \|date14 June 2023 \|publisherThe International Anthony Burgess Foundation}}</ref> Many reviewers praised the inventiveness of the language, but expressed unease at the violent subject matter. The Spectator praised Burgess's "extraordinary technical feat" but was uncomfortable with "a certain arbitrariness about the plot which is slightly irritating". New Statesman acclaimed Burgess for addressing "acutely and savagely the tendencies of our time" but called the book "a great strain to read".<ref name"critics"/> The Sunday Times review was negative, and described the book as "a very ordinary, brutal and psychologically shallow story".<ref>Brooks, Jeremy. "A Bedsitter in Dublin". Sunday Times, 13 May 1962, p. 32.</ref> The Times also reviewed the book negatively, describing it as "a somewhat clumsy experiment with science fiction [with] clumsy cliches about juvenile delinquency".<ref name"New Fiction 1962, p. 16">"New Fiction". Times, 17 May 1962, p. 16.</ref> The violence was criticised as "unconvincing in detail".<ref name"New Fiction 1962, p. 16"/> Writer's appraisal Burgess dismissed A Clockwork Orange as "too didactic to be artistic".<ref>A Clockwork Orange (Penguin Modern Classics) (Paperback) by Anthony Burgess, Blake Morrison xxii</ref> He said that the violent content of the novel "nauseated" him.<ref>Calder,, John Mackenzie, and Anthony Burgess. "Ugh". The Times Literary Supplement, 2 January 1964, p. 9.</ref> In 1985, Burgess published Flame into Being: The Life and Work of D. H. Lawrence and while discussing ''Lady Chatterley's Lover'' in his biography, Burgess compared the notoriety of D. H. Lawrence's novel with A Clockwork Orange: "We all suffer from the popular desire to make the known notorious. The book I am best known for, or only known for, is a novel I am prepared to repudiate: written a quarter of a century ago, a ''jeu d'esprit knocked off for money in three weeks, it became known as the raw material for a film which seemed to glorify sex and violence. The film made it easy for readers of the book to misunderstand what it was about, and the misunderstanding will pursue me until I die. I should not have written the book because of this danger of misinterpretation, and the same may be said of Lawrence and Lady Chatterley's Lover."<ref>Flame into Being: The Life and Work of D. H. Lawrence (Heinemann, London 1985) Anthony Burgess, p 205</ref> Awards and nominations and rankings * 1983&nbsp;– Prometheus Award (Preliminary Nominee) * 1999&nbsp;– Prometheus Award (Nomination) * 2002&nbsp;– Prometheus Award (Nomination) * 2003&nbsp;– Prometheus Award (Nomination) * 2006&nbsp;– Prometheus Award (Nomination)<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.lfs.org/hof_nominees.htm \|titleLibertarian Futurist Society \|publisherLfs.org \|access-date2014-01-03 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060502040636/http://www.lfs.org/hof_nominees.htm \|archive-date=2 May 2006}}</ref> * 2008&nbsp;– Prometheus Award (Hall of Fame Award) A Clockwork Orange was chosen by Time'' magazine as one of the 100 best English-language books from 1923 to 2005.<ref nameTime100/>Adaptations in Kubrick's dystopian film A Clockwork Orange (1971)]] A 1965 film by Andy Warhol entitled Vinyl was an adaptation of Burgess's novel.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/29/movies/29dargis.html \|titleWorking With Andy the Auteur \|lastDargis \|firstManohla \|date27 November 2009 \|workThe New York Times \|access-date20 February 2019 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190221112346/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/29/movies/29dargis.html \|archive-date21 February 2019}}</ref> The best known adaptation of the novella is the 1971 film A Clockwork Orange by Stanley Kubrick, with Malcolm McDowell as Alex.<ref>{{cite web \|workThe New York Times \|titleA Clockwork Orange (1971) 'A Clockwork Orange' Dazzles the Senses and Mind \|author-linkVincent Canby \|firstVincent \|lastCanby \|date20 December 1971 \|urlhttps://movies.nytimes.com/movie/review?res9a02e1d61038ef34bc4851dfb467838a669ede \|access-date4 February 2017 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120516010817/http://movies.nytimes.com/movie/review?res9A02E1D61038EF34BC4851DFB467838A669EDE \|archive-date16 May 2012}}</ref> In 1987, Burgess published a stage play titled A Clockwork Orange: A Play with Music. The play includes songs, written by Burgess, which are inspired by Beethoven and Nadsat slang.<ref>{{cite web \|titleA Clockwork Orange on Stage \|urlhttp://www.anthonyburgess.org/about-anthony-burgess/a-clockwork-orange-on-stage \|websiteanthonyburgess.org \|date5 September 2011 \|publisherInternational Anthony Burgess Foundation \|access-date27 March 2015 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150329044640/http://www.anthonyburgess.org/about-anthony-burgess/a-clockwork-orange-on-stage \|archive-date29 March 2015}}</ref> A manga anthology by Osamu Tezuka entitled Tokeijikake no Ringo (Clockwork Apple) was released in 1983.<ref>{{cite web \|date2017-04-21 \|titleClockwork Apple (Manga) \|urlhttp://tezukainenglish.com/wp/?page_id9910 \|access-date2021-01-26 \|websiteTezuka in English \|language=en-US}}</ref> In 1988, a German adaptation of A Clockwork Orange at the intimate theatre of Bad Godesberg featured a musical score by the German punk rock band Die Toten Hosen which, combined with orchestral clips of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony and "other dirty melodies" (so stated by the subtitle), was released on the album Ein kleines bisschen Horrorschau. The track Hier kommt Alex became one of the band's signature songs. , Sterling Wolfe, Michael Holmes, and Ricky Coates in Brad Mays' multi-media stage production of A Clockwork Orange, 2003, Los Angeles. (photo: Peter Zuehlke)]] in Brad Mays' multi-media stage production of A Clockwork Orange, 2003, Los Angeles. (photo: Peter Zuehlke)]] In February 1990, another musical version was produced at the Barbican Theatre in London by the Royal Shakespeare Company. Titled A Clockwork Orange: 2004, it received mostly negative reviews, with John Peter of The Sunday Times of London calling it "only an intellectual Rocky Horror Show", and John Gross of The Sunday Telegraph calling it "a clockwork lemon". Even Burgess himself, who wrote the script based on his novel, was disappointed. According to The Evening Standard, he called the score, written by Bono and The Edge of the rock group U2, "neo-wallpaper". Burgess had originally worked alongside the director of the production, Ron Daniels, and envisioned a musical score that was entirely classical. Unhappy with the decision to abandon that score, he heavily criticised the band's experimental mix of hip-hop, liturgical, and gothic music. Lise Hand of The Irish Independent reported The Edge as saying that Burgess's original conception was "a score written by a novelist rather than a songwriter". Calling it "meaningless glitz", Jane Edwardes of 20/20 magazine said that watching this production was "like being invited to an expensive French Restaurant – and being served with a Big Mac." In 1994, Chicago's Steppenwolf Theater put on a production of A Clockwork Orange directed by Terry Kinney. The American premiere of novelist Anthony Burgess's own adaptation of his A Clockwork Orange starred K. Todd Freeman as Alex. In 2001, UNI Theatre (Mississauga, Ontario) presented the Canadian premiere of the play under the direction of Terry Costa.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://mirateca.com/projects/unitheatre/default.aspx \|titleMirateca Arts \|publisherMirateca.com \|access-date2014-01-03 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131014175158/http://mirateca.com/projects/unitheatre/default.aspx \|archive-date=14 October 2013}}</ref> In 2002, Godlight Theatre Company presented the New York Premiere adaptation of A Clockwork Orange at Manhattan Theatre Source. The production went on to play at the SoHo Playhouse (2002), Ensemble Studio Theatre (2004), 59E59 Theaters (2005) and the Edinburgh Festival Fringe (2005). While at Edinburgh, the production received rave reviews from the press while playing to sold-out audiences. The production was directed by Godlight's artistic director, Joe Tantalo. In 2003, Los Angeles director Brad Mays<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://bradmays.com/ \|titleBrad Mays \|publisherBrad Mays \|access-date2014-01-03 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131020102431/http://bradmays.com/ \|archive-date20 October 2013}}</ref> and the ARK Theatre Company staged a multi-media adaptation of A Clockwork Orange,<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.bradmays.com/clockwork.html \|titleProduction Photos from A Clockwork Orange, 2003, ARK Theatre Company, directed by Brad Mays \|publisherBradmays.com \|access-date2014-01-03 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111004100122/http://www.bradmays.com/clockwork.html \|archive-date4 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/20/clockwork-orange-musical_n_904375.html \|title'A Clockwork Orange' Songs To Be Performed For First Time in History \|publisherHuffingtonpost.com \|date20 July 2011 \|access-date2011-11-28 \|firstLucas \|lastKavner \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111121080817/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/20/clockwork-orange-musical_n_904375.html \|archive-date21 November 2011}}</ref> which was named "Pick of the Week" by the LA Weekly and nominated for three of the 2004 LA Weekly Theater Awards: Direction, Revival Production (of a 20th-century work), and Leading Female Performance.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.laweekly.com/2004-02-12/stage/the-25th-annual-la-weekly-theater-award-nominees/ \|titleLA Weekly Theatre Awards Nominations A Clockwork Orange – nominations for "Best Revival Production," "Best Leading Female Performance," "Best Direction" \|workLaweekly.com \|date12 February 2004 \|access-date2014-01-03 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141222050210/http://www.laweekly.com/2004-02-12/stage/the-25th-annual-la-weekly-theater-award-nominees/ \|archive-date22 December 2014}}</ref> Vanessa Claire Smith won Best Actress for her gender-bending portrayal of Alex, the music-loving teenage sociopath.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.laweekly.com/2004-04-29/stage/jack-black-goes-to-hollywood-high/ \|titleLA Weekly Theatre Awards A Clockwork Orange – Vanessa Claire Smith wins for "Best Leading Female Performance" \|workLaweekly.com \|date29 April 2004 \|access-date2014-01-03 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110525191917/http://www.laweekly.com/2004-04-29/stage/jack-black-goes-to-hollywood-high/ \|archive-date25 May 2011}}</ref> This production utilised three separate video streams outputted to seven onstage video monitors – six 19-inch and one 40-inch. In order to preserve the first-person narrative of the book, a pre-recorded video stream of Alex, "your humble narrator", was projected onto the 40-inch monitor,<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.bradmays.com/images/37.jpg \|titleBrad Mays (image) \|access-date2014-01-03 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081030022926/http://www.bradmays.com/images/37.jpg \|archive-date30 October 2008}}</ref> thereby freeing the onstage character during passages which would have been awkward or impossible to sustain in the breaking of the fourth wall.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://bradmays.com/gallery/clockwork_orange.html \|titleBrad Mays Gallery: A Clockwork Orange \|workBradmays.com \|access-date2014-01-03 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131020102433/http://bradmays.com/gallery/clockwork_orange.html \|archive-date=20 October 2013}}</ref> An adaptation of the work, based on the original novel, the film and Burgess's own stage version, was performed by the SiLo Theatre in Auckland, New Zealand in early 2007.<ref nameBurrows>{{cite web \|lastBurrows \|firstMelanya \|urlhttp://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/6/story.cfm?c_id6&objectid10008336 \|titleAddicted to Droogs \|workThe New Zealand Herald \|date28 January 2005 \|access-date14 August 2007 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070929160457/http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/6/story.cfm?c_id6&objectid10008336 \|archive-date=29 September 2007}}</ref> In 2021, the International Anthony Burgess Foundation premiered a webpage cataloging various productions of A Clockwork Orange from around the world.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.anthonyburgess.org/a-clockwork-orange-on-stage/ \|titleA Clockwork Orange on Stage\|date14 June 2023 }}</ref>See also {{Portal\|Novels\|Speculative fiction}} * Classical conditioning * List of cultural references to A Clockwork Orange * List of stories set in a future now in the past * MKUltra * Violence in art References {{Reflist}} Further reading * A Clockwork Orange: A Play With Music. Century Hutchinson Ltd. (1987). An extract is quoted on several web sites: [http://pers-www.wlv.ac.uk/~fa1871/burgess.html Anthony Burgess from A Clockwork Orange: A Play With Music (Century Hutchinson Ltd, 1987)<!-- Bot generated title -->], {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051215190843/http://pages.eidosnet.co.uk/johnnymoped/aclockworktestament/aclockworktestament_anthonyburgessonaclockworkorange_page2.html \|date15 December 2005 \|title=anthony burgess on A Clockwork Orange – page 2}}, [https://web.archive.org/web/20040225221221/http://kubricks0.tripod.com/burgesam.htm A Clockwork Orange – From A Clockwork Orange: A Play With Music<!-- Bot generated title -->] * Burgess, Anthony (1978). "Clockwork Oranges". In 1985. London: Hutchinson. {{ISBN\|978-0-09-136080-1}} ([https://web.archive.org/web/20060207052552/http://pages.eidosnet.co.uk/johnnymoped/aclockworktestament/aclockworktestament_beingtheadventures_page1.html extracts quoted here]) * {{cite book \|author-linkGore Vidal \|lastVidal \|firstGore \|chapterWhy I Am Eight Years Younger Than Anthony Burgess \|titleAt Home: Essays, 1982–1988 \|chapter-urlhttps://archive.org/details/athomeessaysvida00vida/page/411 \|chapter-url-accessregistration \|page[https://archive.org/details/athomeessaysvida00vida/page/411 411] \|locationNew York \|publisherRandom House \|year1988 \|isbn978-0-394-57020-4}} * {{cite book \|lastTuck \|firstDonald H. \|author-linkDonald H. Tuck \|titleThe Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy \|locationChicago \|publisherAdvent \|page72 \|year1974 \|isbn978-0-911682-20-5}}External links {{wikiquote}} {{wiktionary\|Appendix:A Clockwork Orange}} {{Commons category}} * {{ISFDB title\|id12305\|titleA Clockwork Orange}} * [https://www.sparknotes.com/lit/clockworkorange/ A Clockwork Orange] at SparkNotes * [http://literapedia.wikispaces.com/A+Clockwork+Orange A Clockwork Orange] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090204065408/http://literapedia.wikispaces.com/A+Clockwork+Orange \|date4 February 2009}} at [http://literapedia.wikispaces.com/ Literapedia] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110116223151/http://chabrieres.pagesperso-orange.fr/texts/clockwork_orange.html A Clockwork Orange (1962) \|Last chapter \|Anthony Burgess (1917–1993)] ;Comparisons with the Kubrick film adaptation * Dalrymple, Theodore. [https://www.city-journal.org/html/prophetic-and-violent-masterpiece-12926.html "A Prophetic and Violent Masterpiece"], City Journal * Giola, Ted. [http://www.conceptualfiction.com/a_clockwork_orange.html "A Clockwork Orange by Anthony Burgess"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200630124236/http://www.conceptualfiction.com/a_clockwork_orange.html \|date30 June 2020}} at [http://www.conceptualfiction.com/ Conceptual Fiction] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210421055747/http://www.conceptualfiction.com/ \|date21 April 2021}} * Priestley, Brenton. [http://www.brentonpriestley.com/writing/clockwork_orange.htm "Of Clockwork Apples and Oranges: Burgess and Kubrick (2002)"] {{A Clockwork Orange}} {{Anthony Burgess}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Clockwork Orange (novel), A}} Category:1962 British novels Category:1962 science fiction novels Novel Category:Books written in fictional dialects Category:British crime novels Category:British novels adapted into films Category:British novels adapted into plays Category:British philosophical novels Category:British science fiction novels Category:Censored books Category:Counterculture of the 1960s Category:Dystopian novels Category:English-language novels Category:Fiction about mind control Category:Fiction with unreliable narrators Category:Fiction about gang rape Category:Heinemann (publisher) books Category:Metafictional novels Category:Novels about music Category:Novels about rape Category:Novels by Anthony Burgess Category:Obscenity controversies in literature Category:Science fiction novels adapted into films	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Clockwork_Orange_(novel)	2025-04-05T18:25:23.750654
844	Amsterdam	{{Short description\|Capital and most populous city of the Netherlands}} {{Other uses}} {{Pp-move}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=February 2024}} {{Infobox settlement <!-- See Template:Infobox settlement for additional fields and descriptions -->\| name = Amsterdam \| settlement_type = Capital city and municipality \| image_skyline = {{multiple images \| total_width = 280 \| border = infobox \| perrow = 1/2/2/1 \| caption_align = center \| image1 = Imagen de los canales concéntricos en Ámsterdam.png \| alt1 = Amsterdam canals \| caption1 = Aerial view of the Canals of Amsterdam \| image2 = KeizersgrachtReguliersgrachtAmsterdam.jpg \| alt2 = Keizersgracht \| caption2 = Keizersgracht \| image3 = Reguliersgracht, Amsterdam.jpg \| alt3 = Reguliersgracht \| caption3 = Reguliersgracht \| image4 = Concertgebouw 04.jpg \| alt4 = Royal Concertgebouw \| caption4 = Royal Concertgebouw \| image5 = South facade of the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam (DSCF0528).jpg \| alt5 = Rijksmuseum \| caption5 = Rijksmuseum \| image6 = ZuidasAmsterdamtheNetherlands.jpg \| alt6 = Zuidas \| caption6 = Zuidas business district }} \| image_alt \| image_flag Flag of Amsterdam.svg \| flag_size \| flag_alt \| image_shield = Coat of arms of Amsterdam.svg \| shield_size \| shield_alt \| image_blank_emblem = Logo of Gemeente Amsterdam.svg \| blank_emblem_type = Brandmark \| nicknames = The Venice of the North, Mokum, Damsko \| motto = Heldhaftig, Vastberaden, Barmhartig (Valiant, Steadfast, Compassionate) \| image_map = Amsterdam_location_map.svg \| map_caption = Location of Amsterdam municipality \| mapsize = 250px \| pushpin_map = Netherlands#Europe \| pushpin_map_caption = Location within the Netherlands##Location within Europe \| pushpin_relief = 1 \| coordinates {{Coord\|52\|22\|22\|N\|04\|53\|37\|E\|region:NL\|displayinline,title}} \| subdivision_type = Country \| subdivision_name = {{flag\|Netherlands}} \| subdivision_type1 = Province \| subdivision_name1 = {{flag\|North Holland}} \| subdivision_type2 = Region \| subdivision_name2 = Amsterdam metropolitan area \| parts_type = <!-- defaults to: Boroughs --> \| parts_style = coll \| parts 7 boroughs, 1 urban area<ref name"stadsdelen"/> \| p1 = Centrum \| p2 = Nieuw-West \| p3 = Noord \| p4 = Oost \| p5 = Weesp \| p6 = West \| p7 = Zuid \| p8 = Zuidoost \| established_title = Founded \| established_date = {{circa}} {{Start date and age\|1275}} \| seat_type = City Hall \| seat = Stopera \| government_footnotes <ref name"mayor_now">{{Cite web \|titlePortfolios: Mayor & Alderpersons \|urlhttp://www.iamsterdam.com/en-GB/living/about-amsterdam/city-of-amsterdam/city-government/portfolios-mayor-alderpersons \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140228111659/http://www.iamsterdam.com/en-GB/living/about-amsterdam/city-of-amsterdam/city-government/portfolios-mayor-alderpersons \|archive-date28 February 2014 \|access-date18 February 2014 \|publisher=Gemeente Amsterdam}}</ref> \| governing_body = Municipal council \| leader_party \| leader_title Mayor \| leader_name = Femke Halsema (GL) \| total_type = Municipality \| unit_pref = Metric \| area_footnotes <ref>{{Dutch municipality total area\|dataref}}</ref><ref name"tno_randstad">{{Cite tech report \|author1Anita Bouman–Eijs \|author2Thijmen van Bree \|author3Wouter Jonkhoff \|author4Olaf Koops \|author5Walter Manshanden \|author6Elmer Rietveld \|urlhttps://www.zuidvleugel.nl/sites/www.zuidvleugel.nl/files/article/downloads/top_20_europese_grootstedelijke_regios_1995_2011_tno_2012_r11155.pdf \|titleDe Top 20 van Europese grootstedelijke regio's 1995–2011; Randstad Holland in internationaal perspectief \|languagenl \|trans-titleTop 20 of European metropolitan regions 1995–2011; Randstad Holland compared internationally \|date17 December 2012 \|publisherTNO \|placeDelft \|access-date25 July 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140303212054/http://www.zuidvleugel.nl/sites/www.zuidvleugel.nl/files/article/downloads/top_20_europese_grootstedelijke_regios_1995_2011_tno_2012_r11155.pdf \|archive-date3 March 2014 \|url-status=dead}}</ref> \| area_total_km2 = 219.32 \| area_land_km2 = 165.76 \| area_water_km2 = 53.56 \| area_blank1_title = Metro region \| area_blank1_km2 = 2580.26 \| area_blank2_title = Randstad \| area_blank2_km2 = 6296.91 \| elevation_footnotes <ref name"AHN">{{Cite web \|last<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> \|titlePostcodetool for 1012JS (Dam Square) \|urlhttps://www.ahn.nl/postcodetool \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130921053543/http://www.ahn.nl/postcodetool \|archive-date21 September 2013 \|access-date18 February 2014 \|websiteActueel Hoogtebestand Nederland \|publisherHet Waterschapshuis \|languagenl}}</ref> \| elevation_m = -2 \| elevation_min_m \| elevation_max_footnotes <ref name"cbs statline">{{Cite web \|titleBevolking op 1 januari en gemiddeld; geslacht, leeftijd en regio \|urlhttps://opendata.cbs.nl/#/CBS/nl/dataset/37230ned/table?dl7682C \|access-date1 November 2022 \|websiteCBS StatLine \|languagenl}}</ref><ref name"tno_randstad" /><ref name"CBS_muni">{{Dutch municipality population\|dataref}}</ref><ref name"CBS_urbanmetro">{{Dutch municipality population urbanmetro\|dataref}}</ref> \| population_footnotes <ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://opendata.cbs.nl/#/CBS/nl/dataset/37230ned/table \|title=Bevolkingsontwikkeling; regio per maand \|websiteCentral Bureau of Statistics \|access-date3 May 2022 \|quote=filter region Regio's > Gemeenten per Provincie > Amsterdam (and Regio's > Groot-Amsterdam (CR))}}</ref> \| population_density_km2 = {{Dutch municipality population density\|Amsterdam}} \| population_as_of = June 2024 \| population_total = 933,680 \| population_urban = 1,477,213 \| population_blank1_title {{nowrap\|<abbr style"border-bottom: none;" title="Amsterdam metropolitan region">Metro region</abbr>}} \| population_blank1 = 2,480,394 \| population_blank2_title = Randstad \| population_blank2 = 8,116,000 \| population_demonym = Amsterdammer \| demographics_type2 = GDP \| demographics2_footnotes <ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/met_10r_3gdp/default/table?langen\|titleGross domestic product (GDP) at current market prices by metropolitan regions\|last\|first\|date\|websiteec.europa.eu\|access-date}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tgs00003/default/table?langen \| titleEU regions by GDP, Eurostat\|access-date18 September 2023\|websitewww.ec.europa.eu}}</ref> \| demographics2_title1 = Municipality \| demographics2_info1 \| demographics2_title2 Metro region \| demographics2_info2 = €201.100&nbsp;billion (2022) \| demographics2_title3 = Randstad \| demographics2_info3 = €510.181&nbsp;billion (2022) \| postal_code_type = Postcode \| postal_code = 1000–1183 \| area_code = 020 \| area_code_type = Area code \| blank_name_sec2 = GeoTLD \| blank_info_sec2 = .amsterdam \| website = [https://www.amsterdam.nl/en/ www.amsterdam.nl] \| mapframe = yes \| mapframe-wikidata = yes \| mapframe-zoom = 9 \| elevation_max_m \| timezone CET \| utc_offset = +1 \| timezone_DST = CEST \| utc_offset_DST = +2 }} Amsterdam ({{IPAc-en\|ˈ\|æ\|m\|s\|t\|ər\|d\|æ\|m}} {{respell\|AM\|stər\|dam}}, {{IPAc-en\|UKalso\|ˌ\|æ\|m\|s\|t\|ər\|ˈ\|d\|æ\|m}} {{respell\|AM\|stər\|DAM}};<ref>{{Citation \|lastWells \|firstJohn C. \|titleLongman Pronunciation Dictionary \|year2008 \|edition3rd \|publisherLongman \|isbn9781405881180}}</ref><ref name":7">{{Citation \|lastRoach \|firstPeter \|titleCambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary \|year2011 \|edition18th \|placeCambridge \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn9780521152532}}</ref> {{IPA\|nl\|ˌɑmstərˈdɑm\|lang\|Nl-Amsterdam.ogg}}; {{Lit\|Dam in the Amstel}})<ref name"Amestelledamme1"/> is the capital{{efn\|grouplower-alpha\|Amsterdam is the constitutional capital, while the government and the royal family are seated in The Hague {{Crossreference\|(see Capital of the Netherlands).}}}} and most populated city of the Netherlands. It has a population of 933,680 in June 2024<ref name":8">{{Cite web \|urlhttps://opendata.cbs.nl/#/CBS/nl/dataset/37230ned/table?dl7562C \|titleCBS Statline \|websiteopendata.cbs.nl}}</ref> within the city proper, 1,457,018 in the urban area<ref name":8"/> and 2,480,394 in the metropolitan area.<ref name"osamsterdam2015">{{Cite web \|titleEconomische Verkenningen Metropool Regio Amsterdam \|urlhttp://www.os.amsterdam.nl/pdf/2015_evmra.pdf \|url-status \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.os.amsterdam.nl/pdf/2015_evmra.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022}}</ref> Located in the Dutch province of North Holland,<ref name"R2040">{{Cite web \|titleRandstad2040; Facts & Figures (p.26) \|urlhttp://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/randstad/documenten-en-publicaties/brochures/2007/12/01/randstad-2040-facts-figures-wat-komt-er-op-de-randstad-af.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130112092111/http://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/randstad/documenten-en-publicaties/brochures/2007/12/01/randstad-2040-facts-figures-wat-komt-er-op-de-randstad-af.html \|archive-date12 January 2013 \|publisherVROM \|languagenl}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleRanstad Monitor 2017 \|urlhttps://www.nl-prov.eu/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/regio-randstad-monitor-2017.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.nl-prov.eu/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/regio-randstad-monitor-2017.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|url-statuslive \|websiteRagio Ranstad}}</ref> Amsterdam is colloquially referred to as the "Venice of the North", for its large number of canals, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://m.theindependentbd.com//magazine/details/7145/Amsterdam-%E2%80%93-Venice-of-the-North \|titleAmsterdam {{•}} Venice of the North\|websiteThe Independent\|firstShamim\|lastAhmed\|access-date15 June 2022\|date10 July 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220615062341/https://m.theindependentbd.com//magazine/details/7145/Amsterdam-%E2%80%93-Venice-of-the-North\|archive-date=15 June 2022}}</ref> Amsterdam was founded at the mouth of the Amstel River, which was dammed to control flooding.<ref name":9">{{Cite web \|titleAmsterdam {{!}} History, Population, & Points of Interest \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/place/Amsterdam \|access-date5 January 2021 \|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica \|languageen}}</ref> Originally a small fishing village in the 12th century, Amsterdam became a major world port during the Dutch Golden Age of the 17th century, when the Netherlands was an economic powerhouse. Amsterdam was the leading centre for finance and trade, as well as a hub of secular art production.<ref>[http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn9780521845359&ssexc Cambridge.org] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171116110800/http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn9780521845359&ssexc \|date16 November 2017 }}, Capitals of Capital -A History of International Financial Centres – 1780–2005, Youssef Cassis, {{ISBN\|978-0-521-84535-9}}</ref> In the 19th and 20th centuries, the city expanded and new neighborhoods and suburbs were built. The city has a long tradition of openness, liberalism, and tolerance.<ref>Shorto, Russell. ''Amsterdam: A History of the World's Most Liberal City''. New York: Vintage Books 2014. {{ISBN\|9780307743756}}</ref> Cycling is key to the city's modern character, and there are numerous biking paths and lanes spread throughout.<ref>Nello-Deakin, Samuel, and Anna Nikolaeva. "The human infrastructure of a cycling city: Amsterdam through the eyes of international newcomers." Urban Geography 42.3 (2021): 289–311.</ref><ref>Feddes, Fred, Marjolein de Lange, and Marco te Brömmelstroet. "Hard work in paradise. The contested making of Amsterdam as a cycling city." The Politics of Cycling Infrastructure. Policy Press, 2020. 133–156.</ref> Amsterdam's main attractions include its historic canals; the {{Lang\|nl\|Rijksmuseum\|italicno}}, the state museum with Dutch Golden Age art; the Van Gogh Museum; the Dam Square, where the Royal Palace of Amsterdam and former city hall are located; the Amsterdam Museum; Stedelijk Museum, with modern art; the {{Lang\|nl\|Concertgebouw\|italicno}} concert hall; the Anne Frank House; the {{Lang\|nl\|Scheepvaartmuseum\|italicno}}, the {{Lang\|la\|Natura Artis Magistra\|italicno}}; Hortus Botanicus, NEMO, the red-light district and cannabis coffee shops. The city is known for its nightlife and festival activity, with several nightclubs among the world's most famous. Its artistic heritage, canals, and narrow canal houses with gabled façades, well-preserved legacies of the city's 17th-century Golden Age, have attracted millions of visitors annually. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange, founded in 1602, is considered the oldest "modern" securities market stock exchange in the world. As the commercial capital of the Netherlands and one of the top financial centres in Europe, Amsterdam is considered an alpha-world city. The city is the cultural capital of the Netherlands.<ref>After Athens in 1888 and Florence in 1986, Amsterdam was in 1986 chosen as the European Capital of Culture, confirming its eminent position in Europe and the Netherlands. See [http://ec.europa.eu/culture/our-programmes-and-actions/doc443_en.htm EC.europa.eu] for an overview of the European cities and capitals of culture over the years. {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081214194439/http://ec.europa.eu/culture/our-programmes-and-actions/doc443_en.htm \|date14 December 2008 }}</ref> Many large Dutch institutions have their headquarters in the city.<ref>[https://www.forbes.com/lists/2008/18/biz_2000global08_The-Global-2000-Netherlands_10Rank.html Forbes.com] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200520173602/https://www.forbes.com/lists/2008/18/biz_2000global08_The-Global-2000-Netherlands_10Rank.html \|date20 May 2020 }}, Forbes Global 2000 Largest Companies – Dutch rankings.</ref> Many of the world's largest companies are based here or have established their European headquarters in the city, such as technology companies Uber, Netflix, and Tesla.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-05-22/the-next-global-tech-hotspot-amsterdam-stakes-its-claim \|titleThe Next Global Tech Hotspot? Amsterdam Stakes Its Claim \|newspaperBloomberg.com \|date22 May 2016 \|viaBloomberg}}</ref> In 2022, Amsterdam was ranked the ninth-best city to live in by the Economist Intelligence Unit<ref>{{Cite web \|titleBest cities ranking and report \|urlhttp://pages.eiu.com/rs/eiu2/images/EIU_BestCities.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://pages.eiu.com/rs/eiu2/images/EIU_BestCities.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> and 12th on quality of living for environment and infrastructure by Mercer.<ref>{{Cite web \|date26 May 2010 \|titleBest cities in the world (Mercer) \|urlhttp://www.citymayors.com/features/quality_survey.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101101121637/http://citymayors.com/features/quality_survey.html \|archive-date1 November 2010 \|access-date10 October 2010 \|publisherCity Mayors}}</ref> The city was ranked 4th place globally as a top tech hub in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web \|date4 February 2019 \|titleTech Cities in Motion – 2019 \|urlhttps://www.savills.co.uk/research_articles/229130/274942-0 \|publisherSavills}}</ref> The Port of Amsterdam is the fifth largest in Europe.<ref name"RPA Stat15">{{Cite press release \|titlePort Statistics 2015 \|dateMay 2016 \|publisherRotterdam Port Authority \|urlhttps://www.portofrotterdam.com/sites/default/files/port-statistics-2015.pdf \|access-date9 February 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170209204616/https://www.portofrotterdam.com/sites/default/files/port-statistics-2015.pdf \|archive-date9 February 2017 \|url-status\|page6}}</ref> The KLM hub and Amsterdam's main airport, Schiphol, is the busiest airport in the Netherlands, third in Europe. The Dutch capital is one of the most multicultural cities in the world, with about 180 nationalities represented.<ref>{{Cite web \|date26 February 2008 \|titleAmsterdam world's most multicultural city. \|url=https://www.wantedineurope.com/news/amsterdam-worldc292s-most-multicultural-city.html}}</ref> Immigration and ethnic segregation in Amsterdam is a current issue.<ref>Musterd, Sako. "Immigration and ethnic segregation in the Netherlands with a special focus on Amsterdam." Ethnic Minorities and Inter-Ethnic Relations in Context. Routledge, 2017. 287–303.</ref> Amsterdam's notable residents throughout its history include painters Rembrandt and Vincent van Gogh, 17th-century philosophers Baruch Spinoza, John Locke, René Descartes, and the Holocaust victim and diarist Anne Frank. History {{Main\|History of Amsterdam}} {{For timeline}} Prehistory Due to its geographical location in what used to be wet peatland, the founding of Amsterdam is later than other urban centres in the Low Countries. However, around the area of what later became Amsterdam, farmers settled as early as three millennia ago. They lived along the prehistoric IJ river and upstream of its tributary Amstel. The prehistoric IJ was a shallow and quiet stream in peatland behind beach ridges. This secluded area was able to grow into an important local settlement centre, especially in the late Bronze Age, the Iron Age and the Roman Age. Neolithic and Roman artefacts have also been found in the prehistoric Amstel bedding under Amsterdam's Damrak and Rokin, such as shards of Bell Beaker culture pottery (2200–2000 BC) and a granite grinding stone (2700–2750 BC),<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastGawronski \|firstJ \|date2017 \|titleOntstaan uit een storm; De vroegste geschiedenis van Amsterdam archeologisch en landschappelijk belicht \|trans-titleBorn from a storm; The earliest history of Amsterdam from an archaeological and landscape perspective. \|urlhttps://www.theobakker.net/pdf/TX_Gawronski2017JbAmstelodamum_10.pdf \|journalJaarboek van het Genootschap Amstelodamum \|languageDutch \|locationAmsterdam \|publisherUniversity of Amsterdam \|volume109 \|access-date5 January 2021}}, pp. 69–71.</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleBelow the Surface – Archeologische vondsten Noord/Zuidlijn Amsterdam \|urlhttps://belowthesurface.amsterdam/en/vondsten\|access-date25 February 2021 \|websitebelowthesurface.amsterdam}}</ref> but the location of these artefacts around the river banks of the Amstel probably points to the presence of a modest semi-permanent or seasonal settlement. Until water issues were controlled, a permanent settlement would not have been possible, since the river mouth and the banks of the Amstel in this period in time were too wet for permanent habitation.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastGawronski \|firstJ \|date2017 \|titleOntstaan uit een storm; De vroegste geschiedenis van Amsterdam archeologisch en landschappelijk belicht \|trans-titleBorn from a storm; The earliest history of Amsterdam from an archaeological and landscape perspective. \|urlhttps://www.theobakker.net/pdf/TX_Gawronski2017JbAmstelodamum_10.pdf \|journalJaarboek van het Genootschap Amstelodamum \|languageDutch \|locationAmsterdam \|publisherUniversity of Amsterdam \|volume109 \|access-date5 January 2021}}, pp. 62–63.</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Kranendonk \|first1P. \|last2Kluiving \|first2S. J. \|last3Troelstra \|first3S. R. \|titleChrono- and archaeostratigraphy and development of the River Amstel: results of the North/South underground line excavations, Amsterdam, the Netherlands<!--sic-->\|journalNetherlands Journal of Geosciences \|dateDecember 2015 \|volume94 \|issue4 \|pages333–352 \|doi10.1017/njg.2014.38 \|bibcode2015NJGeo..94..333K \|s2cid109933628 \|languageen \|issn0016-7746\|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Founding {{Hatnote\|See also Other names of Amsterdam}} The origins of Amsterdam are linked to the development of a dam on the Amstel River called Amestelle, meaning 'watery area', from Aa(m) 'river' + stelle 'site at a shoreline', 'river bank'.<ref name":6">{{Cite web \|titlePlaatsnamen en hun betekenis \|urlhttp://www.volkoomen.nl/Plaatsnamen%20en%20hun%20betekenis.htm\|access-date21 February 2021 \|websitewww.volkoomen.nl}}</ref> In this area, land reclamation started as early as the late 10th century.<ref>{{Cite web \|date22 October 2008 \|titleAmsterdam 200 jaar ouder dan aangenomen \|urlhttp://www.nu.nl/news/1801750/80/rss/%27Amsterdam_200_jaar_ouder_dan_aangenomen%27.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081025045803/http://www.nu.nl/news/1801750/80/rss/%27Amsterdam_200_jaar_ouder_dan_aangenomen%27.html \|archive-date25 October 2008 \|access-date22 October 2008 \|publisherNu.nl \|languagenl}}</ref> Amestelle was located along a side arm of the IJ. This sidearm took its name from the eponymous land: Amstel. Amestelle was inhabited by farmers, who lived more inland and more upstream, where the land was not as wet as at the banks of the downstream river mouth. These farmers were starting the reclamation around upstream Ouderkerk aan de Amstel, and later at the other side of the river at Amstelveen. The Van Amstel family, known in documents by this name since 1019,<ref name=":6" /> held the stewardship in this northwestern nook of the ecclesiastical district of the bishop of Utrecht. The family later served also under the count of Holland. A major turning point in the development of the Amstel River mouth was the All Saint's Flood of 1170. In an extremely short time, the shallow river IJ turned into a wide estuary, which from then on offered the Amstel an open connection to the Zuiderzee, IJssel, and waterways further afield. This made the water flow of the Amstel more active, so excess water could be drained better. With drier banks, the downstream Amstel mouth became attractive for permanent habitation. Moreover, the river had grown from an insignificant peat stream into a junction of international waterways.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastGawronski \|firstJ. \|date2017 \|titleOntstaan uit een storm; De vroegste geschiedenis van Amsterdam archeologisch en landschappelijk belicht \|trans-titleBorn from a storm; The earliest history of Amsterdam from a landscape and archaeological perspective. \|urlhttps://www.theobakker.net/pdf/TX_Gawronski2017JbAmstelodamum_10.pdf \|journalJaarboek van het Genootschap Amstelodamum \|languageDutch \|locationAmsterdam \|publisherUniversity of Amsterdam \|volume109 \|access-date5 January 2021}}, pp. 75–77.</ref> A settlement was built here immediately after the landscape change of 1170. Right from the start of its foundation, it focused on traffic, production, and trade; not on farming, as opposed to how communities had lived further upstream for the past 200 years and northward for thousands of years.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastGawronski \|firstJ. \|date2017 \|titleOntstaan uit een storm; De vroegste geschiedenis van Amsterdam archeologisch en landschappelijk belicht \|trans-titleBorn from a storm; The earliest history of Amsterdam from afrom a landscape and archaeological perspective. \|urlhttps://www.theobakker.net/pdf/TX_Gawronski2017JbAmstelodamum_10.pdf \|journalJaarboek van het Genootschap Amstelodamum \|languageDutch \|locationAmsterdam \|publisherUniversity of Amsterdam \|volume109 \|access-date5 January 2021}}, pp. 84–85.</ref> The construction of a dam at the mouth of the Amstel, eponymously named Dam, is historically estimated to have occurred between 1264 and 1275. The settlement first appeared in a document from 1275, concerning a road toll granted by the count of Holland Floris V to the residents apud Amestelledamme 'at the dam in the Amstel' or 'at the dam of Amstelland'.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastGawronski \|firstJ \|date2017 \|titleOntstaan uit een storm; De vroegste geschiedenis van Amsterdam archeologisch en landschappelijk belicht \|trans-titleBorn from a storm; The earliest history of Amsterdam from afrom a landscape and archaeological perspective. \|urlhttps://www.theobakker.net/pdf/TX_Gawronski2017JbAmstelodamum_10.pdf \|journalJaarboek van het Genootschap Amstelodamum \|languageDutch \|locationAmsterdam \|publisherUniversity of Amsterdam \|volume109 \|access-date5 January 2021}}, p. 55.</ref><ref name"Amestelledamme1">{{Cite web \|titleBron Amestelledamme \|urlhttps://geschiedenislokaalamsterdam.nl/bronnen/amestelledamme \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240419115025/https://geschiedenislokaalamsterdam.nl/bronnen/amestelledamme \|archive-date19 April 2024 \|access-date3 September 2024 \|websiteGeschiedenis Lokaal Amsterdam}}</ref> This allowed the inhabitants of the village to travel freely through the County of Holland, paying no tolls at bridges, locks and dams.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleThe toll privilege of 1275 in the Amsterdam City Archives \|urlhttp://stadsarchief.amsterdam.nl/english/amsterdam_treasures/trade/toll_privilege/index.en.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160106010052/http://stadsarchief.amsterdam.nl/english/amsterdam_treasures/trade/toll_privilege/index.en.html \|archive-date6 January 2016 \|access-date10 October 2010 \|publisherStadsarchief.amsterdam.nl}}</ref> This was a move in a years-long struggle for power in the area between the count of Holland and the Amstel family who governed the area on behalf of the bishop of Utrecht.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastAmsterdam \|titleDe geschiedenis van Amsterdam \|urlhttps://www.amsterdam.nl/toerisme-vrije-tijd/over-amsterdam/geschiedenis/ \|access-date10 January 2023 \|websiteAmsterdam.nl \|languagenl}}</ref> By 1327, the name had developed into Aemsterdam.{{sfn\|Berns\|Daan\|1993\|p91}}{{sfn\|Mak\|1994\|pp=18–20}} {{See also\|van Dam}} Middle Ages was consecrated in 1306 AD.]]The bishop of Utrecht granted Amsterdam zone rights in either 1300 or 1306.<ref name"amnlgeschedenis">{{Cite web \|titleDe geschiedenis van Amsterdam \|urlhttp://amsterdam.nl/stad_in_beeld/geschiedenis/de_geschiedenis_van#Stadsrechten \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080518134246/http://amsterdam.nl/stad_in_beeld/geschiedenis/de_geschiedenis_van \|archive-date18 May 2008 \|access-date21 May 2008 \|publisherMunicipality of Amsterdam \|languagenl}}</ref> The {{interlanguage link\|Mirakel van Amsterdam\|nl}} in 1345 rendered the city an important place of pilgrimage. During the heyday of the Stille Omgang, which became the expression of the pilgrimage after the Protestant Reformation,<ref>Charles Caspers & Peter Jan Margry, Het Mirakel van Amsterdam. Biografie van een betwiste devotie (Amsterdam: Prometheus, 2017) pp. 59–60.</ref><ref name"stilleomgang">{{Cite web \|titleMirakel van Amsterdam \|urlhttp://www.trouw.nl/laatstenieuws/laatstenieuws/article936256.ece/Katholieken_verzameld_voor_Mirakel_van_Amsterdam \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090808045508/http://www.trouw.nl/laatstenieuws/laatstenieuws/article936256.ece/Katholieken_verzameld_voor_Mirakel_van_Amsterdam \|archive-date8 August 2009 \|access-date21 May 2008 \|language=nl}}</ref> up to 90,000 pilgrims came to Amsterdam. From the 14th century on, Amsterdam flourished, largely from trade with the Hanseatic League. From the 15th century on the city established an independent trade route with the Baltic Sea in grain and timber, cutting out the Hanseatic League as middlemen. The city became the staple market of Europe for bulk cargo. This was made possible due to innovations in the herring fishery, from which Amsterdam reaped great wealth.<ref name=":7" /> Herring had demand in markets all around Europe. Inventions of on-board gibbing and the haringbuis in 1415, made longer voyages feasible and hence enabled Dutch fishermen to follow the herring shoals far from the coasts, giving them a monopoly in the industry. The herring industry relied on international trade cooperation and large initial investments in ships. This required many highly skilled and unskilled workers to cooperate, as well as the import of the necessary raw materials to turn an unfinished product into a marketable one. This required merchants to then sell it throughout the continent and bookkeepers and accountants to divide the profit. In short, the herring industry was setting up the foundations for what would later become the transcontinental trade system and the Dutch Golden Age, with Amsterdam at its centre,<ref name":8" /> hence the saying "Amsterdam is built on Herringbones".<ref name":9" /> Conflict with Spain , 30 January 1648. Painting by Bartholomeus van der Helst]] The Low Countries were part of the Hapsburg inheritance and came under the Spanish monarchy in the early sixteenth century. The Dutch rebelled against Philip II of Spain, who led a defense of Catholicism during the Protestant Reformation. The main reasons for the uprising were the imposition of new taxes, the tenth penny, and the religious persecution of Protestants by the newly introduced Inquisition. The revolt escalated into the Eighty Years' War, which ultimately led to Dutch independence.<ref name"80yearswar">{{Cite web \|titleEighty Years' War \|urlhttp://dutchrevolt.leidenuniv.nl/nederlands/default.htm \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080512110316/http://dutchrevolt.leidenuniv.nl/nederlands/default.htm \|archive-date12 May 2008 \|access-date21 May 2008 \|publisherLeiden University \|languagenl}}</ref> Strongly pushed by Dutch Revolt leader William the Silent, the Dutch Republic became known for its relative religious tolerance. Jews from the Iberian Peninsula, Protestant Huguenots from France, prosperous merchants, and printers from Flanders, and economic and religious refugees from the Spanish-controlled parts of the Low Countries found safety in Amsterdam. The influx of Flemish printers and the city's intellectual tolerance made Amsterdam a centre for the European free press.<ref>A case in point is that after his trial and sentencing in Rome in 1633, Galileo chose Lodewijk Elzevir in Amsterdam to publish one of his finest works, Two New Sciences. See Wade Rowland (2003), ''Galileo's Mistake, A new look at the epic confrontation between Galileo and the Church, New York: Arcade Publishing, {{ISBN\|1-55970-684-8}}, p. 260.</ref> Centre of the Dutch Golden Age by Emanuel de Witte, 1653. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange was the first stock exchange to introduce continuous trade in the early 17th century.<ref name"Braudel">{{Cite book \|lastBraudel \|firstFernand \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/civilizationcapi01brau \|titleCivilization and capitalism 15th–18th century: The wheels of commerce \|date1983 \|publisherHarper & Row \|isbn978-0060150914 \|locationNew York \|url-access=registration}}</ref>]] During the 17th century, Amsterdam experienced what is considered its Golden Age, during which it became the wealthiest city in the Western world.<ref>Haverkamp-Bergmann, E. Rembrandt; The Night Watch''. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1982, p. 57.</ref> Ships sailed from Amsterdam to the Baltic Sea, the Caribbean, North America, and Africa, as well as present-day Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka, and Brazil, forming the basis of a worldwide trading network. Amsterdam's merchants had the largest share in both the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the Dutch West India Company. These companies acquired overseas possessions that later became Dutch colonies. Amsterdam was Europe's most important hub for the shipment of goods and was the leading financial centre of the Western world.<ref>[http://www.uncp.edu/home/rwb/Amsterdam_l.html Amsterdam in the 17th century] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090826132532/http://www.uncp.edu/home/rwb/Amsterdam_l.html \|date26 August 2009 }}, The University of North Carolina at Pembroke</ref> In 1602, the Amsterdam office of the Dutch East India Company became the world's first stock exchange by trading in its own shares.<ref name"The oldest share">{{Cite web \|titleThe oldest share \|urlhttp://www.oldest-share.com/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080509123937/http://www.oldest-share.com/ \|archive-date9 May 2008 \|access-date=22 May 2008}}</ref> The Bank of Amsterdam started operations in 1609, acting as a full-service bank for Dutch merchant bankers and as a reserve bank. From the 17th century onwards, Amsterdam also became involved in the Atlantic slave trade. The city was a major destination port for Dutch slave ships participating in the triangular trade, which lasted until the United Netherlands abolished the Netherlands' involvement in the trade in 1814 at the request of the British government. Amsterdam was also a member of the Society of Suriname, an organisation founded to oversee the management of the Dutch colony of Surinam, which was economically dependent on slave plantations. On 1 July 2021, the mayor of Amsterdam, Femke Halsema, apologised for the city's involvement in the slave trade.<ref>{{cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idThcUEAAAQBAJ \|titleTracing Slavery: The Politics of Atlantic Memory in The Netherlands<!--sic-->\|lastBalkenhol \|firstMarkus \|publisherBerghahn Books \|date2021 \|isbn9781800731615}}{{page needed\|dateOctober 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/01/amsterdam-mayor-apologises-for-citys-past-role-in-slave-trade \|titleAmsterdam mayor apologises for city's past role in slave trade \|workThe Guardian \|agencyAssociated Press \|date1 July 2021 \|access-date27 October 2022}}</ref> Decline and modernization Amsterdam's prosperity declined during the 18th and early 19th centuries. The wars of the Dutch Republic with England (latterly, Great Britain) and France took their toll on the city. During the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars, Amsterdam's significance reached its lowest point, with Holland being absorbed into the French Empire. However, the later establishment of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815 marked a turning point. , 1891]] The end of the 19th century is sometimes called Amsterdam's second Golden Age.<ref name"Amsterdam City Walks">{{Cite web \|titleAmsterdam through the ages -A medieval village becomes a global city \|urlhttp://www.amsterdamcitywalks.com/english/agenda.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080501115531/http://www.amsterdamcitywalks.com/english/agenda.html \|archive-date1 May 2008 \|access-date21 May 2008}}</ref> New museums, a railway station, and the {{Lang\|nl\|Concertgebouw\|italicno}} were built; At the same time, the Industrial Revolution reached the city. The Amsterdam–Rhine Canal was dug to give Amsterdam a direct connection to the Rhine, and the North Sea Canal was dug to give the port a shorter connection to the North Sea. Both projects dramatically improved commerce with the rest of Europe and the world. In 1906, Joseph Conrad gave a brief description of Amsterdam as seen from the seaside, in The Mirror of the Sea. 20th century – present at the beginning of the 20th century]] Shortly before the First World War, the city started to expand again, and new suburbs were built. Even though the Netherlands remained neutral in this war, Amsterdam suffered a food shortage, and heating fuel became scarce. The shortages sparked riots in which several people were killed. These riots are known as the Aardappeloproer (Potato Rebellion). People started looting stores and warehouses to get supplies, mainly food.<ref name"aardappeloproer">{{Cite web \|titleAardappeloproer – Legermuseum \|urlhttp://www.collectie.legermuseum.nl/sites/strategion/contents/i004516/arma39%20het%20aardappeloproer%20in%201917.pdf \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080528004443/http://www.collectie.legermuseum.nl/sites/strategion/contents/i004516/arma39%20het%20aardappeloproer%20in%201917.pdf \|archive-date28 May 2008 \|access-date21 May 2008 \|languagenl}}</ref> , around 1938.]] On 1 January 1921, after a flood in 1916, the depleted municipalities of Durgerdam, Holysloot, Zunderdorp and Schellingwoude, all lying north of Amsterdam, were, at their own request, annexed to the city.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmsterdam city archives \|urlhttps://stadsarchief.amsterdam.nl \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141006135130/https://stadsarchief.amsterdam.nl/ \|archive-date6 October 2014 \|access-date4 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.centraledorpenraad.nl/landelijk-noord/historie \|titleHistorie \|workcentaledorpenraad.nl \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140711234152/http://www.centraledorpenraad.nl/landelijk-noord/historie \|archive-date11 July 2014}}</ref> Between the wars, the city continued to expand, most notably to the west of the Jordaan district in the Frederik Hendrikbuurt and surrounding neighbourhoods. Nazi Germany invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940 and took control of the country. Some Amsterdam citizens sheltered Jews, thereby exposing themselves and their families to a high risk of being imprisoned or sent to concentration camps. More than 100,000 Dutch Jews were deported and murdered in Nazi concentration camps, including 56,521 victims in Auschwitz and a further number of 34,082 accounted for in Sobibor. Around 60,000 Jewish inhabitants, including Jewish prewar refugees from Austria and Germany, were living in Amsterdam at the time of the Nazi occupation. Only those provided with a safe haven, avoiding deportation and denunciation, or the very few who returned from the camps at the end of the war, managed to survive. At first the German occupation authorities were very cautious, wanting to convince the city inhabitants of their sincerity. However, their outlook soon turned to cynicism and brutality. A cause in the change of their behaviour was an attack by a Dutch resistance fighter against a collaborator belonging to the paramilitary Dutch fascist organisation, the NSB. The injured man died and in response Heinrich Himmler ordered reprisals.427 Amsterdam Jews were arrested on 22 February, 1941 and sent to Mauthausen concentration camp. Only two people survived. Incensed, a broad spectrum of passive resistance was organized by the Dutch Underground. Trade unions, among them socialist and Communist Party activists, led the protest. Their outcry received support from white collar employees in the civil service and support from the local diocese of the Church. Approval was also given and encouraged by the Dutch government-in-exile under Queen Wilhelmina in London. The German authorities were taken completely by surprise by the level of resistance known as the February strike. 300,000 people participated in the protest against the arrests of Jews. However, the occupier soon responded crudely and brutally, smashing union and illegal party activity. With the edifice of resistance removed the SS and German police apparatus, supported by collaborators in the Dutch auxiliary police, arrested thousands of defenceless Jews in Amsterdam's Jewish Quarter. The two main waves of arrest, culminating in deportation, occurred on 26 May 1943 and on 20 June 1943. The most famous deportee was the young Jewish girl Anne Frank, whose safe hiding place with her family was betrayed and discovered in August, 1944. After a spell at the 'holding camp' in Westerbork Anna and her family were sent to Auschwitz, where her mother was murdered. From there she and her sister Margot were moved onto Bergen-Belsen concentration camp where they died amidst appalling and inhumane conditions in early 1945.<ref name"deportation">{{Cite web \|titleDeportation to camps \|urlhttp://www.hollandscheschouwburg.nl/site_en/deportatie/kader.html \|access-date21 May 2008 \|publisher=Hollandsche Schouwburg}}</ref> At the end of the Second World War, and as a consequence of the Nazi occupation, Amsterdam was in a state of crisis. Communication with the rest of the country broke down, and food and fuel became scarce. Many citizens traveled to the countryside to forage. Dogs, cats, raw sugar beets, and tulip bulbs&mdash;cooked to a pulp&mdash;were consumed to stay alive.<ref name"hongerwinter">{{Cite web \|titleKou en strijd in een barre winter \|urlhttp://www.nos.nl/nosjournaal/dossiers/60jaarbevrijding/60jaar_hongerwinter.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080123174846/http://www.nos.nl/nosjournaal/dossiers/60jaarbevrijding/60jaar_hongerwinter.html#C \|archive-date23 January 2008 \|access-date21 May 2008 \|publisherNOS \|language=nl}}</ref> Many trees in Amsterdam were cut down for fuel, and wood was taken from the houses, apartments and other buildings of deported Jews - a sad affair that no one relished. The city was finally liberated by Canadian forces on 5 May 1945, shortly before the end of the war in Europe. at the end of World War II on 8 May 1945]] Many new suburbs, such as Osdorp, Slotervaart, Slotermeer and Geuzenveld, were built in the years after the Second World War.<ref name"svgeschedenis">{{Cite web \|titleStadsdeel Slotervaart – Geschiedenis \|urlhttp://www.slotervaart.amsterdam.nl/stadsdeel_in_beeld/geschiedenis \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080503180139/http://www.slotervaart.amsterdam.nl/stadsdeel_in_beeld/geschiedenis \|archive-date3 May 2008 \|access-date22 May 2008 \|publisherMunicipality Amsterdam \|languagenl}}</ref> These suburbs contained many public parks and wide-open spaces, and the new buildings provided improved housing conditions with larger and brighter rooms, gardens, and balconies. Because of the war and other events of the 20th century, almost the entire city centre had fallen into disrepair. As society was changing,{{clarify\|dateJanuary 2017}} politicians and other influential figures made plans to redesign large parts of it. There was an increasing demand for office buildings, and also for new roads, as the automobile became available to most people.<ref name"stadsherstel">{{Cite web \|titleStadsherstel Missie/Historie \|urlhttp://www.stadsherstelamsterdam.nl/ \|access-date22 May 2008 \|language=nl}}</ref> A metro started operating in 1977 between the new suburb of Bijlmermeer in the city's Zuidoost (southeast) exclave and the centre of Amsterdam. Further plans were to build a new highway above the metro to connect Amsterdam Centraal and the city centre with other parts of the city. The required large-scale demolitions began in Amsterdam's former Jewish neighborhood. Smaller streets, such as the Jodenbreestraat and Weesperstraat, were widened and almost all houses and buildings were demolished. At the peak of the demolition, the Nieuwmarktrellen (Nieuwmarkt riots) broke out;<ref name"metrostad">{{Cite web \|titleTypisch Metrostad \|urlhttp://amsterdam.nl/?ActItmIdt101459 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080610023117/http://amsterdam.nl/?ActItmIdt101459 \|archive-date10 June 2008 \|access-date22 May 2008 \|publisherMunicipality Amsterdam \|language=nl}}</ref> the rioters expressed their fury about the demolition caused by the restructuring of the city. As a result, the demolition was stopped and the highway into the city's centre was never fully built; only the metro was completed. Only a few streets remained widened. The new city hall was built on the almost completely demolished Waterlooplein. Meanwhile, large private organizations, such as Stadsherstel Amsterdam, were founded to restore the entire city centre. Although the success of this struggle is visible today, efforts for further restoration are still ongoing.<ref name"stadsherstel" /> The entire city centre has reattained its former splendour and, as a whole, is now a protected area. Many of its buildings have become monuments, and in July 2010 the Grachtengordel (the three concentric canals: Herengracht, Keizersgracht, and Prinsengracht) was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List.<ref name"unesco">{{Cite web \|titleGrachtengordel Amsterdam Werelderfgoed \|urlhttps://www.amsterdam.nl/kunst-cultuur/grachtengordel/ \|access-date5 August 2015 \|publisherGemeente Amsterdam \|language=nl}}</ref> were listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 2010,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleSeventeenth-century canal ring area of Amsterdam inside the Singelgracht – UNESCO World Heritage Centre \|urlhttps://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1349 \|access-date31 January 2012 \|publisherWhc.unesco.org}}</ref> contributing to Amsterdam's fame as the "Venice of the North".<ref name"Venice1">{{Cite web \|titleAmsterdamhotspots.nl \|urlhttp://www.amsterdamhotspots.nl/architecture.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070404161938/http://www.amsterdamhotspots.nl/architecture.html \|archive-date4 April 2007 \|access-date19 April 2007}}</ref><ref name"Venice3">{{Cite web \|titleWorld Executive City Guides – Amsterdam \|urlhttp://www.worldexecutive.com/cityguides/amsterdam/ \|access-date=19 April 2007}}</ref> Along with De Wallen, the canals are the focal point for tourists in the city.]] In the 21st century, the Amsterdam city centre has attracted large numbers of tourists: between 2012 and 2015, the annual number of visitors rose from 10 to 17&nbsp;million. Real estate prices have surged, and local shops are making way for tourist-oriented ones, making the centre unaffordable for the city's inhabitants.<ref>{{Cite news \|date27 July 2016 \|titleAmsterdam als koelkastmagneetje \|trans-titleAmsterdam as a fridge magnet \|workDe Groene Amsterdammer \|urlhttps://www.groene.nl/artikel/amsterdam-als-koelkastmagneetje}}</ref> These developments have evoked comparisons with Venice, a city thought to be overwhelmed by the tourist influx.<ref>{{Cite news \|date28 January 2016 \|titleWinkelomzet in Amsterdamse binnenstad explodeerde in 2015 \|workHet Parool \|urlhttp://www.parool.nl/parool/nl/30/ECONOMIE/article/detail/4233984/2016/01/28/Winkelomzet-in-Amsterdamse-binnenstad-explodeerde-in-2015.dhtml \|url-statusdead \|access-date22 June 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160203133439/http://www.parool.nl/parool/nl/30/ECONOMIE/article/detail/4233984/2016/01/28/Winkelomzet-in-Amsterdamse-binnenstad-explodeerde-in-2015.dhtml \|archive-date=3 February 2016}}</ref> Construction of a new metro line connecting the part of the city north of the IJ to its southern part was started in 2003. The project was controversial because its cost had exceeded its budget by a factor of three by 2008,<ref>{{Cite news \|date17 April 2008 \|titleGeschiedenis van een debacle \|workHet Parool}}</ref> because of fears of damage to buildings in the centre, and because construction had to be halted and restarted multiple times.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleWerk aan Amsterdamse Noord-Zuidlijn hervat \|urlhttp://static.nos.nl/nosjournaal/artikelen/2009/8/19/190809_noordzuid_adam.html \|access-date22 June 2016 \|websiteNOS.nl}}</ref> The new metro line was completed in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleBouw Noord/Zuidlijn is voltooid: metrostations en lijn klaar om proef te draaien \|urlhttps://www.at5.nl/artikelen/177226/bouw-noordzuidlijn-is-voltooid-metrostations-en-lijn-klaar-om-proef-te-draaien \|access-date16 September 2018 \|website=at5.nl}}</ref> Since 2014, renewed focus has been given to urban regeneration and renewal, especially in areas directly bordering the city centre, such as Frederik Hendrikbuurt. This urban renewal and expansion of the traditional centre of the city—with the construction of artificial islands of the new eastern IJburg neighbourhood—is part of the Structural Vision Amsterdam 2040 initiative.<ref>{{Cite web \|titlePlan Openbare Ruimte Frederik Hendrikbuurt \|urlhttps://www.amsterdam.nl/publish/pages/285098/plan_openbare_ruimte_versie_4.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.amsterdam.nl/publish/pages/285098/plan_openbare_ruimte_versie_4.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|url-statuslive \|access-date26 September 2016 \|languagenl}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleStructural Vision Amsterdam 2040 \|urlhttps://www.amsterdam.nl/wonen-leefomgeving/structuurvisie/structural-vision-am/ \|access-date26 September 2016 \|languagenl}}</ref>GeographyAmsterdam is located in the Western Netherlands, in the province of North Holland, the capital of which is not Amsterdam, but rather Haarlem. The river Amstel ends in the city centre and connects to a large number of canals that eventually terminate in the IJ. Amsterdam's elevation is about {{cvt\|-2\|m\|ft\|abbroff}} below sea level.<ref name"elevation">{{Cite web \|titleActueel Hoogtebestand Nederland \|urlhttp://www.ahn.nl/ \|access-date18 May 2008 \|language=nl}}</ref> The surrounding land is flat as it is formed of large polders. An artificial forest, Amsterdamse Bos, is in the southwest. Amsterdam is connected to the North Sea through the long North Sea Canal. Amsterdam is intensely urbanised, as is the Amsterdam metropolitan area surrounding the city. Comprising {{cvt\|219.4\|km2\|1}} of land, the city proper has 4,457 inhabitants per km<sup>2</sup> and 2,275 houses per km<sup>2</sup>.<ref name"density">{{Cite web \|titleKerncijfers Amsterdam 2007 \|urlhttp://www.os.amsterdam.nl/pdf/2007_jaarboek_hoofdstuk_01.pdf \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080528004554/http://www.os.amsterdam.nl/pdf/2007_jaarboek_hoofdstuk_01.pdf \|archive-date28 May 2008 \|access-date18 May 2008 \|languagenl}}</ref> Parks and nature reserves make up 12% of Amsterdam's land area.<ref name"12percent">{{Cite web \|titleOpenbare ruimte en groen: Inleiding \|urlhttp://www.os.amsterdam.nl/feitenencijfers/24112/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080624164359/http://www.os.amsterdam.nl/feitenencijfers/24112/ \|archive-date24 June 2008 \|access-date18 May 2008 \|languagenl}}</ref> Water Amsterdam has more than {{cvt\|100\|km\|mi\|-1}} of canals, most of which are navigable by boat. The city's three main canals are the Prinsengracht, the Herengracht, and the Keizersgracht. In the Middle Ages, Amsterdam was surrounded by a moat, called the Singel, which now forms the innermost ring in the city, and gives the city centre a horseshoe shape. The city is also served by a seaport. It has been compared with Venice, due to its division into about 90 islands, which are linked by more than 1,200 bridges.<ref>{{Cite web \|date16 June 2008 \|titleAdventure \|urlhttp://geography.howstuffworks.com/europe/geography-of-amsterdam.htm \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140709051911/http://geography.howstuffworks.com/europe/geography-of-amsterdam.htm \|archive-date9 July 2014 \|access-date17 June 2014}}</ref> Climate , Amsterdam-Noord, winter 2010]] Amsterdam has an oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb)<ref name"Weatherbase">{{Cite web \|titleAmsterdam, Netherlands Köppen Climate Classification (Weatherbase) \|urlhttp://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather-summary.php3?s4260&citynameAmsterdam,+North+Holland,+Netherlands&units \|access-date2 July 2019 \|websiteWeatherbase \|archive-date23 January 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230123110029/http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather-summary.php3?s4260&citynameAmsterdam,+North+Holland,+Netherlands&units\|url-statusdead }}</ref> strongly influenced by its proximity to the North Sea to the west, with prevailing westerly winds. Amsterdam, as well as most of the North Holland province, lies in USDA Hardiness zone 8b. Frosts mainly occur during spells of easterly or northeasterly winds from the inner European continent. Even then, because Amsterdam is surrounded on three sides by large bodies of water, as well as having a significant heat-island effect, nights rarely fall below {{cvt\|-5\|°C\|0}}, while it could easily be {{cvt\|-12\|°C\|0}} in Hilversum, {{cvt\|25\|km\|0}} southeast. Summers are moderately warm with several hot and humid days with occasional rain every month. The average daily high in August is {{cvt\|22.1\|°C\|0}}, and {{cvt\|30\|°C}} or higher is only measured on average on 2.5 days, placing Amsterdam in AHS Heat Zone 2. The record extremes range from {{cvt\|-19.7\|°C}} to {{cvt\|36.3\|°C}}.<ref>{{Cite web \|title06240: Amsterdam Airport Schiphol (Netherlands) \|urlhttps://www.ogimet.com/cgi-bin/gsynres?ind06240&ano2019&mes7&day25&hora18&min0&ndays30 \|access-date25 July 2019 \|publisherOGIMET}}</ref><ref name"Extreme temps">{{Cite web \|titleExtreme temperatures around the world \|urlhttp://www.mherrera.org/temp.htm \|access-date2 March 2012 \|publisherHerrera, Maximiliano}}</ref>{{unreliable source?\|date=November 2021}} Days with more than {{cvt\|1\|mm\|2}} of precipitation are common, on average 133 days per year. Amsterdam's average annual precipitation is {{cvt\|838\|mm\|0}}.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleStationsdata station Schiphol 1981–2010 \|urlhttp://www.klimaatatlas.nl/tabel/stationsdata/klimtab_8110_240.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.klimaatatlas.nl/tabel/stationsdata/klimtab_8110_240.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|url-statuslive \|access-date10 September 2013 \|publisher=Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute}}</ref> A large part of this precipitation falls as light rain or brief showers. Cloudy and damp days are common during the cooler months of October through March. {{clear}} {{Weather box \| collapsed = yes \| location = Amsterdam Airport Schiphol \| metric first = Yes \| single line = Yes \| Jan record high C = 14.0 \| Feb record high C = 16.6 \| Mar record high C = 24.1 \| Apr record high C = 28.0 \| May record high C = 31.5 \| Jun record high C = 33.2 \| Jul record high C = 36.3 \| Aug record high C = 34.5 \| Sep record high C = 31.0 \| Oct record high C = 25.3 \| Nov record high C = 18.2 \| Dec record high C = 15.5 \| year record high C = 36.3 \| Jan high C = 6.2 \| Feb high C = 6.9 \| Mar high C = 10.1 \| Apr high C = 14.3 \| May high C = 17.8 \| Jun high C = 20.3 \| Jul high C = 22.5 \| Aug high C = 22.4 \| Sep high C = 19.2 \| Oct high C = 14.7 \| Nov high C = 10.0 \| Dec high C = 6.9 \| year high C \| Jan mean C 3.8 \| Feb mean C = 4.1 \| Mar mean C = 6.5 \| Apr mean C = 9.8 \| May mean C = 13.3 \| Jun mean C = 16.0 \| Jul mean C = 18.1 \| Aug mean C = 18.0 \| Sep mean C = 15.1 \| Oct mean C = 11.3 \| Nov mean C = 7.4 \| Dec mean C = 4.6 \| year mean C \| Jan low C 1.2 \| Feb low C = 1.0 \| Mar low C = 2.8 \| Apr low C = 5.2 \| May low C = 8.6 \| Jun low C = 11.3 \| Jul low C = 13.5 \| Aug low C = 13.4 \| Sep low C = 11.0 \| Oct low C = 7.7 \| Nov low C = 4.5 \| Dec low C = 1.5 \| year low C \| Jan record low C -16.3 \| Feb record low C = -19.7 \| Mar record low C = -16.7 \| Apr record low C = -4.7 \| May record low C = -1.1 \| Jun record low C = 2.3 \| Jul record low C = 5.0 \| Aug record low C = 5.0 \| Sep record low C = 2.0 \| Oct record low C = -3.4 \| Nov record low C = -8.1 \| Dec record low C = -14.8 \| year record low C = -19.7 \| precipitation colour = green \| Jan precipitation mm = 66.5 \| Feb precipitation mm = 54.7 \| Mar precipitation mm = 51.8 \| Apr precipitation mm = 39.6 \| May precipitation mm = 53.9 \| Jun precipitation mm = 64.8 \| Jul precipitation mm = 82.3 \| Aug precipitation mm = 98.6 \| Sep precipitation mm = 84.4 \| Oct precipitation mm = 86.7 \| Nov precipitation mm = 85.3 \| Dec precipitation mm = 81.7 \| year precipitation mm = 850.3 \| unit precipitation days = 1&nbsp;mm \| Jan precipitation days = 12.2 \| Feb precipitation days = 10.8 \| Mar precipitation days = 9.7 \| Apr precipitation days = 8.6 \| May precipitation days = 8.9 \| Jun precipitation days = 9.7 \| Jul precipitation days = 10.9 \| Aug precipitation days = 11.6 \| Sep precipitation days = 10.9 \| Oct precipitation days = 12.4 \| Nov precipitation days = 13.4 \| Dec precipitation days = 14.1 \| year precipitation days = 133.2 \| Jan snow cm = 4.8 \| Feb snow cm = 5.3 \| Mar snow cm = 2.8 \| Apr snow cm = 0.2 \| May snow cm = 0 \| Jun snow cm = 0 \| Jul snow cm = 0 \| Aug snow cm = 0 \| Sep snow cm = 0 \| Oct snow cm = 0.1 \| Nov snow cm = 0.8 \| Dec snow cm = 3.9 \| year snow cm = 17.9 \| Jan humidity = 87.3 \| Feb humidity = 84.9 \| Mar humidity = 81.0 \| Apr humidity = 75.6 \| May humidity = 74.5 \| Jun humidity = 76.3 \| Jul humidity = 77.2 \| Aug humidity = 78.3 \| Sep humidity = 81.8 \| Oct humidity = 84.9 \| Nov humidity = 88.4 \| Dec humidity = 88.5 \| Jan sun = 69.0 \| Feb sun = 94.3 \| Mar sun = 146.0 \| Apr sun = 197.7 \| May sun = 230.7 \| Jun sun = 217.2 \| Jul sun = 225.4 \| Aug sun = 203.5 \| Sep sun = 154.2 \| Oct sun = 116.9 \| Nov sun = 66.8 \| Dec sun = 58.2 \| year sun = 1779.9 \| Jan percentsun = 26.8 \| Feb percentsun = 33.6 \| Mar percentsun = 39.6 \| Apr percentsun = 47.4 \| May percentsun = 47.4 \| Jun percentsun = 43.4 \| Jul percentsun = 44.7 \| Aug percentsun = 44.6 \| Sep percentsun = 40.4 \| Oct percentsun = 35.3 \| Nov percentsun = 25.2 \| Dec percentsun = 24.1 \| year percentsun = 37.7 \| Jan uv = 1 \| Feb uv = 1 \| Mar uv = 2 \| Apr uv = 4 \| May uv = 5 \| Jun uv = 6 \| Jul uv = 6 \| Aug uv = 5 \| Sep uv = 4 \| Oct uv = 2 \| Nov uv = 1 \| Dec uv = 0 \| source Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (1991–2020 normals)<ref>{{Cite web \|titleKlimaattabel Schiphol, langjarige gemiddelden, tijdvak 1991–2020 \|urlhttps://www.knmi.nl/klimaat-viewer/grafieken-tabellen/klimaattabellen-per-station/schiphol/klimaattabel_schiphol_1991-2020 \|access-date30 March 2022 \|publisherRoyal Netherlands Meteorological Institute \|languagenl}}</ref> (1971–2000 extremes)<ref>{{Cite web \|titleKlimaattabel Schiphol, langjarige extremen, tijdvak 1971–2000 \|urlhttp://www.knmi.nl/klimatologie/normalen1971-2000/per_station/stn240/5-extremen/240_extremen.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.knmi.nl/klimatologie/normalen1971-2000/per_station/stn240/5-extremen/240_extremen.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|url-statuslive \|access-date9 September 2013 \|publisherRoyal Netherlands Meteorological Institute \|languagenl}}{{dead link\|dateMay 2016\|botmedic}}{{cbignore\|botmedic}}</ref> and Weather Atlas (UV index)<ref name"Yu Media Group">{{Cite web \|publisherYu Media Group \|titleAmsterdam, Netherlands – Detailed climate information and monthly weather forecast \|urlhttps://www.weather-atlas.com/en/netherlands/amsterdam-climate \|access-date2 July 2019 \|website=Weather Atlas}}</ref> \| date = June 2014 }} Demographics Historical population {{Historical populations \|title=Estimated population, 1300–1564 \|cols=2 \|percentages = pagr \|1300\|1000 \|1400\|4700 \|1514\|11000 \|1546\|13200 \|1557\|22200 \|1564\|30900 \|sourceBureau Monumentenzorg en Archeologie (1300)<ref name"BMA Gesch1">{{Cite web \|titleHistory of Amsterdam, The Early History \|urlhttp://www.bma.amsterdam.nl/adam/uk/intro/gesch1.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070402012355/http://www.bma.amsterdam.nl/adam/uk/intro/gesch1.html \|archive-date2 April 2007 \|access-date19 April 2007 \|publisherBureau Monumenten & Archeologie (Office of Monuments and Archeology)}}</ref><br />{{Harvnb\|Ramaer\|1921\|pp11–12, 181}} (1400 and 1564)<br />{{Harvnb\|Van Dillen\|1929\|pp=xxv–xxvi}} (1514, 1546 and 1557) }} In 1300, Amsterdam's population was around 1,000 people.<ref name":0">{{Cite book \|lastBairoch \|firstPaul \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCg7JYZO_nEMC&pgPA140 \|titleCities and Economic Development: From the Dawn of History to the Present \|date18 June 1991 \|publisherUniversity of Chicago Press \|isbn9780226034669 \|pages140}}</ref> While many towns in Holland experienced population decline during the 15th and 16th centuries, Amsterdam's population grew,<ref name":1">{{Cite web \|lastPaping \|firstRichard \|dateSeptember 2014 \|titleGeneral Dutch population development 1400–1850 \|urlhttps://www.rug.nl/research/portal/files/15865622/articlesardinie21sep2014.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/files/15865622/articlesardinie21sep2014.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|url-statuslive \|websiteUniversity of Groningen \|page12{{en dash}}13}}</ref> mainly due to the rise of the profitable Baltic maritime trade especially in grain after the Burgundian victory in the Dutch–Hanseatic War in 1441.<ref>{{Citation \|lastBogucka \|firstM. \|titleThe Interactions of Amsterdam and Antwerp with the Baltic region, 1400–1800 \|chapterThe Baltic and Amsterdam in the First Half of the 17th Century \|date1983 \|pages51–57 \|editor-lastWieringa \|editor-firstW. J. \|seriesWerken \|publisherSpringer Netherlands \|doi10.1007/978-94-017-5952-6_7 \|isbn9789401759526}}</ref> The population of Amsterdam was only modest compared to the towns and cities of Flanders and Brabant, which comprised the most urbanized area of the Low Countries.<ref>Henk van Nierop, "Amsterdam", Oxford Bibliographies Online. 28 March 2018. {{doi\|10.1093/OBO/9780195399301-0106}}; and Jessica Dijkman, Shaping Medieval Markets: The Organisation of Commodity Markets in Holland, {{circa\|1200\|1450}} (Leiden: Brill, 2011). {{ISBN\|9789004201484}}</ref> {{Historical populations \|title=Historical population in 10-year intervals, 1590–present<!--All data refers to the estimate on 31 December of the said year--> \|cols=2 \|1590\|41362 \|1600\|59551 \|1610\|82742 \|1620\|106500 \|1630\|135439 \|1640\|162388 \|1650\|176873 \|1660\|192767 \|1670\|206188 \|1680\|219098 \|1690\|224393 \|1700\|235224 \|1710\|239149 \|1720\|241447 \|1730\|239866 \|1740\|237582 \|1750\|233952 \|1760\|240862 \|1770\|239056 \|1780\|228938 \|1790\|214473 \|1800\|203485 \|1810\|201347 \|1820\|197831 \|1830\|206383 \|1840\|214367 \|1850\|223700 \|1860\|244050 \|1870\|279221 \|1880\|323784 \|1890\|417539 \|1900\|520602 \|1910\|573983 \|1920\|647427 \|1930\|757386 \|1940\|800594 \|1950\|835834 \|1960\|869602 \|1970\|831463 \|1980\|716967 \|1990\|695221 \|2000\|731289 \|2010\|767773 \|2020\|872380 \|source{{Harvnb\|Nusteling\|1985\|p240}} (1590–1670)<br />{{Harvnb\|Van Leeuwen\|Oeppen\|1993\|p=87}} (1680–1880)<br />[https://api.data.amsterdam.nl/dcatd/datasets/bx_HyaOipADV-Q/purls/12 Department for Research, Information and Statistics] (1890–present)<!--Van Leeuwen and Oeppen use data from the Municipal Bureau of Statistics (precursor to the Department for Research, Information and Statistics) for their estimates from the year 1811 onward, and as a consequence, their data corresponds to official census data. Van Leeuwen and Oeppen's estimations begin to diverge from the official data from 1896 onward, however, as they, for their article, do not include the population of the annexed territory of the neighboring municipality of Nieuwer-Amstel in their estimates (see Van Leeuwen and Oeppen (1993:69)).-->}} This changed when, during the Dutch Revolt, many people from the Southern Netherlands fled to the North, especially after Antwerp fell to Spanish forces in 1585. Jews from Spain, Portugal, and Eastern Europe similarly settled in Amsterdam, as did Germans and Scandinavians.<ref name":1" /> In thirty years, Amsterdam's population more than doubled between 1585 and 1610.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastPrak \|firstMaarten \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXjTSBgAAQBAJ&pgPA252 \|titleThe Dutch Republic in the Seventeenth Century: The Golden Age \|date22 September 2005 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn9781316342480 \|pages252}}</ref> By 1600, its population was around 50,000.<ref name":0" /> During the 1660s, Amsterdam's population reached 200,000.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Liedtke \|first1Walter A. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idEZxWaNlQKiYC&pgPA197 \|titleVermeer and the Delft School \|last2Vermeer \|first2Johannes \|last3Plomp \|first3Michiel \|last4Rüger \|first4Axel \|date2001 \|publisherMetropolitan Museum of Art \|isbn9780870999734 \|pages197}}</ref> The city's growth levelled off and the population stabilized around 240,000 for most of the 18th century.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastSchmidt \|firstFreek \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8yAvDwAAQBAJ&pgPT106 \|titlePassion and Control: Dutch Architectural Culture of the Eighteenth Century \|date28 July 2017 \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn=9781134797042}}</ref> In 1750, Amsterdam was the fourth largest city in Western Europe, behind London (676,000), Paris (560,000) and Naples (324,000).<ref>{{Cite book \|lastHood \|firstClifton \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idF9obDQAAQBAJ&pgPA14 \|titleIn Pursuit of Privilege: A History of New York City's Upper Class and the Making of a Metropolis \|date8 November 2016 \|publisherColumbia University Press \|isbn9780231542951 \|pages14}}</ref> This was all the more remarkable as Amsterdam was neither the capital city nor the seat of government of the Dutch Republic, which itself was a much smaller state than Great Britain, France or the Ottoman Empire. In contrast to those other metropolises, Amsterdam was also surrounded by large towns such as Leiden (about 67,000), Rotterdam (45,000), Haarlem (38,000), and Utrecht (30,000).{{sfn\|Frijhoff\|Prak\|2005\|p=9}} The city's population declined in the early 19th century,<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Engeli \|first1Christian \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlJ5PAAAAMAAJ \|titleModern urban history research in Europe, USA, and Japan: a handbook \|last2Matzerath \|first2Horst \|date1989 \|publisherBerg \|isbn9780854960408}}</ref> dipping under 200,000 in 1820.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Van Leeuwen\|Oeppen\|1993\|p87}}</ref> By the second half of the 19th century, industrialization spurred renewed growth.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Floud \|first1Roderick \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0J_jBAAAQBAJ&pgPA15 \|titleThe Cambridge Economic History of Modern Britain: Volume 1, Industrialisation, 1700–1870 \|last2Humphries \|first2Jane \|last3Johnson \|first3Paul \|date9 October 2014 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn9781316061152 \|pages15{{em dash}}16}}</ref> Amsterdam's population hit an all-time high of 872,000 in 1959,<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Mulder \|first1Eduardo F. J. De \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idI75mDwAAQBAJ&pgPA152 \|titleThe Netherlands and the Dutch: A Physical and Human Geography \|last2Pater \|first2Ben C. De \|last3Fortuijn \|first3Joos C. Droogleever \|date28 July 2018 \|publisherSpringer \|isbn9783319750736 \|pages152}}</ref> before declining in the following decades due to government-sponsored suburbanisation to so-called groeikernen (growth centres) such as Purmerend and Almere.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastvan der Wouden \|firstRies \|date2016 \|titleThe Spatial Transformation of the Netherlands 1988{{em dash}}2015 \|urlhttps://journals.library.tudelft.nl/index.php/iphs/article/download/1788/1790/ \|url-statusdead \|journalThe Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (PBL) \|volume6 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190223131635/https://journals.library.tudelft.nl/index.php/iphs/article/download/1788/1790/ \|archive-date23 February 2019 \|access-date23 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Musterd \|first1Sako \|last2Ostendorf \|first2Wim \|date3 April 2008 \|titleIntegrated urban renewal in The Netherlands: a critical appraisal \|urlhttps://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/4211862/57564_283853.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/4211862/57564_283853.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|url-statuslive \|journalUrban Research & Practice \|volume1 \|issue1 \|pages78–92 \|doi10.1080/17535060701795389 \|issn1753-5069 \|s2cid11761206\|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref name":2">{{Cite journal \|last1Tzaninis \|first1Yannis \|last2Boterman \|first2Willem \|date2 January 2018 \|titleBeyond the urban–suburban dichotomy \|journalCity \|volume22 \|issue1 \|pages43–62 \|doi10.1080/13604813.2018.1432143 \|bibcode2018City...22...43T \|issn1360-4813 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Between 1970 and 1980, Amsterdam experienced a sharp population decline, peaking at a net loss of 25,000 people in 1973.<ref name":2" /> By 1985 the city had only 675,570 residents.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastvan Gent \|firstW.P.C. \|date2008 \|titleThe context of neighbourhood regeneration in Western Europe. A comparative study of nine neighborhoods undergoing physical and social economic regeneration \|urlhttps://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/4266823/62178_294637.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/4266823/62178_294637.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|url-statuslive \|websiteUniversity of Amsterdam \|page148}}</ref> This was soon followed by reurbanization and gentrification,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleGentrification in Amsterdam: Assessing the Importance of Context \|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/261842243 \|access-date23 February 2019 \|websitePopulation Space and Place}}</ref><ref name":2" /> leading to renewed population growth in the 2010s. Also in the 2010s, much of Amsterdam's population growth was due to immigration to the city.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmsterdam is expanding, mainly due to immigration \|urlhttps://www.cbs.nl/en-gb/news/2017/45/amsterdam-is-expanding-mainly-due-to-immigration \|access-date23 February 2019 \|websiteStatistics Netherlands\|date8 November 2017 }}</ref> Diversity and immigration In the 16th and 17th centuries, non-Dutch immigrants to Amsterdam were mostly Protestant Huguenots and Flemings, Sephardic Jews, and Westphalians. Huguenots came after the Edict of Fontainebleau in 1685, while the Flemish Protestants came during the Eighty Years' War against Catholic Spain. The Westphalians came to Amsterdam mostly for economic reasons; their influx continued through the 18th and 19th centuries.{{citation needed\|dateNovember 2022}} Before the Second World War, 10% of the city population was Jewish. Just twenty percent of them survived the Holocaust.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleThe Netherlands \|urlhttps://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-netherlands \|access-date24 January 2019 \|website=Holocaust Encyclopedia}}</ref> Amsterdam experienced an influx of religions and cultures after the Second World War. With 180 different nationalities,<ref>[http://www.ois.amsterdam.nl/nieuwsarchief/2014/amsterdam-groeit-door Onderzoek, Informatie en Statistiek] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160522051945/http://www.ois.amsterdam.nl/nieuwsarchief/2014/amsterdam-groeit-door\|date22 May 2016}}, Gemeente Amsterdam</ref> Amsterdam is home to one of the widest varieties of nationalities of any city in the world.<ref>Quest, issue of March 2009</ref> The proportion of the population of immigrant origin in the city proper is about 50%<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmsterdam in cijfers 2010 \|urlhttp://www.os.amsterdam.nl/tabel/7003/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120318161044/http://www.os.amsterdam.nl/tabel/7003/ \|archive-date18 March 2012 \|access-date25 April 2012 \|publisherOs.amsterdam.nl}}</ref> and 88% of the population are Dutch citizens.<ref>{{Cite web \|date25 November 2014 \|titleInwoneraantal Amsterdam blijft groeien – Gemeente Amsterdam \|urlhttp://www.amsterdam.nl/gemeente/organisatie-diensten/dbi/nieuws/2010/juni/inwoneraantal/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20141125150238/http://www.amsterdam.nl/gemeente/organisatie-diensten/dbi/nieuws/2010/juni/inwoneraantal/ \|archive-date=25 November 2014}}</ref> The first mass immigration in the 20th century was by people from Indonesia, who came to Amsterdam after the independence of the Dutch East Indies in the 1940s and 1950s. In the 1960s guest workers from Turkey, Morocco, Italy, and Spain immigrated to Amsterdam. After the independence of Suriname in 1975, a large wave of Surinamese settled in Amsterdam, mostly in the Bijlmer area. Other immigrants, including refugees asylum seekers and undocumented immigrants, came from Europe, the Americas, Asia, and Africa. In the 1970s and 1980s, many 'old' Amsterdammers moved to 'new' cities like Almere and Purmerend, prompted by the third Land-use planning bill of the Dutch Government. This bill promoted suburbanization and arranged for new developments in so-called "groeikernen", literally cores of growth. Young professionals and artists moved into neighborhoods De Pijp and the Jordaan abandoned by these Amsterdammers. The non-Western immigrants settled mostly in the social housing projects in Amsterdam-West and the Bijlmer. In 2006, people of non-Western origin made up approximately one-fifth of the population of Amsterdam, and more than 30% of the city's children.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHalf of young big-city dwellers have non-western background \| dateAugust 2006 \|urlhttp://www.cbs.nl/en-GB/menu/themas/bevolking/publicaties/artikelen/archief/2006/2006-1995-wm.htm?RefererTypeFavorite \|access-date10 October 2010 \|publisherCbs.nl}}</ref><ref name"OS 4351">{{Cite web \|titleBevolking naar herkomstgroepering, 1&nbsp;January 2001–2006 \|urlhttp://www.os.amsterdam.nl/tabel/4351/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090807180418/http://www.os.amsterdam.nl/tabel/4351/ \|archive-date7 August 2009 \|access-date19 April 2007 \|publisherDienst Onderzoek en Statistiek (Research and Statistics Service) \|languagenl}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date26 April 2004 \|titleMost foreign babies born in big cities \|urlhttp://www.cbs.nl/en-GB/menu/themas/bevolking/publicaties/artikelen/archief/2004/2004-1443-wm.htm \|access-date10 October 2010 \|publisherCbs.nl}}</ref> A slight majority of the residents of Amsterdam have at least one parent who was born outside the country. However, a much larger majority has at least one parent who was born inside the country (intercultural marriages are common in the city). Only a third of inhabitants under 15 are autochthons (person with two parents of Dutch origin).<ref>{{Cite web \|lastTerpstra \|firstJendra \|date28 March 2017 \|titleWit is de 'nieuwe minderheid' in grote steden \|urlhttps://www.trouw.nl/home/wit-is-de-nieuwe-minderheid-in-grote-steden~ae48e435/ \|access-date30 June 2018 \|websiteTrouw.nl \|languagenl}}</ref><ref name":10">{{Cite web \|date30 July 2023 \|titlePeople with two Dutch parents becoming a minority in Amsterdam; study \|urlhttps://nltimes.nl/2023/07/30/people-two-dutch-parents-becoming-minority-amsterdam-study \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20240908034819/https://nltimes.nl/2023/07/30/people-two-dutch-parents-becoming-minority-amsterdam-study#selection-1039.13-1039.21 \|archive-date8 September 2024 \|access-date7 September 2024 \|websiteNL Times}}</ref> In 2023, autochthons were a minority in 40% of Amsterdam's neighborhoods.<ref name":10" /> Segregation along ethnic lines is visible, with people of non-Western origin, considered a separate group by Statistics Netherlands, concentrating in specific neighborhoods especially in Nieuw-West, Zeeburg, Bijlmer and in certain areas of Amsterdam-Noord.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleStatistics on a map \|newspaperNRC \|date14 February 2012 \|urlhttp://www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2012/02/14/statistiek-saai-cbs-cijfers-komen-tot-leven-op-een-kaart/ \|languagenl \|last1Poort \|first1Arlen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleStatistics by Neighborhood \|urlhttp://www.cbsinuwbuurt.nl/#pageLocationindex \|language=nl}}</ref> In 2000, Christians formed the largest religious group in the city (28% of the population). The next largest religion was Islam (8%), most of whose followers were Sunni.<ref name"religion">{{Cite web \|titleReligie Amsterdam \|urlhttp://www.os.amsterdam.nl/pdf/2006_ob_religie_5.pdf \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080528004546/http://www.os.amsterdam.nl/pdf/2006_ob_religie_5.pdf \|archive-date28 May 2008 \|access-date22 May 2008 \|languagenl}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleBureau of Onderzoek en Statistiek: 'Geloven in Amsterdam' \|urlhttp://www.os.amsterdam.nl/pdf/2001_factsheets_5.pdf \|access-date25 April 2012}}</ref> In 2015, Christians formed the largest religious group in the city (28% of the population). The next largest religion was Islam (7.1%), most of whose followers were Sunni.<ref name"auto">{{Cite web \|date1 January 2024 \|titleBevolking naar meest voorkomende migratieachtergrond (meer dan 1.300 personen per groep), 1 januari 2016-2024 \|urlhttps://onderzoek.amsterdam.nl/dataset/stand-van-de-bevolking-amsterdam \|websiteGemeente Amsterdam - Onderzoek en Statistiek - StatLine (CBS)}}</ref> Amsterdam has been one of the municipalities in the Netherlands that provided immigrants with extensive and free Dutch-language courses, which have benefited many immigrants.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleDutch for foreigners \|urlhttp://intt.uva.nl/dutch-for-foreigners/dutch-for-foreigners.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150402143501/http://intt.uva.nl/dutch-for-foreigners/dutch-for-foreigners.html \|archive-date2 April 2015 \|websiteINTT \|publisherUniversity of Amsterdam}}</ref> {\| class"wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style"text-align:right left;font-size: 80%;" ! colspan"15" \|Origin<ref>{{Cite web \|titleCBS Statline \|urlhttps://opendata.cbs.nl/statline/#/CBS/nl/dataset/37713/table \|access-date2023-05-16 \|websiteopendata.cbs.nl \|languagenl}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleCBS Statline \|urlhttps://opendata.cbs.nl/statline/#/CBS/nl/dataset/85458NED/table?ts1739733575323 \|access-date2025-02-16 \|websiteopendata.cbs.nl \|languagenl}}</ref> \|- ! rowspan="2" \|Background group ! colspan="2" \|1996 ! colspan="2" \|2000 ! colspan="2" \|2005 ! colspan="2" \|2010 ! colspan="2" \|2015 ! colspan="2" \|2020 ! colspan="2" \|2024 \|- !Numbers !% !Numbers !% !Numbers !% !Numbers !% !Numbers !% !Numbers !% !Numbers !% \|- \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- !Dutch natives !419,863 !58.5% !406,727 !55.6% !384,155 !51.7% !384,480 !50% !402,105 !48.9% !387,775 !44.43% !375,842 !40.4% \|- !Western migration background !94,955 !13.2% !97 232 !13.3% !104,452 !14.1% !114,730 !14.9% !134,524 !16.4% !170 164 !19.5% !– !– \|- \|{{flag\|Germany}} \|18 475 \| \|17 451 \| \|17 070 \| \|17 099 \| \|17 688 \| \|19 374 \| \|21,179 \| \|- \|{{flag\|United Kingdom}} \|7 817 \| \|7 927 \| \|9 315 \| \|9 841 \| \|11 463 \| \|15 338 \| \|17,028 \| \|- \|{{flag\|United States}} \|4 015 \| \|4 785 \| \|5 891 \| \|6 540 \| \|7 872 \| \|11 582 \| \|14,696 \| \|- \|{{flag\|Italy}} \|3 509 \| \|3 689 \| \|4 148 \| \|4 972 \| \|7 062 \| \|11 462 \| \|14,427 \| \|- \|{{flag\|France}} \|3 038 \| \|3 456 \| \|4 058 \| \|4 945 \| \|6 379 \| \|9 316 \| \|11,972 \| \|- !Non-Western migration background !203,301 !28.3% !227 329 !31.1% !254,176 !34.2% !268,247 !35% !285,123 !34.7% !314,818 !36.07% !– !– \|- \|{{flag\|Morocco}} \|47 723 \| \|54 722 \| \|64 385 \| \|69 433 \| \|74 254 \| \|77,210 \|8.85% \|79,157 \| \|- \|{{flag\|Suriname}} \|69 095 \| \|71 218 \| \|70 380 \| \|68 938 \| \|66 638 \| \|64,218 \|7.36% \|62 174 \| \|- \|{{flag\|Turkey}} \|30 864 \| \|33 705 \| \|37 957 \| \|40 365 \| \|42 375 \| \|44,465 \|5.09% \|46 820 \| \|- \|{{flag\|Indonesia}} \|28 489 \| \|28 037 \| \|26 900 \| \|26 436 \| \|26 091 \| \|24,075 \|2.76% \|23,242 \| \|- \|{{flagicon\|Netherlands Antilles}} Dutch Antilles and Aruba \|10 003 \| \|11 122 \| \|11 500 \| \|11 707 \| \|12 141 \| \|12,174 \|1.39% \|12 833 \| \|- \|{{flag\|Ghana}} \|6 859 \| \|8 574 \| \|10 167 \| \|10 944 \| \|11 884 \| \|11 884 \| \|13 864 \| \|- \|{{flag\|Somalia}} \|677 \| \|1 179 \| \|991 \| \|1 071 \| \|1 492 \| \|1 714 \| \|2 010 \| \|- \|{{flag\|Iraq}} \|1 027 \| \|2 113 \| \|2 536 \| \|2 626 \| \|2 701 \| \|3 080 \| \|3 352 \| \|- !Non-Dutch migration background !298,256 !41.5% !324,561 !44.4% !358,628 !48.3% !382,977 !50% !419,647 !51.9% !484,982 !55.6% !555,456 !59.6% \|- \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- !Total !718,119 !100% !731,288 !100% !742,783 !100% !767,457 !100% !821,752 !100% !872,757 !100% !931,298 !100% \|} Religion {{Pie chart \|thumb = left \|caption Religion in Amsterdam (2015)<ref name"random">{{Cite web \|titleKerkelijke gezindte en kerkbezoek naar gemeenten 2010–2015 \|urlhttps://www.cbs.nl/-/media/_excel/2016/51/kerkelijke%20gezindte%20en%20kerkbezoek%20naar%20gemeenten.xlsx \|publisher=Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek}}</ref> \|label1 = Non affiliated \|value1 = 62.2 \|color1 = WhiteSmoke \|label2 = Catholic Church \|value2 = 13.3 \|color2 = DarkOrchid \|label3 = Protestant Church \|value3 = 9.8 \|color3 = DodgerBlue \|label4 = Other Christian \|value4 = 5.8 \|color4 = DarkBlue \|label5 = Islam \|value5 = 7.1 \|color5 = Green \|label6 = Hinduism \|value6 = 1.1 \|color6 = Orange \|label7 = Buddhism \|value7 = 1.0 \|color7 = Yellow \|label8 = Judaism \|value8 = 0.7 \|color8 = Blue }} In 1578, the largely Catholic city of Amsterdam joined the revolt against Spanish rule,<ref name":3">{{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQ9dALHk8-OUC&pgPA558 \|titleWorld and Its Peoples \|date2010 \|publisherMarshall Cavendish \|isbn9780761478904 \|pages558}}</ref> late in comparison to other major northern Dutch cities.<ref name":4">{{Cite book \|lastEsser \|firstRaingard \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkamfdUXkVsIC&pgPA34 \|titleThe Politics of Memory: The Writing of Partition in the Seventeenth-Century Low Countries \|date17 February 2012 \|publisherBRILL \|isbn9789004208070 \|pages34}}</ref> Catholic priests were driven out of the city.<ref name":3" /> Following the Dutch takeover, all churches were converted to Protestant worship.<ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqyGSyhojZxcC&pgPA58 \|titleLet's Go Amsterdam 5th Edition \|date27 November 2007 \|publisherMacmillan \|isbn9780312374549 \|pages58}}</ref> Calvinism was declared the main religion.<ref name":4" /> It was forbidden to openly profess Roman Catholicism and the Catholic hierarchy was prohibited until the mid-19th century. This led to the establishment of clandestine churches, covert religious buildings hidden in pre-existing buildings. Catholics, some Jews, and dissenting Protestants worshipped in such buildings.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastStiefel \|firstBarry L. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ids4hECgAAQBAJ&pgPA67 \|titleJews and the Renaissance of Synagogue Architecture, 1450–1730 \|date6 October 2015 \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn9781317320326 \|pages67}}</ref> A large influx of foreigners of many religions came to 17th-century Amsterdam, in particular Sefardic Jews from Spain and Portugal,<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastIsrael \|firstJonathan \|dateFall 1989 \|titleSephardic Immigration into the Dutch Republic, 1595–1672 \|journalStudia Rosenthaliana \|volume23 \|pages45{{em dash}}53 \|jstor41481727}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|lastWarshawsky \|firstMatthew D. \|dateJuly 2018 \|title"All True, All Holy, All Divine": Jewish Identity in the Polemics and Letters of Isaac Orobio de Castro, a Former Portuguese New Christian in 1600s Amsterdam \|journalJournal of Jewish Identities \|volume11 \|issue2 \|pages267{{em dash}}283 \|doi10.1353/jji.2018.0017 \|quoteDuring the 1600s, Amsterdam stood out from these other locales as a center of settlement by people of Sephardic, or Iberian Jewish \|s2cid165686842 \| issn 1939-7941}}</ref> Huguenots from France,<ref>{{Cite book \|lastMarshall \|firstJohn \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iddRb-P3HRuvkC&pgPA17 \|titleJohn Locke, Toleration and Early Enlightenment Culture \|date30 March 2006 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn9780521651141 \|pages17}}</ref> Lutherans, Mennonites, as well as Protestants from across the Netherlands.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastTerpstra \|firstNicholas \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5OZBCgAAQBAJ&pgPA174 \|titleReligious Refugees in the Early Modern World: An Alternative History of the Reformation \|date23 July 2015 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn9781316351901}}</ref> This led to the establishment of many non-Dutch-speaking churches.{{Citation needed\|dateFebruary 2019}} In 1603, the Jewish received permission to practice their religion in the city. In 1639, the first synagogue was consecrated.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastStiefel \|firstBarry \|date1 January 2011 \|titleThe Architectural Origins of the Great Early Modern Urban Synagogue \|journalThe Leo Baeck Institute Year Book \|volume56 \|issue1 \|pages105–134 \|doi10.1093/leobaeck/ybr006 \|issn0075-8744 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> The Jews came to call the town "Jerusalem of the West".<ref>{{Cite book \|lastMak \|firstGeert \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYFXrynNBj_0C&pgPA108 \|titleAmsterdam: A brief life of the city \|date30 September 2010 \|publisherRandom House \|isbn9781409000853 \|pages=108}}</ref> As they became established in the city, other Christian denominations used converted Catholic chapels to conduct their own services. The oldest English-language church congregation in the world outside the United Kingdom is found at the Begijnhof.{{Citation needed\|dateFebruary 2019}}<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/002498262...\|titleA Short historical sketch of the English Reformed Church, Bagynhof, Amsterdam : along with an account of the tercentennial celebrations held on the 1st and 3rd February, 1907}}</ref> Regular services there are still offered in English under the auspices of the Church of Scotland.<ref name"englishchurch">{{Cite web \|titleEnglish Reformed Church Amsterdam \|urlhttp://home.tiscali.nl/~t451501/ercadam/content/history.htm \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050124020021/http://home.tiscali.nl/~t451501/ercadam/content/history.htm \|archive-date24 January 2005 \|access-date22 May 2008}}</ref> Being Calvinists, the Huguenots soon integrated into the Dutch Reformed Church, though often retaining their own congregations. Some, commonly referred to by the moniker 'Walloon', are recognizable today as they offer occasional services in French.{{Citation needed\|date=February 2019}} In the second half of the 17th century, Amsterdam experienced an influx of Ashkenazim, Jews from Central and Eastern Europe. Jews often fled the pogroms in those areas. The first Ashkenazis who arrived in Amsterdam were refugees from the Khmelnytsky uprising occurring in Ukraine and the Thirty Years' War, which devastated much of Central Europe. They not only founded their own synagogues but had a strong influence on the 'Amsterdam dialect' adding a large Yiddish local vocabulary.<ref name":5">{{Cite web \|titleHistory of Jews in Amsterdam \|urlhttps://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/history-of-jews-in-amsterdam \|access-date23 February 2019 \|websiteJewish Virtual Library}}</ref> Despite an absence of an official Jewish ghetto, most Jews preferred to live in the eastern part, which used to be the centre of medieval Amsterdam. The main street of this Jewish neighbourhood was Jodenbreestraat. The neighbourhood comprised the Waterlooplein and the Nieuwmarkt.<ref name":5" /><ref name"Jodenbuurt Amsterdam">{{Cite web \|titleAmsterdamse wijken \|urlhttp://amsterdam.nl/stad_in_beeld/werkstukken/wijken \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080125140019/http://www.amsterdam.nl/stad_in_beeld/werkstukken/wijken \|archive-date25 January 2008 \|access-date22 May 2008 \|publisherMunicipality Amsterdam \|languagenl}}</ref> Buildings in this neighbourhood fell into disrepair after the Second World War<ref>{{Cite web \|lastLebovic \|firstMatt \|titleIn Anne Frank's childhood neighborhood, the buildings do not forget \|urlhttp://www.timesofisrael.com/in-anne-franks-childhood-neighborhood-the-buildings-do-not-forget/ \|access-date23 February 2019 \|websiteThe Times of Israel}}</ref> a large section of the neighbourhood was demolished during the construction of the metro system. This led to riots, and as a result, the original plans for large-scale reconstruction were abandoned by the government.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastDuin \|firstLeen van \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idi6SKP1ss_ckC&pgPA69 \|titleThe Urban Project: Architectural Intervention in Urban Areas \|date2009 \|publisherIOS Press \|isbn9781586039998}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1PkSAQAAMAAJ \|titleThe Jewish Week and the American Examiner \|date12 January 1974 \|publisherJewish Week and the American Examiner, Incorporated}}</ref> The neighbourhood was rebuilt with smaller-scale residence buildings based on its original layout.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastLebovic \|firstMatt \|titleNew cultural quarter resurrects Amsterdam's Jewish past \|urlhttp://www.timesofisrael.com/new-cultural-quarter-resurrects-amsterdams-jewish-past/ \|access-date23 February 2019 \|website=The Times of Israel}}</ref> in the Centrum borough, one of Amsterdam's best-known churches]] Catholic churches in Amsterdam have been constructed since the restoration of the episcopal hierarchy in 1853.<ref>{{cite journal \|authorPope Pius IX \|date4 March 1853\|editor-lastde Martinis\|editor-firstRaffaele \|titleEx qua die arcano \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvp0sAAAAYAAJ&pgPA158 \|journalIuris Pontificii de Propaganda Fide: Pars Prima, Complectens Bullas, Brevia Acta S.S. A Congregationis Institutione Ad Praesens Iuxta Temporis Seriem Disposita \|languagela \|locationRome \|publisherEx Typographia Polyglotta\|publication-date1894 \|volume6 \|issue1 \|pages158–161 \|oclc3342505}} Translated in {{Cite book \|titleFurther papers regarding the relation of foreign states with the Court of Rome: presented to the House of Commons by command of Her Majesty, in pursuance of their address of June 14, 1853 \|publisherHarrison and Son \|year1853 \|locationLondon \|pages61–65 \|chapterXIIIb: the apostolic letters of the most holy Lord Pius IX, by Divine Providence, pope, by which letters the episcopal hierarchy was re-established in Holland \|oclc80498785 \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjw1DAAAAcAAJ&pgPA61}}</ref> One of the principal architects behind the city's Catholic churches, Cuypers, was also responsible for the Amsterdam Centraal station and the {{Lang\|nl\|Rijksmuseum\|italicno}}.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastMaeyer \|firstJan de \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7VsLdTWjlnoC&pgPA191 \|titleRenaissance de L'enluminure Médiévale: Manuscrits Et Enluminures Belges Du XIXe Siègle Et Leur Contexte Européen \|date2007 \|publisherLeuven University Press \|isbn9789058675910 \|pages191}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|last1Jong \|first1Taeke M. de \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ideHlB4n_A86cC&pgPA118 \|titleWays to Study and Research: Urban, Architectural, and Technical Design \|last2Voordt \|first2D. J. M. van der \|date2002 \|publisherIOS Press \|isbn9789040723322 \|pages118}}</ref> In 1924, the Catholic Church hosted the International Eucharistic Congress in Amsterdam;<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastKirkfleet \|firstC. J. \|dateApril 1926 \|titleInternational Eucharistic Congresses \|journalThe Catholic Historical Review \|volume12 \|issue1 \|pages59–65 \|jstor25012268}}</ref> numerous Catholic prelates visited the city, where festivities were held in churches and stadiums.<ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idz5cOAQAAIAAJ \|titleIllinois Catholic Historical Review \|date1925 \|publisherIllinois Catholic Historical Society.}}</ref> Catholic processions on the public streets, however, were still forbidden under law at the time.<ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHZYEAAAAMAAJ \|titleCatholic World \|date1924 \|publisherPaulist Fathers \|pages845}}</ref> Only in the 20th century was Amsterdam's relation to Catholicism normalised,<ref>{{Cite book \|lastArab \|firstPooyan Tamimi \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyFi6DQAAQBAJ&pgPA173 \|titleAmplifying Islam in the European Soundscape: Religious Pluralism and Secularism in the Netherlands \|date9 February 2017 \|publisherBloomsbury Publishing \|isbn9781474291446 \|pages173}}</ref> but despite its far larger population size, the episcopal see of the city was placed in the provincial town of Haarlem.<ref name"Diocese of Haarlem">{{Cite web \|titleDiocese of Haarlem \|urlhttp://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/diocese/dhaar.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080614173747/http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/diocese/dhaar.html \|archive-date14 June 2008 \|access-date4 June 2008 \|publisherCatholic Hierarchy}}</ref> Historically, Amsterdam has been predominantly Christian. In 1900 Christians formed the largest religious group in the city (70% of the population), Dutch Reformed Church formed 45% of the city population, and the Catholic Church formed 25% of the city population.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.os.amsterdam.nl/pdf/2001_factsheets_5.pdf\|titleGeloven in Amsterdam\|access-date21 November 2020\|archive-date24 July 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130724083310/http://www.os.amsterdam.nl/pdf/2001_factsheets_5.pdf\|url-statusbot: unknown}}</ref> In recent times, religious demographics in Amsterdam have been changed by immigration from former colonies. Hinduism has been introduced from the Hindu diaspora from Suriname<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastSwamy \|firstPriya \|date17 November 2017 \|titleValuing flexible citizenship: producing Surinamese Hindu citizens at a primary school in The Hague \|journalCitizenship Studies \|volume21 \|issue8 \|pages1052–1066 \|doi10.1080/13621025.2017.1361905 \|issn1362-1025 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> and several distinct branches of Islam have been brought from various parts of the world.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Avest \|first1K. H. (Ina) Ter \|last2Wingerden \|first2M. (Marjoke) Rietveld-van \|date2 September 2017 \|titleHalf a century of Islamic education in Dutch schools \|journalBritish Journal of Religious Education \|volume39 \|issue3 \|pages293–302 \|doi10.1080/01416200.2015.1128391 \|issn0141-6200 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Islam is now the largest non-Christian religion in Amsterdam.<ref name"random" /> The large community of Ghanaian immigrants has established African churches,<ref>{{Cite book \|lastKessel \|firstIneke van \|titleMerchants, Missionaries & Migrants: 300 Years of Dutch-Ghanaian Relations \|date2002 \|publisherKIT Publishers \|isbn9789988550776 \|chapterGhanaian churches in the Netherlands: Religion mediating a tense relationship \|chapter-urlhttps://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/9656/ASC-1267364-025.pdf?sequence1}}</ref> often in parking garages in the Bijlmer area.<ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idu46fAwAAQBAJ&pgPA179 \|titleReligion, Ethnicity and Transnational Migration between West Africa and Europe \|date15 May 2014 \|publisherBRILL \|isbn9789004271562 \|pages179}}</ref> Cityscape and architecture {{see also\|List of tallest buildings in Amsterdam}} showing a bird's-eye view of Amsterdam. The famous Grachtengordel had not yet been established.]] Amsterdam fans out south from the Amsterdam Centraal station and Damrak, the main street off the station. The oldest area of the town is known as De Wallen (English: "The Quays"). It lies to the east of Damrak and contains the city's famous red-light district. To the south of De Wallen is the old Jewish quarter of Waterlooplein. The medieval and colonial age canals of Amsterdam, known as grachten, embraces the heart of the city where homes have interesting gables. Beyond the Grachtengordel are the former working-class areas of Jordaan and de Pijp. The Museumplein with the city's major museums, the Vondelpark, a 19th-century park named after the Dutch writer Joost van den Vondel, as well as the Plantage neighbourhood, with the zoo, are also located outside the Grachtengordel. Several parts of the city and the surrounding urban area are polders. This can be recognised by the suffix -meer which means lake, as in Aalsmeer, Bijlmermeer, Haarlemmermeer and Watergraafsmeer. Canals {{Main\|Canals of Amsterdam}} The Amsterdam canal system is the result of conscious city planning.<ref name"canals">{{Cite web \|titleAmsterdamse Grachten \|urlhttp://amsterdam.nl/stad_in_beeld/werkstukken/grachten \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080320060143/http://amsterdam.nl/stad_in_beeld/werkstukken/grachten \|archive-date20 March 2008 \|access-date21 May 2008 \|publisherMunicipality Amsterdam \|languagenl}}</ref> In the early 17th century, when immigration was at a peak, a comprehensive plan was developed that was based on four concentric half-circles of canals with their ends emerging at the IJ bay. Known as the Grachtengordel, three of the canals were mostly for residential development: the Herengracht (where "Heren" refers to Heren Regeerders van de stad Amsterdam, ruling lords of Amsterdam, while gracht means canal, so that the name can be roughly translated as "Canal of the Lords"), Keizersgracht (Emperor's Canal) and Prinsengracht (Prince's Canal).<ref>{{Cite web \|titleSHVriendenwandeling2017web1.pdf \|urlhttps://www.stadsherstel.nl/ul/cms/fck-uploaded/SHVriendenwandeling2017web1.pdf \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180409171642/https://www.stadsherstel.nl/ul/cms/fck-uploaded/SHVriendenwandeling2017web1.pdf \|archive-date9 April 2018 \|access-date9 April 2018 \|publisherstadsherstel}}</ref> The fourth and outermost canal is the Singelgracht, which is often not mentioned on maps because it is a collective name for all canals in the outer ring. The Singelgracht should not be confused with the oldest and innermost canal, the Singel. The canals served for defense, water management and transport. The defenses took the form of a moat and earthen dikes, with gates at transit points, but otherwise no masonry superstructures.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastTaverne \|firstE. R. M. \|titleIn 't land van belofte, in de nieuwe stadt: ideaal en werkelijkheid van de stadsuitleg in de Republiek, 1580–1680 (In the land of promise, in the kinky city: ideal and reality of the city lay-out in the [Dutch] Republic, 1580–1680) \|publisherSchwartz \|year1978 \|isbn978-90-6179-024-2 \|locationMaarssen}}</ref> The original plans have been lost, so historians, such as Ed Taverne, need to speculate on the original intentions: it is thought that the considerations of the layout were purely practical and defensive rather than ornamental.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastSako Musterd \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5UaM50-E-wwC&pgPA33 \|titleAmsterdam Human Capital \|publisherAmsterdam University Press \|year2003 \|isbn978-90-5356-595-7 \|page33}}</ref> Construction started in 1613 and proceeded from west to east, across the breadth of the layout, like a gigantic windshield wiper as the historian Geert Mak calls it – and not from the centre outwards, as a popular myth has it. The canal construction in the southern sector was completed by 1656. Subsequently, the construction of residential buildings proceeded slowly. The eastern part of the concentric canal plan, covering the area between the Amstel River and the IJ Bay, has never been implemented. In the following centuries, the land was used for parks, senior citizens' homes, theatres, other public facilities, and waterways without much planning.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastMak \|firstG. \|titleEen kleine geschiedenis van Amsterdam \|publisherUitgeverij Atlas \|year1995 \|isbn978-90-450-1232-2 \|locationAmsterdam/Antwerp}}</ref> Over the years, several canals have been filled in, becoming streets or squares, such as the Nieuwezijds Voorburgwal and the Spui.<ref name"filledincanals">{{Cite web \|titleDempingen en Aanplempingen \|urlhttp://www.onderdekeizerskroon.nl/wschoonenberg/dempingen.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080518172457/http://www.onderdekeizerskroon.nl/wschoonenberg/dempingen.html \|archive-date18 May 2008 \|access-date21 May 2008 \|publisherWalther Schoonenberg \|languagenl}}</ref> Expansion {{Main\|Expansion of Amsterdam since the 19th century}} lies west of the Grachtengordel, in the Jordaan neighbourhood.]] After the development of Amsterdam's canals in the 17th century, the city did not grow beyond its borders for two centuries. During the 19th century, Samuel Sarphati devised a plan based on the grandeur of Paris and London at that time. The plan envisaged the construction of new houses, public buildings, and streets just outside the Grachtengordel. The main aim of the plan, however, was to improve public health. Although the plan did not expand the city, it did produce some of the largest public buildings to date, like the Paleis voor Volksvlijt.<ref name"joodsmuseum">{{Cite web \|titleSamuel Sarphati \|urlhttp://www.jhm.nl/personen.aspx?naamSarphati%2C%20Samuel \|access-date5 June 2008 \|publisherJoods Historisch Museum Amsterdam \|languagenl}}</ref><ref name"zgsarphati">{{Cite web \|titleSarphatihuis \|urlhttps://www.amsta.nl/locaties/dr-sarphatihuis \|access-date30 May 2023 \|publisherAmsta \|languagenl}}</ref><ref name"jlgsarphati">{{Cite web \|titleSamuel Sarphati \|urlhttp://www.jlgrealestate.com/Samuel_Sarphati/Sarphatipark/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090805203131/http://www.jlgrealestate.com/Samuel_Sarphati/Sarphatipark/ \|archive-date5 August 2009 \|access-date5 June 2008 \|publisherJLG Real Estate \|languagenl}}</ref> Following Sarphati, civil engineers Jacobus van Niftrik and Jan Kalff designed an entire ring of 19th-century neighbourhoods surrounding the city's centre, with the city preserving the ownership of all land outside the 17th-century limit, thus firmly controlling development.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleVan Niftrik's plan at the Amsterdam City Archives \|urlhttp://stadsarchief.amsterdam.nl/english/amsterdam_treasures/maps/plan_van_niftrik/index.en.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110724143743/http://stadsarchief.amsterdam.nl/english/amsterdam_treasures/maps/plan_van_niftrik/index.en.html \|archive-date24 July 2011 \|access-date10 October 2010 \|publisherStadsarchief.amsterdam.nl}}</ref> Most of these neighbourhoods became home to the working class.<ref name"oudzuid">{{Cite web \|titleAmsterdam Oud-Zuid \|urlhttp://www.bmz.amsterdam.nl/adam/nl/oudzuid/index.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080113182449/http://www.bmz.amsterdam.nl/adam/nl/oudzuid/index.html \|archive-date13 January 2008 \|access-date5 June 2008 \|publisherBMZ \|languagenl}}</ref> In response to overcrowding, two plans were designed at the beginning of the 20th century which were very different from anything Amsterdam had ever seen before: Plan Zuid (designed by the architect Berlage) and West. These plans involved the development of new neighbourhoods consisting of housing blocks for all social classes.<ref name"archiefberlage">{{Cite web \|titleBerlage's Expansion Plan \|urlhttp://stadsarchief.amsterdam.nl/english/amsterdam_treasures/planning/uitbreidingsplan_berlage/index.en.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130112133013/http://stadsarchief.amsterdam.nl/english/amsterdam_treasures/planning/uitbreidingsplan_berlage/index.en.html \|archive-date12 January 2013 \|access-date5 June 2008 \|publisherStadsarchief Amsterdam}}</ref><ref name"bmzberlage">{{Cite web \|titlePlan-Berlage \|urlhttp://www.bmz.amsterdam.nl/adam/nl/intro/topo7.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060514181847/http://www.bmz.amsterdam.nl/adam/nl/intro/topo7.html \|archive-date14 May 2006 \|access-date5 June 2008 \|publisherBureau Monumentenzorg Amsterdam \|language=nl}}</ref> After the Second World War, large new neighbourhoods were built in the western, southeastern, and northern parts of the city. These new neighbourhoods were built to relieve the city's shortage of living space and give people affordable houses with modern conveniences. The neighbourhoods consisted mainly of large housing blocks located among green spaces, connected to wide roads, making the neighbourhoods easily accessible by motor car. The western suburbs which were built in that period are collectively called the Westelijke Tuinsteden. The area to the southeast of the city built during the same period is known as the Bijlmer.<ref name"bijlmer">{{Cite web \|titleWestelijke Tuinsteden \|urlhttp://www.ymere.nl/ymere/template.asp?mnid1&subid35&cntid119 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050220211611/http://www.ymere.nl/ymere/template.asp?mnid1&subid35&cntid119 \|archive-date20 February 2005 \|access-date5 June 2008 \|publisherYmere \|languagenl}}</ref><ref name"westelijketuinsteden">{{Cite web \|titleOntwerp Westelijke Tuinsteden \|urlhttp://www.archex.info/nederlands/nederland/amsterdam_westelijke_tuinsteden.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080611221726/http://www.archex.info/nederlands/nederland/amsterdam_westelijke_tuinsteden.html \|archive-date11 June 2008 \|access-date5 June 2008 \|publisherArchex.info \|languagenl}}</ref> Architecture , by architects Jacob van Campen and Daniël Stalpaert is characteristic of the architecture of the Dutch Baroque architecture.]] Amsterdam has a rich architectural history. The oldest building in Amsterdam is the Oude Kerk (English: Old Church), at the heart of the Wallen, consecrated in 1306.<ref name"Oude Kerk">{{Cite web \|titleOude Kerk official website \|urlhttp://www.oudekerk.nl/ \|access-date10 June 2009}}</ref> The oldest wooden building is Het Houten Huys<ref name"houtenhuys">{{Cite web \|titleHouten Huys \|urlhttp://www.bmz.amsterdam.nl/adam/nl/huizen/beg34.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071226022822/http://www.bmz.amsterdam.nl/adam/nl/huizen/beg34.html \|archive-date26 December 2007 \|access-date19 May 2008 \|languagenl}}</ref> at the Begijnhof. It was constructed around 1425 and is one of only two existing wooden buildings. It is also one of the few examples of Gothic architecture in Amsterdam. The oldest stone building in the Netherlands, The Moriaan is built in 's-Hertogenbosch. In the 16th century, wooden buildings were razed and replaced with brick ones. During this period, many buildings were constructed in the architectural style of the Renaissance. Buildings of this period are very recognisable with their stepped gable façades, which is the common Dutch Renaissance style. Amsterdam quickly developed its own Renaissance architecture. These buildings were built according to the principles of the architect Hendrick de Keyser.<ref name"dekeyser">{{Cite web \|titleAmsterdamse renaissance in de stijl van Hendrick de Keyser \|urlhttp://www.bmz.amsterdam.nl/adam/nl/renaiss3.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071127014006/http://www.bmz.amsterdam.nl/adam/nl/renaiss3.html \|archive-date27 November 2007 \|access-date19 May 2008 \|languagenl}}</ref> One of the most striking buildings designed by Hendrick de Keyser is the Westerkerk. In the 17th century baroque architecture became very popular, as it was elsewhere in Europe. This roughly coincided with Amsterdam's Golden Age. The leading architects of this style in Amsterdam were Jacob van Campen, Philips Vingboons and Daniel Stalpaert.<ref name"holclass">{{Cite web \|titleHollands Classicisme \|urlhttp://www.bmz.amsterdam.nl/adam/nl/holclass.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070202200016/http://www.bmz.amsterdam.nl/adam/nl/holclass.html \|archive-date2 February 2007 \|access-date21 May 2008 \|languagenl}}</ref> is one of the oldest hofjes in Amsterdam.]] and Conservatorium van Amsterdam, two examples of 21st-century architecture in the centre of the city]] Philip Vingboons designed splendid merchants' houses throughout the city. A famous building in baroque style in Amsterdam is the Royal Palace on Dam Square. Throughout the 18th century, Amsterdam was heavily influenced by French culture. This is reflected in the architecture of that period. Around 1815, architects broke with the baroque style and started building in different neo-styles.<ref name"neostijl">{{Cite web \|titleNeo-stijlen \|urlhttp://www.bmz.amsterdam.nl/adam/nl/neostijl.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070819204630/http://www.bmz.amsterdam.nl/adam/nl/neostijl.html \|archive-date19 August 2007 \|access-date19 May 2008 \|languagenl}}</ref> Most Gothic style buildings date from that era and are therefore said to be built in a neo-gothic style. At the end of the 19th century, the Jugendstil or Art Nouveau style became popular and many new buildings were constructed in this architectural style. Since Amsterdam expanded rapidly during this period, new buildings adjacent to the city centre were also built in this style. The houses in the vicinity of the Museum Square in Amsterdam Oud-Zuid are an example of Jugendstil. The last style that was popular in Amsterdam before the modern era was Art Deco. Amsterdam had its own version of the style, which was called the Amsterdamse School. Whole districts were built in this style, such as the Rivierenbuurt.<ref name"aschool">{{Cite web \|titleAmsterdamse School \|urlhttp://www.bmz.amsterdam.nl/adam/nl/aschool.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071027144316/http://www.bmz.amsterdam.nl/adam/nl/aschool.html \|archive-date27 October 2007 \|access-date21 May 2008 \|languagenl}}</ref> A notable feature of the façades of buildings designed in Amsterdamse School is that they are highly decorated and ornate, with oddly shaped windows and doors. The old city centre is the focal point of all the architectural styles before the end of the 19th century. Jugendstil and Georgian are mostly found outside the city centre in the neighbourhoods built in the early 20th century, although there are also some striking examples of these styles in the city centre. Most historic buildings in the city centre and nearby are houses, such as the famous merchants' houses lining the canals. Parks and recreational areas {{main\|List of parks in Amsterdam\|List of squares in Amsterdam}} thumb\|{{unbulleted list \| A: Vondelpark \| B: [[Beatrixpark \| C: Sarphatipark \| D: Oosterpark \| E: Park Frankendael \| F: Rembrandtpark \| G: Westerpark \| H: Flevopark \| I: Amsterdamse Bos \| J: Amstelpark \| K: Hortus Botanicus \| L: Wertheimerpark \| M: Martin Luther Kingpark \| N: Sloterpark }} ]] Amsterdam has many parks, open spaces, and squares throughout the city. The Vondelpark, the largest park in the city, is located in the Oud-Zuid neighbourhood and is named after the 17th-century Amsterdam author Joost van den Vondel. Yearly, the park has around 10&nbsp;million visitors. In the park is an open-air theatre, a playground, and several horeca facilities. In the Zuid borough, is the Beatrixpark, named after Queen Beatrix. Between Amsterdam and Amstelveen is the Amsterdamse Bos ("Amsterdam Forest"), the largest recreational area in Amsterdam. Annually, almost 4.5&nbsp;million people visit the park, which has a size of {{convert\|1000\|ha}} and is approximately three times the size of Central Park.<ref>[http://www.amsterdamsebos.amsterdam.nl/algemene_onderdelen/english_site Amsterdamse Bos – English site] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100519151059/http://www.amsterdamsebos.amsterdam.nl/algemene_onderdelen/english_site \|date19 May 2010 }}. City of Amsterdam. Retrieved on 27 November 2008.</ref> The Amstelpark in the Zuid borough houses the Rieker windmill, which dates to 1636. Other parks include the Sarphatipark in the De Pijp neighbourhood, the Oosterpark in the Oost borough and the Westerpark in the Westerpark neighbourhood. The city has three beaches: Nemo Beach, Citybeach "Het stenen hoofd" (Silodam), and Blijburg, all located in the Centrum borough. The city has many open squares (plein in Dutch). The namesake of the city as the site of the original dam, Dam Square, is the main city square and has the Royal Palace and National Monument. Museumplein hosts various museums, including the {{Lang\|nl\|Rijksmuseum\|italicno}}, Van Gogh Museum, and Stedelijk Museum. Other squares include Rembrandtplein, Muntplein, Nieuwmarkt, Leidseplein, Spui and Waterlooplein. Also, near Amsterdam is the Nekkeveld estate conservation project.Economy , the oldest stock exchange in the world]] , the city's main business district]] Amsterdam is the financial and business capital of the Netherlands.<ref name"ez">{{Cite web \|titleAmsterdam – Economische Zaken \|urlhttp://www.ez.amsterdam.nl/page.php?menu24&page6 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080608143058/http://www.ez.amsterdam.nl/page.php?page6&menu24 \|archive-date8 June 2008 \|access-date22 May 2008 \|languagenl}}</ref> According to the 2007 European Cities Monitor (ECM) – an annual location survey of Europe's leading companies carried out by global real estate consultant Cushman & Wakefield – Amsterdam is one of the top European cities in which to locate an international business, ranking fifth in the survey.<ref name"eubusiness">{{Cite web \|titleEuropean Cities Monitor 2007 \|urlhttp://www.iamsterdam.com/press_room/press_releases_0/2007/european_cities \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080108130938/http://www.iamsterdam.com/press_room/press_releases_0/2007/european_cities \|archive-date8 January 2008 \|access-date11 June 2008 \|publisherI Amsterdam \|language=nl}}</ref> with the survey determining London, Paris, Frankfurt and Barcelona as the four European cities surpassing Amsterdam in this regard. A substantial number of large corporations and banks' headquarters are located in the Amsterdam area, including: AkzoNobel, Heineken International, ING Group, ABN AMRO, TomTom, Delta Lloyd Group, Booking.com and Philips. Although many small offices remain along the historic canals, centrally based companies have increasingly relocated outside Amsterdam's city centre. Consequently, the Zuidas (English: South Axis) has become the new financial and legal hub of Amsterdam,<ref name"zuidas">{{Cite web \|titleZuidas \|urlhttp://www.zuidas.nl/smartsite.dws?id1044&curindex2 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071224035945/http://www.zuidas.nl/smartsite.dws?id1044&curindex2 \|archive-date24 December 2007 \|access-date22 May 2008 \|languagenl}}</ref> with the country's five largest law firms and several subsidiaries of large consulting firms, such as Boston Consulting Group and Accenture, as well as the World Trade Centre (Amsterdam) located in the Zuidas district. In addition to the Zuidas, there are three smaller financial districts in Amsterdam: around Amsterdam Sloterdijk railway station. Where one can find the offices of several newspapers, such as De Telegraaf. as well as those of Deloitte, the Gemeentelijk Vervoerbedrijf (municipal public transport company), and the Dutch tax offices (Belastingdienst); around the Johan Cruyff Arena in Amsterdam Zuidoost, with the headquarters of ING Group; around the Amstel railway station in the Amsterdam-Oost district to the east of the historical city. Amsterdam's tallest building, the Rembrandt Tower, is located here.<ref name"rembrandtoren">{{Cite web \|titleRembrandt Tower \|urlhttp://www.emporis.com/en/wm/ci/bu/sk/li/?id100759&bt2&ht2&sro0 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101225001215/http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/ci/bu/sk/li/?id100759&bt2&ht2&sro0 \|url-statususurped \|archive-date25 December 2010 \|access-date22 May 2008}}</ref> As are the headquarters of Philips, the Dutch multinational conglomerate.<ref name"philips">{{Cite web \|titlePhilips \|urlhttp://www.philips.nl/about/index.page \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080527081538/http://www.philips.nl/about/index.page \|archive-date27 May 2008 \|access-date22 May 2008 \|languagenl}}</ref> Amsterdam has been a leading city to reduce the use of raw materials and has created a plan to become a circular city by 2050.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastAmsterdam \|titlePolicy: Circular economy \|urlhttps://www.amsterdam.nl/en/policy/sustainability/circular-economy/\|access-date12 October 2021 \|websiteEnglish site \|language=en}}</ref> The adjoining municipality of Amstelveen is the location of KPMG International's global headquarters. Other non-Dutch companies have chosen to settle in communities surrounding Amsterdam since they allow freehold property ownership, whereas Amsterdam retains ground rent. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange (AEX), now part of Euronext, is the world's oldest stock exchange and, due to Brexit, has overtaken LSE as the largest bourse in Europe.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://nos.nl/artikel/2368308-amsterdam-na-brexit-ineens-beurshoofdstad-van-europa.html \|titleAmsterdam na Brexit ineens beurshoofdstad van Europa\|trans-titleAmsterdam after Brexit suddenly bourse capital of Europe \|languageDutch \|date11 February 2021\|access-date23 February 2021}}</ref> It is near Dam Square in the city centre. Port of Amsterdam The Port of Amsterdam is the fourth-largest port in Europe, the 38th largest port in the world, and the second-largest port in the Netherlands by metric tons of cargo. In 2014, the Port of Amsterdam had a cargo throughput of 97,4&nbsp;million tons of cargo, which was mostly bulk cargo. Amsterdam has the biggest cruise port in the Netherlands with more than 150 cruise ships every year. In 2019, the new lock in IJmuiden opened; since then, the port has been able to grow to 125&nbsp;million tonnes in capacity. Tourism {{Main\|List of tourist attractions in Amsterdam}} .]] Amsterdam is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Europe, receiving more than 5.34&nbsp;million international visitors annually; this is excluding the 16&nbsp;million day-trippers visiting the city every year.<ref name"ams2009">{{Cite web \|year2009 \|titleKey Figures Amsterdam 2009: Tourism \|urlhttp://www.os.amsterdam.nl/tabel/13871/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110501140135/http://www.os.amsterdam.nl/tabel/13871/ \|archive-date1 May 2011 \|access-date30 September 2009 \|publisherCity of Amsterdam Department for Research and Statistics}}</ref> The number of visitors has been growing steadily over the past decade. This can be attributed to an increasing number of European visitors. Two-thirds of the hotels are located in the city's centre.<ref name"Maps of the Netherlands">{{Cite web \|dateJune 2020 \|titleTourist Map Amsterdam \|urlhttps://kaartnederland.net/images/cities/Amsterdam_tourisme_plattegrond.jpg}}</ref> Hotels with four or five stars contribute 42% of the total beds available and 41% of the overnight stays in Amsterdam. The room occupation rate was 85% in 2017, up from 78% in 2006.<ref name"Dutch Hotel City Index 2019">{{Cite web \|dateJune 2019 \|titleDutch Hotel City Index 2019 \|urlhttps://www.hospitalitynet.org/file/152008684.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.hospitalitynet.org/file/152008684.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"TourismReport">{{Cite web \|last1Fedorova, T \|last2Meijer, R \|dateJanuary 2007 \|titleToerisme in Amsterdam 2006/2007 \|urlhttp://www.os.amsterdam.nl/pdf/2008_toerisme_in_amsterdam.pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080528004444/http://www.os.amsterdam.nl/pdf/2008_toerisme_in_amsterdam.pdf \|archive-date28 May 2008 \|access-date22 May 2008 \|languagenl}}</ref> The majority of tourists (74%) originate from Europe. The largest group of non-European visitors come from the United States, accounting for 14% of the total.<ref name"TourismReport" /> Certain years have a theme in Amsterdam to attract extra tourists. For example, the year 2006 was designated "Rembrandt 400", to celebrate the 400th birthday of Rembrandt van Rijn. Some hotels offer special arrangements or activities during these years. The average number of guests per year staying at the four campsites around the city ranges from 12,000 to 65,000.<ref name="TourismReport" /> In 2023, the city began running a campaign to dissuade British men between the ages of 18 and 35 from coming to the city as tourists. The ad shows young men being handcuffed by police and is part of a new campaign to clean up the city's reputation.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Holligan \|first1Anna \|date29 March 2023 \|titleAmsterdam launches stay away ad campaign targeting young British men \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-65107405 \|access-date29 March 2023 \|languageen-GB}}</ref> On 25 May 2023, in a bid to crackdown on wild tourist behaviour, the city banned weed smoking in public areas in and around the red light district.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastBoztas \|firstSenay \|date25 May 2023 \|title'Potheads, go giggle elsewhere': public weed ban begins in Amsterdam \|languageen-GB \|workThe Guardian \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/may/25/amsterdam-public-weed-smoking-ban-begins \|access-date25 May 2023 \|issn0261-3077}}</ref> De Wallen (red-light district) {{Anchor\|Red light district}} {{Main\|De Wallen}} , Amsterdam's Red-light district, offers activities such as legal prostitution and a number of coffee shops that sell cannabis. It is one of the main tourist attractions.<ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idcsX0f7AVM3gC&pgPA705 \|titleSex and Society \|publisherMarshall Cavendish \|year2010 \|isbn978-0-7614-7908-6 \|pages705–}}</ref>]] De Wallen, also known as Walletjes or Rosse Buurt, is a designated area for legalised prostitution and is Amsterdam's largest and best-known red-light district. This neighbourhood has become a famous attraction for tourists. It consists of a network of canals, streets, and alleys containing several hundred small, one-room apartments rented by sex workers who offer their services from behind a window or glass door, typically illuminated with red lights. In recent years, the city government has been closing and repurposing the famous red-light district windows to clean up the area and reduce the amount of party and sex tourism. Retail Shops in Amsterdam range from large high-end department stores such as {{Lang\|nl\|De Bijenkorf\|italicno}} founded in 1870 to small specialty shops. Amsterdam's high-end shops are found in the streets P.C. Hooftstraat<ref name"hoof_cite">{{Cite web \|titlePC Hooftstraat World's Third Nicest Shopping Street \|urlhttps://www.dutchamsterdam.nl/2160-amsterdams-pc-hooftstraat-worlds-third-best-shopping-street \|websitedutchamsterdam \|date18 January 2012}}</ref> and Cornelis Schuytstraat, which are located in the vicinity of the Vondelpark. One of Amsterdam's busiest high streets is the narrow, medieval Kalverstraat in the heart of the city. Other shopping areas include the Negen Straatjes and Haarlemmerdijk and Haarlemmerstraat. Negen Straatjes are nine narrow streets within the Grachtengordel, the concentric canal system of Amsterdam. The Negen Straatjes differ from other shopping districts with the presence of a large diversity of privately owned shops. The Haarlemmerstraat and Haarlemmerdijk were voted the best shopping street in the Netherlands in 2011. These streets have as the Negen Straatjes a large diversity of privately owned shops. However, as the Negen Straatjes is dominated by fashion stores, the Haarlemmerstraat and Haarlemmerdijk offer a wide variety of stores, just to name some specialties: candy and other food-related stores, lingerie, sneakers, wedding clothing, interior shops, books, Italian deli's, racing and mountain bikes, skatewear, etc.{{Original research inline\|date=March 2023}} The city also features a large number of open-air markets such as the Albert Cuyp Market, Westerstraat-markt, Ten Katemarkt, and Dappermarkt. Some of these markets are held daily, like the Albert Cuypmarkt and the Dappermarkt. Others, like the Westerstraatmarkt, are held every week.{{Original research inline\|dateMarch 2023}}FashionSeveral fashion brands and designers are based in Amsterdam. Fashion designers include Iris van Herpen,<ref>{{Cite news \|lastGregory \|firstAlice \|date8 April 2015 \|titleIris van Herpen's Intelligent Design \|workThe New York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/08/t-magazine/iris-van-herpen-designer-interview.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/08/t-magazine/iris-van-herpen-designer-interview.html \|archive-date1 January 2022 \|url-accesslimited \|access-date23 February 2019 \|issn0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Mart Visser, Viktor & Rolf, Marlies Dekkers and Frans Molenaar. Fashion models like Yfke Sturm, Doutzen Kroes and Kim Noorda started their careers in Amsterdam. Amsterdam has its garment centre in the World Fashion Center. Fashion photographers Inez van Lamsweerde and Vinoodh Matadin were born in Amsterdam.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastPhillips \|firstSarah \|date7 July 2010 \|titlePhotographers Inez van Lamsweerde and Vinoodh Matadin's best shot \|workThe Guardian \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2010/jul/08/my-best-shot-inez-lamsweered-vinoodh-matadin \|access-date23 February 2019 \|issn0261-3077}}</ref> Culture {{more citations needed\|section\|date=October 2019}}<!--performing arts and nightlife sections have no citations--> \|italic=no}} houses Rembrandt's The Night Watch.]] houses the world's largest collection of Van Gogh's paintings and letters.]] is an international museum dedicated to modern and contemporary art and design.]] During the later part of the 16th century, Amsterdam's Rederijkerskamer (Chamber of rhetoric) organised contests between different Chambers in the reading of poetry and drama.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Stein \|first1Robert \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idd1DfcrqKI6sC&qchamber+of+rhetoric+amsterdam+competitions&pgPA56 \|titleNetworks, Regions and Nations: Shaping Identities in the Low Countries, 1300–1650 \|last2Pollmann \|first2Judith \|date2010 \|publisherBRILL \|isbn9789004180246 \|pages56}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|last1Ridder-Symoens \|first1Hilde De \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5as7lUR44UAC&qchamber+of+rhetoric+amsterdam&pgPA215 \|titleEducation and learning in the Netherlands, 1400–1600 [electronic resource]: essays in honour of Hilde de Ridder-Symoens \|last2Goudriaan \|first2Koen \|last3Moolenbroek \|first3J. J. Van \|last4Tervoort \|first4Ad \|date2004 \|publisherBRILL \|isbn9789004136441 \|pages215}}</ref> In 1637, Schouwburg, the first theatre in Amsterdam was built, opening on 3 January 1638.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleSchouwburg {{!}} theatre, Amsterdam, Netherlands \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/Schouwburg \|access-date24 February 2019 \|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> The first ballet performances in the Netherlands were given in Schouwburg in 1642 with the Ballet of the Five Senses.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Craine \|first1Debra \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id42g8Hp-xA48C&qSchouwburg+ballet+performances+%221642%22&pgPA321 \|titleThe Oxford Dictionary of Dance \|last2Mackrell \|first2Judith \|date19 August 2010 \|publisherOUP Oxford \|isbn9780199563449 \|pages321}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|last1Bloemendal \|first1Jan \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_mc0_nllkTEC&q%22Schouwburg%22+%22ballet%22+%221642%22&pgPA143 \|titleJoost Van Den Vondel (1587–1679): Dutch Playwright in the Golden Age \|last2Korsten \|first2Frans-Willem \|date25 November 2011 \|publisherBRILL \|isbn9789004217539 \|pages143}}</ref> In the 18th century, French theatre became popular. While Amsterdam was under the influence of German music in the 19th century there were few national opera productions; the Hollandse Opera of Amsterdam was built in 1888 for the specific purpose of promoting Dutch opera.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Grout \|first1Donald Jay \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idl_b2vIXHsUkC&qAmsterdam+opera&pgPA541 \|titleA short history of opera \|last2Hermine Weigel Williams \|publisherColumbia University Press \|year2003 \|isbn978-0-231-11958-0 \|page541 \|access-date11 January 2010}}</ref> In the 19th century, popular culture was centred on the Nes area in Amsterdam (mainly vaudeville and music-hall).{{Citation needed\|dateJune 2008}} An improved metronome was invented in 1812 by Dietrich Nikolaus Winkel.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastEveleth \|firstRose \|author-linkRose Eveleth \|titleWas Beethoven's Metronome Wrong? \|urlhttps://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/was-beethovens-metronome-wrong-9140958/ \|access-date24 February 2019 \|websiteSmithsonian}}</ref> The {{Lang\|nl\|Rijksmuseum\|italicno}} (1885) and Stedelijk Museum (1895) were built and opened.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHistory of the Rijksmuseum – Organisation \|urlhttps://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/organisation/history-of-the-rijksmuseum \|access-date24 February 2019 \|websiteRijksmuseum}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleQueen Opens the Stedelijk \|urlhttps://www.stedelijk.nl/en/news/queen-opens-the-stedelijk \|access-date24 February 2019 \|websiteStedelijk museum}}</ref> In 1888, the Concertgebouworkest orchestra was established.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastCressman \|firstDarryl \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2fS9CwAAQBAJ&qRoyal+Concertgebouw+Orchestra+1888&pgPA137 \|titleBuilding musical culture in Nineteenth-century Amsterdam: the concertgebouw \|date15 March 2016 \|publisherAmsterdam University Press \|isbn9789048528462 \|pages137}}</ref> With the 20th century came cinema, radio and television.{{Citation needed\|dateJune 2008}} Though most studios are located in Hilversum and Aalsmeer, Amsterdam's influence on programming is very strong. Many people who work in the television industry live in Amsterdam. Also, the headquarters of the Dutch SBS Broadcasting Group is located in Amsterdam.<ref name"sbs6">{{Cite web \|titleContact SBS 6 \|urlhttp://www.sbs6.nl/web/show/id78637/langid43 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080524054324/http://www.sbs6.nl/web/show/id%3D78637/langid%3D43 \|archive-date24 May 2008 \|access-date19 May 2008 \|languagenl}}</ref> Museums The most important museums of Amsterdam are located on the Museumplein (Museum Square), located at the southwestern side of the Rijksmuseum. It was created in the last quarter of the 19th century on the grounds of the former World's fair. The northeastern part of the square is bordered by the large Rijksmuseum. In front of the Rijksmuseum on the square itself is a long, rectangular pond. This is transformed into an ice rink in winter.<ref name"ijsbaan">{{Cite web \|titleFeestelijke opening ijsbaan Museumplein \|urlhttp://www.evenementnieuws.nl/nieuws/3900/Feestelijke+opening+ijsbaan+Museumplein.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081226160156/http://evenementnieuws.nl/nieuws/3900/Feestelijke%2Bopening%2Bijsbaan%2BMuseumplein.html \|archive-date26 December 2008 \|access-date30 May 2008 \|publisherEvenementennieuws \|languagenl}}</ref> The northwestern part of the square is bordered by the Van Gogh Museum, House of Bols Cocktail & Genever Experience and Coster Diamonds. The southwestern border of the Museum Square is the Van Baerlestraat, which is a major thoroughfare in this part of Amsterdam. The Concertgebouw is located across this street from the square. To the southeast of the square are several large houses, one of which contains the American consulate. A parking garage can be found underneath the square, as well as a supermarket. The Museumplein is covered almost entirely with a lawn, except for the northeastern part of the square which is covered with gravel. The current appearance of the square was realised in 1999 when the square was remodelled. The square itself is the most prominent site in Amsterdam for festivals and outdoor concerts, especially in the summer. Plans were made in 2008 to remodel the square again because many inhabitants of Amsterdam are not happy with its current appearance.<ref name"museumpleinfacelift">{{Cite web \|titleMuseumplein krijgt facelift \|urlhttp://www.topstad.amsterdam.nl/nieuws/museumplein_krijgt \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090807174714/http://www.topstad.amsterdam.nl/nieuws/museumplein_krijgt \|archive-date7 August 2009 \|access-date30 May 2008 \|publisherGemeente Amsterdam \|languagenl}}</ref> monument on Rembrandtplein]] The {{Lang\|nl\|Rijksmuseum\|italicno}} possesses the largest and most important collection of classical Dutch art.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHome Page \|urlhttp://www.rijksmuseum.nl/?langen \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081103074636/http://www.rijksmuseum.nl/?langen \|archive-date3 November 2008 \|access-date25 October 2008 \|publisherRijksmuseum Amsterdam}}</ref> It opened in 1885. Its collection consists of nearly one million objects.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleRijksmuseum \|urlhttp://www.aviewoncities.com/amsterdam/rijksmuseum.htm \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080917054130/http://www.aviewoncities.com/amsterdam/rijksmuseum.htm \|archive-date17 September 2008 \|access-date25 October 2008 \|websiteAmsterdam \|publisherA view on cities}}</ref> The artist most associated with Amsterdam is Rembrandt, whose work, and the work of his pupils, is displayed in the Rijksmuseum. Rembrandt's masterpiece The Night Watch is one of the top pieces of art in the museum. It also houses paintings from artists like Bartholomeus van der Helst, Johannes Vermeer, Frans Hals, Ferdinand Bol, Albert Cuyp, Jacob van Ruisdael and Paulus Potter. Aside from paintings, the collection consists of a large variety of decorative art. This ranges from Delftware to giant doll-houses from the 17th century. The architect of the gothic revival building was P.J.H. Cuypers. The museum underwent a 10-year, 375&nbsp;million euro renovation starting in 2003. The full collection was reopened to the public on 13 April 2013 and the Rijksmuseum has remained the most visited museum in Amsterdam with 2.2&nbsp;million visitors in 2016 and 2.16&nbsp;million in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleTotal number of visitors of the Rijksmuseum in the Netherlands in 2014 to 2017 (in millions) \|urlhttps://www.statista.com/statistics/646065/attendance-at-the-rijksmuseum-in-the-netherlands/ \|access-date7 August 2018 \|publisherStatista}}</ref> Van Gogh lived in Amsterdam for a short while and there is a museum dedicated to his work. The museum is housed in one of the few modern buildings in this area of Amsterdam. The building was designed by Gerrit Rietveld. This building is where the permanent collection is displayed. A new building was added to the museum in 1999. This building, known as the performance wing, was designed by Japanese architect Kisho Kurokawa. Its purpose is to house temporary exhibitions of the museum.<ref name"vangogh3">{{Cite web \|titleArchitectuur Van Gogh Museum Amsterdam \|urlhttp://architectuur.org/rietveld02.php \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080516145157/http://www.architectuur.org/rietveld02.php \|archive-date16 May 2008 \|access-date1 June 2008 \|publisherArchitectuur.org \|languagenl}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleVan Gogh Museum – The Building \|urlhttp://www.vangoghmuseum.nl/vgm/index.jsp?page213&langen&sectionsectie_museum \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130513220627/http://www.vangoghmuseum.nl/vgm/index.jsp?page213&langen&sectionsectie_museum \|archive-date13 May 2013 \|access-date7 August 2014 \|publisherVan Gogh Museum}}</ref> Some of Van Gogh's most famous paintings, like The Potato Eaters and Sunflowers, are in the collection.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleVan Gogh Museum – Permanent Collection \|urlhttp://www.vangoghmuseum.nl/vgm/index.jsp?page425&langen&sectionsectie_museum \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140819222554/http://www.vangoghmuseum.nl/vgm/index.jsp?page425&langen&sectionsectie_museum \|archive-date19 August 2014 \|access-date7 August 2014 \|publisherVan Gogh Museum}}</ref> The Van Gogh museum is the second most visited museum in Amsterdam, not far behind the Rijksmuseum in terms of the number of visits, being approximately 2.1&nbsp;million in 2016,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHistoric number of visitors since the opening of Van Gogh Museum. \|urlhttps://www.vangoghmuseum.nl/en/news-and-press/press-releases/record-number-of-visitors-in-2016 \|access-date5 April 2019 \|publisher=Van Gogh Museum}}</ref> for example. ]] Next to the Van Gogh Museum stands the Stedelijk Museum. This is Amsterdam's most important museum of modern art. The museum is as old as the square it borders and was opened in 1895. The permanent collection consists of works of art from artists like Piet Mondrian, Karel Appel, and Kazimir Malevich. After renovations lasting several years, the museum opened in September 2012 with a new composite extension that has been called 'The Bathtub' due to its resemblance to one. Amsterdam contains many other museums throughout the city. They range from small museums such as the Verzetsmuseum (Resistance Museum), the Anne Frank House, and the Rembrandt House Museum, to the very large, like the Tropenmuseum (Museum of the Tropics), Amsterdam Museum (formerly known as Amsterdam Historical Museum), H'ART Museum and the Joods Historisch Museum (Jewish Historical Museum). The modern-styled Nemo is dedicated to child-friendly science exhibitions. Music {{Further\|List of songs about Amsterdam}} performing at the Amsterdam Arena, 2016]] Amsterdam's musical culture includes a large collection of songs that treat the city nostalgically and lovingly. The 1949 song "Aan de Amsterdamse grachten" ("On the canals of Amsterdam") was performed and recorded by many artists, including John Kraaijkamp Sr.; the best-known version is probably that by Wim Sonneveld (1962). In the 1950s Johnny Jordaan rose to fame with "Geef mij maar Amsterdam" ("I prefer Amsterdam"), which praises the city above all others (explicitly Paris); Jordaan sang especially about his own neighbourhood, the Jordaan ("Bij ons in de Jordaan"). Colleagues and contemporaries of Johnny include Tante Leen and Manke Nelis. Another notable Amsterdam song is "Amsterdam" by Jacques Brel (1964).<ref name"lijflied finale">{{Cite news \|date5 October 2011 \|titleAmsterdams lijflied: de finale \|languagenl \|workHet Parool \|urlhttp://www.parool.nl/parool/nl/7024/AMSTERDAMS-LIJFLIED/article/detail/2948441/2011/10/05/Amsterdams-lijflied-de-finale.dhtml \|access-date8 May 2013}}</ref> A 2011 poll by Amsterdam newspaper Het Parool that Trio Bier's "Oude Wolf" was voted "Amsterdams lijflied".<ref>{{Cite news \|date12 October 2011 \|titleAmsterdams Lijflied: Stadsbewoners leven als oude wolven – AMSTERDAMS LIJFLIED – PAROOL \|languagenl \|workHet Parool \|urlhttp://www.parool.nl/parool/nl/7024/AMSTERDAMS-LIJFLIED/article/detail/2965125/2011/10/12/Amsterdams-Lijflied-Stadsbewoners-leven-als-oude-wolven.dhtml \|access-date=8 May 2013}}</ref> Notable Amsterdam bands from the modern era include the Osdorp Posse and The Ex. AFAS Live (formerly known as the Heineken Music Hall) is a concert hall located near the Johan Cruyff Arena (known as the Amsterdam Arena until 2018). Its main purpose is to serve as a podium for pop concerts for big audiences. Many famous international artists have performed there. Two other notable venues, Paradiso and the {{Lang\|nl\|Melkweg\|italic=no}} are located near the Leidseplein. Both focus on broad programming, ranging from indie rock to hip hop, R&B, and other popular genres. Other subcultural music venues are OCCII, OT301, De Nieuwe Anita, Winston Kingdom, and Zaal 100. Jazz has a strong following in Amsterdam, with the Bimhuis being the premier venue. In 2012, Ziggo Dome was opened, also near Amsterdam Arena, a state-of-the-art indoor music arena. AFAS Live is also host to many electronic dance music festivals, alongside many other venues. Armin van Buuren and Tiesto, some of the world's leading Trance DJs hail from the Netherlands and frequently perform in Amsterdam. Each year in October, the city hosts the Amsterdam Dance Event (ADE) which is one of the leading electronic music conferences and one of the biggest club festivals for electronic music in the world, attracting over 350,000 visitors each year.<ref>{{Cite news \|date9 June 2015 \|titleADE vorig jaar het best bezochte festival van Nederland \|languagenl \|workHet Parool \|urlhttp://www.parool.nl/kunst-en-media/ade-vorig-jaar-het-best-bezochte-festival-van-nederland~a4066485/ \|access-date3 May 2017}}</ref> Another popular dance festival is 5daysoff, which takes place in the venues Paradiso and {{Lang\|nl\|Melkweg\|italic=no}}. In the summertime, there are several big outdoor dance parties in or nearby Amsterdam, such as Awakenings, Dance Valley, Mystery Land, Loveland, A Day at the Park, Welcome to the Future, and Valtifest. \|italic=no}} or Royal Concert Hall houses performances of the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra and other musical events.]] Amsterdam has a world-class symphony orchestra, the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra. Their home is the {{Lang\|nl\|Concertgebouw\|italicno}}, which is across the Van Baerlestraat from the Museum Square. It is considered by critics to be a concert hall with some of the best acoustics in the world. The building contains three halls, Grote Zaal, Kleine Zaal, and Spiegelzaal. Some nine hundred concerts and other events per year take place in the Concertgebouw, for a public of over 700,000, making it one of the most-visited concert halls in the world.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleFacts & Figures \|urlhttps://www.concertgebouw.nl/ontdek/facts-figures \|access-date24 February 2014 \|publisherConcertgebouw NV}}</ref> The opera house of Amsterdam is located adjacent to the city hall. Therefore, the two buildings combined are often called the Stopera, (a word originally coined by protesters against its very construction: Stop the Opera[-house]). This huge modern complex, opened in 1986, lies in the former Jewish neighbourhood at Waterlooplein next to the river Amstel. The Stopera is the home base of Dutch National Opera, Dutch National Ballet and the Holland Symfonia. Muziekgebouw aan 't IJ is a concert hall, which is located in the IJ near the central station. Its concerts perform mostly modern classical music. Located adjacent to it, is the Bimhuis, a concert hall for improvised and Jazz music.Performing arts Amsterdam has three main theatre buildings. , Amsterdam's best-known theatre]] , It was originally meant as a permanent circus building.]] The Stadsschouwburg at the Leidseplein is the home base of Toneelgroep Amsterdam. The current building dates from 1894. Most plays are performed in the Grote Zaal (Great Hall). The normal program of events encompasses all sorts of theatrical forms. In 2009, the new hall of the Stadsschouwburg Amsterdam, Toneelgroep Amsterdam, and Melkweg opened, and the renovation of the front end of the theatre was ready. The Dutch National Opera and Ballet (formerly known as Het Muziektheater), dating from 1986, is the principal opera house and home to Dutch National Opera and Dutch National Ballet. Royal Theatre Carré was built as a permanent circus theatre in 1887 and is currently mainly used for musicals, cabaret performances, and pop concerts. The recently re-opened DeLaMar Theater houses more commercial plays and musicals. A new theatre has also moved into the Amsterdam scene in 2014, joining other established venues: Theater Amsterdam is located in the west part of Amsterdam, on the Danzigerkade. It is housed in a modern building with a panoramic view over the harbour. The theatre is the first-ever purpose-built venue to showcase a single play entitled ANNE, the play based on Anne Frank's life. On the east side of town, there is a small theatre in a converted bathhouse, the Badhuistheater. The theatre often has English programming. The Netherlands has a tradition of cabaret or kleinkunst, which combines music, storytelling, commentary, theatre, and comedy. Cabaret dates back to the 1930s and artists like Wim Kan, Wim Sonneveld, and Toon Hermans were pioneers of this form of art in the Netherlands. In Amsterdam are the Kleinkunstacademie (English: Cabaret Academy) and Nederlied Kleinkunstkoor (English: Cabaret Choir). Contemporary popular artists are Youp van 't Hek, Freek de Jonge, Herman Finkers, Hans Teeuwen, Theo Maassen, Herman van Veen, Najib Amhali, Raoul Heertje, Jörgen Raymann, Brigitte Kaandorp and Comedytrain. The English-spoken comedy scene was established with the founding of Boom Chicago in 1993. They have their own theatre at Leidseplein. Nightlife {{multiple image \| align = right \| image1 = DeWolff Paradiso.jpg \| width1 = 200 \| alt1 \| caption1 DeWolff performing at Paradiso \| image2 = Amsterdam Magere Brug.jpg \| width2 = 200 \| alt2 \| caption2 The Magere Brug or "Skinny Bridge" over the Amstel at night \| footer = }} Amsterdam is famous for its vibrant and diverse nightlife. Amsterdam has many cafés (bars). They range from large and modern to small and cosy. The typical Bruine Kroeg (brown café) breathes a more old-fashioned atmosphere with dimmed lights, candles, and somewhat older clientele. These brown cafés mostly offer a wide range of local and international artisanal beers. Most cafés have terraces in summertime. A common sight on the Leidseplein during summer is a square full of terraces packed with people drinking beer or wine. Many restaurants can be found in Amsterdam as well. Since Amsterdam is a multicultural city, a lot of different ethnic restaurants can be found. Restaurants range from being rather luxurious and expensive to being ordinary and affordable. Amsterdam also possesses many discothèques. The two main nightlife areas for tourists are the Leidseplein and the Rembrandtplein. The Paradiso, {{Lang\|nl\|Melkweg\|italicno}} and Sugar Factory are cultural centres, which turn into discothèques on some nights.Festivals {{multiple image \| align = right \| image1 = Queen's Day in Amsterdam 2013 (8697415382).jpg \| width1 = 200 \| alt1 \| caption1 Queen's Day in Amsterdam in 2013 \| image2 = Amsterdam's Canals.jpg \| width2 = 200 \| alt2 \| caption2 People dressed in orange on the canals of Amsterdam in 2010 during Koningsdag or King's Day \| footer = }} In 2008, there were 140 festivals and events in Amsterdam.<ref name"festivals">{{Cite news \|date17 May 2008 \|titleAmsterdam kans op 'evenementenstad' \|languagenl \|trans-titleAmsterdam has a chance to be an 'event city' \|workAT5 Nieuws \|locationAmsterdam \|urlhttp://www.at5.nl/artikelen/8239/amsterdam-kans-op-evenementenstad \|access-date10 May 2012 \|quoteNaast de prijs van nationale evenementenstad is Koninginnedag voorgedragen als het publieksevenement van het jaar. (In addition to the prize for national event city, Queens Day is nominated as the public event of the year.)}}</ref> During the same year, Amsterdam was designated as the World Book Capital for one year by UNESCO.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleWorld Book Capital 2008: Amsterdam; (Netherlands) \|urlhttps://archive.ifla.org/III/announce/2008WorldBookCapital-en.htm \|access-date19 April 2022 \|websitearchive.ifla.org}}</ref> Famous festivals and events in Amsterdam include: Koningsdag (which was named Koninginnedag until the crowning of King Willem-Alexander in 2013) (King's Day – Queen's Day); the Holland Festival for the performing arts; the yearly Prinsengrachtconcert (classical concerto on the Prinsen canal) in August; the 'Stille Omgang' (a silent Roman Catholic evening procession held every March); Amsterdam Gay Pride; The Cannabis Cup; and the Uitmarkt. On Koningsdag—which is held each year on 27 April—hundreds of thousands of people travel to Amsterdam to celebrate with the city's residents. The entire city becomes overcrowded with people buying products from the free market, or visiting one of the many music concerts. ]] The yearly Holland Festival attracts international artists and visitors from all over Europe. Amsterdam Gay Pride is a yearly local LGBT parade of boats in Amsterdam's canals, held on the first Saturday in August.<ref name"gaypride">{{Cite web \|titleGay Pride in Amsterdam \|urlhttp://amsterdam.nl/?ActItmIdt10073 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080601054009/http://www.amsterdam.nl/?ActItmIdt10073 \|archive-date1 June 2008 \|access-date4 June 2008 \|publisherMunicipality Amsterdam \|languagenl}}</ref> The annual Uitmarkt is a three-day cultural event at the start of the cultural season in late August. It offers previews of many different artists, such as musicians and poets, who perform on podia.<ref name"uitmarkt">{{Cite web \|titleUitmarkt in Amsterdam \|urlhttp://www.iamsterdam.com/visiting_exploring/culture/annual_cultural_0/uitmarkt \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080131104219/http://www.iamsterdam.com/visiting_exploring/culture/annual_cultural_0/uitmarkt \|archive-date31 January 2008 \|access-date4 June 2008 \|publisherIAmsterdam}}</ref>Sports {{see also\|Football in Amsterdam}} Amsterdam is home of the Eredivisie football club AFC Ajax. The stadium Johan Cruyff Arena is the home of Ajax. It is located in the south-east of the city next to the new Amsterdam Bijlmer ArenA railway station. Before moving to their current location in 1996, Ajax played their regular matches in the now demolished De Meer Stadion in the eastern part of the city<ref>{{Cite web \|titleDe Meer \|urlhttp://english.ajax.nl/web/show/id47960 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081116070239/http://english.ajax.nl/web/show/id%3D47960 \|archive-date16 November 2008 \|access-date8 November 2008 \|websiteStadiums \|publisher=AFC Ajax}}</ref> or in the Olympic Stadium. In 1928, Amsterdam hosted the Summer Olympics. The Olympic Stadium built for the occasion has been completely restored and is now used for cultural and sporting events, such as the Amsterdam Marathon.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAthletics \|urlhttp://www.olympischstadion.nl/index.php?optioncom_content&taskview&id22&Itemid98 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081221134507/http://www.olympischstadion.nl/index.php?optioncom_content&taskview&id22&Itemid98 \|archive-date21 December 2008 \|access-date8 November 2008 \|websiteOlympisch Stadion Amsterdam \|publisherSOSA \|format=in Dutch}}</ref> In 1920, Amsterdam assisted in hosting some of the sailing events for the Summer Olympics held in neighbouring Antwerp, Belgium by hosting events at Buiten IJ. They had also made a bid to host the 1952 and 1992 Summer Olympics but lost to Helsinki and Barcelona. player Johan Cruyff, 1967]] The city holds the Dam to Dam Run, a {{cvt\|16\|km\|adj=on\|0}} race from Amsterdam to Zaandam, as well as the Amsterdam Marathon. The ice hockey team Amstel Tijgers plays in the Jaap Eden ice rink. The team competes in the Dutch Ice Hockey Premier League. Speed skating championships have been held on the 400-meter lane of this ice rink. Amsterdam holds two American football franchises: the Amsterdam Crusaders and the Amsterdam Panthers. The Amsterdam Pirates baseball team competes in the Dutch Major League. There are three field hockey teams: Amsterdam, Pinoké, and Hurley, who play their matches around the Wagener Stadium in the nearby city of Amstelveen. The basketball team MyGuide Amsterdam competes in the Dutch premier division and play their games in the Sporthallen Zuid.<ref>{{Cite web \|date7 September 2009 \|titleOver Sporthallen Zuid: Referenties \|urlhttp://www.sporthallenzuid.amsterdam.nl/over_sporthallen/referenties \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100803000725/http://www.sporthallenzuid.amsterdam.nl/over_sporthallen/referenties \|archive-date3 August 2010 \|access-date10 October 2010 \|publisherSporthallenzuid.amsterdam.nl}}</ref> There is one rugby club in Amsterdam, which also hosts sports training classes such as RTC (Rugby Talenten Centrum or Rugby Talent Centre) and the National Rugby Stadium. Since 1999, the city of Amsterdam honours the best sportsmen and women at the Amsterdam Sports Awards. Boxer Raymond Joval and field hockey midfielder Carole Thate were the first to receive the awards, in 1999. Amsterdam hosted the World Gymnaestrada in 1991 and will do so again in 2023.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleFIG allocates 2023 World Gymnaestrada to Amsterdam \|urlhttp://aroundtherings.com/site/A__75784/Title__FIG-allocates-2023-World-Gymnaestrada-to-Amsterdam/292/Articles \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190220212143/http://aroundtherings.com/site/A__75784/Title__FIG-allocates-2023-World-Gymnaestrada-to-Amsterdam/292/Articles \|url-statusdead \|archive-date20 February 2019 \|access-date20 February 2019 \|publisherAround The Rings}}</ref>Politics {{Main\|Government of Amsterdam}} has been the Mayor of Amsterdam since 2018.]] The city of Amsterdam is a municipality under the Dutch Municipalities Act. It is governed by a directly elected municipal council, a municipal executive, and a mayor. Since 1981, the municipality of Amsterdam has gradually been divided into semi-autonomous boroughs, called stadsdelen or 'districts'. Over time, a total of 15 boroughs were created. In May 2010, under a major reform, the number of Amsterdam boroughs was reduced to eight: Amsterdam-Centrum covering the city centre including the canal belt, Amsterdam-Noord consisting of the neighbourhoods north of the IJ lake, Amsterdam-Oost in the east, Amsterdam-Zuid in the south, Amsterdam-West in the west, Amsterdam Nieuw-West in the far west, Amsterdam Zuidoost in the southeast, and Westpoort covering the Port of Amsterdam area.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmsterdam City Districts \|urlhttp://www.iamsterdam.com/en-GB/living/about-amsterdam/amsterdam-city-districts \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140820014532/http://www.iamsterdam.com/en-GB/living/about-amsterdam/amsterdam-city-districts \|archive-date20 August 2014 \|access-date12 August 2014 \|publisherIamsterdam.com}}</ref>City government {{Main\|Boroughs of Amsterdam\|Municipal council (Netherlands)}} As with all Dutch municipalities, Amsterdam is governed by a directly elected municipal council, a municipal executive and a government appointed<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMaria Smith \|date15 February 2018 \|titleElecting a mayor in the Netherlands \|urlhttps://dutchreview.com/news/politics/electing-a-mayor-in-the-netherlands \|access-date15 February 2018 \|publisherDutchReview.com}}</ref> mayor (burgemeester). The mayor is a member of the municipal executive board but also has individual responsibilities in maintaining public order. On 27 June 2018, Femke Halsema (former member of House of Representatives for GroenLinks from 1998 to 2011) was appointed as the first woman to be Mayor of Amsterdam by the King's Commissioner of North Holland for a six-year term after being nominated by the Amsterdam municipal council and began serving a six-year term on 12 July 2018. She replaces Eberhard van der Laan (Labour Party) who was the Mayor of Amsterdam from 2010 until his death in October 2017. After the 2014 municipal council elections, a governing majority of D66, VVD and SP was formed – the first coalition without the Labour Party since World War II.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastBritt Slegers \|date12 June 2014 \|titleThree-party coalition in Amsterdam \|urlhttp://www.nltimes.nl/2014/06/12/three-party-coalition-amsterdam-pvda/ \|access-date13 August 2014 \|websiteNL Times}}</ref> Next to the Mayor, the municipal executive consists of eight wethouders ('alderpersons') appointed by the municipal council: four D66 alderpersons, two VVD alderpersons and two SP alderpersons.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleCollege van burgemeester en wethouders \|urlhttp://www.amsterdam.nl/gemeente/college/ \|access-date13 August 2014 \|publisherCity of Amsterdam \|language=nl}}</ref> On 18 September 2017, it was announced by Eberhard van der Laan in an open letter to Amsterdam citizens that Kajsa Ollongren would take up his office as acting Mayor of Amsterdam with immediate effect due to ill health.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://nos.nl/artikel/2193622-zieke-amsterdamse-burgemeester-van-der-laan-legt-werk-neer.html/ \|title'Zorg goed voor onze stad en voor elkaar' \|worknos.nl \|date18 September 2017 \|access-date27 June 2021 \|url-statusdead \|archive-date27 June 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210627215652/https://nos.nl/artikel/2193622-zieke-amsterdamse-burgemeester-van-der-laan-legt-werk-neer.html}}</ref> Ollongren was succeeded as acting Mayor by Eric van der Burg on 26 October 2017 and by Jozias van Aartsen on 4 December 2017. until 24 March 2022]] Unlike most other Dutch municipalities, Amsterdam is subdivided into seven boroughs, called stadsdelen or 'districts', and the urban area of Weesp.<ref name"stadsdelen">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.amsterdam.nl/bestuur-organisatie/organisatie/stadsdelen/\|titleStadsdelen\|publisherGemeente Amsterdam\|accessdate20 July 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230327135843/https://www.amsterdam.nl/bestuur-organisatie/organisatie/stadsdelen/ \|archive-date=27 March 2023}}</ref> This system was gradually implemented in the 1980s to improve local governance. The boroughs are responsible for many activities that had previously been run by the central city. In 2010, the number of Amsterdam boroughs reached fifteen. Fourteen of those had their own district council (deelraad), elected by a popular vote. The fifteenth, Westpoort, covers the harbour of Amsterdam and has very few residents. Therefore, it was governed by the central municipal council. Under the borough system, municipal decisions are made at the borough level, except for those affairs on the whole city such as major infrastructure projects, which are the jurisdiction of the central municipal authorities. In 2010, the borough system was restructured, in which many smaller boroughs merged into larger boroughs. In 2014, under a reform of the Dutch Municipalities Act, the Amsterdam boroughs lost much of their autonomous status, as their district councils were abolished. The municipal council of Amsterdam voted to maintain the borough system by replacing the district councils with smaller, but still directly elected district committees (bestuurscommissies). Under a municipal ordinance, the new district committees were granted responsibilities through the delegation of regulatory and executive powers by the central municipal council. (left), behind the Blauwbrug (blue bridge), where the Amsterdam city hall and opera house are located, and the H'ART Museum (right) on the Amstel}}]] Metropolitan area "Amsterdam" is usually understood to refer to the municipality of Amsterdam. Colloquially, some areas within the municipality, such as the town of Durgerdam, may not be considered part of Amsterdam. Statistics Netherlands uses three other definitions of Amsterdam: metropolitan agglomeration Amsterdam (Grootstedelijke Agglomeratie Amsterdam, not to be confused with Grootstedelijk Gebied Amsterdam, a synonym of Groot Amsterdam), Greater Amsterdam (Groot Amsterdam, a COROP region) and the urban region Amsterdam (Stadsgewest Amsterdam).<ref name="auto"/> The Amsterdam Department for Research and Statistics uses a fourth conurbation, namely the Stadsregio Amsterdam ('City Region of Amsterdam'). The city region is similar to Greater Amsterdam but includes the municipalities of Zaanstad and Wormerland. The smallest of these areas is the municipality of Amsterdam with a population of about 870,000 in 2021.<ref name"cbs2021">{{Cite web\|urlhttps://opendata.cbs.nl/statline/#/CBS/en/dataset/37259eng/table?ts1679876639000\|titleCBS Statline\|websiteopendata.cbs.nl}}</ref> The larger conurbation had a population of over one million. It includes the municipalities of Zaanstad, Wormerland, Oostzaan, Diemen, and Amstelveen only, as well as the municipality of Amsterdam. Greater Amsterdam includes 15 municipalities and had a population of 1,400,000 in 2021.<ref name"cbs2021" /> Though much larger in area, the population of this area is only slightly larger, because the definition excludes the relatively populous municipality of Zaanstad. The largest area by population, the Amsterdam Metropolitan Area (Dutch: Metropoolregio Amsterdam), has a population of 2,33&nbsp;million.<ref name"dosamsterdam">{{Cite web \|titleDienst onderzoek & statistiek Amsterdam \|urlhttp://www.os.amsterdam.nl/tabel/8187/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130614030427/http://www.os.amsterdam.nl/tabel/8187/ \|archive-date14 June 2013}}</ref> It includes for instance Zaanstad, Wormerland, Muiden, Abcoude, Haarlem, Almere and Lelystad but excludes Graft-De Rijp. Amsterdam is part of the conglomerate metropolitan area Randstad, with a total population of 6,659,300 inhabitants.<ref name"randstad">{{Cite web \|dateOctober 2008 \|titlePopulation \|urlhttp://www.os.amsterdam.nl/tabel/2008_mutatiestatistiek_stand.xls \|access-date8 March 2009 \|websiteThemes \|publisherCity of Amsterdam \|formatin Dutch}}{{dead link\|dateMay 2016\|botmedic}}{{cbignore\|bot=medic}}</ref> Of these various metropolitan area configurations, only the Stadsregio Amsterdam (City Region of Amsterdam) has a formal governmental status. Its responsibilities include regional spatial planning and metropolitan public transport concessions.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleStadsregio Amsterdam: English Information \|urlhttp://www.stadsregioamsterdam.nl/algemene-onderdelen/english-information/ \|access-date12 August 2014 \|publisherStadsregio Amsterdam}}</ref> National capital {{main\|Capital of the Netherlands}} , Princess Beatrix, and Queen Máxima greeting Amsterdammers from the Royal Palace of Amsterdam during Willem-Alexanders inauguration in 2013]] Under the Dutch Constitution, Amsterdam is the capital of the Netherlands. Since the 1983 constitutional revision, the constitution mentions "Amsterdam" and "capital" in chapter 2, article 32: The king's confirmation by oath and his coronation take place in "the capital Amsterdam" ("de hoofdstad Amsterdam").<ref name"capital-constitution">{{Cite web \|lastDutch Wikisource \|titleGrondwet voor het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden \|trans-titleConstitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands \|urlhttp://nl.wikisource.org/wiki/Grondwet_voor_het_Koninkrijk_der_Nederlanden \|access-date3 July 2013 \|at[http://nl.wikisource.org/wiki/Nederlandse_grondwet/Hoofdstuk_2#Artikel_32 Chapter 2, Article 32] \|languagenl \|quote... de hoofdstad Amsterdam ...}}</ref> Previous versions of the constitution only mentioned "the city of Amsterdam" ("de stad Amsterdam").<ref>{{Cite web \|titlePrevious versions of the constitution \|urlhttp://nl.wikisource.org/wiki/Nederlandse_grondwet \|access-date10 October 2010 \|publisherNl.wikisource.org \|languagenl}}</ref> For a royal investiture, therefore, the States General of the Netherlands (the Dutch Parliament) meets for a ceremonial joint session in Amsterdam. The ceremony traditionally takes place at the Nieuwe Kerk on Dam Square, immediately after the former monarch has signed the act of abdication at the nearby Royal Palace of Amsterdam. Normally, however, the Parliament sits in The Hague, the city which has historically been the seat of the Dutch government, the Dutch monarchy, and the Dutch supreme court. Foreign embassies are also located in The Hague. Symbols {{Main\|Coat of arms of Amsterdam\|Flag of Amsterdam}} The coat of arms of Amsterdam is composed of several historical elements. First and centre are three St Andrew's crosses, aligned in a vertical band on the city's shield (although Amsterdam's patron saint was Saint Nicholas). These St Andrew's crosses can also be found on the city shields of neighbours Amstelveen and Ouder-Amstel. This part of the coat of arms is the basis of the flag of Amsterdam, flown by the city government, but also as civil ensign for ships registered in Amsterdam. Second is the Imperial Crown of Austria. In 1489, out of gratitude for services and loans, Maximilian I awarded Amsterdam the right to adorn its coat of arms with the king's crown. Then, in 1508, this was replaced with Maximilian's imperial crown when he was crowned Holy Roman Emperor. In the early years of the 17th century, Maximilian's crown in Amsterdam's coat of arms was again replaced, this time with the crown of Emperor Rudolph II, a crown that became the Imperial Crown of Austria. The lions date from the late 16th century, when the city and province became part of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands. Last came the city's official motto: Heldhaftig, Vastberaden, Barmhartig ("Heroic, Determined, Merciful"), bestowed on the city in 1947 by Queen Wilhelmina, in recognition of the city's bravery during the Second World War. Transport {{Main\|Transport in Amsterdam}} Metro, tram and bus {{main\|Amsterdam Metro\|Trams in Amsterdam}} is a mixed subway and above ground rapid transit system consisting of five lines.]] Currently, there are sixteen tram routes and five metro routes. All are operated by the municipal public transport operator Gemeentelijk Vervoerbedrijf (GVB), which also runs the city bus network. Four fare-free GVB ferries carry pedestrians and cyclists across the IJ lake to the borough of Amsterdam-Noord, and two fare-charging ferries run east and west along the harbour. There are also privately operated water taxis, a water bus, a boat-sharing operation, electric rental boats, and canal cruises, that transport people along Amsterdam's waterways. Regional buses, and some suburban buses, are operated by Connexxion and EBS. International coach services are provided by Eurolines from Amsterdam Amstel railway station, IDBUS from Amsterdam Sloterdijk railway station, and Megabus from the Zuiderzeeweg in the east of the city. To facilitate easier transport to the centre of Amsterdam, the city has various P+R Locations where people can park their car at an affordable price and transfer to one of the numerous public transport lines.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleParkeren + Reizen (P+R) Amsterdam – I amsterdam \|urlhttps://www.iamsterdam.com/nl/op-bezoek/parkeren/parkeren-en-verder-reizen \|websitewww.iamsterdam.com \|access-date22 October 2017 \|archive-date22 October 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171022193919/https://www.iamsterdam.com/nl/op-bezoek/parkeren/parkeren-en-verder-reizen \|url-statusdead}}</ref>CarAmsterdam was intended in 1932 to be the hub, a kind of Kilometre Zero, of the highway system of the Netherlands,<ref name"Autosnelweg 1930">{{Cite web \|titleAutosnelweg.nl – Geschiedenis Autosnelwegen in Nederland \|urlhttp://www.autosnelwegen.nl/asw/gs04.htm \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070310145952/http://www.autosnelwegen.nl/asw/gs04.htm \|archive-date10 March 2007 \|access-date19 April 2007 \|publisherAutosnelweg.nl \|languagenl}}</ref> with freeways numbered One to Eight planned to originate from the city.<ref name"Autosnelweg 1930" /> The outbreak of the Second World War and shifting priorities led to the current situation, where only roads A1, A2, and A4 originate from Amsterdam according to the original plan. The A3 to Rotterdam was cancelled in 1970 to conserve the Groene Hart. Road A8, leading north to Zaandam and the A10 Ringroad were opened between 1968 and 1974.<ref name"Autosnelweg 1970">{{Cite web \|titleAutosnelweg.nl – Geschiedenis Autosnelwegen in Nederland \|urlhttp://www.autosnelwegen.nl/asw/gs07.htm \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070316030152/http://www.autosnelwegen.nl/asw/gs07.htm \|archive-date16 March 2007 \|access-date19 April 2007 \|publisherAutosnelweg.nl \|languagenl}}</ref> Besides the A1, A2, A4 and A8, several freeways, such as the A7 and A6, carry traffic mainly bound for Amsterdam. The A10 ringroad surrounding the city connects Amsterdam with the Dutch national network of freeways. Interchanges on the A10 allow cars to enter the city by transferring to one of the 18 city roads, numbered S101 through to S118. These city roads are regional roads without grade separation, and sometimes without a central reservation. Most are accessible by cyclists. The S100 Centrumring is a smaller ring road circumnavigating the city's centre. In the city centre, driving a car is discouraged. Parking fees are expensive, and many streets are closed to cars or are one-way.<ref name"Fiets">{{Cite web \|titleAmsterdam Fietst \|urlhttp://www.fiets.amsterdam.nl/live/main.asp?namepagina&item_id807 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070806175414/http://www.fiets.amsterdam.nl/live/main.asp?namepagina&item_id807 \|archive-date6 August 2007 \|access-date19 April 2007 \|languagenl}}</ref> The local government sponsors carsharing and carpooling initiatives such as Autodelen and Meerijden.nu.<ref name"cars">{{Cite web \|titleAmsterdam.nl – Auto \|urlhttp://www.amsterdam.nl/verkeer_vervoer/auto \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070405100219/http://www.amsterdam.nl/verkeer_vervoer/auto \|archive-date5 April 2007 \|access-date19 April 2007 \|languagenl}}</ref> The local government has also started removing parking spaces in the city in 2019, with the goal of removing 10,000 spaces (roughly 1,500 per year) by 2025.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastKoops \|firstRuben \|date28 March 2019 \|titleRuim 10.000 parkeerplaatsen verdwijnen voor 2025 \|urlhttps://www.parool.nl/gs-b8496335 \|access-date10 April 2020 \|websiteHet Parool \|languagenl-NL}}</ref> National rail , the city's main train station]] Amsterdam is served by ten stations of the Nederlandse Spoorwegen (Dutch Railways).<ref name"Stationsweb">{{Cite web \|titleStationsweb-Noord Holland \|urlhttp://stationsweb.brinkster.net/stationlijst.asp?provnoord-holland \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070429173930/http://stationsweb.brinkster.net/stationlijst.asp?provnoord-holland \|archive-date29 April 2007 \|access-date19 April 2007 \|languagenl}}</ref> Five are intercity stops: Sloterdijk, Zuid, Amstel, Bijlmer ArenA and Amsterdam Centraal. The stations for local services are: Lelylaan, RAI, Holendrecht, Muiderpoort and Science Park. Amsterdam Centraal is also an international railway station. From the station, there are regular services to destinations such as Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Russia, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. Among these trains are international trains of the Nederlandse Spoorwegen and Deutsche Bahn to Berlin, Eurostar services to Antwerp, Brussels, Paris and London and ICE services to Cologne and Frankfurt.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleTrain to Amsterdam – London to Amsterdam – Eurostar \|urlhttps://www.eurostar.com/uk-en/train/netherlands/amsterdam \|websitewww.eurostar.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleDiscover our train destinations \|urlhttps://www.nsinternational.nl/en/train-destinations-nsinternational \|access-date16 March 2019 \|publisherNederlandse Spoorwegen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastUK \|firstDVV Media \|titleEurostar undertakes detailed planning for London – Amsterdam service \|urlhttp://www.railwaygazette.com/news/high-speed/single-view/view/eurostar-plans-details-of-london-amsterdam-service.html \|access-date13 January 2017 \|archive-date25 December 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161225080332/http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/high-speed/single-view/view/eurostar-plans-details-of-london-amsterdam-service.html \|url-statusdead }}</ref>Airport ranks as Europe's third-busiest airport for passenger traffic.]] Amsterdam Airport Schiphol is less than 20 minutes by train from Amsterdam Centraal station and is served by domestic and international intercity trains, such as Eurostar and EuroCity. Schiphol is the largest airport in the Netherlands, the third-largest in Europe, and the 14th-largest in the world in terms of passengers. It handles over 68&nbsp;million passengers per year and is the home base of four airlines, KLM, Transavia, Martinair and Arkefly.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMaslen \|firstRichard \|date21 July 2014 \|titleeasyJet to open Amsterdam Base in Spring 2015 \|urlhttp://www.routesonline.com/news/29/breaking-news/242728/easyjet-to-open-amsterdam-base-in-spring-2015/ \|publisherUBM (UK) Ltd \|access-date26 February 2016 \|archive-date11 October 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161011120121/http://www.routesonline.com/news/29/breaking-news/242728/easyjet-to-open-amsterdam-base-in-spring-2015/ \|url-statusdead }}</ref> {{as of\|2014}}, Schiphol was the fifth busiest airport in the world measured by international passenger numbers.<ref name"passengerrank">{{Cite web \|titleInternational passenger Rankings \|urlhttp://www.aci.aero/Data-Centre/Monthly-Traffic-Data/International-Passenger-Rankings/12-months \|access-date3 June 2014 \|publisherACI Airports Council International \|archive-date28 May 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160528094849/http://www.aci.aero/Data-Centre/Monthly-Traffic-Data/International-Passenger-Rankings/12-months \|url-statusdead}}</ref> This airport is 4 meters below sea level.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastawesomeamsterdam \|date16 October 2015 \|title10 fun facts about Amsterdam \|urlhttps://awesomeamsterdam.com/10-fun-facts-about-amsterdam/ \|access-date16 January 2019 \|websiteAwesome Amsterdam}}</ref> Although Schiphol is internationally known as Amsterdam Schiphol Airport it lies in the neighbouring municipality of Haarlemmermeer, southwest of the city. Cycling {{main\|Cycling in Amsterdam}} Amsterdam is one of the most bicycle-friendly large cities in the world and is a centre of bicycle culture with good facilities for cyclists such as bike paths and bike racks, and several guarded bike storage garages (fietsenstalling) which can be used. According to the most recent figures published by the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), in 2015 the 442,693 households (850,000 residents) in Amsterdam together owned 847,000 bicycles – 1.91 bicycles per household.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmsterdam, City of Bikes \|date8 November 2017 \|urlhttp://www.dutchamsterdam.nl/68-amsterdam-city-of-bikes \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190829080011/http://www.dutchamsterdam.nl/68-amsterdam-city-of-bikes \|archive-date29 August 2019 \|access-date11 November 2019 \|publisherDutchAmsterdam.nl}}</ref> Theft is widespread{{mdash}}in 2011, about 83,000 bicycles were stolen in Amsterdam.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastResearch and Statistics Division \|titleCore Numbers in Graphics: Fewer Bicycle Thefts \|urlhttp://stadstat.osamsterdam.nl/programakkoord.pl?onderwerpov&cache_version6 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080822155119/http://stadstat.osamsterdam.nl/programakkoord.pl?onderwerpov&cache_version6 \|archive-date22 August 2008 \|access-date4 October 2008 \|websiteSafety and Nuissance \|publisherCity of Amsterdam \|languagenl}}</ref> Bicycles are used by all socio-economic groups because of their convenience, Amsterdam's small size, the {{cvt\|400\|km\|0\|abbroff}} of bike paths,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleCycling in Amsterdam \|urlhttp://www.amsterdamtips.com/tips/cycling-in-amsterdam.php \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100917063831/http://amsterdamtips.com/tips/cycling-in-amsterdam.php \|archive-date17 September 2010 \|access-date11 August 2010 \|publisheramsterdamtips.com}}</ref> the flat terrain, and the inconvenience of driving an automobile.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastTagliabue \|firstJohn \|date20 June 2013 \|titleThe Dutch Prize Their Pedal Power, but a Sea of Bikes Swamps Their Capital \|workThe New York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/21/world/europe/a-sea-of-bikes-swamps-amsterdam-a-city-fond-of-pedaling.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/21/world/europe/a-sea-of-bikes-swamps-amsterdam-a-city-fond-of-pedaling.html \|archive-date1 January 2022 \|url-accesslimited}}{{cbignore}}</ref>Education , founded in 1632 as the Athenaeum Illustre]] Amsterdam has two universities: the University of Amsterdam (Universiteit van Amsterdam, UvA), and the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (VU). Other institutions for higher education include an art school – Gerrit Rietveld Academie, a university of applied sciences – the Hogeschool van Amsterdam, and the Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor de Kunsten. Amsterdam's International Institute of Social History is one of the world's largest documentary and research institutions concerning social history, and especially the history of the labour movement. Amsterdam's Hortus Botanicus, founded in the early 17th century, is one of the oldest botanical gardens in the world,<ref name"Hortus">{{Cite web \|titleHortus Botanicus official website \|urlhttp://www.dehortus.nl/Index.asp \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090831051745/http://www.dehortus.nl/Index.asp \|archive-date31 August 2009 \|access-date10 June 2009 \|publisher2009 de Hortus}}</ref> with many old and rare specimens, among them the coffee plant that served as the parent for the entire coffee culture in Central and South America.<ref name"he">{{Cite web \|titleHigher Education in Amsterdam \|urlhttp://www.amsterdam.info/universities/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080704195020/http://www.amsterdam.info/universities/ \|archive-date4 July 2008 \|access-date4 June 2008 \|publisherAmsterdam.info}}</ref> There are over 200 primary schools in Amsterdam.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.amsterdam.nl/onderwijs-jeugd/basisonderwijs/stedelijk/ \|titleStedelijk Toelatingsbeleid \|languageDutch \|publisherMunicipality of Amsterdam \|date2015 \|access-date20 July 2015}}</ref> Some of these primary schools base their teachings on particular pedagogic theories like the various Montessori schools. The biggest Montessori high school in Amsterdam is the Montessori Lyceum Amsterdam. Many schools, however, are based on religion. This used to be primarily Roman Catholicism and various Protestant denominations, but with the influx of Muslim immigrants, there has been a rise in the number of Islamic schools. Jewish schools can be found in the southern suburbs of Amsterdam. ]] Amsterdam is noted for having five independent grammar schools (Dutch: gymnasia), the Vossius Gymnasium, Barlaeus Gymnasium, St. Ignatius Gymnasium, Het 4e Gymnasium and the Cygnus Gymnasium where a classical curriculum including Latin and classical Greek is taught. Though believed until recently by many to be an anachronistic and elitist concept that would soon die out, the gymnasia have recently experienced a revival, leading to the formation of a fourth and fifth grammar school in which the three aforementioned schools participate. Most secondary schools in Amsterdam offer a variety of different levels of education in the same school. The city also has various colleges ranging from art and design to politics and economics which are mostly also available for students coming from other countries. Schools for foreign nationals in Amsterdam include the Amsterdam International Community School, British School of Amsterdam, Albert Einstein International School Amsterdam, Lycée Vincent van Gogh La Haye-Amsterdam primary campus (French school), International School of Amsterdam, and the Japanese School of Amsterdam. Notable people {{main\|List of people from Amsterdam}} Media Amsterdam is a prominent centre for national and international media. Some locally based newspapers include Het Parool, a national daily paper; De Telegraaf, the largest Dutch daily newspaper; the daily newspapers Trouw, de Volkskrant and NRC; De Groene Amsterdammer, a weekly newspaper; the free newspapers Metro and The Holland Times (printed in English). Amsterdam is home to the second-largest Dutch commercial TV group SBS Broadcasting Group, consisting of TV stations SBS 6, Net 5, and Veronica. However, Amsterdam is not considered 'the media city of the Netherlands'. The town of Hilversum, {{cvt\|30\|km\|abbr=off}} south-east of Amsterdam, has been crowned with this unofficial title. Hilversum is the principal centre for radio and television broadcasting in the Netherlands. Radio Netherlands, heard worldwide via shortwave radio since the 1920s, is also based there. Hilversum is home to an extensive complex of audio and television studios belonging to the national broadcast production company NOS, as well as to the studios and offices of all the Dutch public broadcasting organisations and many commercial TV production companies. In 2012, the music video for "Live My Life" by Far East Movement was filmed in various parts of Amsterdam. Several movies have been filmed in Amsterdam, including the James Bond film Diamonds Are Forever, ''Ocean's Twelve, Girl with a Pearl Earring, Kidnapping Mr. Heineken, Layer Cake and The Hitman's Bodyguard''. Amsterdam is also featured in John Green's book The Fault in Our Stars, which was made into a film that also partly takes place in Amsterdam.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastBirtles \|firstKatie \|date2021-01-22 \|titleAmsterdam on the silver screen - 11 movies filmed in the Dutch capital \|urlhttps://www.trafalgar.com/real-word/movies-filmed-in-amsterdam/ \|access-date2024-11-29 \|websiteReal Word \|languageen-GB}}</ref> Housing From the late 1960s onwards many buildings in Amsterdam have been squatted both for housing and for use as social centres.<ref name"Owens">{{Cite book \|lastOwens \|firstLynn \|titleCracking the Movement: Narrating the Decline of the Amsterdam Squatters' Movement \|date2009 \|publisherPennsylvania State University \|isbn9780271034638 \|locationPennsylvania}}</ref> A number of these squats have legalised and become well known, such as OCCII, OT301, Paradiso and Vrankrijk. Sister cities : {{flagdeco\|GRB}} Manchester, Greater Manchester, United Kingdom, 2007 : {{flagdeco\|MEX}} Zapopan, Jalisco, Mexico, 2011<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.zapopan.gob.mx/soy-turista/relaciones-internacionales/ \|titleRelaciones Internacionales \|languageSpanish \|websitezapopan.gob.mx \|access-date29 January 2021 \|archive-date3 October 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191003061614/http://www.zapopan.gob.mx/soy-turista/relaciones-internacionales/ \|url-statusdead}}</ref> See also {{Portal\|Netherlands\|Cities\|Europe}} List of populated places in the Netherlands List of cities, towns and villages in North Holland List of cities in the Netherlands by province List of national capitals List of national capitals by latitude List of capital cities by elevation List of national capitals by population van Dam Notes {{Notelist}} References {{Reflist}} Sources {{Cite book \|last1Berns \|first1Jan \|titleHij zeit wat: de Amsterdamse volkstaal \|last2Daan \|first2Jo \|publisherBZZTôH \|year1993 \|isbn978-9062917563 \|location=The Hague}} {{Citation \|last1Frijhoff \|first1Willem \|titleGeschiedenis van Amsterdam. Zelfbewuste stadsstaat 1650–1813 \|year2005 \|placeAmsterdam \|publisherSUN \|isbn978-9058751386 \|last2Prak \|first2=Maarten}} {{Citation \|lastMak \|firstGeert \|titleEen kleine geschiedenis van Amsterdam \|year1994 \|placeAmsterdam & Antwerp \|publisherAtlas \|isbn=978-9045019536}} Charles Caspers & Peter Jan Margry (2017), Het Mirakel van Amsterdam. Biografie van een betwiste devotie (Amsterdam, Prometheus). {{Citation \|lastNusteling \|firstHubert \|titleWelvaart en werkgelegenheid in Amsterdam 1540–1860. Een relaas over demografie, economie en sociale politiek van een wereldstad \|year1985 \|placeAmsterdam \|publisherDe Bataafsche Leeuw \|isbn=978-9067070829}} {{Citation \|lastRamaer \|firstJ.C. \|titleMiddelpunten der bewoning in Nederland, voorheen en thans \|workTAG 2e Serie \|volume38 \|year1921}} {{Citation \|lastVan Dillen \|firstJ.G. \|titleBronnen tot de geschiedenis van het bedrijfsleven en het gildewezen van Amsterdam \|year1929 \|place=The Hague}} {{Citation \|last1Van Leeuwen \|first1M. \|titleReconstructing the Demographic Regime of Amsterdam 1681–1920 \|workEconomic and Social History in the Netherlands \|volume5 \|pages61–102 \|year1993 \|last2Oeppen \|first2J.E. \|hdl10622/09251669-1993-001}} Further reading {{See also\|Bibliography of Amsterdam}} de Waard, M., ed. Imagining Global Amsterdam: History, Culture, and Geography in a World City. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press 2013.{{ISBN\|9789089643674}} Feddes, Fred. A Millennium of Amsterdam: Spatial History of a Marvelous City. Bussum: Thoth 2012. {{ISBN\|978-9068685954}} Jonker, Joost. Merchants, Bankers, Middlemen: The Amsterdam Money Market during the First Half of the Nineteenth Century. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press 1996 {{ISBN\|9789057420016}} Shorto, Russell. ''Amsterdam: A History of the World's Most Liberal City''. New York: Vintage Books 2014. {{ISBN\|9780307743756}} External links {{Sister project links \|wiktAmsterdam \|commonsAmsterdam \|ncategory:Amsterdam \|voyAmsterdam \|Amsterdam\|bno\|qno\|species=no}} [https://www.amsterdam.nl/ Amsterdam.nl] – Official government site {{in lang\|nl}} [https://www.iamsterdam.com/ I amsterdam] – Portal for international visitors [https://www.holland.com/global/Tourism/Cities-in-Holland/Amsterdam.htm Tourist information about Amsterdam] ({{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160211215332/http://www.holland.com/global/tourism/cities-in-holland/amsterdam.htm \|date11 February 2016 }}) – website of the Netherlands {{S-start\|noclear=y}} {{S-bef\|before=Herning, Denmark (1987)}} {{S-ttl\|titleWorld Gymnaestrada host city\|years1991}} {{S-aft\|after=Berlin, Germany (1995)}} {{S-bef\|before=Dornbirn, Austria (2019)}} {{S-ttl\|titleWorld Gymnaestrada host city\|years2023}} {{S-aft\|after=TBA}} {{S-end}} {{Amsterdam}} {{Neighborhoods of Amsterdam}} <!-- Please note that not all directions need to be filled. Please also note that preferably only neighbouring municipalities or bodies of water should be used. -->{{Geographic location \|Centre = Amsterdam \|North = Oostzaan, Landsmeer \|Northeast = Waterland \|East = Diemen \|Southeast = Gooise Meren<br/>Hilversum<br/>Wijdemeren \|South = Amstelveen, Ouder-Amstel, De Ronde Venen&nbsp;(UT), Stichtse Vecht&nbsp;(UT) \|West = Haarlemmermeer \|Northwest = Zaanstad }} {{North Holland Province}} {{Dutch capital cities}} {{List of European capitals by region}} {{Navboxes \|title=Other topics \|list= {{European Capital of Culture}} {{Olympic Summer Games Host Cities}} {{1928 Summer Olympic venues}} {{Olympic venues cycling}} {{World Book Capital}} }} {{Authority control}} <!--leave the empty space as standard--> Category:Capitals in Europe Category:Cities in the Netherlands Category:Municipalities of North Holland Category:Olympic cycling venues Category:Populated places established in the 13th century Category:Populated places in North Holland Category:Port cities and towns in the Netherlands Category:Port cities and towns of the North Sea Category:Venues of the 1928 Summer Olympics Category:Populated lakeshore places in the Netherlands	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam	2025-04-05T18:25:23.903974
846	Museum of Work	thumb\|200px\|Styrkjärn in central Norrköping The Museum of Work (Arbetets museum) is a museum located in Norrköping, Sweden. The museum is located in the Strykjärn (Clothes iron), a former weaving mill in the old industrial area on the Motala ström river in the city centre of Norrköping. The former textile factory Holmens Bruk (sv) operated in the building from 1917 to 1962. The museum documents work and everyday life by collecting personal stories about people's professional lives from both the past and the present. The museum's archive contain material from memory collections and documentation projects. Since 2009, the museum also houses the EWK – Center for Political Illustration Art, which is based on work of the satirist Ewert Karlsson (1918–2004). For decades he was frequently published in the Swedish tabloid, Aftonbladet. Overview The museum is a national central museum with the task of preserving and telling about work and everyday life. It has, among other things, exhibitions on the terms and conditions of the work and the history of the industrial society. The museum is also known to highlight gender perspective in their exhibitions. The work museum documents work and everyday life by collecting personal stories, including people's professional life from both the past and present. In the museum's archive, there is a rich material of memory collections and documentation projects – over 2600 interviews, stories and photodocumentations have been collected since the museum opened. The museum is also a support for the country's approximately 1,500 working life museums that are old workplaces preserved to convey their history. Exhibitions The Museum of Work shows exhibitions going on over several years, but also shorter exhibitions – including several photo exhibitions on themes that can be linked to work and everyday life. The history of Alva The history of Alva Karlsson is the only exhibition in the museum that is permanent. The exhibition connects to the museum's building and its history as part of the textile industry in Norrköping. Alva worked as a rollers between the years 1927 – 1962. Industriland One of the museum long-term exhibitions is Industriland – when Sweden became modern, the exhibition was in 2007–2013 and consisted of an ongoing bond with various objects that were somehow significant both for working life and everyday during the period 1930–1980. The exhibition also consisted of presentations of the working life museums in Sweden and a number of rooms with themes such as: leisure, world, living and consumption. EWK – The Center for Political Illustration Art Since 2009, the Museum also houses EWK – center for political illustration art. The museum preserves, develops and conveys the political illustrator Ewert Karlsson's production. The museum also holds theme exhibitions with national and international political illustrators with the aim of highlighting and strengthening the political art. See also List of museums in Sweden Culture of Sweden References External links Arbetetsmuseum Official site Category:Museums in Östergötland County Category:Buildings and structures in Norrköping Category:Industry museums in Sweden Category:Cultural heritage of Sweden	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Work	2025-04-05T18:25:23.933795
848	Audi	{{Short description\|German automotive manufacturer}} {{Hatnote group\| {{Distinguish\|Aldi\|Aude}} {{Other uses}} }} {{pp-vandalism\|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=June 2023}} {{Infobox company \| name = Audi AG \| logo \| logo_size \| image = Das_Audi_Forum_Ingolstadt.JPG \| image_size \| image_caption Audi Forum (Ingolstadt, Bavaria, Germany): museum and headquarters of the carmaker \| type = Subsidiary \| predecessors = {{plainlist\| * Auto Union/DKW GmbH * Slaby-Beringer * Wanderer * NSU Motorenwerke AG}} \| founder August Horch<ref name"Audi history">{{cite web\|titleHistory of Audi AG\|urlhttp://www.audi.com/com/brand/en/company/audi_history/personalities/august_horch.html\|access-date24 June 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130114004911/http://www.audi.com/com/brand/en/company/audi_history/personalities/august_horch.html\|archive-date=14 January 2013 }}</ref> \| area_served = Worldwide \| key_people = Gernot Döllner<br />(chairman of the Board of Management & Board of Management Member for Technical Development and Product Lines \| industry = Automotive \| products = Luxury vehicles \| production {{decrease}} 1,692,548&nbsp;units<ref name"AR2024"/> \| revenue {{decrease}} €64.532&nbsp;billion (2024)<ref name"AR2024">{{Cite web\|urlhttps://media.audi.com/is/content/audi/microsites/audi-com/assets/downloads/report/annual-reports/2024/en/audi-report-2024.pdf\|titleAudi Report 2024\|publisherAudi AG\|access-date29 March 2025}}</ref> \| operating_income {{decrease}} €3.903&nbsp;billion (2024)<ref name"AR2024"/> \| net_income {{decrease}} €4.189&nbsp;billion (2024)<ref name"AR2024"/> \| assets {{decrease}} €73.097 billion (2024)<ref name"AR2024"/> \| equity {{increase}} €35.882 billion (2024)<ref name"AR2024"/> \| num_employees 88,604 (12/2024)<ref name"AR2024"/> \| parent = Volkswagen Group \| divisions = {{bulleted list \| Audi Germany \| Audi Brussels \| Audi Mexico \| Audi Hungaria \| Audi China \| Audi do Brasil \| Audi India \| Audi Slovakia \| Audi Spain}} \| subsid = {{bulleted list \| Audi Sport GmbH \| Ducati \| Italdesign Giugiaro \| Lamborghini \| Bentley \| Sauber Motorsport (70%)}} \| footnotes Audi History: Chronicle,<ref namefounded>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.audiusa.com/us/brand/en/about/main/history/Chronicle/Chronicle_1899-1914.html \|titleChronicle 1899–1914 \|workaudiusa.com \|publisherAudi of America, LLC \|date2012 \|access-date9 August 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120710113717/http://www.audiusa.com/us/brand/en/about/main/history/Chronicle/Chronicle_1899-1914.html \|archive-date10 July 2012 \|ref{{SfnRef\|AUDI AG\|2012a}} }}</ref> 2011 Annual Financial Report<ref nameaafr2011>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.audi.com/etc/medialib/ngw/company/investor_relations/pdf/finanzberichte/geschaeftsberichte5.Par.0015.File.pdf/jahresfinanzbericht.pdf \|titleAudi 2011 Annual Financial Report \|publisherAUDI AG \|date17 February 2012 \|access-date9 August 2012 \|ref{{SfnRef\|AUDI AG\|2012}} \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150923191233/http://www.audi.com/etc/medialib/ngw/company/investor_relations/pdf/finanzberichte/geschaeftsberichte5.Par.0015.File.pdf/jahresfinanzbericht.pdf \|archive-date23 September 2015 }}</ref> \| caption \| foundation {{plainlist\| * 16 July 1909 in <br>Zwickau (Audi) * 29 June 1932 in Chemnitz (Auto Union) * 3 September 1949 in Ingolstadt (re-establishment) * 10 March 1969 in Neckarsulm (Fusion)<ref name"The history of AUDI AG">{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.audi.com/en/company/profile/history.html\|titleHistory\|websiteaudi.com}}</ref> }} \| location_city = Ingolstadt \| location_country = Germany \| locations 13 production facilities in 10 countries<ref name"Total Number of Production Plant">{{cite web\|lastAUDI\|firstproduction plant\|titleCompany Sites\|urlhttps://www.audi-mediacenter.com/en/sites-194}}</ref> \| website = {{URL\|https://www.audi.com/en.html\|audi.com}} }} Audi AG ({{IPA\|de\|ˈaʊ̯di ʔaːˈɡeː\|lang\|Audi AG.ogg}}) is a German automotive manufacturer of luxury vehicles headquartered in Ingolstadt, Bavaria, Germany. A subsidiary of the Volkswagen Group, Audi produces vehicles in nine production facilities worldwide. The origins of the company are complex, dating back to the early 20th century and the initial enterprises (Horch and the Audiwerke) founded by engineer August Horch. Two other manufacturers (DKW and Wanderer) also contributed to the foundation of Auto Union in 1932. The modern Audi era began in the 1960s, when Auto Union was acquired by Volkswagen from Daimler-Benz.<ref name"vw-holdings-2009">{{cite web\|titleList of Shareholdings in accordance with sections 285 and 313 of the HGB of Volkswagen AG and the Volkswagen Group as of 31 December 2009\|urlhttp://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2010/03/Anteilsbesitz.-bin.acq/qual-BinaryStorageItem.Single.File/Anteilsbesitz_2009_e.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2010/03/Anteilsbesitz.-bin.acq/qual-BinaryStorageItem.Single.File/Anteilsbesitz_2009_e.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|url-statuslive\|websiteVolkswagenag.com \|publisherVolkswagen AG \|access-date11 December 2010\|date31 December 2009}}</ref> After relaunching the Audi brand with the 1965 introduction of the Audi F103 series, Volkswagen merged Auto Union with NSU Motorenwerke in 1969, thus creating the present-day form of the company. The company name is based on the Latin translation of the surname of the founder, August Horch. {{lang\|de\|Horch}}, meaning 'listen', becomes {{lang\|la\|audi}} in Latin. The four rings of the Audi logo each represent one of four car companies that banded together to create Audi's predecessor company, Auto Union. Audi's slogan is {{lang\|de\|Vorsprung durch Technik}}, which is translated as 'Progress through Technology'.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.audi.ca/ca/web/en/inside-audi/innovation-and-technology/vorsprung-durch-technik-turns-50.html\|titleVorsprung durch Technik: A philosophy of innovation turns 50\|websiteaudi.ca \|date24 March 2022\|access-date24 June 2023}}</ref> Audi, along with German brands BMW and Mercedes-Benz, is among the best-selling luxury automobile brands in the world.<ref>{{cite web\| urlhttps://www.carkeys.co.uk/news/mercedes-to-take-top-spot-as-best-selling-luxury-car-brand \|title=Mercedes to take top spot as best-selling luxury car brand \|websiteCar Keys \|date15 April 2016 \|access-date=22 December 2016}}</ref> {{TOC limit\|3}} History Birth of the company and its name Automobile company Wanderer was originally established in 1885, later becoming a branch of Audi AG. Another company, NSU, which also later merged into Audi, was founded during this time, and later supplied the chassis for Gottlieb Daimler's four-wheeler.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://gearheads.org/the-history-of-audi-auto-group/\|titleThe History of Audi Auto Group\|lastNazario\|firstUriah\|websiteGearHeads\|access-date20 March 2015\|date18 May 2012\|archive-date19 March 2015\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319071651/http://gearheads.org/the-history-of-audi-auto-group/ }}</ref> On 14 November 1899, August Horch (1868–1951) established the company A. Horch & Cie. in the Ehrenfeld district of Cologne. In 1902, he moved with his company to Reichenbach im Vogtland. On 10 May 1904, he founded the August Horch & Cie. Motorwagenwerke AG, a joint-stock company in Zwickau (State of Saxony). After troubles with Horch chief financial officer, August Horch left Motorwagenwerke and founded in Zwickau on 16 July 1909, his second company, the August Horch Automobilwerke GmbH. His former partners sued him for trademark infringement. The German Reichsgericht (Supreme Court) in Leipzig,<ref>Audi AG motion picture 1994: "The Silver Arrows from Zwickau", running time approx. 49 mins.</ref> eventually determined that the Horch brand belonged to his former company.<ref name"chronicle2">[http://www.audiusa.com/us/brand/en/about/main/history.html Audi History] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100209000116/http://www.audiusa.com/us/brand/en/about/main/history.html \|date=9 February 2010 }} audiusa.com</ref> ]] Since August Horch was prohibited from using horch as a trade name in his new car business, he called a meeting with close business friends, Paul and Franz Fikentscher from Zwickau. At the apartment of Franz Fikentscher, they discussed how to come up with a new name for the company. During this meeting, Franz's son was quietly studying Latin in a corner of the room. Several times he looked like he was on the verge of saying something but would just swallow his words and continue working, until he finally blurted out, "Father&nbsp;– audiatur et altera pars...&nbsp;wouldn't it be a good idea to call it audi instead of horch?".<ref>August Horch: "Ich baute Autos – Vom Schmiedelehrling zum Autoindustriellen", Schützen-Verlag Berlin 1937</ref> Horch in German means 'hark' or 'hear', which is audi in the singular imperative form of audire—'to listen'—in Latin. The idea was enthusiastically accepted by everyone attending the meeting.<ref>{{cite book \| title = A History of Progress&nbsp;– Chronicle of the Audi AG \| publisher=Audi AG, Public Relations \| year = 1996 \| page = 30 \| url http://www.bentleypublishers.com/product.htm?codegahp \| isbn = 978-0-8376-0384-1}}</ref> On 25 April 1910 the Audi Automobilwerke GmbH Zwickau (from 1915 on Audiwerke AG Zwickau) was entered in the company's register of Zwickau registration court. The first Audi automobile, the Audi Type A 10/{{convert\|22\|hp\|kW\|0\|abbron}} Sport-Phaeton, was produced in the same year,<ref name"chronicle1">{{cite web\|titleBrand family tree\|urlhttp://www.audiusa.com/us/brand/en/about/main/history/brand_family_tree/brand_family_tree.html\|publisherAudi USA \|access-date15 August 2010\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100825165725/http://www.audiusa.com/us/brand/en/about/main/history/brand_family_tree/brand_family_tree.html\|archive-date25 August 2010 }}</ref> followed by the successor Type B 10/28PS in the same year.<ref>{{cite book\|last1Baldwin\|first1Nick\|titleThe World guide to automobile manufacturers\|year1987\|publisherFacts on File Publications\|isbn978-0-8160-1844-4\|first2Brian\|last2Laban\|page=43}}</ref> Audi started with a 2,612&nbsp;cc straight-four engine model Type A, followed by a 3,564&nbsp;cc model, as well as 4,680&nbsp;cc and 5,720&nbsp;cc models. These cars were successful even in sporting events. The first six-cylinder model Type M, 4,655&nbsp;cc appeared in 1924.<ref name"History of Audi">{{cite book\|lastHistory\|firstAudi\|titleThe Audi Story\|year2010\|publisherAudi AG \|urlhttp://www.audi-journals.de/eJournals/mz3/default/index_4ringe_en.html#/14\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100706203938/http://www.audi-journals.de/eJournals/mz3/default/index_4ringe_en.html#/14 \|archive-date=6 July 2010}}</ref> August Horch left the Audiwerke in 1920 for a high position at the ministry of transport, but he was still involved with Audi as a member of the board of trustees. In September 1921, Audi became the first German car manufacturer to present a production car, the Audi Type K, with left-handed drive.<ref name"chronicle3">[https://web.archive.org/web/20090204194240/http://www.audi.com/audi/com/en2/about_audi_ag/history/chronicle/chronicle_1915_1929.html Audi chronicle 1915–1929]. audi.com</ref> Left-hand drive spread and established dominance during the 1920s because it provided a better view of oncoming traffic, making overtaking safer<ref name"chronicle3"/> when driving on the right. The merger of the four companies under the logo of four rings {{Main\|Auto Union}} In August 1928, Jørgen Rasmussen, the owner of Dampf-Kraft-Wagen (DKW), acquired the majority of shares in Audiwerke AG.<ref name="chronicle4">[https://web.archive.org/web/20090204030104/http://www.audi.com/audi/com/en2/about_audi_ag/history/chronicle/chronicle_1930_1944.html Audi chronicle 1930–1944]. Audi.com</ref> In the same year, Rasmussen bought the remains of the U.S. automobile manufacturer Rickenbacker, including the manufacturing equipment for 8-cylinder engines. These engines were used in Audi Zwickau and Audi Dresden models that were launched in 1929. At the same time, 6-cylinder and 4-cylinder (the "four" with a Peugeot engine) models were manufactured. Audi cars of that era were luxurious cars equipped with special bodywork. In 1932, Audi merged with Horch, DKW, and Wanderer, to form Auto Union AG, Chemnitz. It was during this period that the company offered the Audi Front that became the first European car to combine a six-cylinder engine with front-wheel drive. It used a power train shared with the Wanderer, but turned 180 degrees, so that the drive shaft faced the front. Before World War II, Auto Union used the four interlinked rings that make up the Audi badge today, representing these four brands. However, this badge was used only on Auto Union racing cars in that period while the member companies used their own names and emblems. The technological development became more and more concentrated and some Audi models were propelled by Horch- or Wanderer-built engines. Reflecting the economic pressures of the time, Auto Union concentrated increasingly on smaller cars through the 1930s, so that by 1938 the company's DKW brand accounted for 17.9% of the German car market, while Audi held only 0.1%. After the final few Audis were delivered in 1939 the "Audi" name disappeared completely from the new car market for more than two decades. World War II Richard Bruhn, a Nazi party member, was Auto Union's chairman of the board from 1932 to 1945 and then again after the war when the company was reestablished. In 2014 Audi became the last major German car company, after Volkswagen, BMW and Daimler, to commission a study of their wartime activities.<ref name"dw.com">Audi's Nazi past, May 26, 2014, DW, https://www.dw.com/en/audi-comes-clean-about-its-nazi-past/a-17664050</ref> The investigation found that the company worked with the SS to build seven labor camps where more than 3,700 prisoners were put to work for Auto Union.<ref>May 26, 2014, Audi Used Forced Labour under Nazis in Germany, The Local.de, https://www.thelocal.de/20140526/audi-used-forced-labour-under-nazis-in-germany</ref> In addition, 16,500 more people were forced to work at the company's factories in Zwickau and Chemnitz, and another 18,000 at an underground plant in Bavaria where 4,500 people died.<ref name"dw.com"/> Some of the company's factories were bombed by the Allies.{{citation needed\|dateMay 2024}}Post-World War II ]] With no prospect of continuing production in Soviet-controlled East Germany, Auto Union executives began the process of relocating what was left of the company to West Germany.{{citation needed\|dateMay 2024}} A site was chosen in Ingolstadt, Bavaria, to start a spare parts operation in late 1945, which would eventually serve as the headquarters of the reformed Auto Union in 1949.{{citation needed\|dateMay 2024}} On 17 August 1948, Auto Union AG of Chemnitz was deleted from the commercial register.<ref name"chronicle4"/> These actions had the effect of liquidating Germany's Auto Union AG. The remains of the Audi plant of Zwickau became the VEB (for "People Owned Enterprise") {{Interlanguage link\|Automobilwerk Zwickau\|de\|Automobilwerk Zwickau\|vertical-alignsup}} or AWZ (in English: Automobile Works Zwickau). The former Audi factory in Zwickau restarted assembly of the pre-war models in 1949. These DKW models were renamed to IFA F8 and IFA F9 and were similar to the West German versions. West and East German models were equipped with the traditional and renowned DKW two-stroke engines. The Zwickau plant later manufactured the infamous Trabant until 1991, after it was acquired by the Volkswagen Group following the reunification of Germany, and has since been substantially rebuilt. In 2021, production of the Audi Q4 e-tron began at the plant, marking the return of Audis being manufactured at Zwickau after over 80 years. New Auto Union unit A new West German headquartered Auto Union was launched in Ingolstadt with loans from the Bavarian state government and Marshall Plan aid.<ref name"chronicle6">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.audi.com/audi/com/en2/about_audi_ag/history/chronicle/chronicle_1945_1959.html\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090204031240/http://www.audi.com/audi/com/en2/about_audi_ag/history/chronicle/chronicle_1945_1959.html\|archive-date4 February 2009 \|titleAudi Worldwide: Home \|publisherAudi \|date15 April 2009 \|access-date27 April 2009}}</ref> The reformed company was launched 3 September 1949 and continued DKW's tradition of producing front-wheel drive vehicles with two-stroke engines.<ref name="chronicle6"/> This included production of a small but sturdy 125&nbsp;cc motorcycle and a DKW delivery van, the DKW F89 L at Ingolstadt. The Ingolstadt site was large, consisting of an extensive complex of formerly military buildings which was suitable for administration as well as vehicle warehousing and distribution, but at this stage there was at Ingolstadt no dedicated plant suitable for mass production of automobiles: for manufacturing the company's first post-war mass-market passenger car plant capacity in Düsseldorf was rented from Rheinmetall-Borsig. It was only ten years later, after the company had attracted an investor, when funds became available for construction of major car plant at the Ingolstadt head office site. In 1958, in response to pressure from Friedrich Flick, then the company's largest single shareholder,<ref>Oswald, p 263</ref> Daimler-Benz took an 87% holding in the Auto Union company, and this was increased to a 100% holding in 1959. However, small two-stroke cars were not the focus of Daimler-Benz's interests, and while the early 1960s saw major investment in new Mercedes models and in a state of the art factory for Auto Union's, the company's aging model range at this time did not benefit from the economic boom of the early 1960s to the same extent as competitor manufacturers such as Volkswagen and Opel. The decision to dispose of the Auto Union business was based on its lack of profitability.<ref nameMotor197107>{{cite journal\| editor-firstCharles \| editor-lastBulmer \| title The Audi-NSU Affair\| journalMotor\| page21\|date = 24 July 1971}}</ref> Ironically, by the time they sold the business, it also included a large new factory and near production-ready modern four-stroke engine, which would enable the Auto Union business, under a new owner, to embark on a period of profitable growth, now producing not Auto Unions or DKWs, but using the "Audi" name, resurrected in 1965 after a 25-year gap. In 1964, Volkswagen acquired a 50% holding in the business, which included the new factory in Ingolstadt, the DKW and Audi brands along with the rights to the new engine design which had been funded by Daimler-Benz, who in return retained the dormant Horch trademark and the Düsseldorf factory which became a Mercedes-Benz van assembly plant. Eighteen months later, Volkswagen bought complete control of Ingolstadt, and by 1966 were using the spare capacity of the Ingolstadt plant to assemble an additional 60,000 Volkswagen Beetles per year.<ref nameMotor19710724>{{cite journal\| firstPhilip \|lastTurner\| title Turner's Travel [to Wolfsburg]\| journalMotor\| pages 28–30\|date = 24 July 1971}}</ref> Two-stroke engines became less popular during the 1960s as customers were more attracted to the smoother four-stroke engines. In September 1965, the DKW F102 was fitted with a four-stroke engine and a facelift for the car's front and rear. Volkswagen dumped the DKW brand because of its associations with two-stroke technology, and having classified the model internally as the F103, sold it simply as the "Audi". Later developments of the model were named after their horsepower ratings and sold as the Audi 60, 75, 80, and Super 90, selling until 1972. Initially, Volkswagen was hostile to the idea of Auto Union as a standalone entity producing its own models having acquired the company merely to boost its own production capacity through the Ingolstadt assembly plant—to the point where Volkswagen executives ordered that the Auto Union name and flags bearing the four rings were removed from the factory buildings. Then VW chief Heinz Nordhoff explicitly forbade Auto Union from any further product development. Fearing that Volkswagen had no long-term ambition for the Audi brand, Auto Union engineers under the leadership of Ludwig Kraus developed the first Audi 100 in secret, without Nordhoff's knowledge. When presented with a finished prototype, Nordhoff was so impressed he authorised the car for production, which when launched in 1968, went on to be a huge success. With this, the resurrection of the Audi brand was now complete, this being followed by the first generation Audi 80 in 1972, which would in turn provide a template for VW's new front-wheel-drive water-cooled range which debuted from the mid-1970s onward. assembly line in Wolfsburg, 1973]] In 1969, Auto Union merged with NSU, based in Neckarsulm, near Stuttgart. In the 1950s, NSU had been the world's largest manufacturer of motorcycles, but had moved on to produce small cars like the NSU Prinz, the TT and TTS versions of which are still popular as vintage race cars. NSU then focused on new rotary engines based on the ideas of Felix Wankel. In 1967, the new NSU Ro 80 was a car well ahead of its time in technical details such as aerodynamics, light weight, and safety. However, teething problems with the rotary engines put an end to the independence of NSU. The Neckarsulm plant is now used to produce the larger Audi models A6 and A8. The Neckarsulm factory is also home of the "quattro GmbH" (from November 2016 "Audi Sport GmbH"), a subsidiary responsible for development and production of Audi high-performance models: the R8 and the RS model range. Modern era The new merged company was incorporated on 1 January 1969 and was known as Audi NSU Auto Union AG, with its headquarters at NSU's Neckarsulm plant, and saw the emergence of Audi as a separate brand for the first time since the pre-war era. Volkswagen introduced the Audi brand to the United States for the 1970 model year. That same year, the mid-sized car that NSU had been working on, the K70, originally intended to slot between the rear-engined Prinz models and the futuristic NSU Ro 80, was instead launched as a Volkswagen. After the launch of the Audi 100 of 1968, the Audi 80/Fox (which formed the basis for the 1973 Volkswagen Passat) followed in 1972 and the Audi 50 (later rebadged as the Volkswagen Polo) in 1974. The Audi 50 was a seminal design because it was the first incarnation of the Golf/Polo concept, one that led to a hugely successful world car. Ultimately, the Audi 80 and 100 (progenitors of the A4 and A6, respectively) became the company's biggest sellers, whilst little investment was made in the fading NSU range; the Prinz models were dropped in 1973 whilst the fatally flawed NSU Ro80 went out of production in 1977, spelling the effective end of the NSU brand. Production of the Audi 100 had been steadily moved from Ingolstadt to Neckarsulm as the 1970s had progressed, and by the appearance of the second generation C2 version in 1976, all production was now at the former NSU plant. Neckarsulm from that point onward would produce Audi's higher-end models. The Audi image at this time was a conservative one, and so, a proposal from chassis engineer Jörg Bensinger<ref>{{cite web \| url = http://www.worldcarfans.com/news.cfm/newsID/2050225.007/country/gcf/audi/audi-quattro-the-early-years \| title = Quattro, The early years \| access-date =2 November 2006 }}</ref> was accepted to develop the four-wheel drive technology in Volkswagen's Iltis military vehicle for an Audi performance car and rally racing car. The performance car, introduced in 1980, was named the "Audi Quattro", a turbocharged coupé which was also the first German large-scale production vehicle to feature permanent all-wheel drive through a centre differential. Commonly referred to as the "Ur-Quattro" (the "Ur-" prefix is a German augmentative used, in this case, to mean 'original' and is also applied to the first generation of Audi's S4 and S6 Sport Saloons, as in "UrS4" and "UrS6"), few of these vehicles were produced (all hand-built by a single team), but the model was a great success in rallying. Prominent wins proved the viability of all-wheel-drive racecars, and the Audi name became associated with advances in automotive technology. In 1985, with the Auto Union and NSU brands effectively dead, the company's official name was now shortened to simply Audi AG. At the same time the company's headquarters moved back to Ingolstadt and two new wholly owned subsidiaries; Auto Union GmbH and NSU GmbH, were formed to own and manage the historical trademarks and intellectual property of the original constituent companies (the exception being Horch, which had been retained by Daimler-Benz after the VW takeover), and to operate Audi's heritage operations. ]] In 1986, as the Passat-based Audi 80 was beginning to develop a kind of "grandfather's car" image, the type 89 was introduced. This completely new development sold extremely well. However, its modern and dynamic exterior belied the low performance of its base engine, and its base package was quite spartan (even the passenger-side mirror was an option). In 1987, Audi put forward a new and very elegant Audi 90, which had a much superior set of standard features. In the early 1990s, sales began to slump for the Audi 80 series, and some basic construction problems started to surface. Through the early 1990s, Audi began to shift its target market upscale to compete against German automakers Mercedes-Benz and BMW. This began with the release of the Audi V8 in 1990. It was essentially a new engine fitted to the Audi 100/200, but with noticeable bodywork differences. Most obvious was the new grille that was now incorporated in the bonnet. By 1991, Audi had the four-cylinder Audi 80, the 5-cylinder Audi 90 and Audi 100, the turbocharged Audi 200 and the Audi V8. There was also a coupé version of the 80/90 with both four- and five-cylinder engines. Although the five-cylinder engine was a successful and robust powerplant, it was still a little too different for the target market. With the introduction of an all-new Audi 100 in 1992, Audi introduced a 2.8L V6 engine. This engine was also fitted to a face-lifted Audi 80 (all 80 and 90 models were now badged 80 except for the USA), giving this model a choice of four-, five-, and six-cylinder engines, in saloon, coupé and convertible body styles. The five-cylinder was soon dropped as a major engine choice; however, a turbocharged {{convert\|220\|PS\|kW hp\|abbron}} version remained. The engine, initially fitted to the 200 quattro 20V of 1991, was a derivative of the engine fitted to the Sport Quattro. It was fitted to the Audi Coupé, named the S2, and also to the Audi 100 body, and named the S4. These two models were the beginning of the mass-produced S series of performance cars.Audi 5000 unintended acceleration allegationsSales in the United States fell after a series of recalls from 1982 to 1987 of Audi 5000 models<ref name"bus week">{{cite journal \| title Audi 1980s Scare May Mean Lost Generation for Toyota \| journalBusiness Week\| date4 February 2010\|first1Andreas\|last1Cremer\|first2Tom\|last2Lavell\| url http://www.businessweek.com/news/2010-02-04/audi-s-1980s-scare-may-mean-lost-generation-for-toyota-sales.html\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20100208162109/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2010-02-04/audi-s-1980s-scare-may-mean-lost-generation-for-toyota-sales.html\| archive-date 8 February 2010\| access-date15 August 2010}}</ref> associated with reported incidents of sudden unintended acceleration linked to six deaths and 700 accidents.<ref name"bus week"/> At the time, NHTSA was investigating 50 car models from 20 manufacturers for sudden surges of power.<ref name"renamed">{{cite news \| title A Hard Sell for Audi \| newspaperThe New York Times\|firstJohn\|lastHolusha\|date24 July 1988 \| url https://www.nytimes.com/1988/07/24/business/a-hard-sell-for-audi.html?scp14&sqaudi%20sudden%20acceleration&stcse \| access-date=25 April 2010}}</ref> A 60 Minutes report aired 23 November 1986,<ref name"debacle">{{cite web \| title The Audi 5000 Intended Unintended acceleration Debacle \| publisherThe Truth About Cars \| first Paul \| last Niedermeyer \| date 7 March 2010 \| url http://www.thetruthaboutcars.com/the-best-of-ttac-the-audi-5000-intended-unintended-acceleration-debacle/\| access-date15 August 2010}}</ref> featuring interviews with six people who had sued Audi after reporting unintended acceleration, showing an Audi 5000 ostensibly suffering a problem when the brake pedal was pushed.<ref name"huber">{{cite web\|firstPeter\|lastHuber\|urlhttp://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/cjm_18.htm\|titleManufacturing the Audi Scare\|dateJanuary 1990\|publisherManhattan Institute for Policy Research\|access-date15 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|publisherAccuracy in Media\|urlhttp://www.aim.org/media-monitor/the-cbs-cold-case-files/\|titleThe CBS 'Cold Case' Files\|firstSherrie\|lastGossett\|date13 May 2005\|access-date15 August 2010\|archive-date3 November 2008\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081103082732/http://www.aim.org/media-monitor/the-cbs-cold-case-files/\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Subsequent investigation revealed that 60 Minutes had engineered the failure—fitting a canister of compressed air on the passenger-side floor, linked via a hose to a hole drilled into the transmission.<ref name="debacle"/> C3, sold as the Audi 5000 in the U.S.]] Audi contended, prior to findings by outside investigators,<ref name"renamed"/> that the problems were caused by driver error, specifically pedal misapplication.<ref name"renamed" /> Subsequently, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) concluded that the majority of unintended acceleration cases, including all the ones that prompted the 60 Minutes report, were caused by driver error such as confusion of pedals.<ref>{{cite news\|newspaperThe Washington Post\|date16 April 1989\|urlhttp://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1185635.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121102221624/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1185635.html \|archive-date2 November 2012 \| titleUnfair at Any Speed\|firstBrock \|lastYates\|access-date15 August 2010 }}</ref> CBS did not acknowledge the test results of involved government agencies, but did acknowledge the similar results of another study.<ref name"huber"/> In a review study published in 2012, NHTSA summarized its past findings about the Audi unintended acceleration problems: "Once an unintended acceleration had begun, in the Audi 5000, due to a failure in the idle-stabilizer system (producing an initial acceleration of 0.3g), pedal misapplication resulting from panic, confusion, or unfamiliarity with the Audi 5000 contributed to the severity of the incident."<ref name"nhtsa2012">{{cite news \| title Pedal Application Errors \| date March 2012 \| url http://www.nhtsa.gov/staticfiles/nti/pdf/811597.pdf \| access-date 3 December 2013 \| archive-date 4 December 2013 \| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131204053204/http://www.nhtsa.gov/staticfiles/nti/pdf/811597.pdf }}</ref> This summary is consistent with the conclusions of NHTSA's most technical analysis at the time: "Audi idle-stabilization systems were prone to defects which resulted in excessive idle speeds and brief unanticipated accelerations of up to 0.3g [which is similar in magnitude to an emergency stop in a subway car]. These accelerations could not be the sole cause of [(long-duration) sudden acceleration incidents (SAI)], but might have triggered some SAIs by startling the driver.<ref name"audi1988">{{cite news \| title Study of Mechanical and Driver-Related Systems of the Audi 5000 Capable of Producing Uncontrolled Sudden Acceleration Incidents \| date September 1988 \| url http://www.autosafety.org/sites/default/files/H%20Appendices%20Merge.pdf \| access-date 3 December 2013 \| archive-date 8 June 2012 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20120608034952/http://www.autosafety.org/sites/default/files/H%20Appendices%20Merge.pdf }}</ref> The defective idle-stabilization system performed a type of electronic throttle control. Significantly: multiple "intermittent malfunctions of the electronic control unit were observed and recorded ... and [were also observed and] reported by Transport Canada."<ref name"audi1988" /> With a series of recall campaigns, Audi made several modifications; the first adjusted the distance between the brake and accelerator pedal on automatic-transmission models.<ref name"bus week"/> Later repairs, of 250,000 cars dating back to 1978, added a device requiring the driver to press the brake pedal before shifting out of park.<ref name"bus week"/> A legacy of the Audi 5000 and other reported cases of sudden unintended acceleration are intricate gear stick patterns and brake interlock mechanisms to prevent inadvertent shifting into forward or reverse. It is unclear how the defects in the idle-stabilization system were addressed. Audi's U.S. sales, which had reached 74,061 in 1985, dropped to 12,283 in 1991 and remained level for three years,<ref name"bus week"/>—with resale values falling dramatically.<ref name"warranty">{{cite news \| title Audi Increases Warranty Plan \| newspaperThe New York Times\| date27 July 1988 \| url https://www.nytimes.com/1988/07/27/business/company-news-audi-increases-warranty-plan.html\| access-date15 August 2010}}</ref> Audi subsequently offered increased warranty protection<ref name"warranty"/> and renamed the affected models—with the 5000 becoming the 100 and 200 in 1989<ref name"renamed"/>—and reached the same sales levels again only by model year 2000.<ref name"bus week"/> A 2010 BusinessWeek article—outlining possible parallels between Audi's experience and 2009–2010 Toyota vehicle recalls—noted a class-action lawsuit filed in 1987 by about 7,500 Audi 5000-model owners remains unsettled and remains contested in Chicago's Cook County after appeals at the Illinois state and U.S. federal levels.<ref name"bus week"/>Model introductions In the mid-to-late 1990s, Audi introduced new technologies including the use of aluminium construction. Produced from 1999 to 2005, the Audi A2 was a futuristic super mini, born from the Al2 concept, with many features that helped regain consumer confidence, like the aluminium space frame, which was a first in production car design. In the A2 Audi further expanded their TDI technology through the use of frugal three-cylinder engines. The A2 was extremely aerodynamic and was designed around a wind tunnel. The Audi A2 was criticised for its high price and was never really a sales success but it planted Audi as a cutting-edge manufacturer. The model, a Mercedes-Benz A-Class competitor, sold relatively well in Europe. However, the A2 was discontinued in 2005 and Audi decided not to develop an immediate replacement. The next major model change came in 1995 when the Audi A4 replaced the Audi 80. The new nomenclature scheme was applied to the Audi 100 to become the Audi A6 (with a minor facelift). This also meant the S4 became the S6 and a new S4 was introduced in the A4 body. The S2 was discontinued. The Audi Cabriolet continued on (based on the Audi 80 platform) until 1999, gaining the engine upgrades along the way. A new A3 hatchback model (sharing the Volkswagen Golf Mk4's platform) was introduced to the range in 1996, and the radical Audi TT coupé and roadster were debuted in 1998 based on the same underpinnings. The petrol engines available throughout the range were now a 1.4&nbsp;L, 1.6&nbsp;L and 1.8&nbsp;L four-cylinder, 1.8&nbsp;L four-cylinder turbo, 2.6&nbsp;L and 2.8&nbsp;L V6, 2.2&nbsp;L turbo-charged five-cylinder and the 4.2&nbsp;L V8 engine. The V6s were replaced by new 2.4&nbsp;L and 2.8&nbsp;L 30V V6s in 1998, with marked improvement in power, torque and smoothness. Further engines were added along the way, including a 3.7&nbsp;L V8 and 6.0&nbsp;L W12 engine for the A8. Audi AG today Audi's sales grew strongly in the 2000s, with deliveries to customers increasing from 653,000 in 2000 to 1,003,000 in 2008. The largest sales increases came from Eastern Europe (+19.3%), Africa (+17.2%) and the Middle East (+58.5%). China in particular has become a key market, representing 108,000 out of 705,000 cars delivered in the first three quarters of 2009. One factor for its popularity in China is that Audis have become the car of choice for purchase by the Chinese government for officials, and purchases by the government are responsible for 20% of its sales in China.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://blogs.ft.com/beyond-brics/2010/10/20/audis-millionth-car-sale-shows-china-still-tops/ \|titleChina: Audi sells a million \|departmentbeyondbrics \|workFinancial Times\|date20 October 2010 \|access-date9 January 2011 \|url-accesssubscription \|lastReed \|firstJohn}}</ref> As of late 2009, Audi's operating profit of €1.17&nbsp;billion ($1.85&nbsp;billion) made it the biggest contributor to parent Volkswagen Group's nine-month operating profit of €1.5&nbsp;billion, while the other marques in Group such as Bentley and SEAT had suffered considerable losses.<ref>{{cite news\|authorCanada \|urlhttps://www.theglobeandmail.com/globe-drive/new-cars/auto-news/audis-a-game/article1377213/ \|titleAudi's A game \|workThe Globe and Mail \|access-date12 March 2011 \|locationToronto}}</ref> May 2011 saw record sales for Audi of America with the new Audi A7 and Audi A3 TDI Clean Diesel.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://larsonautomotiveblog.com/audi-has-best-may-u-s-sales-in-its-history/\|titleAudi has best May U.S. sales in its history!\|date3 June 2011\|publisherLarson Automotive Group\|access-date25 July 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130728093314/http://larsonautomotiveblog.com/audi-has-best-may-u-s-sales-in-its-history/\|archive-date28 July 2013}}</ref> In May 2012, Audi reported a 10% increase in its sales—from 408 units to 480 in the last year alone.<ref>{{cite news\| urlhttp://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/article3479793.ece\| title Audi posts 10% growth in sales \| date=1 June 2012}}</ref> Audi manufactures vehicles in seven plants around the world, some of which are shared with other VW Group marques<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.audi.com/com/brand/en/company/production_plants/aurangabad.html#sourcehttp://www.audi.com/com/brand/en/company/production_plants.html&containerpage \|titleAudi Worldwide &gt; Company &gt; Production plants &gt; Aurangabad \|publisherAudi \|date27 August 2010 \|access-date12 March 2011 \|archive-date13 June 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110613062751/http://www.audi.com/com/brand/en/company/production_plants/aurangabad.html#sourcehttp://www.audi.com/com/brand/en/company/production_plants.html&container=page }}</ref> although many sub-assemblies such as engines and transmissions are manufactured within other Volkswagen Group plants. Audi's two principal assembly plants in Germany are: * Ingolstadt, the former Auto Union site originally opened in 1945 and substantially rebuilt by Daimler-Benz in 1962, and acquired by Volkswagen in 1964 (Q2, A3, A4, A5) * Neckarsulm, the former NSU plant, acquired by Volkswagen in 1969: (A4, A5 (cabrio), A6, A7, A8, R8, and all RS variants) - a satellite plant at nearby Böllinger Höfe produces the e-tron GT Outside of Germany, Audi produces vehicles at: * Aurangabad, India, since 2006 * Bratislava, Slovakia, shared with Volkswagen, SEAT, Škoda and Porsche (Q7 and Q8) * Brussels, Belgium, acquired from Volkswagen in 2007 (e-tron) * Changchun, China, since 1995 * Győr, Hungary (TT, A3, Q3) * Jakarta, Indonesia, since 2011 * Martorell, Spain, shared with SEAT and Volkswagen (A1, Q3) * San José Chiapa, Mexico (2nd gen Q5) In September 2012, Audi announced the construction of its first North American manufacturing plant in Puebla, Mexico. This plant became operative in 2016 and produces the second generation Q5.<ref>{{cite press release \|titleAUDI AG opens automobile plant in Mexico \|urlhttps://www.audi-mediacenter.com/en/presskits/audi-ag-opens-automobile-plant-in-mexico-6831\|publisherAudi AG \|date30 September 2016 \|access-date=17 August 2019}}</ref> From 2002 up to 2003, Audi headed the Audi Brand Group, a subdivision of the Volkswagen Group's Automotive Division consisting of Audi, Lamborghini and SEAT, which was focused on sporty values, with the marques' product vehicles and performance being under the higher responsibility of the Audi brand. In January 2014, Audi, along with the Wireless Power Consortium, operated a booth which demonstrated a phone compartment using the Qi open interface standard at the Consumer Electronics Show (CES).<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20140109006406/en/Audi-Demonstrates-Qi-Wireless-Charging-CES-2014\|titleAudi's Phone Box Updated With Qi Wireless Charging\|date9 January 2014\|workBusiness Wire\|access-date21 November 2016\|viaBerkshire Hathaway}}</ref> In May, most of the Audi dealers in the UK falsely claimed that the Audi A7, A8, and R8 were Euro NCAP safety tested, all achieving five out of five stars. In fact none were tested.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/business-27392157\|titleAudi 'lied' about safety testing of vehicles\|lastDackevych\|firstAlex\|date14 May 2014\|workBBC News\|access-date21 November 2016\|publisherBBC}}</ref> In 2015, Audi admitted that at least 2.1 million Audi cars had been involved in the Volkswagen emissions testing scandal in which software installed in the cars manipulated emissions data to fool regulators and allow the cars to pollute at higher than government-mandated levels. The A1, A3, A4, A5, A6, TT, Q3 and Q5 models were implicated in the scandal.<ref>{{Cite news\|title Germany investigates VW's ex-boss over fraud allegations\|url https://www.reuters.com/article/us-volkswagen-emissions-idUSKCN0RP14U20150928\|work Reuters\|date 28 September 2015\|access-date 29 September 2015}}</ref> Audi promised to quickly find a technical solution and upgrade the cars so they can function within emissions regulations.<ref>{{Cite news\|title Audi Says 2.1 Million Cars Affected by Emissions Software\|url https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-09-28/audi-says-2-1-million-diesel-cars-affected-by-emissions-software\|work Bloomberg.com\|access-date 29 September 2015\|first Elisabeth Behrmann Mathieu\|last Rosemain\|date 28 September 2015}}</ref> Ulrich Hackenberg, the head of research and development at Audi, was suspended in relation to the scandal.<ref>{{Cite web \| urlhttp://www.newsweek.com/audi-germany-volkswagen-scandal-378184 \| titleReport: Germany Investigating Audi over Emissions\|workNewsweek \|agencyReuters \| date29 September 2015 \|access-date11 March 2020}}</ref> Despite widespread media coverage about the scandal through the month of September, Audi reported that U.S. sales for the month had increased by 16.2%.<ref>{{Cite web\|title Volkswagen, Audi sales increase despite emissions cheating scandal\|url http://www.latimes.com/business/autos/la-fi-hy-auto-sales-20151001-story.html\|website Los Angeles Times\|date 2 October 2015\|access-date 3 October 2015}}</ref> Audi's parent company Volkswagen announced on 18 June 2018 that Audi chief executive Rupert Stadler had been arrested.<ref>{{Cite news \| urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-44517753 \| titleAudi boss arrested over diesel scandal\| workBBC News\| date=18 June 2018}}</ref> In November 2015, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency implicated the 3-liter diesel engine versions of the 2016 Audi A6 Quattro, A7 Quattro, A8, A8L and the Q5 as further models that had emissions regulation defeat-device software installed.<ref>{{Cite web\|title EPA: VW cheated on Audi, Porsche diesel SUVs, too\|url https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/cars/2015/11/02/epa-diesel-suv-volkswagen-audi-porsche/75044132/\|website USA Today\|access-date 2 November 2015}}</ref> Thus, these models emitted nitrogen oxide at up to nine times the legal limit when the car detected that it was not hooked up to emissions testing equipment.<ref>{{Cite news\|title Porsche Targeted as U.S. Expands VW Emissions Cheating Probe\|url https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-11-02/u-s-expands-investigation-of-volkswagen-emissions-cheating\|publisher Bloomberg L.P.\|access-date 2 November 2015\|first1 Jeff \|last1Plungis \|first2Dana \|last2Hull \|first3Christoph \|last3 Rauwald\|newspaper Bloomberg.com\|date 2 November 2015}}</ref> In November 2016, Audi expressed an intention to establish an assembly factory in Pakistan, with the company's local partner acquiring land for a plant in Korangi Creek Industrial Park in Karachi. Approval of the plan would lead to an investment of $30 million in the new plant.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://tribune.com.pk/story/1231159/audi-ag-expresses-intent-assemble-vehicles-pakistan/\|titleAudi AG expresses intent to assemble vehicles in Pakistan \|date15 November 2016\|newspaperThe Express Tribune\|access-date15 November 2016}}</ref> Audi planned to cut 9,500 jobs in Germany starting from 2020 till 2025 to fund electric vehicles and digital working.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/business-50563254\|titleAudi to cut 9,500 jobs to fund electric car push\|date26 November 2019\|access-date27 November 2019\|languageen-GB}}</ref> In February 2020, Volkswagen AG announced that it plans to take over all Audi shares it does not own (totalling 0.36%) via a squeeze-out according to German stock corporation law, thus making Audi a fully owned subsidiary of the Volkswagen Group.<ref>{{Cite web\|title Audi with enhanced role in Volkswagen Group\|url https://www.volkswagenag.com/en/news/2020/02/Audi_with_enhanced_role_in_Volkswagen_Group.html\|website Volkswagen AG\|date28 February 2020\|access-date 14 March 2020}}</ref> This change took effect from 16 November 2020, when Audi became a wholly owned subsidiary of the Volkswagen Group.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleAUDI AG: Entry of the transfer resolution in the commercial register\|urlhttps://www.audi.com/content/dam/gbp2/company/investor-relations/kapitalmarktkommunikation/english/ad-hoc-announcements/2020/AUDI-AG-Entry-of-%20the-transfer-resolution-in-the-commercial-register-dgap.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.audi.com/content/dam/gbp2/company/investor-relations/kapitalmarktkommunikation/english/ad-hoc-announcements/2020/AUDI-AG-Entry-of-%20the-transfer-resolution-in-the-commercial-register-dgap.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|url-statuslive\|website Audi AG\|date16 November 2020\|access-date=22 November 2020}}</ref> In January 2021, Audi announced that it is planning to sell 1 million vehicles in China in 2023, comparing to 726,000 vehicles in 2020.<ref>{{Cite news\|date20 January 2021\|titleAudi aims to sell one million cars in China in 2023\|languageen\|workReuters\|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-volkswagen-china-idUSKBN29P05H\|access-date20 January 2021}}</ref> Technology Audi AI Audi AI is a driver assist feature offered by Audi. The company's stated intent is to offer fully autonomous driving at a future time, acknowledging that legal, regulatory and technical hurdles must be overcome to achieve this goal. On 4 June 2017, Audi stated that its new A8 will be fully self-driving for speeds up to 60&nbsp;km/h using its Audi AI. Contrary to other cars, the driver will not have to do safety checks such as touching the steering wheel every 15 seconds to use this feature. The Audi A8 will therefore be the first production car to reach level 3 autonomous driving, meaning that the driver can safely turn their attention away from driving tasks, e.g. the driver can text or watch a movie. Audi will also be the first manufacturer to use a 3D Lidar system in addition to cameras and ultrasonic sensors for their AI.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.irishtimes.com/life-and-style/motors/audi-s-self-driving-a8-drivers-can-watch-youtube-or-check-emails-at-60km-h-1.3150496\|titleAudi's self-driving A8: drivers can watch YouTube or check emails at 60km/h\|lastMcAleer\|firstMichael\|date11 July 2017\|newspaperThe Irish Times\|access-date11 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://spectrum.ieee.org/the-audi-a8-the-worlds-first-production-car-to-achieve-level-3-autonomy\|titleThe Audi A8: the World's First Production Car to Achieve Level 3 Autonomy\|lastRoss\|firstPhilip E.\|date11 July 2017\|websiteIEEE Spectrum: Technology, Engineering, and Science News\|access-date14 July 2017}}</ref> Bodyshells Audi produces 100% galvanised cars to prevent corrosion,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090317013835/http://www.audiusa.com/audi/us/en2/tools/glossary/chassis_body/corrosion_protection.html Corrosion protection]. audiusa.com</ref> and was the first mass-market vehicle to do so, following introduction of the process by Porsche, c. 1975. Along with other precautionary measures, the full-body zinc coating has proved to be very effective in preventing rust. The body's resulting durability even surpassed Audi's own expectations, causing the manufacturer to extend its original 10-year warranty against corrosion perforation to currently 12 years (except for aluminium bodies which do not rust).<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.audiusa.com/audi/us/en2/tools/glossary/chassis_body/galvanised_body.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090221015807/http://www.audiusa.com/audi/us/en2/tools/glossary/chassis_body/galvanised_body.html \|archive-date21 February 2009 \|titleAudi of America &gt; Glossary &gt; Chassis & Body &gt; Galvanised body \|publisherAudi USA \|access-date27 April 2009}}</ref> Space Frame uses Audi Space Frame technology.]] Audi introduced a new series of vehicles in the mid-1990s and continues to pursue new technology and high performance. An all-aluminium car was brought forward by Audi, and in 1994 the Audi A8 was launched, which introduced aluminium space frame technology (called Audi Space Frame or ASF) which saves weight and improves torsion rigidity compared to a conventional steel frame. Prior to that effort, Audi used examples of the Type 44 chassis fabricated out of aluminium as test-beds for the technique. The disadvantage of the aluminium frame is that it is very expensive to repair and requires a specialized aluminium bodyshop.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.caranddriver.com/reviews/car/09q1/2007_audi_s8-long-term_road_test/sidebar_page_3 \|title2007 Audi S8 – Long-Term Road Test – Page 4 \|websiteCaranddriver.com \|access-date18 November 2011}}</ref> The weight reduction is somewhat offset by the quattro four-wheel drive system which is standard in most markets. Nonetheless, the A8 is usually the lightest all-wheel drive car in the full-size luxury segment, also having best-in-class fuel economy.<ref>{{cite web \|lastPeterson \|firstThane \|urlhttp://www.businessweek.com/lifestyle/content/oct2010/bw2010104_140585.htm \|titleReview: 2011 Audi A8 \|workBloomberg BusinessWeek \|date5 October 2010 \|access-date2 February 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110119123104/http://www.businessweek.com/lifestyle/content/oct2010/bw2010104_140585.htm \|archive-date19 January 2011 }}</ref> The Audi A2, Audi TT and Audi R8 also use Audi Space Frame designs.DrivetrainsLayout For most of its lineup (excluding the A3, A1, and TT models), Audi has not adopted the transverse engine layout which is typically found in economy cars (such as Peugeot and Citroën), since that would limit the type and power of engines that can be installed. To be able to mount powerful engines (such as a V8 engine in the Audi S4 and Audi RS4, as well as the W12 engine in the Audi A8L W12), Audi has usually engineered its more expensive cars with a longitudinally front-mounted engine, in an "overhung" position, over the front wheels in front of the axle line—this layout dates back to the DKW and Auto Union saloons from the 1950s. But while this allows for the easy adoption of all-wheel drive, it goes against the ideal 50:50 weight distribution. In all its post Volkswagen era models, Audi has firmly refused to adopt the traditional rear-wheel drive layout favored by its two archrivals Mercedes-Benz and BMW, favoring either front-wheel drive or all-wheel drive. The majority of Audi's lineup in the United States features all-wheel drive standard on most of its expensive vehicles (only the entry-level trims of the A4 and A6 are available with front-wheel drive), in contrast to Mercedes-Benz and BMW whose lineup treats all-wheel drive as an option. BMW did not offer all-wheel drive on its V8-powered cars (as opposed to crossover SUVs) until the 2010 BMW 7 Series and 2011 BMW 5 Series, while the Audi A8 has had all-wheel drive available/standard since the 1990s. Regarding high-performance variants, Audi S and RS models have always had all-wheel drive, unlike their direct rivals from BMW M and Mercedes-AMG whose cars are rear-wheel drive only (although their performance crossover SUVs are all-wheel drive). Audi has recently applied the quattro badge to models such as the A3 and TT which do not use the Torsen-based system as in prior years with a mechanical center differential, but with the Haldex Traction electro-mechanical clutch AWD system. Engines {{Further\|List of Audi vehicles#Production model engines}} W12 engine from the Volkswagen Phaeton W12]] Prior to the introduction of the Audi 80 and Audi 50 in 1972 and 1974, respectively, Audi had led the development of the EA111 and EA827 inline-four engine families. These new power units underpinned the water-cooled revival of parent company Volkswagen (in the Polo, Golf, Passat and Scirocco), whilst the many derivatives and descendants of these two basic engine designs have appeared in every generation of VW Group vehicles right up to the present day. In the 1980s, Audi, along with Volvo, was the champion of the inline-five cylinder, 2.1/2.2 L engine as a longer-lasting alternative to more traditional six-cylinder engines. This engine was used not only in production cars but also in their race cars. The 2.1&nbsp;L inline five-cylinder engine was used as a base for the rally cars in the 1980s, providing well over {{convert\|400\|hp\|kW\|abbr=off}} after modification. Before 1990, there were engines produced with a displacement between 2.0&nbsp;L and 2.3&nbsp;L. This range of engine capacity allowed for both fuel economy and power. For the ultra-luxury version of its Audi A8 fullsize luxury flagship sedan, the Audi A8L W12, Audi uses the Volkswagen Group W12 engine instead of the conventional V12 engine favored by rivals Mercedes-Benz and BMW. The W12 engine configuration (also known as a "WR12") is created by forming two imaginary narrow-angle 15° VR6 engines at an angle of 72°, and the narrow angle of each set of cylinders allows just two overhead camshafts to drive each pair of banks, so just four are needed in total. The advantage of the W12 engine is its compact packaging, allowing Audi to build a 12-cylinder sedan with all-wheel drive, whereas a conventional V12 engine could have only a rear-wheel drive configuration as it would have no space in the engine bay for a differential and other components required to power the front wheels. In fact, the 6.0&nbsp;L W12 in the Audi A8L W12 is smaller in overall dimensions than the 4.2&nbsp;L V8 that powers the Audi A8 4.2 variants.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.newcartestdrive.com/review-intro.cfm?Vehicle2005_Audi_A8&ReviewID2934 \|title2005 Audi A8 Review and Photos \|websiteNew Car Test Drive \|access-date18 November 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131030011923/http://www.newcartestdrive.com/review-intro.cfm?Vehicle2005_Audi_A8&ReviewID2934 \|archive-date30 October 2013 }}</ref> The 2011 Audi A8 debuted a revised 6.3-litre version of the W12 (WR12) engine with {{convert\|500\|PS\|kW hp\|abbron}}.Fuel Stratified InjectionNew models of the A3, A4, A6 and A8 have been introduced, with the ageing 1.8-litre engine now having been replaced by new Fuel Stratified Injection (FSI) engines. Nearly every petroleum burning model in the range now incorporates this fuel-saving technology.Direct-Shift GearboxIn 2003, Volkswagen introduced the Direct-Shift Gearbox (DSG), a type of dual-clutch transmission. It is a type of automatic transmission, drivable like a conventional torque converter automatic transmission. Based on the gearbox found in the Group B S1, the system includes dual electro-hydraulically controlled clutches instead of a torque converter. This is implemented in some VW Golfs, Audi A3, Audi A4 and TT models where DSG is called S-Tronic.LED daytime running lightsBeginning in 2005, Audi has implemented white LED technology as daytime running lights (DRL) in their products. The distinctive shape of the DRLs has become a trademark of sorts. LEDs were first introduced on the Audi A8 W12, the world's first production car to have LED DRLs,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.cargurus.com/Cars/2005-Audi-A8-Overview-c319\|title2005 Audi A8 - Overview \|workCarGurus\|access-date14 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \| urlhttp://www.goauto.com.au/mellor/mellor.nsf/story2/5753C7B50C3435D6CA257053001CB9E4 \| titleCar Reviews - Audi - A8 - L W12 Quattro \| access-date12 January 2015 \| archive-date15 July 2015 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150715060140/http://www.goauto.com.au/mellor/mellor.nsf/story2/5753C7B50C3435D6CA257053001CB9E4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.cars.com/audi/a8/2005/expert-reviews\|title2005 Audi A8\|firstJim\|lastFlammang\|access-date14 July 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150715013345/http://www.cars.com/audi/a8/2005/expert-reviews\|archive-date=15 July 2015 }}</ref> and have since spread throughout the entire model range. The LEDs are present on some Audi billboards. Since 2010, Audi has also offered the LED technology in low- and high-beam headlights.<ref>{{cite magazine\|title2010 Audi R8 LED Headlights\|urlhttp://www.caranddriver.com/features/2010-audi-r8-led-headlights\|magazineCar and Driver\|access-date28 January 2012}}</ref> B8]] Multi Media Interface , Audi TT Mk3]] Starting with the 2003 Audi A8, Audi has used a centralised control interface for its on-board infotainment systems, called Multi Media Interface (MMI). It is essentially a rotating control knob and 'segment' buttons—designed to control all in-car entertainment devices (radio, CD changer, iPod, TV tuner), satellite navigation, heating and ventilation, and other car controls with a screen. The availability of MMI has gradually filtered down the Audi lineup, and following its introduction on the third generation A3 in 2011, MMI is now available across the entire range. It has been generally well received, as it requires less menu-surfing with its segment buttons around a central knob, along with 'main function' direct access buttons—with shortcuts to the radio or phone functions. The colour screen is mounted on the upright dashboard, and on the A4 (new), A5, A6, A8, and Q7, the controls are mounted horizontally. Synthetic fuels {{Main\|Electrofuel}} Audi has assisted with technology to produce synthetic diesel from water and carbon dioxide.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://qz.com/392138/audi-is-making-fuel-from-air-and-water/ \|titleAudi is making fuel from air and water\|authorZach Wener-Fligner\|workQuartz\|date27 April 2015 \|access-date14 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| urlhttps://www.tu.no/artikler/norsk-selskap-kan-bli-forst-i-verden-til-a-produsere-audis-vidunderdiesel/348424 \|titleNorsk selskap kan bli først i verden til å produsere Audis 'vidunderdiesel' \| trans-title Norwegian company could be the first in the world to manufacture Audi's "wonderdiesel" \| language no \| first Jannicke \| last Nilsen \| journal Teknisk Ukeblad \|date10 June 2016 \|access-date24 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \| urlhttp://www.tu.no/artikler/audi-lager-diesel-av-co2-og-vann-til-8-kroner-literen/222360 \| titleAudi lager diesel av CO2 og vann til 8 kroner literen\| date28 April 2015}}</ref> Audi calls the synthetic diesel E-diesel. It is also working on synthetic gasoline (which it calls E-gasoline).<ref>{{cite web\| url https://www.audi-mediacenter.com/en/press-releases/audi-advances-e-fuels-technology-new-e-benzin-fuel-being-tested-9912\| title E-gasoline}}</ref> Logistics Audi uses scanning gloves for parts registration during assembly, and automatic robots to transfer cars from factory to rail cars.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://automotivelogistics.media/home-page/audis-driverless-transport-system-recognised-industry-award\|titleAudi's driverless transport system recognised with industry award\|workAutomotive Logistics\|date21 February 2017\|access-date24 February 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170225020427/http://automotivelogistics.media/home-page/audis-driverless-transport-system-recognised-industry-award\|archive-date25 February 2017 }}</ref>Models{{main\|List of Audi vehicles}}Current model range The following tables list Audi production vehicles that are sold as of 2025: {{col-begin\|width=auto}} {{col-break}} {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Audi cars \|- \| A1 \| \| {{nowrap\|Supermini}} \| * Sportback (5-door hatchback) \|- \| A3 \| \| {{nowrap\|Small family car}} \| * Saloon (sedan) * Sportback (5-door hatchback) \|- \| A5 \| \| {{nowrap\|Compact <br>executive car}} \| * Saloon (5-door hatchback) * Avant (estate/wagon) \|- \| A6 \| \| {{nowrap\|Executive car}} \| * Saloon (sedan) * Avant (estate/wagon) * Allroad (crossover estate/wagon) \|- \| A6 e-tron \| \| {{nowrap\|Executive car}} \| * Saloon (5-door hatchback) * Avant (estate/wagon) \|- \| A7 \| \| {{nowrap\|Executive Car}} \| * Sportback (5-door hatchback) \|- \| A8 \| \| {{nowrap\|Full-size <br>luxury car}} \| * Saloon (sedan) \|- \| e-tron GT \| \| {{nowrap\|Executive car}} \| * 5-door fastback \|} {{col-break}} {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Audi SUVs \|- \| Q2 \| \| {{nowrap\|Subcompact crossover SUV}} \|- \| Q3 \| \| {{nowrap\|Subcompact crossover SUV}} \|- \| Q4 e-tron \| \| {{nowrap\|Compact crossover SUV}} \|- \| Q5 \| \| {{nowrap\|Compact crossover SUV}} \|- \| Q5 e-tron \| \| {{nowrap\|Electric mid-size crossover SUV}} \|- \| Q6 \| \| {{nowrap\|Full-size crossover SUV}} \|- \| Q6 e-tron \| \| {{nowrap\|Electric compact crossover SUV}} \|- \| Q7 \| \| {{nowrap\|Mid-size crossover SUV}} \|- \| Q8 \| \| {{nowrap\|Mid-size crossover SUV}} \|- \| Q8 e-tron \| \| {{nowrap\|Electric mid-size crossover SUV}} \|} {{col-end}} S and RS models {{main\|Audi S and RS models}} {{col-begin\|width=auto}} {{col-break}} {\| class="wikitable" \|+ S (Sport) models \|- \| S3 \| \| {{nowrap\|Small<br> family car}} \| * Saloon (sedan) * Sportback (5-door hatchback) \|- \| {{nowrap\|S5}} \| \| {{nowrap\|Compact<br /> executive car}} \| * Saloon (5-door hatchback) * Avant (estate/wagon) \|- \| S6 \| \| {{nowrap\|Executive car}} \| * Saloon (sedan) * Avant (estate/wagon) \|- \| S6 e-tron \| \| {{nowrap\|Executive car}} \| * Saloon (5-door hatchback) * Avant (estate/wagon) \|- \| S7 \| \| {{nowrap\|Executive car}} \| * Sportback (5-door hatchback) \|- \| S8 \| \| {{nowrap\|Executive car}} \| * Saloon (sedan) \|- \| {{nowrap\|SQ2}} \| \| {{nowrap\|Subcompact crossover SUV}} \| * Crossover \|- \| {{nowrap\|SQ5}} \| \| {{nowrap\|Compact SUV}} \| * Crossover \|- \| {{nowrap\|SQ7}} \| \| {{nowrap\|Mid-size SUV}} \| * Crossover \|- \| {{nowrap\|SQ8}} \| \| {{nowrap\|Mid-size SUV}} \| * Crossover \|} {{col-break}} {\| class="wikitable" \|+ RS (Rennsport/racing sport) models \|- \| RS e-tron GT \| \| {{nowrap\|Executive car}} \| * 5-door fastback \|- \| RS3 \| \| {{nowrap\|Small family car}} \| * Saloon (Sedan) * 5-door hatchback \|- \| {{nowrap\|RS6}} \| \| {{nowrap\|Executive car}} \| * Avant (estate/wagon) \|- \| RS7 \| \| {{nowrap\|Executive car}} \| * Sportback (5-door hatchback) \|- \| {{nowrap\|RSQ3}} \| \| {{nowrap\|Subcompact crossover SUV}} \| * Crossover \|- \| {{nowrap\|RSQ8}} \| \| {{nowrap\|Mid-size SUV}} \| * Crossover \|} {{col-end}} Electric vehicles {{Further\|List of Audi vehicles#Concept models}} Audi is planning an alliance with the Japanese electronics giant Sanyo to develop a pilot hybrid electric project for the Volkswagen Group. The alliance could result in Sanyo batteries and other electronic components being used in future models of the Volkswagen Group.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080615022945/http://www6.lexisnexis.com/publisher/EndUser?ActionUserDisplayFullDocument&orgId101846&topicId103840033&docIdl%3A788745336 Audi Plans To Run On Sanyo Hybrid Batteries]. lexisnexis.com (1 June 2008).</ref> Concept electric vehicles unveiled to date include the Audi A1 Sportback Concept,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.nextconceptcars.com/concept-cars/audi-a1-sportback-concept/ \|titleAudi A1 Sportback concept \|publisherNext Concept Cars \|date2 October 2008 \|access-date27 April 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090317010527/http://www.nextconceptcars.com/concept-cars/audi-a1-sportback-concept/ \|archive-date17 March 2009 }}</ref> Audi A4 TDI Concept E,<ref>{{cite web \|lastKorzeniewski \|firstJeremy \|urlhttp://www.autobloggreen.com/2008/10/02/audi-unveils-a4-tdi-concept-e/ \|titleAudi unveils A4 TDI concept e \|websiteAutoBlogGreen.com \|date2 October 2008 \|access-date27 April 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090609113605/http://www.autobloggreen.com/2008/10/02/audi-unveils-a4-tdi-concept-e/ \|archive-date9 June 2009 }}</ref> and the fully electric Audi e-tron Concept Supercar.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.audisite.com/1008/audi-e-tron-electric-concept-unveiled/\|titleAudi e-Tron Electric Supercar Concept Unveiled\|publisherAudisite.com\|access-date15 September 2009\|archive-date29 November 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171129154644/http://www.audisite.com/1008/audi-e-tron-electric-concept-unveiled/ }}</ref> Self-driving cars In December 2018, Audi announced to invest 14 billion Euro ($15.9 billion) in e-mobility, self-driving cars.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-audi-strategy-idUSKBN1O30Q8\|titleAudi to invest 14 billion euros in e-mobility, self-driving cars\|date4 December 2018\|workReuters\|access-date4 December 2018}}</ref>Production figures{\| class"wikitable" style="margin:0.5em; font-size:95%" \|- ! ! A1 ! A2 ! A3 ! A4 ! A5 ! A6 ! A7 ! A8 ! Q3 ! Q5 ! Q7 ! TT ! R8 \|- ! 1998<ref name"volkswagenag.com">[http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2000/03/Annual_Report_1999.-bin.acq/qual-BinaryStorageItem.Single.File/VW_AR_1999_e.pdf Volkswagen AG Annual Report 1999]. {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110717231127/http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2000/03/Annual_Report_1999.-bin.acq/qual-BinaryStorageItem.Single.File/VW_AR_1999_e.pdf\|date=17 July 2011}} (including 1998). p. 50. volkswagenag.com.</ref> \| — \| — \| 143,974 \| 271,152 \| — \| 174,867 \| — \| 15,355 \| — \| — \| — \| 13,682 \| — \|- ! 1999<ref name="volkswagenag.com"/> \| — \| — \| 143,505 \| 252,514 \| — \| 162,573 \| — \| 14,636 \| — \| — \| — \| 52,579 \| — \|- ! 2000<ref>[http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2001/03/Annual_Report_2000.-bin.acq/qual-BinaryStorageItem.Single.File/VW_GB_2000_e.pdf Volkswagen AG Annual Report 2000] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110111084829/http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2001/03/Annual_Report_2000.-bin.acq/qual-BinaryStorageItem.Single.File/VW_GB_2000_e.pdf \|date11 January 2011 }}. p. 53 volkswagenag.com</ref> \| — \| 32,164 \| 136,141 \| 231,869 \| — \| 180,715 \| — \| 12,894 \| — \| — \| — \| 56,776 \| — \|- ! 2001<ref>[http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2002/03/annual_report_2001.-bin.acq/qual-BinaryStorageItem.Single.File/20020312_GB_2001_e.pdf Volkswagen AG Annual Report 2001] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110717231251/http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2002/03/annual_report_2001.-bin.acq/qual-BinaryStorageItem.Single.File/20020312_GB_2001_e.pdf \|date17 July 2011 }}. p. 41 volkswagenag.com</ref> \| — \| 49,369 \| 131,082 \| 308,778 \| — \| 186,467 \| — \| 11,708 \| — \| — \| — \| 39,349 \| — \|- ! 2002<ref>[http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2003/03/annual_report_2002.-bin.acq/qual-BinaryStorageItem.Single.File/vw_gb_2002_en.pdf Volkswagen AG Annual Report 2002] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110717231330/http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2003/03/annual_report_2002.-bin.acq/qual-BinaryStorageItem.Single.File/vw_gb_2002_en.pdf \|date17 July 2011 }}. p. 77 volkswagenag.com</ref> \| — \| 37,578 \| 125,538 \| 360,267 \| — \| 178,773 \| — \| 10,942 \| — \| — \| — \| 34,711 \| — \|- ! 2003<ref>[http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2004/03/annual_report_2003.-bin.acq/qual-BinaryStorageItem.Single.File/20040309_gb2003_e.pdf Volkswagen AG Annual Report 2003] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110717231405/http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2004/03/annual_report_2003.-bin.acq/qual-BinaryStorageItem.Single.File/20040309_gb2003_e.pdf \|date17 July 2011 }}. p. 97 volkswagenag.com</ref> \| — \| 27,323 \| 159,417 \| 353,836 \| — \| 168,612 \| — \| 21,748 \| — \| — \| — \| 32,337 \| — \|- ! 2004<ref>[http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2005/03/annual_report_2004.-bin.acq/qual-BinaryStorageItem.Single.File/Gbericht_2004_en.pdf Volkswagen AG Annual Report 2004] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110112130117/http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2005/03/annual_report_2004.-bin.acq/qual-BinaryStorageItem.Single.File/Gbericht_2004_en.pdf \|date12 January 2011 }}. p. 91 volkswagenag.com</ref> \| — \| 19,745 \| 181,274 \| 345,231 \| — \| 195,529 \| — \| 22,429 \| — \| — \| — \| 23,605 \| — \|- ! 2005<ref>[http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2006/03/Volkswagen_AG__Annual_Report_2005.-bin.acq/qual-BinaryStorageItem.Single.File/gesch%C3%A4ftsbericht_2005_english.pdf Volkswagen AG Annual Report 2005] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110717232057/http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2006/03/Volkswagen_AG__Annual_Report_2005.-bin.acq/qual-BinaryStorageItem.Single.File/gesch%C3%A4ftsbericht_2005_english.pdf \|date17 July 2011 }}. p. 41 volkswagenag.com</ref> \| — \| 10,026 \| 224,961 \| 337,705 \| — \| 215,437 \| — \| 21,515 \| — \| — \| 1,185 \| 12,307 \| — \|- ! 2006<ref>[http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2007/03/Geschaeftsbericht_2006.-bin.acq/qual-BinaryStorageItem.Single.File/Annual_Report_2006_e.pdf Volkswagen AG Annual Report 2006] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110717232139/http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2007/03/Geschaeftsbericht_2006.-bin.acq/qual-BinaryStorageItem.Single.File/Annual_Report_2006_e.pdf \|date17 July 2011 }}. p. 45 volkswagenag.com</ref> \| — \| — \| 231,752 \| 341,110 \| 487 \| 229,021 \| — \| 22,468 \| — \| — \| 72,169 \| 23,675 \| 164 \|- ! 2007<ref>[http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2008/03/Annual_Report_2007.-bin.acq/qual-BinaryStorageItem.Single.File/VW_AG_GB_2007_en.pdf Volkswagen AG Annual Report 2007] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111001032802/http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2008/03/Annual_Report_2007.-bin.acq/qual-BinaryStorageItem.Single.File/VW_AG_GB_2007_en.pdf \|date1 October 2011 }}. p. 83 volkswagenag.com</ref> \| — \| — \| 231,117 \| 289,806 \| 25,549 \| 243,842 \| — \| 22,182 \| — \| 162 \| 77,395 \| 56,766 \| 4,125 \|- ! 2008<ref>[http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2009/03/GB_2008.-bin.acq/qual-BinaryStorageItem.Single.File/Y_2008_e.pdf Volkswagen AG Annual Report 2008] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111001034708/http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2009/03/GB_2008.-bin.acq/qual-BinaryStorageItem.Single.File/Y_2008_e.pdf \|date1 October 2011 }}. p. 83 volkswagenag.com</ref> \| — \| — \| 222,164 \| 378,885 \| 57,650 \| 214,074 \| — \| 20,140 \| — \| 20,324 \| 59,008 \| 41,789 \| 5,656 \|- ! 2009<ref>[http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2010/03/Annual_Report_2009.-bin.acq/qual-BinaryStorageItem.Single.File/Y_2009_e.pdf Volkswagen AG Annual Report 2009] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110717231646/http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2010/03/Annual_Report_2009.-bin.acq/qual-BinaryStorageItem.Single.File/Y_2009_e.pdf \|date17 July 2011 }}. p. 93 volkswagenag.com</ref> \| — \| — \| 206,747 \| 282,033 \| 84,883 \| 182,090 \| — \| 8,599 \| — \| 105,074 \| 27,929 \| 22,821 \| 2,101 \|- ! 2010<ref>[http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2011/03/Volkswagen_AG_Geschaeftsbericht_2010.-bin.acq/qual-BinaryStorageItem.Single.File/GB_2010_e.pdf Volkswagen AG Annual Report 2010] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110717231904/http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2011/03/Volkswagen_AG_Geschaeftsbericht_2010.-bin.acq/qual-BinaryStorageItem.Single.File/GB_2010_e.pdf \|date17 July 2011 }}. p. 111 volkswagenag.com</ref> \| 51,937 \| — \| 198,974 \| 306,291 \| 111,270 \| 211,256 \| 8,496 \| 22,435 \| — \| 154,604 \| 48,937 \| 26,217 \| 3,485 \|- ! 2011<ref name"AudiAG FY2011">{{cite web\|titleVWAG FY2011\|urlhttp://www.volkswagenag.com/content/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2012/03/Volkswagen_AG_Annual_Report_2011.bin.html/binarystorageitem/file/Y_2011_e.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.volkswagenag.com/content/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2012/03/Volkswagen_AG_Annual_Report_2011.bin.html/binarystorageitem/file/Y_2011_e.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> \| 117,566 \| — \| 189,068 \| 321,045 \| 111,758 \| 241,862 \| 37,301 \| 38,542 \| 19,613 \| 183,678 \| 53,703 \| 25,508 \| 3,551 \|- ! 2012<ref>{{cite web\|titleAudi Annual Report 2012\|url http://www.audi.com/content/dam/com/EN/investor-relations/financial_reports/annual-reports/2012_audi_annual_report.pdf\|access-date7 August 2016\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160818204336/http://www.audi.com/content/dam/com/EN/investor-relations/financial_reports/annual-reports/2012_audi_annual_report.pdf\|archive-date= 18 August 2016 }}</ref> \| 123,111 \| — \| 164,666 \| 329,759 \| 103,357 \| 284,888 \| 28,950 \| 35,932 \| 106,918 \| 209,799 \| 54,558 \| 21,880 \| 2,241 \|} * Data from 1998 to 2010. Figures for different body types/versions of models have been merged to create overall figures for each model. Motorsport Audi has competed in various forms of motorsports. Audi's tradition in motorsport began with their former company Auto Union in the 1930s. In the 1990s, Audi found success in the Touring and Super Touring categories of motor racing after success in circuit racing in North America. Rallying {{Main\|Audi Sport WRC results}} with his Quattro A2 during the 1984 Rally Portugal]] In 1980, Audi released the Quattro, a four-wheel drive (4WD) turbocharged car that went on to win rallies and races worldwide. It is considered one of the most significant rally cars of all time, because it was one of the first to take advantage of the then-recently changed rules which allowed the use of four-wheel drive in competition racing. Many critics doubted the viability of four-wheel drive racers, thinking them to be too heavy and complex, yet the Quattro was to become a successful car. It led its first rally before going off the road, however, the rally world had been served notice 4WD was the future. The Quattro went on to achieve much success in the World Rally Championship. It won the 1983 (Hannu Mikkola) and the 1984 (Stig Blomqvist) drivers' titles,<ref>{{cite web\|titleWorld Rally Championship for Drivers – Champions\|workRallyBase.nl\|urlhttp://www.rallybase.nl/index.php?typechampionlist&subchamptypewcd\|access-date30 August 2008}}</ref> and brought Audi the manufacturers' title in 1982 and 1984.<ref>{{cite web\|titleWorld Rally Championship for Manufacturers – Champions\|workRallyBase.nl\|urlhttp://www.rallybase.nl/index.php?typechampionlist&subchamptypewrc\|access-date30 August 2008}}</ref> driven at the 2007 Rallye Deutschland]] In 1984, Audi launched the short-wheelbase Sport Quattro which dominated rally races in Monte Carlo and Sweden, with Audi taking all podium places, but succumbed to problems further into WRC contention. In 1985, after another season mired in mediocre finishes, Walter Röhrl finished the season in his Sport Quattro S1, and helped place Audi second in the manufacturers' points. Audi also received rally honours in the Hong Kong to Beijing rally in that same year. Michèle Mouton, the only female driver to win a round of the World Rally Championship and a driver for Audi, took the Sport Quattro S1, now simply called the "S1", and raced in the Pikes Peak International Hill Climb. The {{convert\|1439\|m\|adjon}} climb race pits a driver and car to drive to the summit of the {{convert\|4302\|m\|adjon}} Pikes Peak mountain in Colorado, and in 1985, Michèle Mouton set a new record of 11:25.39, and being the first woman to set a Pikes Peak record. In 1986, Audi formally left international rallying following an accident in Portugal involving driver Joaquim Santos in his Ford RS200. Santos swerved to avoid hitting spectators in the road, and left the track into the crowd of spectators on the side, killing three and injuring 30. Bobby Unser used an Audi in that same year to claim a new record for the Pikes Peak Hill Climb at 11:09.22. In 1987, Walter Röhrl claimed the title for Audi setting a new Pikes Peak International Hill Climb record of 10:47.85 in his Audi S1, which he had retired from the WRC two years earlier. The Audi S1 employed Audi's time-tested inline-five-cylinder turbocharged engine, with the final version generating {{convert\|441\|kW\|PS bhp\|0\|abbron}}.<ref name"Quattro25">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.audiusanews.com/newsrelease.do?id211\|title25 Years of Audi Quattro\|workAudi AG\|access-date31 March 2009\|date22 February 2005\|publisherAudi Of America\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121023044743/http://www.audiusanews.com/newsrelease.do?id211\|archive-date23 October 2012 }}</ref> The engine was mated to a six-speed gearbox and ran on Audi's famous four-wheel drive system. All of Audi's top drivers drove this car; Hannu Mikkola, Stig Blomqvist, Walter Röhrl and Michèle Mouton. This Audi S1 started the range of Audi 'S' cars, which now represents an increased level of sports-performance equipment within the mainstream Audi model range. In the United States As Audi moved away from rallying and into circuit racing, they chose to move first into America with the Trans-Am in 1988. In 1989, Audi moved to International Motor Sports Association (IMSA) GTO with the Audi 90, however as they avoided the two major endurance events (Daytona and Sebring) despite winning on a regular basis, they would lose out on the title. Touring cars In 1990, having completed their objective to market cars in North America, Audi returned to Europe, turning first to the Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft (DTM) series with the Audi V8, and then in 1993, being unwilling to build cars for the new formula, they turned their attention to the fast-growing Super Touring series, which are a series of national championships. Audi first entered in the French Supertourisme and Italian Superturismo. In the following year, Audi would switch to the German Super Tourenwagen Cup (known as STW), and then to British Touring Car Championship (BTCC) the year after that. The Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), having difficulty regulating the quattro four-wheel drive system, and the impact it had on the competitors, would eventually ban all four-wheel drive cars from competing in the series in 1998,<ref name"Audi Motorsport">{{cite web \|titleAudi at Le Mans\|dateFebruary 2012\|publisherAudi-Motorsport info\|page17\|urlhttp://www.ausmotive.com/downloads/Audi/R18-etron-quattro-press-kit.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.ausmotive.com/downloads/Audi/R18-etron-quattro-press-kit.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|url-status=live}}</ref> but by then, Audi switched all their works efforts to sports car racing. By 2000, Audi would still compete in the US with their RS4 for the SCCA Speed World GT Challenge, through dealer/team Champion Racing competing against Corvettes, Vipers, and smaller BMWs (where it is one of the few series to permit 4WD cars). In 2003, Champion Racing entered an RS6. Once again, the quattro four-wheel drive was superior, and Champion Audi won the championship. They returned in 2004 to defend their title, but a newcomer, Cadillac with the new Omega Chassis CTS-V, gave them a run for their money. After four victories in a row, the Audis were sanctioned with several negative changes that deeply affected the car's performance. Namely, added ballast weights, and Champion Audi deciding to go with different tyres, and reducing the boost pressure of the turbocharger. In 2004, after years of competing with the TT-R in the revitalised DTM series, with privateer team Abt Racing/Christian Abt taking the 2002 title with Laurent Aïello, Audi returned as a full factory effort to touring car racing by entering two factory-supported Joest Racing A4 DTM cars. 24 Hours of Le Mans {{Further\|List of Audi vehicles#Le Mans prototypes}} ]] ]] Audi began racing prototype sportscars in 1999, debuting at the Le Mans 24 hour. Two car concepts were developed and raced in their first season - the Audi R8R (open-cockpit 'roadster' prototype) and the Audi R8C (closed-cockpit 'coupé' GT-prototype). The R8R scored a credible podium on its racing debut at Le Mans and was the concept which Audi continued to develop into the 2000 season due to favourable rules for open-cockpit prototypes. However, most of the competitors (such as BMW, Toyota, Mercedes and Nissan) retired at the end of 1999. The factory-supported Joest Racing team won at Le Mans three times in a row with the Audi R8 (2000–2002), as well as winning every race in the American Le Mans Series in its first year. Audi also sold the car to customer teams such as Champion Racing. In 2003, two Bentley Speed 8s, with engines designed by Audi, and driven by Joest drivers loaned to the fellow Volkswagen Group company, competed in the GTP class, and finished the race in the top two positions, while the Champion Racing R8 finished third overall, and first in the LMP900 class. Audi returned to the winner's podium at the 2004 race, with the top three finishers all driving R8s: Audi Sport Japan Team Goh finished first, Audi Sport UK Veloqx second, and Champion Racing third. At the 2005 24 Hours of Le Mans, Champion Racing entered two R8s, along with an R8 from the Audi PlayStation Team Oreca. The R8s (which were built to old LMP900 regulations) received a narrower air inlet restrictor, reducing power, and an additional {{convert\|50\|kg\|0\|abbr=on}} of weight compared to the newer LMP1 chassis. On average, the R8s were about 2–3&nbsp;seconds off pace compared to the Pescarolo–Judd. But with a team of excellent drivers and experience, both Champion R8s were able to take first and third, while the Oreca team took fourth. The Champion team was also the first American team to win Le Mans since the Gulf Ford GTs in 1967. This also ends the long era of the R8; however, its replacement for 2006, called the Audi R10 TDI, was unveiled on 13 December 2005. The R10 TDI employed many new and innovative features, the most notable being the twin-turbocharged direct injection diesel engine. It was first raced in the 2006 12 Hours of Sebring as a race-test in preparation for the 2006 24 Hours of Le Mans, which it later went on to win. Audi had a win in the first diesel sports car at 12 Hours of Sebring (the car was developed with a Diesel engine due to ACO regulations that favor diesel engines). As well as winning the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 2006, the R10 TDI beat the Peugeot 908 HDi FAP in {{24hLM\|2007}}, and in {{24hLM\|2008}}, (however Peugeot won the 24h in 2009) with a podium clean-sweep (all four 908 entries retired) while breaking a distance record (set by the Porsche 917K of Martini Racing in {{24hLM\|1971}}), in {{24hLM\|2010}} with the R15 TDI Plus.<ref>{{cite web \| url http://www.joest-racing.de/web/news/news.php?id541&sprachee \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110719050259/http://www.joest-racing.de/web/news/news.php?id541&sprachee \| archive-date 19 July 2011 \| title Audi achieves record victory at Le Mans with new technology \| workjoest-racing.de; Audi Sport \| publisherJoest Racing \| date 13 June 2010 \| access-date16 June 2010}}</ref> Audi's sports car racing success would continue with the Audi R18's victory at the 2011 24 Hours of Le Mans. Audi Sport Team Joest's Benoît Tréluyer earned Audi their first pole position in five years while the team's sister car locked out the front row.<ref nameAFP_Audi_Front_Row>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5ikxFTgOVDE0DXKGgxuzUurSVk4dw?docIdCNG.4facb82ec8689e5a037eb4e7286eff0b.3b1\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120525111136/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5ikxFTgOVDE0DXKGgxuzUurSVk4dw?docIdCNG.4facb82ec8689e5a037eb4e7286eff0b.3b1\|url-statusdead\|archive-date25 May 2012\|titleAudi back on front row for Le Mans 24 Hours\|agencyAgence France-Presse\|date10 June 2011}}</ref> Early accidents eliminated two of Audi's three entries, but the sole remaining Audi R18 TDI of Tréluyer, Marcel Fässler, and André Lotterer held off the trio of Peugeot 908s to claim victory by a margin of 13.8 seconds. Results {\| class"wikitable" style"margin:0.5em; font-size:87%" \|- ! Car ! Year ! 1999 ! 2000 ! 2001 ! 2002 ! 2003 ! 2004 ! 2005 ! 2006 ! 2007 ! 2008 ! 2009 ! 2010 ! 2011 ! 2012 ! 2013 ! 2014 ! 2015 ! 2016 \|- 1 CAR ! 1 ! rowspan="4" \| Position \| style="background:#dfffdf;" \| 4 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;" \| 3 \| style="background:#ffffbf;" \| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;" \| 1 \| style="background:#dfffdf;" \| 4 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;" \| 3 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;" \| 3 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;" \| 3 \| style="background:#ffffbf;" \| 1 \| style="background:#dfffdf;" \| 6 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;" \| 3 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;" \| 3 \| style="background:#efcfff;" \| Ret \| style="background:#ffffbf;" \| 1 \| style="background:#dfffdf;" \| 5 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;" \| 2 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;" \| 3 \| style="background:#dfffdf;" \| 4 \|- CAR 2 ! 2 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 4 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \|- CAR 3 ! 3 \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 5 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 4 \| \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 4 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 17 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 5 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 7 \| \|- CAR 4 ! 4 \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \| \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 7 \| \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| \| \| \| \|} American Le Mans Series Audi entered a factory racing team run by Joest Racing into the American Le Mans Series under the Audi Sport North America name in 2000. This was a successful operation with the team winning on its debut in the series at the 2000 12 Hours of Sebring. Factory-backed Audi R8s were the dominant car in ALMS taking 25 victories between 2000 and the end of the 2002 season. In 2003, Audi sold customer cars to Champion Racing as well as continuing to race the factory Audi Sport North America team. Champion Racing won many races as a private team running Audi R8s and eventually replaced Team Joest as the Audi Sport North America between 2006 and 2008. Since 2009 Audi has not taken part in full American Le Mans Series Championships, but has competed in the series opening races at Sebring, using the 12-hour race as a test for Le Mans, and also as part of the 2012 FIA World Endurance Championship season calendar. Results {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center; font-size:95%" \|- ! Year ! Manufacturer ! Chassis ! Team ! Rd1 ! Rd2 ! Rd3 ! Rd4 ! Rd5 ! Rd6 ! Rd7 ! Rd8 ! Rd9 ! Rd10 ! Rd11 ! Rd12 \|- ! rowspan="3"\| 2000 \| align"left" rowspan"3"\| {{flagicon\|GER}} Audi \| rowspan="3"\| R8 \|- \| align"left" rowspan"2"\| {{flagicon\|United States}} Audi Sport North America \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 20 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \|- \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 6 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 4 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 4 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 15 \|- ! rowspan="2"\| 2001 \| align"left" rowspan"2"\| {{flagicon\|GER}} Audi \| rowspan="2"\| R8 \| align"left" rowspan"2"\| {{flagicon\|United States}} Audi Sport North America \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 5 \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \| \| \|- \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 4 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| \| \|- ! rowspan="2"\| 2002 \| align"left" rowspan"2"\| {{flagicon\|GER}} Audi \| rowspan="2"\| R8 \| align"left" rowspan"2"\| {{flagicon\|United States}} Audi Sport North America \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 5 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 14 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 6 \| \| \|- \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 4 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| \| \|- ! rowspan="2"\| 2003 \| align"left" rowspan"2"\| {{flagicon\|GER}} Audi \| rowspan="2"\| R8 \| align"left" rowspan"1"\| {{flagicon\|United States}} Audi Sport North America \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 7 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| \| \| \|- \| align"left" rowspan"1"\| {{flagicon\|United States}} Champion Racing \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 20 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 4 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| \| \| \|- ! rowspan="3"\| 2004 \| align"left" rowspan"3"\| {{flagicon\|GER}} Audi \| rowspan="3"\| R8 \| align"left" rowspan"2"\| {{flagicon\|UK}} Audi Sport UK \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- \| align"left" rowspan"1"\| {{flagicon\|United States}} Champion Racing \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| \| \| \|- ! rowspan="2"\| 2005 \| align"left" rowspan"2"\| {{flagicon\|GER}} Audi \| rowspan="2"\| R8 \| align"left" rowspan"2"\| {{flagicon\|United States}} Champion Racing \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 18 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 7 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 4 \| \| \|- \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| \| \|- ! rowspan="3"\| 2006 \| align"left" rowspan"3"\| {{flagicon\|GER}} Audi \| rowspan="1"\| R8 \| align"left" rowspan"3"\| {{flagicon\|United States}} Audi Sport North America \| \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- \| rowspan="2"\| R10 \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \| \| \| \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 4 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 7 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| \| \|- \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| \| \| \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 4 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| \| \|- ! rowspan="2"\| 2007 \| align"left" rowspan"2"\| {{flagicon\|GER}} Audi \| rowspan="2"\| R10 \| align"left" rowspan"2"\| {{flagicon\|United States}} Audi Sport North America \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 4 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 7 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 5 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 5 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \|- \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 12 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 6 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 23 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 4 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 17 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| \|- ! rowspan="2"\| 2008 \| align"left" rowspan"2"\| {{flagicon\|GER}} Audi \| rowspan="2"\| R10 \| align"left" rowspan"2"\| {{flagicon\|United States}} Audi Sport North America \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 21 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#000000; color:white"\| DSQ \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| \|- \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 6 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 7 \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 4 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| \|- ! rowspan="2"\| 2009 \| align"left" rowspan"2"\| {{flagicon\|GER}} Audi \| rowspan="2"\| R15 \| align"left" rowspan"2"\| {{flagicon\|United States}} Audi Sport North America \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 5 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 4 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- ! rowspan="2"\| 2010 \| align"left" rowspan"2"\| {{flagicon\|GER}} Audi \| rowspan="2"\| R15 \| align"left" rowspan"2"\| {{flagicon\|United States}} Audi Sport North America \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- ! rowspan="3"\| 2012 \| align"left" rowspan"3"\| {{flagicon\|GER}} Audi \| rowspan="3"\| R18 \| align"left" rowspan"3"\| {{flagicon\|Germany}} Audi Sport Team Joest \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 16 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- ! rowspan="2"\| 2013 \| align"left" rowspan"2"\| {{flagicon\|GER}} Audi \| rowspan="2"\| R18 \| align"left" rowspan"2"\| {{flagicon\|Germany}} Audi Sport Team Joest \| style="background:#ffffbf;"\| 1 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|} European Le Mans Series Audi participated in the 2003 1000km of Le Mans which was a one-off sports car race in preparation for the 2004 European Le Mans Series. The factory team Audi Sport UK won races and the championship in the 2004 season but Audi was unable to match their sweeping success of Audi Sport North America in the American Le Mans Series, partly due to the arrival of a factory competitor in LMP1, Peugeot. The French manufacturer's 908 HDi FAP became the car to beat in the series from 2008 onwards with 20 LMP wins. However, Audi were able to secure the championship in 2008 even though Peugeot scored more race victories in the season.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.autoblog.com/2008/09/16/audi-wins-everything-add-european-le-mans-to-the-list/\|titleAudi wins everything... add European Le Mans Series to the list\|firstJonathon\|lastRamsey\|workAutoblog\|access-date14 July 2015}}</ref> Results {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center; font-size:95%" \|- ! Year ! Manufacturer ! Chassis ! Team ! Rd1 ! Rd2 ! Rd3 ! Rd4 ! Rd5 \|- ! rowspan="1"\| 2003 \| align"left" rowspan"1"\| {{flagicon\|GER}} Audi \| rowspan="1"\| R8 \| align"left" rowspan"1"\| {{flagicon\|Japan}} Audi Sport Japan \| style="background:#FFFFBF;" \| 1 \| \| \| \| \|- ! rowspan="3"\| 2004 \| align"left" rowspan"3"\| {{flagicon\|GER}} Audi \| rowspan="3"\| R8 \| align"left" rowspan"2"\| {{flagicon\|UK}} Audi Sport UK \| style="background:#DFDFDF;" \| 2 \| style="background:#FFFFBF;" \| 1 \| style="background:#FFFFBF;" \| 1 \| style="background:#EFCFFF;" \| Ret \| \|- \| style="background:#FFFFBF;" \| 1 \| style="background:#DFDFDF;" \| 2 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;" \| 3 \| style="background:#FFFFBF;" \| 1 \| \|- \| align"left" rowspan"1"\| {{flagicon\|Japan}} Audi Sport Japan \| style="background:#ffdf9f;" \| 3 \| style="background:#dfffdf;" \| 4 \| style="background:#DFDFDF;" \| 2 \| style="background:#DFDFDF;" \| 2 \| \|- ! rowspan="1"\| 2005 \| align"left" rowspan"1"\| {{flagicon\|GER}} Audi \| rowspan="1"\| R8 \| align"left" rowspan"1"\| {{Flagicon\|France\|variant=1974}} Team Oreca \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \| \| style="background:#FFFFBF;" \| 1 \| style="background:#DFDFDF;" \| 2 \| style="background:#DFDFDF;" \| 2 \|- ! rowspan="2"\| 2008 \| align"left" rowspan"2"\| {{flagicon\|GER}} Audi \| rowspan="2"\| R10 \| align"left" rowspan"2"\| {{flagicon\|GER}} Audi Sport Team Joest \| style="background:#dfffdf;" \| 5 \| style="background:#dfffdf;" \| 6 \| style="background:#dfffdf;" \| 4 \| style="background:#dfffdf;" \| 4 \| style="background:#FFFFBF;" \| 1 \|- \| style="background:#DFDFDF;" \| 2 \| style="background:#DFDFDF;" \| 2 \| style="background:#DFDFDF;" \| 2 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;" \| 3 \| style="background:#dfffdf;" \| 4 \|- ! rowspan="3"\| 2010 \| align"left" rowspan"3"\| {{flagicon\|GER}} Audi \| rowspan="3"\| R15 \| align"left" rowspan"3"\| {{flagicon\|GER}} Audi Sport Team Joest \| style="background:#FFFFBF;" \| 1 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;" \| 3 \| \| \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \|- \| \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 5 \| \| \| style="background:#ffdf9f;" \| 3 \|- \| \| style="background:#dfffdf;"\| 12 \| \| \| \|} World Endurance Championship {{see also\|Audi R18}} 2012 In 2012, the FIA sanctioned a World Endurance Championship which would be organised by the ACO as a continuation of the ILMC. Audi competed won the first WEC race at Sebring and followed this up with a further three successive wins, including the 2012 24 Hours of Le Mans. Audi scored a final 5th victory in the 2012 WEC in Bahrain and were able to win the inaugural WEC Manufacturers' Championship. 2013 As defending champions, Audi once again entered the Audi R18 e-tron quattro chassis into the 2013 WEC and the team won the first five consecutive races, including the 2013 24 Hours of Le Mans. The victory at Round 5, Circuit of the Americas, was of particular significance as it marked the 100th win for Audi in Le Mans prototypes.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.audi-mediaservices.com/publish/ms/content/en/public/pressemitteilungen/2013/09/22/audi_celebrates_100th.html\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131025200201/https://www.audi-mediaservices.com/publish/ms/content/en/public/pressemitteilungen/2013/09/22/audi_celebrates_100th.html\|url-statususurped\|archive-date25 October 2013\|titleAudi celebrates 100th LMP overall victory with Austin win\|workAudi MediaCenter\|access-date14 July 2015}}</ref> Audi secured their second consecutive WEC Manufacturers' Championship at Round 6 after taking second place and half points in the red-flagged Fuji race.<ref>{{cite news\| urlhttp://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/110760 \| titleFuji WEC: Toyota gets victory as rain ends race \| workAutosport \| date20 October 2013}}</ref>2014For the 2014 season, Audi entered a redesigned and upgraded R18 e-tron quattro which featured a 2 MJ energy recovery system. As defending champions, Audi would once again face a challenge in LMP1 from Toyota, and additionally from Porsche who returned to endurance racing after a 16-year absence. The season-opening 6hrs of Silverstone was a disaster for Audi who saw both cars retire from the race, marking the first time that an Audi car has failed to score a podium in a World Endurance Championship race. The team won two races and finished second in the manufacturers' championship.2015Audi won the first two races of the season, but thereafter failed to win again, finishing second in the manufacturers' championship.2016For the third year in a row, Audi won two races and finished second in the manufacturers' championship. Audi had left WEC after the 2016 season.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleIl était une fois Audi au Mans ... \|urlhttps://franceracing.fr/world-endurance-championship/histoire-audi-le-mans/ \|websitefrance racing}}</ref> Results {\| class"wikitable" style"font-size: 85%; text-align:center" \|- valign="top" ! valign="middle"\| Year ! valign="middle"\| Manufacturer ! valign="middle"\| Chassis ! SEB<br />{{flagicon\|USA}} ! SPA<br />{{flagicon\|BEL}} ! LMS<br />{{flagicon\|FRA}} ! SIL<br />{{flagicon\|GBR}} ! SÃO<br />{{flagicon\|BRA}} ! BHR<br />{{flagicon\|BHR}} ! FUJ<br />{{flagicon\|JPN}} ! SHA<br />{{flagicon\|CHN}} ! valign="middle"\| {{Tooltip\|Total<br />points\|Championship points listed first, cumulative points listed in parenthesis}} ! valign="middle"\| {{abbr\|Pos.\|Position}} \|- ! 2012 \| align="left" \| {{flagicon\|DEU}} Audi \| R18 e-tron quattro \| style="background:#FFFFBF;" \| 1 \| style="background:#FFFFBF;" \| 1 \| style="background:#FFFFBF;" \| 1 \| style="background:#FFFFBF;" \| 1 \| style="background:#DFDFDF;" \| 2 \| style="background:#FFFFBF;" \| 1 \| style="background:#DFDFDF;" \| 2 \| style="background:#DFDFDF;" \| 2 \| style="background:#FFFFBF;" \| 173 (209) \| style="background:#FFFFBF;" \| 1st \|} {\| class"wikitable" style"font-size: 85%; text-align:center" \|- valign="top" ! valign="middle"\| Year ! valign="middle"\| Manufacturer ! valign="middle"\| Chassis ! SIL<br />{{flagicon\|GBR}} ! SPA<br />{{flagicon\|BEL}} ! LMS<br />{{flagicon\|FRA}} ! SÃO<br />{{flagicon\|BRA}} ! COA<br />{{flagicon\|USA}} ! FUJ<br />{{flagicon\|JPN}} ! SHA<br />{{flagicon\|CHN}} ! BHR<br />{{flagicon\|BHR}} ! valign="middle"\| Total<br />points ! valign="middle"\| {{abbr\|Pos.\|Position}} \|- ! 2013 \| align="left" \| {{flagicon\|DEU}} Audi \| \| R18 e-tron quattro \| style="background:#FFFFBF;" \| 1 \| style="background:#FFFFBF;" \| 1 \| style="background:#FFFFBF;" \| 1 \| style="background:#FFFFBF;" \| 1 \| style="background:#FFFFBF;" \| 1 \| style="background:#DFDFDF;" \| 2 \| style="background:#FFFFBF;" \| 1 \| style="background:#DFDFDF;" \| 2 \| style="background:#FFFFBF;" \| 207 (207) \| style="background:#FFFFBF;" \| 1st \|} {\| class"wikitable" style"font-size: 85%; text-align:center" \|- valign="top" ! valign="middle"\| Year ! valign="middle"\| Manufacturer ! valign="middle"\| Chassis ! valign="middle"\| Car ! SIL<br />{{flagicon\|GBR}} ! SPA<br />{{flagicon\|BEL}} ! LMS<br />{{flagicon\|FRA}} ! COA<br />{{flagicon\|USA}} ! FUJ<br />{{flagicon\|JPN}} ! SHA<br />{{flagicon\|CHN}} ! BHR<br />{{flagicon\|BHR}} ! SÃO<br />{{flagicon\|BRA}} ! valign="middle"\| {{Tooltip\|Total<br />points\|Championship points listed first, cumulative points listed in parenthesis}} ! valign="middle"\| {{abbr\|Pos.\|Position}} \|- ! rowspan="2"\|2014 \| align"left" rowspan"2"\| {{flagicon\|DEU}} Audi ! rowspan="2"\| R18 e-tron quattro \| 1 \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \| style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \| style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| 1 \| style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| 1 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 5 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 4 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 4 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 ! rowspan="2"\| 244 \| style"background:#DFDFDF;" rowspan"3"\| 2nd \|- \| 2 \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 5 \| style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \| style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 6 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 5 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 5 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 5 \|} {\| class"wikitable" style"font-size: 85%; text-align:center" \|- valign="top" ! valign="middle"\| Year ! valign="middle"\| Manufacturer ! valign="middle"\| Chassis ! SIL<br />{{flagicon\|GBR}} ! SPA<br />{{flagicon\|BEL}} ! LMS<br />{{flagicon\|FRA}} ! NÜR<br />{{flagicon\|DEU}} ! COA<br />{{flagicon\|USA}} ! FUJ<br />{{flagicon\|JPN}} ! SHA<br />{{flagicon\|CHN}} ! BHR<br />{{flagicon\|BHR}} ! valign="middle"\| {{Tooltip\|Total<br />points\|Championship points listed first, cumulative points listed in parenthesis}} ! valign="middle"\| {{abbr\|Pos.\|Position}} \|- ! rowspan="2"\|2015 \| align"left" rowspan"2"\| {{flagicon\|DEU}} Audi ! rowspan="2"\| R18 e-tron quattro \| style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| 1 \| style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 ! rowspan="2"\| 264 \| style"background:#DFDFDF;" rowspan"3"\| 2nd \|- \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 5 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 5 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 4 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 4 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 4 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 4 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 6 \|} {\| class"wikitable" style"font-size: 85%; text-align:center" \|- valign="top" ! valign="middle"\| Year ! valign="middle"\| Manufacturer ! valign="middle"\| Chassis ! SIL<br />{{flagicon\|GBR}} ! SPA<br />{{flagicon\|BEL}} ! LMS<br />{{flagicon\|FRA}} ! NÜR<br />{{flagicon\|DEU}} ! MEX<br />{{flagicon\|MEX}} ! COA<br />{{flagicon\|USA}} ! FUJ<br />{{flagicon\|JPN}} ! SHA<br />{{flagicon\|CHN}} ! BHR<br />{{flagicon\|BHR}} ! valign="middle"\| {{Tooltip\|Total<br />points\|Championship points listed first, cumulative points listed in parenthesis}} ! valign="middle"\| {{abbr\|Pos.\|Position}} \|- ! rowspan="2"\|2016 \| align"left" rowspan"2"\| {{flagicon\|DEU}} Audi ! rowspan="2"\| R18 e-tron quattro \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \| style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| 1 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \| style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \| style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \| style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 5 \| style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| 1 ! rowspan="2"\| 266 \| style"background:#DFDFDF;" rowspan"3"\| 2nd \|- \| EX \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 4 \| style="background:#ffdf9f;"\| 3 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 5 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 6 \| style="background:#efcfff;"\| Ret \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 6 \| style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \|} Formula E {{main\|Abt Sportsline}} Audi provided factory support to Abt Sportsline in the FIA Formula E Championship, The team competed under the title of Audi Sport Abt Formula E Team in the inaugural 2014-15 Formula E season.<ref>{{cite news\| urlhttp://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-motor-racing-electric-idUKBRE9AE0QQ20131115 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161120212452/http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-motor-racing-electric-idUKBRE9AE0QQ20131115 \| url-statusdead \| archive-date20 November 2016 \| workReuters \| firstAlan \| lastBaldwin \| titleAudi Sport ABT to enter Formula E series \| date15 November 2013}}</ref> On 13 February 2014 the team announced its driver line up as Daniel Abt and World Endurance Championship driver Lucas di Grassi.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.fiaformulae.com/news/abt-reveal-drivers-line-up \|titleFormula e - ABT Sportsline unveils Formula e driver line-up with Lucas di Grassi & Daniel Abt \|access-date13 February 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140221200407/http://www.fiaformulae.com/news/abt-reveal-drivers-line-up \|archive-date21 February 2014 }}</ref> Audi had left Formula E after the 2020-21 Formula E season. Audi continued to provide their powertrain to Envision Racing for the 2021-22 Formula E season. Through the seven seasons in Formula E, Audi secured 14 victories, one Drivers' Champion with Lucas di Grassi and one Teams' Champion. {\| class"wikitable" style"font-size: 85%; text-align:center;" \|- valign="top" !valign=middle\| Year !valign=middle\| Chassis !valign="middle"\| Powertrain !valign="middle"\| Tyres !valign="middle"\| No. !valign="middle"\| Drivers !style="width:26px;"\|1 !style="width:26px;"\|2 !style="width:26px;"\|3 !style="width:26px;"\|4 !style="width:26px;"\|5 !style="width:26px;"\|6 !style="width:26px;"\|7 !style="width:26px;"\|8 !style="width:26px;"\|9 !style="width:26px;"\|10 !style="width:26px;"\|11 !style="width:26px;"\|12 !style="width:26px;"\|13 !style="width:26px;"\|14 !style="width:26px;"\|15 ! valign="middle" \| Points ! {{Tooltip\|T.C.\|Teams' Championship position}} \|- ! colspan="23" \| Audi Sport Abt Formula E Team \|- ! rowspan=3\| 2014–15 \| rowspan=3\| Spark SRT01-e \| rowspan=3\| SRT01-e \| rowspan=3\| {{Michelin}} \| \| \| BEI \| PUT \| PDE \| BUE \| MIA \| LBH \| MCO \| BER \| MSC \|colspan=2\| LDN \| \| \| \| ! rowspan"3" style"background:#FFDF9F;" \| 165 !style"background:#FFDF9F;" rowspan3\| 3rd \|- \| 11 \| align="left" \| {{flagicon\|BRA}} Lucas di Grassi \| style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| 1 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| 3 \| style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| Ret \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 9 \| style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| 3 \| style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \| style="background:#000000; color:white;"\| DSQ \| style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 4 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 6 \| \| \| \| \|- \| 66 \| align="left" \| {{flagicon\|GER}} Daniel Abt \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 10 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 10 \| style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 15 \| style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 13† \| style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| 3 \| style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 15 \| style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| Ret \| style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 14 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 5 \| style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| Ret \| style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 11 \| \| \| \| \|- ! colspan="23" \| Abt Schaeffler Audi Sport \|- ! rowspan=3\| 2015–16 \| rowspan=3\| Spark SRT01-e \| rowspan=3\| ABT Schaeffler FE01 \| rowspan=3\| {{Michelin}} \| \| \| BEI \| PUT \| PDE \| BUE \| MEX \| LBH \| PAR \| BER \|colspan=2\| LDN \| \| \| \| \| ! rowspan"3" style"background:#DFDFDF;" \| 221 !style"background:#DFDFDF;" rowspan3\| 2nd \|- \| 11 \| align="left" \| {{flagicon\|BRA}} Lucas di Grassi \|style="background:#dfdfdf;"\| 2 \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| 1 \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| 3 \|style="background:#000000; color:white;"\| DSQ \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| 1 \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| 1 \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| 3 \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 4 \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| Ret \| \| \| \| \| \|- \| 66 \| align="left" \| {{flagicon\|GER}} Daniel Abt \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 11 \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 7 \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 8 \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 13 \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 7 \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| 3 \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 10 \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| Ret \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \| \| \| \| \| \|- ! rowspan=3\| 2016–17 \| rowspan=3\| Spark SRT01-e \| rowspan=3\| ABT Schaeffler FE02 \| rowspan=3\| {{Michelin}} \| \| \| HKG \| MRK \| BUE \| MEX \| MCO \| PAR \|colspan=2\| BER \|colspan=2\| NYC \|colspan=2\| MTL \| \| \| ! rowspan"3" style"background:#DFDFDF;" \| 248 !style"background:#DFDFDF;" rowspan3\| 2nd \|- \| 11 \| align="left" \| {{flagicon\|BRA}} Lucas di Grassi \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 5 \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| 3 \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| 1 \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| Ret \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| 3 \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 4 \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 5 \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| 1 \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 7 \| \| \| \|- \| 66 \| align="left" \| {{flagicon\|GER}} Daniel Abt \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| Ret \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 6 \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 7 \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 7 \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 7 \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 13 \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 6 \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 4 \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 14 \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| Ret \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 4 \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 6 \| \| \| \|- ! colspan="23" \| Audi Sport Abt Schaeffler \|- !rowspan=3\| 2017–18 \|rowspan=3\| Spark SRT01-e \|rowspan=3\| Audi e-tron FE04 \|rowspan=3\| {{Michelin}} \| \| \|colspan=2\| HKG \| MRK \| SCL \| MEX \| PDE \| RME \| PAR \| BER \| ZUR \|colspan=2\| NYC \| \| \| ! rowspan"3" style"background:#FFFFBF;" \| 264 !style"background:#FFFFBF;" rowspan3\| 1st \|- \| 1 \| align="left"\| {{flagicon\|BRA}} Lucas di Grassi \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 17 \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 14 \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| Ret \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| Ret \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 9 \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| 1 \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| 1 \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \| \| \| \|- \| 66 \| align="left"\| {{flagicon\|DEU}} Daniel Abt \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 5 \|style="background:#000000; color:white;"\| DSQ \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 10 \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| Ret \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| 1 \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 14 \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\|4 \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 7 \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| 1 \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 13 \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| 3 \| \| \| \|- !rowspan=3\| 2018–19 \|rowspan=3\| Spark SRT05e \|rowspan=3\| Audi e-tron FE05 \|rowspan=3\| {{Michelin}} \| \| \| ADR \| MRK \| SCL \| MEX \| HKG \| SYX \| RME \| PAR \| MCO \| BER \| BRN \|colspan=2\| NYC \| \| ! rowspan"3" style"background:#DFDFDF;" \| 203 !style"background:#DFDFDF;" rowspan3\| 2nd \|- \| 11 \| align="left"\| {{flagicon\|BRA}} Lucas di Grassi \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 9 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 7 \| style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 12 \| style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| 1 \| style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \| style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 15† \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 7 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 4 \| style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| Ret \| style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| 1 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 9 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 5 \| style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 18† \| \| \|- \| 66 \| align="left"\| {{flagicon\|DEU}} Daniel Abt \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 8 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 10 \| style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| 3 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 10 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 4 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 5 \| style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 18† \| style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| 3 \| style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 15 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 6 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 6 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 6 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 5 \| \| \|- ! rowspan="4" \| 2019–20 \| rowspan="4" \| Spark SRT05e \| rowspan="4" \| Audi e-tron FE06 \| rowspan="4" \| {{Michelin}} \| \| \|colspan=2\| DIR \|SCL \|MEX \|MRK \| colspan="2" \|BER \| colspan="2" \|BER \| colspan="2" \|BER \| \| \| \| ! rowspan="4" \| 114 ! rowspan="4" \| 6th \|- \| 11 \| align="left"\| {{flagicon\|BRA}} Lucas di Grassi \| style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 13 \| style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 7 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 6 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 7 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 8 \| style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| 3 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 8 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 6 \| style="background:#CFCFFF;" \|21 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;" \|6 \| \| \| \| \|- \|rowspan="2"\| 66 \| align="left"\| {{flagicon\|DEU}} Daniel Abt \| style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| Ret \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 6 \| style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 14 \| style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| Ret \| style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 14 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- \| align="left"\| {{flagicon\|DEU}} René Rast \| \| \| \| \| \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 10 \| style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 13 \| style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| Ret \| style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 16 \| style="background:#FFDF9F;" \|3<sup>G</sup> \| style="background:#DFFFDF;" \|4 \| \| \| \| \|- !rowspan=3\| 2020–21 \|rowspan=3\| Spark SRT05e \|rowspan=3\| Audi e-tron FE07 \|rowspan=3\| {{Michelin}} \| \| \|colspan=2\| DIR \|colspan=2\| RME \|colspan=2\| VLC \| MCO \|colspan=2\| PUE \|colspan=2\| NYC \|colspan=2\| LDN \| BER \| BER ! rowspan="3" \| 165 ! rowspan="3" \| 4th \|- \| 11 \| align="left"\| {{flagicon\|BRA}} Lucas di Grassi \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 9 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 8 \| style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| Ret \| style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| Ret \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 7 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 10 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 10 \| style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| 1 \| style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 18 \| style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| 3 \| style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 14 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 6 \| style="background:#000000; color:white;"\| DSQ \| style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| 1 \| style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 20 \|- \| 33 \| align="left"\| {{flagicon\|DEU}} René Rast \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 4 \| style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 17 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 6 \| style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| Ret \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 5 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 6 \| style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| Ret \| style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 10 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 10 \| style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| 20 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 5 \| style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| Ret \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 9 \| style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| 9 \|- \|} Formula One {{main\|Audi in Formula One}} Audi has been linked to Formula One in recent years but has always resisted due to the company's opinion that it is not relevant to road cars, but hybrid power unit technology has been adopted into the sport, swaying the company's view and encouraging research into the program by former Ferrari team principal Stefano Domenicali. Audi announced in August 2022 that it would enter the Championship as an engine manufacturer in {{F1\|2026}}.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAudi to join Formula 1 from 2026 {{!}} Formula 1® \|urlhttps://www.formula1.com/en/latest/article.breaking-audi-to-join-formula-1-from-2026.yr9pFVd5nSQBbZ7EZZDLJ.html \|access-date26 August 2022 \|websitewww.formula1.com \|languageen}}</ref> In October, Audi confirmed its partnership with Sauber Motorsport for the year 2026, acquiring a stake in the company for the German brand to enter the competition by renaming the team and supplying engines.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAudi selects Sauber as strategic partner for Formula 1 entry \|urlhttps://www.audi-mediacenter.com:443/en/press-releases/audi-selects-sauber-as-strategic-partner-for-formula-1-entry-14981 \|access-date27 October 2022 \|websiteAudi MediaCenter \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleSauber to become Audi works F1 team from 2026 {{!}} Formula 1® \|urlhttps://www.formula1.com/en/latest/article.breaking-sauber-to-become-audi-works-f1-team-from-2026.6EMJQ2LlvshgpCXdCR9xJl.html \|access-date27 October 2022 \|websitewww.formula1.com \|language=en}}</ref> On 26 April 2024, Sauber announced they had signed Nico Hülkenberg for {{F1\|2025}} onwards on a multi-year contract, confirming him as their first driver in Formula One.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleNico Hulkenberg confirmed as first Audi F1 driver after move from Haas to Sauber for 2025 confirmed \|urlhttps://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12433/13123183/nico-hulkenberg-confirmed-as-first-audi-f1-driver-after-move-from-haas-to-sauber-for-2025-confirmed \|access-date2024-04-26 \|websiteSky Sports \|languageen}}</ref> Six months later, they confirmed that his teammate would be rookie Gabriel Bortoleto, the two replacing outgoing drivers Valtteri Bottas and Zhou Guanyu.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleKick Sauber confirm rookie Bortoleto as second driver for 2025\|urlhttps://www.formula1.com/en/latest/article/breaking-kick-sauber-confirm-rookie-bortoleto-as-second-driver-for-2025.2EL5ciR1wh3baHcobZqGl9 \|date6 November 2024 \|languageen}}</ref>Current factory drivers{{columns-list\|colwidth15em\|{{flagicon\|ITA}} Mattia Drudi {{flagicon\|GER}} Luca Engstler * {{flagicon\|SWI}} Ricardo Feller * {{flagicon\|FRA}} Simon Gachet * {{flagicon\|GER}} Christopher Haase * {{flagicon\|AUT}} Max Hofer * {{flagicon\|GER}} Pierre Kaffer * {{flagicon\|BEL}} Gilles Magnus * {{flagicon\|GER}} Dennis Marschall * {{flagicon\|GER}} Christopher Mies * {{flagicon\|SWI}} Patric Niederhauser * {{flagicon\|GER}} Frank Stippler * {{flagicon\|BEL}} Frédéric Vervisch * {{flagicon\|GER}} Markus Winkelhock}} <ref>{{Cite web \|titleAudi präsentiert Fahrerkader für 2023: Wo ist Kelvin van der Linde? \|urlhttps://www.motorsport-total.com/dtm/news/audi-praesentiert-fahrerkader-fuer-2023-wo-ist-kelvin-van-der-linde-23022103 \|access-date21 February 2023 \|websiteMotorsport-Total.com \|languagede}}</ref> Racecars {\| class"wikitable" !Year !Car !Image !Category \|- \|1979 \|Audi 80 \| \|Group 4 \|- \|1981 \|Audi Quattro \| \|Group 4 \|- \| rowspan="3" \|1983 \|Audi Quattro A1 \| \|Group B \|- \|Audi 80 Quattro A2 \| \|Group B \|- \|Audi Quattro A2 \| \|Group B \|- \|1984 \|Audi Sport Quattro S1 \| \|Group B \|- \|1985 \|Audi Sport Quattro E2 \| \|Group B \|- \|1989 \|Audi 90 Quattro \| \|IMSA GTO \|- \| rowspan="2" \|1999 \|Audi R8C \| \|LMGTP \|- \|Audi R8R \| \|LMP900 \|- \|2000 \|Audi R8 \| \|LMP900 LMP1 \|- \|2006 \|Audi R10 TDI \| \|LMP1 \|- \| rowspan="2" \|2009 \|Audi R8 LMS \| \|Group GT3 \|- \|Audi R15 TDI \| \|LMP1 \|- \|2010 \|Audi R15 TDI Plus \| \|LMP1 \|- \| rowspan="2" \|2011 \|Audi A4 \| \|NGTC \|- \|Audi R18 TDI \| \|LMP1 \|- \| rowspan="2" \|2012 \|Audi R18 Ultra \| \|LMP1 \|- \|Audi R18 e-Tron quattro \| \|LMP1 \|- \| rowspan="2" \|2014 \|Audi R18 e-Tron quattro \| \|LMP1 \|- \|Audi S3 Saloon \| \|NGTC \|- \|2015 \|Audi R8 LMS \| \|Group GT3 \|- \|2016 \|Audi R18 e-Tron quattro \| \|LMP1 \|- \| rowspan="2" \|2017 \|Audi R8 LMS GT4 \| \|SRO GT4 \|- \|Audi RS 3 LMS TCR \| \|TCR \|- \| rowspan="2" \|2019 \|Audi R8 LMS GT2 \| \|SRO GT2 \|- \|Audi RS5 Turbo DTM \| \|GT500 \|- \|2021 \|Audi RS 3 LMS TCR (21) \| \|TCR \|- \|2022 \|Audi RS Q e-tron \| \|Group T1.U \|} Marketing Branding <!-- Please don't change it to 1985-2009, I found this from Logopedia. --> The Audi emblem is four overlapping rings that represent the four marques of Auto Union. The Audi emblem symbolises the amalgamation of Audi with DKW, Horch and Wanderer: the first ring from the left represents Audi, the second represents DKW, third is Horch, and the fourth and last ring Wanderer.<ref>{{cite web\| urlhttp://www.carlogo.info/audi-audi-logo_blog-bid-29.htm\| title Audi Logo\| authorCar Logo\| access-date 10 September 2007\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070930100058/http://www.carlogo.info/audi-audi-logo_blog-bid-29.htm\| archive-date 30 September 2007 \| url-statususurped\| df dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.seriouswheels.com/art-four-rings-1.htm \|titleHistory of the Four Rings-Part 1-Audi Auto Union \|publisherSeriouswheels.com \|access-date27 April 2009}}</ref> The design is popularly believed to have been the idea of Klaus von Oertzen, the director of sales at Wanderer—when Berlin was chosen as the host city for the 1936 Summer Olympics and that a form of the Olympic logo symbolized the newly established Auto Union's desire to succeed.<ref>{{cite book\|last1Harris\|first1Paul\|titleAudi: Sutton's Photographic History of Transport\|date25 May 1999\|publisherSutton Publishing\|isbn978-0750919258\|page84}}</ref> Somewhat ironically, the International Olympic Committee later sued Audi in the International Trademark Court in 1995, where they lost.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.autoevolution.com/news/audi-reveals-updated-logo-10315.html \|titleAudi Reveals Updated Logo \|access-date27 August 2009 \|firstAlina\|lastDumitrache \|publisherautoevolution.com\|date27 August 2009 }}</ref> The original "Audi" script, with the distinctive slanted tails on the "A" and "d" was created for the historic Audi company in 1920 by the famous graphic designer Lucian Bernhard, and was resurrected when Volkswagen revived the brand in 1965. Following the demise of NSU in 1977, less prominence was given to the four rings, in preference to the "Audi" script encased within a black (later red) ellipse, and was commonly displayed next to the Volkswagen roundel when the two brands shared a dealer network under the V.A.G banner. The ellipse (known as the Audi Oval) was phased out after 1994, when Audi formed its own independent dealer network, and prominence was given back to the four rings—at the same time Audi Sans (a derivative of Univers) was adopted as the font for all marketing materials, corporate communications and was also used in the vehicles themselves. As part of Audi's centennial celebration in 2009, the company updated the logo, changing the font to left-aligned Audi Type, and altering the shading for the overlapping rings.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://wot.motortrend.com/6546262/marketing/audi-unveils-updated-logo-following-centennial-celebration/index.html \|titleAudi Unveils Updated Logo Following Centennial Celebration \|publisherWot.motortrend.com \|access-date2 August 2010\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100809114134/http://wot.motortrend.com/6546262/marketing/audi-unveils-updated-logo-following-centennial-celebration/index.html\| archive-date 9 August 2010 \|url-status live}}</ref> The revised logo was designed by Rayan Abdullah.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.mosul-network.org/index.php?doarticle&id18707 \|titlemosul-network.org \|publishermosul-network.org \|date20 January 2011 \|access-date18 November 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110727095044/http://www.mosul-network.org/index.php?doarticle&id18707 \|archive-date27 July 2011 }}</ref> Audi developed a Corporate Sound concept, with Audi Sound Studio designed for producing the Corporate Sound.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://audio-branding-academy.org/aba/congress/2k10/program-2010/audi-corporate-sound/\|titleAudi Corporate Sound\|access-date14 July 2015}}</ref> The Corporate Sound project began with sound agency Klangerfinder GmbH & Co KG and s12 GmbH. Audio samples were created in Klangerfinder's sound studio in Stuttgart, becoming part of Audi Sound Studio collection. Other Audi Sound Studio components include The Brand Music Pool, The Brand Voice.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.audi-mediaservices.com/publish/ms/content/en/public/pressemitteilungen/2010/08/23/luxurious_sound_from.standard.gid-oeffentlichkeit.html\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130525193935/https://www.audi-mediaservices.com/publish/ms/content/en/public/pressemitteilungen/2010/08/23/luxurious_sound_from.standard.gid-oeffentlichkeit.html\|url-statususurped\|archive-date25 May 2013\|titleAudi MediaCenter\|access-date14 July 2015}}</ref> Audi also developed Sound Branding Toolkit including certain instruments, sound themes, rhythm and car sounds which all are supposed to reflect the AUDI sound character.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://soundbrandingblog.com/2010/05/07/benchmark-case-new-audi-sound-branding/\|titleBenchmark case: new AUDI Sound Branding\|workSound Branding Blog\|access-date14 July 2015\|date7 May 2010}}</ref> Audi started using a beating heart sound trademark beginning in 1996. An updated heartbeat sound logo, developed by agencies KLANGERFINDER GmbH & Co KG of Stuttgart and S12 GmbH of Munich, was first used in 2010 in an Audi A8 commercial with the slogan The Art of Progress.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://audiusanews.com/newsrelease.do;jsessionid6B7C3D245D0FFFC5A8563D0862FE4948?&id1865&allImage1&teasernew-audi-heartbeat&mid19\|titleThe new Audi heartbeat \|publisherAudi of America\|date9 July 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://posterous.com/getfile/files.posterous.com/carros/WmX9Ft92s9yydQy7TX9YDKACypSGLlNnSGbucb0f6XxPiXZyFQD7m1b3yi5h/Audi_Corporate_Sound.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://posterous.com/getfile/files.posterous.com/carros/WmX9Ft92s9yydQy7TX9YDKACypSGLlNnSGbucb0f6XxPiXZyFQD7m1b3yi5h/Audi_Corporate_Sound.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|url-statuslive\|titleGood night, Posterous\|access-date14 July 2015}}</ref>SlogansAudi's corporate tagline is {{lang\|de\|Vorsprung durch Technik}} {{IPA\|de\|ˈfoːɐ̯ˌʃpʁʊŋ dʊʁç ˈtɛçnɪk\|}}, meaning 'Progress through Technology'.<ref>{{Cite journal \| title Eco-Culture \| journalAudi Magazine \| issue 3/08 \| page 19}}</ref> The German-language tagline is used in many European countries, including the United Kingdom (but not in Italy, where {{lang\|it\|All'avanguardia della tecnica}} is used), and in other markets, such as Latin America, Oceania, Africa and parts of Asia including Japan. Originally, the American tagline was Innovation through technology, but in Canada Vorsprung durch Technik was used. Since 2007, Audi has used the slogan Truth in Engineering in the U.S.<ref>Lavrinc, Damon. [http://www.autoblog.com/2008/04/08/audi-planning-tt-and-r8-lightweight-sport-models/ Audi planning TT and R8 lightweight "Sport" models]. Autoblog. Retrieved 24 April 2010.</ref> However, since the Audi emissions testing scandal came to light in September 2015, this slogan was lambasted for being discordant with reality.<ref>{{Cite web\|title Audi's 'Truth in Engineering' ads come back to bite amid probe\|date 21 September 2015\|url http://www.autonews.com/article/20150921/RETAIL03/309219887/audis-truth-in-engineering-ads-come-back-to-bite-amid-probe\|access-date 3 October 2015}}</ref> In fact, just hours after disgraced Volkswagen CEO Martin Winterkorn admitted to cheating on emissions data, an advertisement during the 2015 Primetime Emmy Awards promoted Audi's latest advances in low emissions technology with Kermit the Frog stating, "It's not that easy being green."<ref>{{Cite news\|title Audi Airs Mistimed 'Truth in Engineering' Ads\|url https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-09-21/audi-truth-in-engineering-ads-come-back-to-bite-amid-probe\|publisher Bloomberg L.P.\|access-date 3 October 2015\|first Alex\|last Webb\|newspaper Bloomberg.com\|date = 21 September 2015}}</ref> Vorsprung durch Technik was first used in English-language advertising after Sir John Hegarty of the Bartle Bogle Hegarty advertising agency visited the Audi factory in 1982.<ref name"guardian-rice-oxley">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/video/2012/sep/18/vorsprung-durch-technik-video\|titleVorsprung durch Technik: how a catchphrase was coined – video\|workThe Guardian\|date18 September 2012\|access-date16 May 2013\|first1Mark\|last1Rice-Oxley\|first2Laurence\|last2Topham\|first3Ole\|last3Alsaker}}</ref> In the original British television commercials, the phrase was voiced by Geoffrey Palmer.<ref name"guardian-rice-oxley"/> After its repeated use in advertising campaigns, the phrase found its way into popular culture, including the British comedy Only Fools and Horses, the U2 song "Zooropa"<ref>{{cite web\| url http://www.u2.com/music/lyrics.php?song91&listz\| title Official U2 Website – Zooropa Lyrics}}</ref> and the Blur song "Parklife". Similar-sounding phrases have also been used, including as the punchline for a joke in the movie Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels and in the British TV series Peep Show.TypographyAudi Sans (based on Univers Extended) was originally created in 1997 by Ole Schäfer for MetaDesign. MetaDesign was later commissioned for a new corporate typeface called Audi Type, designed by Paul van der Laan and Pieter van Rosmalen of Bold Monday. The font began to appear in Audi's 2009 products and marketing materials.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.boldmonday.com/en/audi \|titleBold Monday: Audi Type \|publisherboldmonday.com \|access-date6 October 2010\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20100901002038/http://www.boldmonday.com/en/audi\| archive-date1 September 2010 \|url-status live}}</ref> Sponsorships club Bayern Munich]] Audi is a strong partner of different kinds of sports. In football, long partnerships exist between Audi and domestic clubs including Bayern Munich, Hamburger SV, 1. FC Nürnberg, Hertha BSC, and Borussia Mönchengladbach and international clubs including Chelsea, Real Madrid, FC Barcelona, A.C. Milan, AFC Ajax and Perspolis. Audi also sponsors winter sports: The Audi FIS Alpine Ski World Cup is named after the company. Additionally, Audi supports the German Ski Association (DSV) as well as the alpine skiing national teams of Switzerland, Sweden, Finland, France, Liechtenstein, Italy, Austria and the U.S. For almost two decades, Audi fosters golf sport: for example with the Audi quattro Cup and the HypoVereinsbank Ladies German Open presented by Audi. In sailing, Audi is engaged in the Medcup regatta and supports the team Luna Rossa during the Louis Vuitton Pacific Series and also is the primary sponsor of the Melges 20 sailboat. Further, Audi sponsors the regional teams ERC Ingolstadt (hockey) and FC Ingolstadt 04 (soccer).<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.audi.com/com/brand/en/experience/sponsoring/sportsponsoring.html \|titleAudi Worldwide &gt; Experience &gt; Sponsoring &gt; Sport \|publisherAudi.com \|date11 June 2009 \|access-date7 July 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090923140158/http://www.audi.com/com/brand/en/experience/sponsoring/sportsponsoring.html \|archive-date23 September 2009 }}</ref> In 2009, the year of Audi's 100th anniversary, the company organized the Audi Cup for the first time.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.fcbayern.t-home.de/en/news/news/2009/18772.php \|titleFC Bayern \|publisherFcbayern.t-home.de \|date4 March 2009 \|access-date7 July 2009}}</ref> Audi also sponsor the New York Yankees as well. In October 2010 they agreed to a three sponsorship year-deal with Everton.<ref>{{cite web\|titleBlues agree deal with Audi\|urlhttp://www.evertonfc.com/news/archive/2010/10/14/blues-agree-deal-with-audi\|publisherEverton F.C.\|access-date16 March 2011\|date14 October 2010}}</ref> Audi also sponsors the England Polo Team and holds the Audi Polo Awards.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.britishpolo.com/teams/ \|titleBritish Polo teams \|publisherBritishpolo.com \|access-date8 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.audipoloawards.com \|titleAudi Polo Awards \|publisherAudi Polo Awards \|access-date8 June 2012}}</ref>Marvel Cinematic UniverseSince the start of the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Audi signed a deal to sponsor, promote and provide vehicles for several films. So far these have been, Iron Man, Iron Man 2, Iron Man 3, Avengers: Age of Ultron, Captain America: Civil War, Spider-Man: Homecoming, Avengers: Endgame and Spider-Man: Far From Home.<ref>{{cite magazine\|urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/csylt/2019/05/26/how-marvel-fuels-profits-for-audi/\|titleMarvel Fuels Profits for Audi \|magazineForbes \|access-date20 June 2019}}</ref> The R8 supercar became the personal vehicle for Tony Stark (played by Robert Downey Jr.) for six of these films.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://blog.dupontregistry.com/celebrity-cars/tony-stark-iron-mans-car-collection/\|titleTony Stark's R8s\|date10 December 2018\|publisherDuPontRegistry \|access-date20 June 2019}}</ref> The e-tron vehicles were promoted in Endgame and Far From Home. Several commercials were co-produced by Marvel and Audi to promote several new concepts and some of the latest vehicles such as the A8, SQ7 and the e-Tron fleet.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://theinspirationroom.com/daily/2016/audi-captain-america-civil-war-chase/\|titleCivil War's Chase\|date28 April 2016\|publishertheinspirationroom.com\|access-date20 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://thenewswheel.com/spider-man-cheats-on-his-driving-test-with-audi/\|titleDriver's Test for Spider-Man\|date30 June 2017\|publisherthenewswheel.com\|access-date20 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.motor1.com/news/355628/audi-helps-spider-man-vid/\|titleMotor1.com\|publisherthenewswheel.com\|access-date20 June 2019}}</ref> Multitronic campaign , Australia]] <!--do noy change multitronic to uppercase, it is trademarked in all lowercase - Thank you--> In 2001, Audi promoted the new multitronic continuously variable transmission with television commercials throughout Europe, featuring an impersonator of musician and actor Elvis Presley.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vYQo95oI4nXY \| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211122/YQo95oI4nXY\| archive-date22 November 2021 \| url-statuslive\|titleAudi Wackel-Elvis commercial (2001, British version) \| date26 May 2008\|viaYouTube \|access-date2 August 2010}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vb1czNu9pTzM \| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211122/b1czNu9pTzM\| archive-date22 November 2021 \| url-statuslive\|titleAudi Wackel-Elvis commercial (2001, German version) \| date22 July 2007\|viaYouTube \|access-date2 August 2010}}{{cbignore}}</ref> A prototypical dashboard figure—later named "Wackel-Elvis" ("Wobble Elvis" or "Wobbly Elvis")—appeared in the commercials to demonstrate the smooth ride in an Audi equipped with the multitronic transmission. The dashboard figure was originally intended for use in the commercials only, but after they aired the demand for Wackel-Elvis fans grew among fans and the figure was mass-produced in China and marketed by Audi in their factory outlet store.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.welt.de/print-welt/article456186/Wackel_Elvis_von_Audi_Fans_stehen_Schlange.html \|titleFans Waiting in Line for Release of Wackel-Elvis \|languagede \|newspaperDie Welt \|date11 June 2001 \|access-date2 August 2010}}</ref> Audi TDI As part of Audi's attempt to promote its Diesel technology in 2009, the company began Audi Mileage Marathon. The driving tour featured a fleet of 23 Audi TDI vehicles from 4 models (Audi Q7 3.0 TDI, Audi Q5 3.0 TDI, Audi A4 3.0 TDI, Audi A3 Sportback 2.0 TDI with S tronic transmission) travelling across the American continent from New York to Los Angeles, passing major cities like Chicago, Dallas and Las Vegas during the 13 daily stages, as well as natural wonders including the Rocky Mountains, Death Valley and the Grand Canyon.<ref>{{cite web\|lastAbuelsamid \|firstSam \|urlhttp://green.autoblog.com/2008/09/08/audi-to-kick-off-diesel-push-with-cross-country-mileage-marathon/ \|titleAudi to kick off diesel push with cross country Mileage Marathon \|publisherGreen.autoblog.com \|date8 September 2008 \|access-date2 August 2010 }}</ref>Audi e-tronThe next phase of technology Audi is developing is the e-tron electric drive powertrain system. They have shown several concept cars {{as of\|March 2010\|lcon}}, each with different levels of size and performance. The original e-tron concept shown at the 2009 Frankfurt motor show is based on the platform of the R8 and has been scheduled for limited production. Power is provided by electric motors at all four wheels. The second concept was shown at the 2010 Detroit Motor Show. Power is provided by two electric motors at the rear axle. This concept is also considered to be the direction for a future mid-engined gas-powered 2-seat performance coupe. The Audi A1 e-tron concept, based on the Audi A1 production model, is a hybrid vehicle with a range extending Wankel rotary engine to provide power after the initial charge of the battery is depleted. It is the only concept of the three to have range-extending capability. The car is powered through the front wheels, always using electric power. It is all set to be displayed at the Auto Expo 2012 in New Delhi, India, from 5 January. It is powered by a 1.4 litre engine, and can cover a distance up to 54&nbsp;km on a single charge. The e-tron was also shown in the 2013 blockbuster film Iron Man 3 and was driven by Tony Stark (Iron Man). Lawsuit on the use of the letter Q In early 2005, Nissan North America Inc. filed a lawsuit against Audi over the use of the letter "Q" as a model name.<ref>{{cite web \|date26 March 2005 \|titleAudi Sued by Nissan Over Q \|urlhttp://www.audiworld.com/news/05/q_name/content.shtml \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101219090621/http://audiworld.com/news/05/q_name/content.shtml \|archive-date19 December 2010 \|access-date17 October 2010 \|websiteAudiworld.com }}</ref> Audi is using the "Q" for the designation of their quattro four-wheel drive system, used in production cars for over twenty-five years (Audi's Quattro trademark is actually an umbrella term for several types of four-wheel-drive systems developed by Torsen, Haldex Traction AB, and Borg-Warner, the latter being used in the Q7). Nissan's Infiniti marque first used Q for their 1989 Infiniti Q45 flagship, but later expanded to its entire lineup, with Q for passenger cars (the Q30, Q40, Q50, and Q60) and QX for SUVs (the QX30, QX50, QX60, and QX70). A settlement between Audi AG and Nissan was reached in late 2006. The agreement stipulates that Audi will only use the Q-prefix for three models, the Q3, Q5 and the Q7. Audi has since released other Q series cars as well, such as the Q2, Q6, and Q8. In video games Audi has supported the European version of PlayStation Home, the PlayStation 3's online community-based service, by releasing a dedicated Home space. Audi is the first carmaker to develop such a space for Home. On 17 December 2009, Audi released two spaces; the Audi Home Terminal and the Audi Vertical Run.<ref>{{cite magazine\|urlhttp://www.marketingweek.co.uk/audi-to-launch-playstation-download-game/3007770.article\|titleAudi to launch PlayStation download game\|date10 December 2009\|lastFernandez\|firstJoe\|magazineMarketing Week\|access-date10 December 2009}}</ref> The Audi Home Terminal features an Audi TV channel delivering video content, an Internet Browser feature, and a view of a city. The Audi Vertical Run is where users can access the mini-game Vertical Run, a futuristic mini-game featuring Audi's e-tron concept. Players collect energy and race for the highest possible speeds and the fastest players earn a place in the Audi apartments located in a large tower in the centre of the Audi Space. In both the Home Terminal and Vertical Run spaces, there are teleports where users can teleport back and forth between the two spaces. Audi had stated that additional content would be added in 2010.{{update inline\|dateAugust 2016}}<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://reviews.cnet.com/8301-13746_7-10358137-48.html\|titleAudi creates virtual Audi Space within PlayStation Home\|publisherCNET Reviews}}</ref> On 31 March 2015 Sony shutdown the PlayStation Home service rendering all content for it inaccessible.<ref>{{cite magazine \| url https://www.forbes.com/sites/insertcoin/2014/09/27/sony-finally-shutting-down-playstation-home-on-ps3/ \| title Sony Finally Shutting Down PlayStation Home on PS3 \| first Paul \| last Tassi \| date 27 September 2014 \| access-date 20 September 2018 \| magazine Forbes}}</ref> See also {{Portal\|Germany\|Companies\|Cars}} * DKW, Horch and Wanderer (company) – predecessors of Audi. * Volkswagen Group – parent company of current Audi. Notes {{Reflist}} References {{refbegin}} * {{Brooklands-AAURT52}} * {{Brooklands-AAURT80 \|editor-mask=6}} * {{Deutsche Autos-2}} {{refend}} External links {{Commons category\|Audi}} * {{Official website}} {{Audi}} {{Audi vehicles timeline (Europe) 1965–2019}} {{Audi vehicles timeline (Europe) 2020 to date}} {{Audi (North America) timeline 1970 to date}} {{Volkswagen Group brands}} {{Automotive industry in Germany}} {{Authority control}} Category:Car brands Category:Car manufacturers of Germany Category:Companies based in Baden-Württemberg Category:Companies based in Bavaria Category:Companies based in Ingolstadt Category:Companies formerly listed on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange Category:Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1909 Category:Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1939 Category:Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1965 Category:Re-established companies Category:German brands Category:Luxury motor vehicle manufacturers Category:Companies based in Saxony Category:Sports car manufacturers Category:Volkswagen Group Category:German companies established in 1909	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audi	2025-04-05T18:25:24.127307
849	Aircraft	thumb\|The Cessna 172 Skyhawk is the most produced aircraft in history. An aircraft (: aircraft) is a vehicle that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or, in a few cases, direct downward thrust from its engines. Common examples of aircraft include airplanes, rotorcraft, helicopters, airships (including blimps), gliders, paramotors, and hot air balloons. Part 1 (Definitions and Abbreviations) of Subchapter A of Chapter I of Title 14 of the U. S. Code of Federal Regulations states that aircraft "means a device that is used or intended to be used for flight in the air." The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called aviation. The science of aviation, including designing and building aircraft, is called aeronautics. Crewed aircraft are flown by an onboard pilot, whereas unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by onboard computers. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as lift type, aircraft propulsion (if any), usage and others. History thumb\|right\|alt=An illustration showcasing various 19th-century aviation prototypes and designs.\|Aviation in 19th century Methods of lift Lighter-than-air thumb\|Hot air balloons thumb\|Airship USS Akron over Manhattan in the 1930sA balloon was originally any aerostat, while the term airship was used for large, powered aircraft designs — usually fixed-wing. In 1919, Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to "ships of the air," with smaller passenger types as "Air yachts." In the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as "ships of the air" or "flying-ships". Heavier-than-air Fixed-wing thumb\|An Airbus A380, the world's largest passenger airliner Wing-in-ground-effect vehicles are generally not considered aircraft. Rotorcraft thumb\|The Mil Mi-8 is the most produced rotorcraft. Other methods of lift thumb\|The Lunar Landing Research Vehicle relies on powered lift. Size and speed extremes Size The largest aircraft by dimensions and volume (as of 2016) is the long British Airlander 10, a hybrid blimp, with helicopter and fixed-wing features, and reportedly capable of speeds up to , and an airborne endurance of two weeks with a payload of up to . The largest aircraft by weight and largest regular fixed-wing aircraft ever built, , was the Antonov An-225 Mriya. That Soviet-built (Ukrainian SSR) six-engine transport of the 1980s was long, with an wingspan. It holds the world payload record, after transporting of goods, and has flown loads commercially. With a maximum loaded weight of , it was also the heaviest aircraft built to date. It could cruise at . The aircraft was destroyed during the Russo-Ukrainian War. The largest military airplanes are the Ukrainian Antonov An-124 Ruslan (world's second-largest airplane, also used as a civilian transport), and American Lockheed C-5 Galaxy transport, weighing, loaded, over . The 8-engine, piston/propeller Hughes H-4 Hercules "Spruce Goose" — an American World War II wooden flying boat transport with a greater wingspan (94m/260 ft) than any current aircraft and a tail height equal to the tallest (Airbus A380-800 at 24.1m/78 ft) — flew only one short hop in the late 1940s and never flew out of ground effect. Speeds The fastest fixed-wing aircraft and fastest glider, is the Space Shuttle, which re-entered the atmosphere at nearly Mach 25 or The fastest recorded powered aircraft flight and fastest recorded aircraft flight of an air-breathing powered aircraft was of the NASA X-43A Pegasus, a scramjet-powered, hypersonic, lifting body experimental research aircraft, at Mach 9.68 or on 16 November 2004. Prior to the X-43A, the fastest recorded powered airplane flight, and still the record for the fastest manned powered airplane, was the North American X-15, rocket-powered airplane at Mach 6.7 or 7,274 km/h (4,520 mph) on 3 October 1967. The fastest manned, air-breathing powered airplane is the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird, a U.S. reconnaissance jet fixed-wing aircraft, having reached on 28 July 1976. Propulsion Unpowered aircraft thumb\|Sailplane (Rolladen-Schneider LS4)Kites are aircraft. Powered aircraft Propeller aircraft thumb\|A turboprop-engined DeHavilland Twin Otter adapted as a floatplane Jet aircraft thumb\| Lockheed Martin F-22A Raptor Compared to engines using propellers, jet engines can provide much higher thrust, higher speeds and, above about , greater efficiency. Rotorcraft Other types of powered aircraft Design and construction The key parts of an aircraft are generally divided into three categories: The structure ("airframe") comprises the main load-bearing elements and associated equipment, as well as flight controls. The propulsion system ("powerplant") (if it is powered) comprises the power source and associated equipment, as described above. The avionics comprise the electrical and electronic control, navigation and communication systems. Structure Aerostats Aerodynes thumb\|Airframe diagram for an AgustaWestland AW101 helicopter Power The source of motive power for an aircraft is normally called the powerplant, and includes engine or motor, propeller or rotor, (if any), jet nozzles and thrust reversers (if any), and accessories essential to the functioning of the engine or motor (e.g.: starter, ignition system, intake system, exhaust system, fuel system, lubrication system, engine cooling system, and engine controls). or turbine) burning fossil fuels—typically gasoline (avgas) or jet fuel. A very few are powered by rocket power, ramjet propulsion, or by electric motors, or by internal combustion engines of other types, or using other fuels. A very few have been powered, for short flights, by human muscle energy (e.g.: Gossamer Condor). Avionics The avionics comprise any electronic aircraft flight control systems and related equipment, including electronic cockpit instrumentation, navigation, radar, monitoring, and communications systems. Range thumb\|The Boeing 777-200LR is one of the longest-range airliners, capable of flights of more than halfway around the world. The Airbus A350-900ULR is among the longest range airliners. Flight dynamics right\|200px Stability thumb\|The empennage of a Boeing 747-200A fixed wing is typically unstable in pitch, roll, and yaw. Pitch and yaw stabilities of conventional fixed wing designs require horizontal and vertical stabilisers, which act similarly to the feathers on an arrow. These stabilizing surfaces allow equilibrium of aerodynamic forces and to stabilise the flight dynamics of pitch and yaw. Control Environmental impact Uses for aircraft Military thumb\|Boeing B-17E in flight A military aircraft is any aircraft that is operated by a legal or insurrectionary armed service of any type. Military aircraft can be either combat or non-combat: Combat aircraft are aircraft designed to destroy enemy equipment using its own armament. Civil thumb\|Agusta A109 helicopter of the Swiss air rescue service Experimental thumb\|A model aircraft, weighing six grams Model See also Lists Early flying machines Flight altitude record List of aircraft List of civil aircraft List of fighter aircraft List of individual aircraft List of large aircraft List of aviation, aerospace and aeronautical terms Topics Aircraft hijacking Aircraft spotting Air traffic control Airport Flying car Personal air vehicle Powered parachute Spacecraft Spaceplane References External links History The Evolution of Modern Aircraft (NASA) Virtual Museum Smithsonian Air and Space Museum – online collection with a particular focus on history of aircraft and spacecraft Amazing Early Flying Machines slideshow by Life magazine Information Airliners.net Aviation Dictionary – free aviation terms, phrases and jargons New Scientists aviation page	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft	2025-04-05T18:25:24.205650
851	Alfred Nobel	{{Short description\|Swedish chemist and inventor (1833–1896)}} {{For\|the Irish racehorse\|Alfred Nobel (horse)}} {{Distinguish\|Alfred Noble (disambiguation){{!}}Alfred Noble}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=December 2024}} {{Infobox person \| image = Alfred Nobel3.jpg \| caption = Nobel in 1896 \| birth_name = Alfred Bernhard Nobel \| birth_date {{birth date\|dfy\|1833\|10\|21}} \| birth_place = Stockholm, Sweden \| death_date {{Death date and age\|dfy\|1896\|12\|10\|1833\|10\|21}} \| death_place = Sanremo, Liguria, Kingdom of Italy (now Italy) \| resting_place = Norra begravningsplatsen, Solna \| resting_place_coordinates = {{Coord\|59\|21\|24.52\|N\|18\|1\|9.43\|E\|region:SE-AB_type:landmark}} \| monuments = Nobel Monument, New York City \| occupation = {{hlist\|Chemist\|engineer\|inventor\|businessman}} \| known_for = Establishing the Nobel Prizes<br>Inventing dynamite \| parents = {{Ubl\|Immanuel Nobel\|Karolina Ahlsell}} \| family = Nobel \| signature = Alfred Nobel Signature.svg }} Alfred Bernhard Nobel ({{IPAc-en\|n\|oʊ\|ˈ\|b\|ɛ\|l}} {{respell\|noh\|BEL}}; {{IPA\|sv\|ˈǎlfrɛd nʊˈbɛlː\|lang\|sv-Alfred_Nobel.ogg}}; 21 October 1833&nbsp;– 10 December 1896) was a Swedish chemist, inventor, engineer and businessman. He is known for inventing dynamite, as well as having bequeathed his fortune to establish the Nobel Prizes.<ref>{{cite magazine \| urlhttps://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,998209,00.html \| titleThe Worst and the Brightest \| firstFrederic \| lastGolden \| magazineTime \| date16 October 2000 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071103153942/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,998209,00.html \|archive-date3 November 2007 \|url-status=live}}</ref> He also made several other important contributions to science, holding 355 patents during his life. Born into the prominent Nobel family in Stockholm, Nobel displayed an early aptitude for science and learning, particularly in chemistry and languages; he became fluent in six languages and filed his first patent at the age of 24. He embarked on many business ventures with his family, most notably owning the company Bofors, which was an iron and steel producer that he had developed into a major manufacturer of cannons and other armaments. Nobel's most famous invention, dynamite, was an explosive using nitroglycerin that was patented in 1867. He further invented gelignite in 1875 and ballistite in 1887. Upon his death, Nobel donated his fortune to a foundation to fund the Nobel Prizes, which annually recognize those who "conferred the greatest benefit to humankind".<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/the-nobel-prize-organisation/ \| titleThe Nobel Prize Organisation \| publisherNobel Prize \| access-date12 June 2024 \| archive-date15 June 2024 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240615031253/https://www.nobelprize.org/the-nobel-prize-organisation/ \| url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \| titleAlfred Nobel's Will \|urlhttps://www.nobelpeaceprize.org/nobel-peace-prize/history/alfred-nobel-s-will \| publisherNobel Peace Prize \| archive-date12 June 2020 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200612014132/https://www.nobelpeaceprize.org/History/Alfred-Nobel-s-will \| url-statuslive}}</ref> The synthetic element nobelium was named after him,<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/102/nobelium \| titleNobelium \| publisherRoyal Society of Chemistry \|archive-date9 March 2016\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160309201141/http://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/102/Nobelium\| url-statuslive}}</ref> and his name and legacy also survive in companies such as Dynamit Nobel and AkzoNobel, which descend from mergers with companies he founded. Nobel was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, which, pursuant to his will, would be responsible for choosing the Nobel laureates in physics and in chemistry.BiographyEarly life and education in Stockholm]] {{Nobel Family}} {{See also\|Nobel family}} Alfred Nobel was born in Stockholm, Sweden, on 21 October 1833. He was the third son of Immanuel Nobel (1801–1872), an inventor and engineer, and Andriette Nobel (née Ahlsell 1805–1889).<ref nameeb/><ref namelife>{{Cite web \| urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/alfred-nobel/alfred-nobels-life-and-work/ \|titleAlfred Nobel's life and work \|date13 March 2015 \| publisherNobel Prize \|archive-date8 October 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211008180102/https://www.nobelprize.org/alfred-nobel/alfred-nobels-life-and-work/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The couple married in 1827 and had eight children. The family was impoverished and only Alfred and his three brothers survived beyond childhood.<ref nameeb/> Through his father, Alfred Nobel was a descendant of the Swedish scientist Olaus Rudbeck (1630–1702).<ref namethoughtco/> Nobel's father was an alumnus of Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm and was an engineer and inventor who built bridges and buildings and experimented with different ways of blasting rocks. He encouraged and taught Nobel from a young age.<ref namelife/> Following various business failures caused by the loss of some barges of building material, Immanuel Nobel was forced into bankruptcy, Nobel's father moved to Saint Petersburg, then part of the Russian Empire, and grew successful there as a manufacturer of machine tools and explosives.<ref>{{Cite web \| urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/alfred-nobel/alfred-nobel-his-life-and-work/ \| titleAlfred Nobel – his life and work \| date3 September 2015 \| publisherNobel Prize \|archive-date5 October 2023 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231005110401/https://www.nobelprize.org/alfred-nobel/alfred-nobel-his-life-and-work/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> He invented the veneer lathe, which made possible the production of modern plywood,<ref>{{Cite news \| urlhttps://www.nashuatelegraph.com/news/local-news/2012/07/09/the-week-in-preview-alfred-nobel-8217s-father-immanuel-invented-a-rotary-lathe-that-became-the-key-to-manufacturing-modern-plywood/ \| titleThe Week in Preview: Alfred Nobel's father, Immanuel, invented a rotary lathe that became the key to manufacturing modern plywood. \| workThe Telegraph \| date9 July 2012}}</ref> and started work on the naval mine.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://blog.usni.org/posts/2016/06/02/ten-mining-campaigns-that-shaped-mine-warfare \| titleTen Mining Campaigns That Shaped Mine Warfare \| publisherUnited States Naval Institute \| date2 June 2016 \| access-date12 June 2024 \| archive-date25 August 2024 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240825173437/https://blog.usni.org/posts/2016/06/02/ten-mining-campaigns-that-shaped-mine-warfare \| url-statuslive }}</ref> In 1842, the family joined him in the city.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.ne.se/info/privat/alfred-nobel/ \|titleAlfred Nobel \|date1 July 2020 \| websiteNationalencyklopedin \| languagesv-SE \| archive-date9 October 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211009003438/https://www.ne.se/info/aktuellt/privat/alfred-nobel/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Now prosperous, his parents were able to send Nobel to private tutors, and the boy excelled in his studies, particularly in chemistry and languages, achieving fluency in English, French, German, and Russian.<ref nameeb/> For 18 months, from 1841 to 1842, Nobel attended the Jacobs Apologistic School in Stockholm, his only schooling; he never attended university.<ref>{{Cite web \| urlhttps://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/nobel-alfred-0 \| titleNobel, Alfred \| publisherEncyclopedia.com}}</ref><ref namestp/> Nobel gained proficiency in Swedish, French, Russian, English, German, and Italian. He also developed sufficient literary skill to write poetry in English. His Nemesis is a prose tragedy in four acts about the Italian noblewoman Beatrice Cenci. It was printed while he was dying, but the entire stock was destroyed immediately after his death except for three copies, being regarded as scandalous and blasphemous. It was published in Sweden in 2003 and has been translated into Slovenian, French, Italian, and Spanish.<ref>{{cite book\|authorAlfred Nobel\| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVRUYPQAACAAJ \|titleNémésis: tragédie en quatre actes \| publisherBelles lettres \| year2008\| isbn978-2-251-44342-3}}</ref>Scientific careerAs a young man, Nobel studied with chemist Nikolai Zinin; then, in 1850, went to Paris to further the work. There he met Ascanio Sobrero, who had synthesized nitroglycerin three years before. Sobrero strongly opposed the use of nitroglycerin because it was unpredictable, exploding when subjected to variable heat or pressure. But Nobel became interested in finding a way to control and use nitroglycerin as a commercially usable explosive; it had much more power than gunpowder. In 1851 at age 18, he went to the United States for one year to study,<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://sok.riksarkivet.se/Sbl/Presentation.aspx?id8143 \| titleAlfred B Nobel – Svenskt Biografiskt Lexikon \|websitesok.riksarkivet.se \|archive-date24 February 2017\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170224115217/https://sok.riksarkivet.se/sbl/Presentation.aspx?id8143\| url-statuslive}}</ref> working for a short period under Swedish-American inventor John Ericsson, who designed the American Civil War ironclad, USS Monitor. Nobel filed his first patent, an English patent for a gas meter, in 1857, while his first Swedish patent, which he received in 1863, was on "ways to prepare gunpowder".<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/alfred_nobel/biographical/patents.html \|titlePatents – Alfred Nobel \|publisherNobel Prize \| archive-date28 September 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150928063709/http://www.nobelprize.org/alfred_nobel/biographical/patents.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \| lastCarlisle \| firstRodney \| year2004\| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idpDbQVE3IdTcC&pgPA256 \| titleScientific American Inventions and Discoveries \| page256 \| publisherWiley \| locationNew Jersey \| isbn0-471-24410-4 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230101104815/https://books.google.com/books?idpDbQVE3IdTcC&pgPA256 \|archive-date1 January 2023 \| url-statuslive}}</ref><ref nameeb/> The family factory produced armaments for the Crimean War (1853–1856), but had difficulty switching back to regular domestic production when the fighting ended and they filed for bankruptcy.<ref nameeb/> In 1859, Nobel's father left his factory in the care of the second son, Ludvig Nobel (1831–1888), who greatly improved the business. Nobel and his parents returned to Sweden from Russia and Nobel devoted himself to the study of explosives, and especially to the safe manufacture and use of nitroglycerin. Nobel invented a detonator in 1863, and in 1865 designed the blasting cap.<ref nameeb/> On 3 September 1864, a shed used for preparation of nitroglycerin exploded at the factory in Heleneborg, Stockholm, Sweden, killing five people, including Nobel's younger brother Emil.<ref>{{Cite web \| urlhttps://www.tekniskamuseet.se/en/learn-more/swedish-inventors/alfred-nobel-dynamite/ \| titleAlfred Nobel – Dynamite \| workNational Museum of Science and Technology \| access-date12 June 2024 \| archive-date12 June 2024 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240612151226/https://www.tekniskamuseet.se/en/learn-more/swedish-inventors/alfred-nobel-dynamite/ \| url-statuslive }}</ref> He was then deprived of his license to produce explosives.<ref>{{Cite news \| urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1942/12/13/archives/the-life-of-nobel-alfred-nobel-dynamite-king-architect-of-peace-by.html \| titleThe Life of Nobel; Alfred Nobel: Dynamite King – Architect of Peace. By Herta E. Pauli. With frontispiece. 325 pp. New York: L. B. Fischer \| firstKatherine \| lastWoods \| workThe New York Times \| date13 December 1942 \| url-accesssubscription \| access-date12 June 2024 \| archive-date12 June 2024 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240612151230/https://www.nytimes.com/1942/12/13/archives/the-life-of-nobel-alfred-nobel-dynamite-king-architect-of-peace-by.html \| url-statuslive }}</ref> Fazed by the accident, Nobel founded the company Nitroglycerin AB in Vinterviken so that he could continue to work in a more isolated area.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAlfred Nobel – Dynamit \| trans-titleAlfred Nobel – Dynamite \| urlhttps://www.tekniskamuseet.se/lar-dig-mer/svenska-uppfinnare-och-innovatorer/alfred-nobel-dynamit/ \| publisherSwedish National Museum of Science and Technology \| languagesv-SE \| archive-date3 October 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171003064331/https://www.tekniskamuseet.se/lar-dig-mer/svenska-uppfinnare-och-innovatorer/alfred-nobel-dynamit/\| url-statuslive}}</ref> Nobel invented dynamite in 1867, a substance easier and safer to handle than the more unstable nitroglycerin. Dynamite was patented in the US and the UK and was used extensively in mining and the building of transport networks internationally.<ref nameeb/> In 1875, Nobel invented gelignite, more stable and powerful than dynamite, and in 1887, patented ballistite, a predecessor of cordite.<ref nameeb/> Nobel was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1884, the same institution that would later select laureates for two of the Nobel prizes, and he received an honorary doctorate from Uppsala University in 1893. Nobel's brothers Ludvig and Robert founded the oil company Branobel and became hugely rich in their own right. Nobel invested in these and amassed great wealth through the development of these new oil regions. It operated mainly in Baku, Azerbaijan, but also in Cheleken, Turkmenistan. During his life, Nobel was issued 355 patents internationally, and by his death, his business had established more than 90 armaments factories, despite his apparently pacifist character.<ref nameeb/><ref>{{cite news \| urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/nobel_alfred.shtml \| titleAlfred Nobel (1833–1896) \| workBBC News \| archive-date27 December 2019 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191227150003/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/nobel_alfred.shtml \| url-statuslive}}</ref>Inventions {{Main\|Dynamite\|Gelignite\|Ballistite}} Nobel found that when nitroglycerin was incorporated in an absorbent inert substance like kieselguhr (diatomaceous earth) it became safer and more convenient to handle, and this mixture he patented in 1867 as "dynamite".<ref nameeb/> Nobel demonstrated his explosive for the first time that year, at a quarry in Redhill, Surrey, England. In order to help reestablish his name and improve the image of his business from the earlier controversies associated with dangerous explosives, Nobel had also considered naming the highly powerful substance "Nobel's Safety Powder", which is the text used in his patent, but settled with Dynamite instead, referring to the Greek word for "power" ({{lang\|grc\|δύναμις}}).<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAlfred Nobel - Dynamit \|urlhttps://www.tekniskamuseet.se/lar-dig-mer/svenska-uppfinnare-och-innovatorer/alfred-nobel-dynamit/ \| workNational Museum of Science and Technology \| languagesv-SE \| archive-date3 October 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171003064331/https://www.tekniskamuseet.se/lar-dig-mer/svenska-uppfinnare-och-innovatorer/alfred-nobel-dynamit/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref nameeb/><ref>{{Cite web \| urlhttps://www.dixonvalve.com/sites/default/files/publications/articles/The_Inventor_of_Dynamite_Left_a_Leg_DIXBOA.pdf \| titleThe Inventor of Dynamite Left a Legacy of Peace \| firstSue \| lastDePasquale \| publisherDixon Valve & Coupling Company \| access-date12 June 2024 \| archive-date12 June 2024 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240612151233/https://www.dixonvalve.com/sites/default/files/publications/articles/The_Inventor_of_Dynamite_Left_a_Leg_DIXBOA.pdf \| url-statuslive }}</ref> Nobel later combined nitroglycerin with various nitrocellulose compounds, similar to collodion, but settled on a more efficient recipe combining another nitrate explosive, and obtained a transparent, jelly-like substance, which was a more powerful explosive than dynamite. Gelignite, or blasting gelatin, as it was named, was patented in 1876; and was followed by a host of similar combinations, modified by the addition of potassium nitrate and various other substances.<ref nameeb/> Gelignite was more stable, powerful, transportable and conveniently formed to fit into bored holes, like those used in drilling and mining, than the previously used compounds. It was adopted as the standard technology for mining in the "Age of Engineering", bringing Nobel a great amount of financial success, though at a cost to his health. An offshoot of this research resulted in Nobel's invention of ballistite, the precursor of many modern smokeless powder explosives and still used as a rocket propellant.<ref>{{Cite web \| urlhttps://www.dictionary.com/browse/ballistite \|titleDefinition of ballistite \| workDictionary.com \| archive-date30 July 2022 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220730154058/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/ballistite \| url-statuslive }}</ref>Nobel Prize {{Main\|Nobel Prize}} There is a well known story about the origin of the Nobel Prize, although historians have been unable to verify it and some dismiss the story as a myth.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.history.com/news/did-a-premature-obituary-inspire-the-nobel-prize \|titleDid a Premature Obituary Inspire the Nobel Prize? \|lastAndrews \| firstEvan \| workHistory Channel \| date23 July 2020 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231130142424/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/blame-sloppy-journalism-for-the-nobel-prizes-1172688/ \|archive-date30 November 2023 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 1888, the death of his brother Ludvig supposedly caused several newspapers to publish obituaries of Alfred in error. One French newspaper condemned him for his invention of military explosives—in many versions of the story, dynamite is quoted, although this was mainly used for civilian applications—and this is said to have brought about his decision to leave a better legacy after his death.<ref nameeb/> The obituary stated, {{lang\|fr\|Le marchand de la mort est mort}} ("The merchant of death is dead"),<ref nameeb/> and went on to say, "Dr. Alfred Nobel, who became rich by finding ways to kill more people faster than ever before, died yesterday."<ref>{{Cite news \| urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/kenmakovsky/2011/11/07/nobel-how-he-built-his-reputation/ \| titleNobel: How He Built His Reputation \| firstKen \| lastMakovsky \| workForbes \| date11 July 2011 \| url-accesslimited \| access-date12 June 2024 \| archive-date12 June 2024 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240612163418/https://www.forbes.com/sites/kenmakovsky/2011/11/07/nobel-how-he-built-his-reputation/ \| url-statuslive }}</ref> Nobel read the obituary and was appalled at the idea that he would be remembered in this way. His decision to posthumously donate the majority of his wealth to found the Nobel Prize has been credited to him wanting to leave behind a better legacy.<ref nameSloppy>{{cite news \| urlhttps://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/blame-sloppy-journalism-for-the-nobel-prizes-1172688/ \| titleBlame Sloppy Journalism for the Nobel Prizes \| lastSchultz \| firstColin \| workSmithsonian Magazine \| date9 October 2013 \| archive-date30 November 2023 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231130142424/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/blame-sloppy-journalism-for-the-nobel-prizes-1172688/\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref nameeb/> However, it has been questioned whether or not the obituary in question actually existed.<ref nameSloppy/> On 27 November 1895, at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris, Nobel signed his last will and testament and set aside the bulk of his estate to establish the Nobel Prizes, to be awarded annually without distinction of nationality.<ref nameeb/><ref namewill/><ref>{{Cite news \| urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1897/01/01/archives/the-will-of-alfred-nobel.html \| titleThe Will of Alfred Nobel. \| workThe New York Times \| date1 January 1897 \| url-accesssubscription \| access-date12 June 2024 \| archive-date12 June 2024 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240612151230/https://www.nytimes.com/1897/01/01/archives/the-will-of-alfred-nobel.html \| url-statuslive }}</ref> After taxes and bequests to individuals, Nobel's will allocated 94% of his total assets, 31,225,000 Swedish kronor, to establish the five Nobel Prizes.<ref>{{cite book\| lastAbrams \| firstIrwin \| titleThe Nobel Peace Prize and the Laureates \| publisherWatson Publishing International \| isbn0-88135-388-4 \| year2001 \| page7 \| author-link#Abrams}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \| last1Fant \| first1Kenne \| authorlink1Kenne Fant \| last2Ruuth \| first2Marianne \| year1991 \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-87ReXymessC&pgPA327 \| titleAlfred Nobel: a biography \| locationNew York \| publisherArcade Publishing \| isbn1-55970-328-8 \| page327}}</ref> By 2022, the foundation had approximately 6 billion Swedish Kronor of invested capital.<ref>{{Cite web \| urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2023/04/annual-report-2022-2.pdf \| titleThe Nobel Foundation Annual Report 2022 \| publisherNobel Prize \| dateApril 2023 \| access-date12 June 2024 \| archive-date12 June 2024 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240612151226/https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2023/04/annual-report-2022-2.pdf \| url-status=live }}</ref> The first three of these prizes are awarded for eminence in physical science, in chemistry and in medical science or physiology; the fourth is for literary work "in an ideal direction" and the fifth prize is to be given to the person or society that renders the greatest service to the cause of international fraternity, in the suppression or reduction of standing armies, or in the establishment or furtherance of peace congresses.<ref name=eb/> The formulation for the literary prize being given for a work "in an ideal direction" ({{lang\|sv\|i idealisk riktning}} in Swedish), is cryptic and has caused much confusion. For many years, the Swedish Academy interpreted "ideal" as "idealistic" ({{lang\|sv\|idealistisk}}) and used it as a reason not to give the prize to important but less romantic authors, such as Henrik Ibsen and Leo Tolstoy. This interpretation has since been revised, and the prize has been awarded to, for example, Dario Fo and José Saramago, who do not belong to the camp of literary idealism.<ref>{{Citation \| titleThe Nobel Peace Prize \| date30 April 2019 \| urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvzgb63g.13 \| publisherRenaissance Books \| workNorthern Light \| pages59–61 \| doi10.2307/j.ctvzgb63g.13 \| isbn978-1-898823-91-9 \| s2cid243214222 \| access-date20 May 2021 \| archive-date19 September 2024 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240919020819/https://chooser.crossref.org/?doi10.2307%2Fj.ctvzgb63g.13 \| url-statuslive }}</ref> There was room for interpretation by the bodies he had named for deciding on the physical sciences and chemistry prizes, given that he had not consulted them before making the will. In his one-page testament, he stipulated that the money go to discoveries or inventions in the physical sciences and to discoveries or improvements in chemistry. He had opened the door to technological awards, but had not left instructions on how to deal with the distinction between science and technology. Since the deciding bodies he had chosen were more concerned with the former, the prizes went to scientists more often than engineers, technicians or other inventors.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://qz.com/1092758/nobel-prize-2017-why-is-there-no-nobel-prize-in-technology/ \|lastHervey \|firstAngus \|titleWhy is there no Nobel Prize in technology? \| workQuartz \|date4 October 2017 \|archive-date29 April 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220429122841/https://qz.com/1092758/nobel-prize-2017-why-is-there-no-nobel-prize-in-technology/ \|url-status=live}}</ref> Sweden's central bank Sveriges Riksbank celebrated its 300th anniversary in 1968 by donating a large sum of money to the Nobel Foundation to be used to set up a sixth prize in the field of economics in honor of Alfred Nobel. In 2001, Alfred Nobel's great-great-nephew, Peter Nobel (born 1931), asked the Bank of Sweden to differentiate its award to economists given "in Alfred Nobel's memory" from the five other awards. This request added to the controversy over whether the Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel is actually a legitimate "Nobel Prize".<ref>{{Cite news \| urlhttps://mondediplo.com/2005/02/12nobel \| titleThe 'Nobel prize' that isn't \| firstHazel \| lastHenderson \| workLe Monde \| dateFebruary 2005 \| access-date12 June 2024 \| archive-date19 September 2024 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240919020819/https://mondediplo.com/2005/02/12nobel \| url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \| urlhttps://indianexpress.com/article/explained/is-the-economics-prize-not-a-real-nobel-5390957/ \| titleFact Check: Is the Economics Prize not a 'real' Nobel? \| workThe Indian Express \| date8 October 2018 \| access-date12 June 2024 \| archive-date12 June 2024 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240612151228/https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/is-the-economics-prize-not-a-real-nobel-5390957/ \| url-statuslive }}</ref> Health issues and death , at Björkborn Manor, Nobel's residence in Karlskoga, Sweden]] In his letters to his mistress, Hess, Nobel described constant pain, debilitating migraines, and "paralyzing" fatigue, leading some to believe that he suffered from fibromyalgia. However, his concerns at the time were dismissed as hypochondria, leading to further depression.<ref>{{Cite journal \| urlhttps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19078079/ \| titleAlfred nobel \| firstL. R. \| lastHolmin \| journalJournal of Clinical Rheumatology: Practical Reports on Rheumatic & Musculoskeletal Diseases \| date1996 \| volume2 \| issue5 \| pages251–256 \| doi10.1097/00124743-199610000-00004 \| pmid19078079 \| viaUnited States National Library of Medicine \| access-date12 June 2024 \| archive-date12 June 2024 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240612151228/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19078079/ \| url-statuslive }}</ref> By 1895, Nobel had developed angina pectoris.<ref name=eb/> On 27 November 1895, he finalized his will and testament,<ref namehealth/><ref namewill>{{Cite web \| urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/alfred-nobel/alfred-nobels-will/ \| titleAlfred Nobel's will \| date6 September 2019 \| publisherNobel Prize \| access-date12 June 2024 \| archive-date27 June 2020 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200627053525/https://www.nobelprize.org/alfred-nobel/alfred-nobels-will/ \| url-statuslive }}</ref> leaving most of his wealth in trust, unbeknownst to his family, to fund the Nobel Prize awards.<ref nameeb/><ref>{{Cite news \| urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/26/health/26docs.html \| titleAlfred Nobel and the Prize That Almost Didn't Happen \| firstLawrence K. \| lastAltman \| workThe New York Times \| date26 September 2006 \| url-accesssubscription \| access-date12 June 2024 \| archive-date21 July 2023 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230721202111/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/26/health/26docs.html \| url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \| urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/kidspost/2022/12/05/what-are-nobel-prizes/ \| titleNobel Prizes started when one scientist chose to honor other innovators \| firstMarylou \| lastTousignant \| newspaperThe Washington Post \| date5 December 2022 \| url-access=subscription}}</ref> On 10 December 1896, he suffered a stroke/intracerebral hemorrhage and was first partially paralyzed and then died, aged 63.<ref namehealth>{{Cite web \| urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/alfred-nobel/alfred-nobels-health-and-his-interest-in-medicine/ \| titleAlfred Nobel's health and his interest in medicine \| firstNils \| lastRingertz \| date25 March 2014 \| publisherNobel Prize}}</ref> He is buried in Norra begravningsplatsen in Stockholm.<ref>{{Cite web \| urlhttps://www.atlasobscura.com/places/alfred-nobels-grave \| titleAlfred Nobel's Grave \| workAtlas Obscura \| access-date12 June 2024 \| archive-date22 April 2024 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240422101423/https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/alfred-nobels-grave \| url-statuslive }}</ref> Based on his experimentation with explosives, his strenuous work habit, and the decline in his health at the end of the 1870s, some hypothesize that nitroglycerine poisoning was a contributing factor to his death.<ref>{{Cite journal \| urlhttps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9352499/ \| titleCould nitroglycerine poisoning be the cause of Alfred Nobel's anginal pains and premature death? \| firstS. S. \| lastKantha \| journalMedical Hypotheses \| viaUnited States National Library of Medicine \| dateOctober 1997 \| volume49 \| issue4 \| pages303–306 \| doi10.1016/s0306-9877(97)90195-x \| pmid9352499 \| access-date12 June 2024 \| archive-date12 June 2024 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240612151226/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9352499/ \| url-statuslive }}</ref> Personal life Religion Nobel was Lutheran and, during his years living in Paris, he regularly attended the Church of Sweden Abroad led by pastor Nathan Söderblom who received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1930.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/1930/soderblom/biographical/ \| dateMarch 2013 \| titleNobel of Peace Laureates \| archive-date12 December 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131212061142/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1930/soderblom-bio.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> He was an agnostic in youth and became an atheist later in life, though he still donated generously to the Church.<ref namestp>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/alfred-nobel/alfred-nobel-st-petersburg-1842-1863/ \| titleAlfred Nobel – St. Petersburg, 1842–1863 \| date5 December 2014 \| publisherNobel Prize \| archive-date9 January 2019 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190109205414/https://www.nobelprize.org/alfred-nobel/alfred-nobel-st-petersburg-1842-1863/ \| url-statuslive}}</ref><ref nameside/><ref namethoughtco>{{Cite web \| urlhttps://www.thoughtco.com/alfred-nobel-biography-4176433 \| titleBiography of Alfred Nobel, Inventor of Dynamite \| firstAlane \| lastLim \| publisherDotdash Meredith \| date27 April 2020 \| access-date12 June 2024 \| archive-date26 October 2023 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231026104820/https://www.thoughtco.com/alfred-nobel-biography-4176433 \| url-statuslive }}</ref><ref nameremembering>{{Cite news \| urlhttps://www.newindianexpress.com/galleries/world/2017/Oct/21/the-man-behind-the-nobel-prize-remembering-alfred-nobel-on-his-184th-birth-anniversary-100926.html \| titleThe man behind the Nobel Prize: Remembering Alfred Nobel on his 184th birth anniversary \| workThe New Indian Express \| date21 October 2017 \| access-date12 June 2024 \| archive-date24 June 2024 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240624044150/https://www.newindianexpress.com/galleries/world/2017/oct/21/the-man-behind-the-nobel-prize-remembering-alfred-nobel-on-his-184th-birth-anniversary-100926.html \| url-statuslive }}</ref>Romantic relationships and personalityNobel remained a solitary character, given to periods of depression.<ref nameeb>{{Cite encyclopedia \| titleAlfred Nobel \| encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica \| urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Alfred-Nobel \|archive-date2 May 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150502193629/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/416842/Alfred-Bernhard-Nobel \|url-statuslive}}</ref> He never married,<ref namelife/> although his biographers note that he had at least three loves. His first love was in Russia with a girl named Alexandra who rejected his marriage proposal.<ref nameremembering/> In 1876, Austro-Bohemian Countess Bertha von Suttner became his secretary, but she left him after a brief stay to marry her previous lover Baron Arthur Gundaccar von Suttner. Her contact with Nobel was brief, yet she corresponded with him until his death in 1896, and probably influenced his decision to include the Nobel Peace Prize in his will.<ref>{{Cite web \| titleBertha von Suttner—Biographical \| urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/1905/suttner/biographical/ \| publisherNobel Prize \| date16 June 2021 \| archive-date25 October 2019 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191025050823/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/1905/suttner/biographical/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> She was awarded the 1905 Nobel Peace prize "for her sincere peace activities".<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/1905/summary/ \| titleThe Nobel Peace Prize 1905 \| publisherNobel Prize \|archive-date22 May 2020\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200522204445/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/1905/summary/ \| url-status=live}}</ref> Nobel's longest-lasting romance was an 18-year relationship with Sofija Hess from Celje whom he met in 1876 in Baden bei Wien, where she worked as an employee in a flower shop that catered to wealthy clientele. The extent of their relationship was revealed by a collection of 221 letters sent by Nobel to Hess over 15 years. At the time that they met, Nobel was 43 years old while Hess was 26. Their relationship, which was not merely platonic, ended when she became pregnant from another man, although Nobel continued to support her financially until Hess married her child's father to avoid being ostracized as a whore. Hess was a Jewish Christian and the letters include remarks by Nobel characterized as antisemitism. Nobel also displayed characteristics of chauvinism in the letters writing to Hess: "You neither work, nor write, nor read, nor think" and guilted her, writing "I have for years now sacrificed out of purely noble motives my time, my duties, my intellectual life, my reputation".<ref nameaffair>{{Cite web \| urlhttps://search.worldcat.org/title/nobel-affair-the-correspondence-between-alfred-nobel-and-sofie-hess/oclc/987791384 \| titleA Nobel affair: the correspondence between Alfred Nobel and Sofie Hess \| viaWorldCat \| year2017 \| access-date12 June 2024 \| archive-date12 June 2024 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240612151228/https://search.worldcat.org/title/nobel-affair-the-correspondence-between-alfred-nobel-and-sofie-hess/oclc/987791384 \| url-statuslive }}</ref><ref nameside>{{Cite news \| urlhttps://thejewishindependent.com.au/anti-semitic-chauvinistic-side-alfred-nobel \| titleThe anti-Semitic, chauvinistic side of Alfred Nobel \| workThe Jewish Independent \| date16 July 2018 \| access-date12 June 2024 \| archive-date12 June 2024 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240612151228/https://thejewishindependent.com.au/anti-semitic-chauvinistic-side-alfred-nobel \| url-statuslive }}</ref><ref namereveal>{{cite news \| urlhttps://www.haaretz.com/world-news/europe/2018-07-15/ty-article/.premium/alfred-nobels-letters-reveal-his-anti-semitic-chauvinistic-side/0000017f-e20a-d804-ad7f-f3fa72280000 \| titleAlfred Nobel's Letters Reveal His anti-Semitic, Chauvinistic Side \| firstNathan \| lastRon \| workHaaretz \| date15 July 2018 \| url-accesssubscription \| access-date12 June 2024 \| archive-date12 December 2022 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221212035035/https://www.haaretz.com/world-news/europe/2018-07-15/ty-article/.premium/alfred-nobels-letters-reveal-his-anti-semitic-chauvinistic-side/0000017f-e20a-d804-ad7f-f3fa72280000 \| url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.intlpress.com/site/pub/files/_fulltext/journals/iccm/2013/0001/0001/ICCM-2013-0001-0001-a009.pdf \| titleWhy is there No Nobel Prize in Mathematics? \| firstLizhen \| lastJi \| workInternational Congress of Chinese Mathematicians \| year2013 \| access-date12 June 2024 \| archive-date30 August 2024 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240830135553/https://www.intlpress.com/site/pub/files/_fulltext/journals/iccm/2013/0001/0001/ICCM-2013-0001-0001-a009.pdf \| url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \| urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3138/j.ctt1pwtd68 \| titleA Nobel Affair: The Correspondence between Alfred Nobel and Sofie Hess \| firstErika \| lastRummel \| publisherUniversity of Toronto Press \| date2017 \| jstor10.3138/j.ctt1pwtd68 \| isbn978-1-4875-0177-8 \| access-date12 June 2024 \| archive-date12 June 2024 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240612151228/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3138/j.ctt1pwtd68 \| url-statuslive }}</ref> Residences , in Karlskoga, was Alfred Nobel's last residence in Sweden.\|left]] Nobel traveled for much of his business life, maintaining companies in Europe and America. From 1865 to 1873, Nobel lived in Krümmel (now in the municipality of Geesthacht, near Hamburg). From 1873 to 1891, he lived in a house in the Avenue Malakoff in Paris.<ref>{{cite web\| urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/alfred-nobel/alfred-nobels-house-in-paris/ \| titleAlfred Nobel's House in Paris \| firstBirgitta \| lastLemmel \| date11 June 2013 \| publisherNobel Prize \| archive-date11 June 2017 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170611203342/http://www.nobelprize.org/alfred_nobel/biographical/articles/malakoff/ \| url-status=live}}</ref> In 1891, after being accused of high treason against France for selling Ballistite to Italy, he moved from Paris to Sanremo, Italy, acquiring Villa Nobel, overlooking the Mediterranean Sea, where he died in 1896.<ref>{{Cite web \| titleAlfred Nobel's final years in Sanremo \| urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/alfred-nobel/alfred-nobels-final-years-in-sanremo/ \| firstLorenette \| lastGozzo \| date23 June 2016 \| publisherNobel Prize \| archive-date8 December 2023 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231208160223/https://www.nobelprize.org/alfred-nobel/alfred-nobels-final-years-in-sanremo/ \| url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \| titleAlfred Nobel – en mångsidig man \| trans-titleAlfred Nobel – a versatile man \| urlhttps://nobelprizemuseum.se/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Alfred-Nobel-faktatext.pdf \|websiteThe Nobel Prize \|dateDecember 2019 \| languagesv \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211021140326/https://nobelprizemuseum.se/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Alfred-Nobel-faktatext.pdf \|archive-date21 October 2021 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 1894, when he acquired Bofors-Gullspång, the Björkborn Manor was included, where he stayed during the summers. It is now a museum.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAlfred Nobel \| urlhttps://nobelkarlskoga.se/welcome-2/alfred-nobel_english/ \| websitenobelkarlskoga.se \| archive-date8 October 2021 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211008180102/https://nobelkarlskoga.se/utstallningar/alfred-nobel/ \| url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \| titleBjörkborn Manor – Alfred Nobels Björkborn \| urlhttps://nobelkarlskoga.se/welcome-2/bjorkborn-manor/ \| websitenobelkarlskoga.se \| archive-date4 September 2021 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210904153608/https://nobelkarlskoga.se/welcome-2/bjorkborn-manor/ \| url-statuslive}}</ref> Monument to Alfred Nobel The Monument to Alfred Nobel ({{Langx\|ru\|Памятник Альфреду Нобелю}}, {{coord\|59.960787\|30.334905\|dim:30_region:RU-LEN_type:landmark}}) is in Saint Petersburg along the Bolshaya Nevka River on Petrogradskaya Embankment, the street where Nobel's family lived until 1859.<ref>{{cite web \| titleAlfred Nobel – St. Petersburg, 1842–1863 \|urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/alfred_nobel/biographical/articles/russia \| lastLemmel \| firstBirgitta \| publisherNobel Prize \|archive-date3 July 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140703024113/http://www.nobelprize.org/alfred_nobel/biographical/articles/russia/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> It was dedicated in 1991 to mark the 90th anniversary of the first Nobel Prize presentation. Diplomat Thomas Bertelman and Professor Arkady Melua were initiators of the creation of the monument in 1989 and they provided funds for the establishment of the monument. The abstract metal sculpture was designed by local artists Sergey Alipov and Pavel Shevchenko, and appears to be an explosion or branches of a tree.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.saint-petersburg.com/monuments/alfred-nobel/ \| titleMonument to Alfred Nobel \| publisherSaint-Petersburg.com \| archive-date15 July 2014 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140715075855/http://www.saint-petersburg.com/monuments/alfred-nobel/ \| url-statuslive}}</ref> Criticism Criticism of Nobel focuses on his leading role in weapons manufacturing and sales. Some people question his motives in creating his prizes, suggesting they are intended to improve his reputation.<ref>{{Cite news \| urlhttps://www.thelocal.se/20101004/29406 \| titleHow 'merchant of death' Alfred Nobel became a champion of peace \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190928121503/https://www.thelocal.se/20101004/29406 \| archive-date28 September 2019 \| workThe Local \| date4 October 2010 \| url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \| urlhttps://www.svd.se/a/7117df16-574e-350c-a31a-24de251593a2/fortalskampanj-bakom-nobels-nobla-testamente \| trans-titleKenne Fant: Slander campaign behind Nobel's noble testament \| titleKenne Fant: Förtalskampanj bakom Nobels nobla testamente \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221214153642/https://www.svd.se/a/7117df16-574e-350c-a31a-24de251593a2/fortalskampanj-bakom-nobels-nobla-testamente \|archive-date14 December 2022 \| firstKenne \| lastFant \| authorlinkKenne Fant \| workSvenska Dagbladet \| date10 December 2002 \| url-statuslive}}</ref> Antisemitism Nobel has also been criticized for displays of antisemitism.<ref nameside/><ref nameaffair/> In his letters to Hess, he wrote "In my experience, [Jews] never do anything out of good will. They act merely out of selfishness or a desire to show off .... among selfish and inconsiderate people they are the most selfish and inconsiderate... all others exist to be fleeced."<ref namereveal/>References{{Reflist\|1}}Further reading * Asbrink, Brita (Summer 2002). [http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai102_folder/102_articles/102_nobels_asbrink.html "The Nobels in Baku"] in Azerbaijan International, Vol 10.2, 56–59. * Evlanoff, M. and Fluor, M. Alfred Nobel – The Loneliest Millionaire. Los Angeles, Ward Ritchie Press, 1969. * {{Cite journal \|last1Jorpes \|first1J. E. \|dateJanuary 3, 1959 \|titleAlfred Nobel \|journalBMJ \|volume1 \|issue5113 \|pages1–6 \|doi10.1136/bmj.1.5113.1 \|pmid13608066 \|pmc=1992347}} * Schück, H, and Sohlman, R., (1929). The Life of Alfred Nobel, transl. Brian Lunn, London: William Heineman Ltd. * Sohlman, R. The Legacy of Alfred Nobel, transl. Schubert E. London: The Bodley Head, 1983 (Swedish original, Ett Testamente, published in 1950). * Alfred Nobel US Patent No 78,317, dated 26 May 1868 External links {{Sister project links\|Alfred Nobel\|wiktAlfred Nobel\|nAlfred Nobel\|s=Author:Alfred Nobel}} {{Spoken Wikipedia\|Alfred_Nobel_Recorded_by_Dimitri_O_Ledenyov_and_Viktor_O_Ledenyov.ogg\|date=2 November 2016}} * [https://www.nobelprize.org/alfred-nobel/ The Man Behind the Prize – Alfred Nobel ] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20021009142637/http://www.nobel.no/eng_com_will1.html Biography at the Norwegian Nobel Institute] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304063125/http://www.eanw.info/nobel.html Documents of Life and Activity of The Nobel Family. Under the editorship of Professor Arkady Melua. Series of books.] (mostly in Russian) * {{PM20\|FID=pe/022685}} * {{Internet Archive author \|sname\|soptw}} * [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338139787_Alfred_Nobel_and_his_unknown_coworker Alfred Nobel and his unknown coworker] {{Nobel Prizes}} {{People whose names are used in chemical element names}} {{Authority control}} {{Portal bar\|Biography\|Sweden\|Science\|Chemistry}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Nobel, Alfred}} Category:1833 births Category:1896 deaths Category:19th-century Swedish businesspeople Category:19th-century Swedish chemists Category:19th-century Swedish engineers Category:19th-century Swedish philanthropists Category:19th-century Swedish scientists Category:Bofors people Category:Burials at Norra begravningsplatsen Category:Engineers from Stockholm Category:Explosives engineers Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Alfred Category:Nobel Prize	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Nobel	2025-04-05T18:25:24.248910
852	Alexander Graham Bell	{{Short description\|Canadian-American inventor of telephone (1847–1922)}} {{about\|the inventor of the telephone\|the song about him\|The Sweet}} {{pp-vandalism\|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=January 2019}} {{Use Oxford spelling\|date=September 2013}} {{Infobox person \| image = Alexander Graham Bell.jpg \| caption = Bell, {{circa\|1917}} \| birth_name = Alexander Bell \| birth_date = {{birth date\|1847\|3\|3}} \| birth_place = Edinburgh, Scotland \| death_date {{death date and age\|1922\|8\|2\|1847\|3\|3\|mfy}} \| death_place = Beinn Bhreagh, Nova Scotia, Canada \| occupation {{hlist \|Inventor \|scientist}} {{hlist \|engineer \|professor{{thinsp}}{{sup\|a}}\|{{nowrap\|teacher of the deaf{{thinsp}}{{refn\|[Is the following a quote from the source referenced?:] While Bell worked in many scientific, technical, professional and social capacities throughout his life he would remain fondest of his earliest vocation. To the end of his days, when discussing himself, Bell would always add with pride "I am a teacher of the deaf".<ref>{{cite book \|lastBoileau \|firstJohn \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlxq3yPsmF9AC \|titleFastest in the World: The Saga of Canada's Revolutionary Hydrofoils \|locationHalifax, Nova Scotia \|publisherFormac Publishing \|date2004 \|page12 \|isbn978-0-88780-621-6 }}</ref>}} \|group"N"}}}} \| citizenship = {{ubl\|United Kingdom (1847–1922)\|British-subject in Canada (1870–1882)\|United States (1882–1922)}} \| alma mater = University of Edinburgh<br>University College London \| known_for = {{nowrap\|<!---The following is based on several reliable sources. Before changing, please discuss on the talk page:--->Invention of the telephone{{thinsp}}{{sup\|b}}}}<br>Co-founder of Bell Telephone Company, Bell Canada and AT&T \| spouse = {{marriage\|Mabel Gardiner Hubbard\|1877}} \| children = 4 \| parents = {{plainlist\| * Alexander Melville Bell * Eliza Grace Symonds }} \| relatives {{Unbulleted list \|classnowrap \| Gardiner G. Hubbard (father-in-law) \| David C. Bell (uncle) \| Gilbert H. Grosvenor (son-in-law) \| David Fairchild (son-in-law) \| Melville Bell Grosvenor (grandson) \| Mabel Grosvenor (granddaughter) \| A. Graham Bell Fairchild (grandson) \| Gilbert Grosvenor (great-grandson) \| Edwin Grosvenor (great-grandson) \| Chichester Bell (cousin) }} \| awards = {{ubl\|Volta Prize (1880)\|Membership of NAS (1883)\|Albert Medal (1902)\|John Fritz Medal (1907)\|Elliott Cresson Medal (1912)\|Hughes Medal (1913)\|AIEE Edison Medal (1914)}} \| module {{Listen \|poscenter \|embedyes \|filenameAlexander Graham Bell speaking.ogg \|title{{big\|Bell's voice}}{{thinsp}}<ref name"voice">{{cite web \|urlhttps://spectrum.ieee.org/particle-physics-resurrects-alexander-graham-bells-voice\|titleParticle Physics Resurrects Alexander Graham Bell's Voice\|websiteIEEE Spectrum \|access-dateMay 10, 2018\|dateApril 30, 2018}}</ref> \|typespeech \|description=Re-identified in 2013, Bell made this wax-disc recording of his voice in 1885.}} \| signature = Alexander Graham Bell (signature).svg \| footnotes = {{ublist \|{{sup\|a}} Boston University (see below). \|{{sup\|b}} See below. \|{{sup\|c}} Two died soon after birth.}} }} <!-- *** EDITORS, PLEASE NOTE: * The question of nationality is a contentious one in that Alexander Graham Bell has been variously claimed as Scottish, British, American, and Canadian. Bell made a number of inventions as a British citizen after immigrating to Canada and then moving to the United States, including the telephone in 1876; however, he did not become an American citizen until 1882. Therefore, if nationality is to be described specifically ... Alexander Graham Bell, British inventor of the telephone, died as an American citizen in Canada. The wording in the lead paragraph was carefully crafted after input from many editors to accommodate the many diverse claims. It is recognized that in the last years of his life, Bell had American citizenship, although he lived primarily in Canada on his estate. His life's work and details on his nationality and citizenship are provided in later sections. Please discuss any potentially divisive submissions prior to editing the introductory section. * End editors' note *** --> Alexander Graham Bell ({{IPAc-en\|ˈ\|ɡ\|ɹ\|eɪ\|.\|ə\|m}}; born Alexander Bell; March 3, 1847 – August 2, 1922)<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.bellhomestead.ca/history/Pages/TheBellFamily.aspx \|titleThe Bell Family \|websiteBell Homestead National Historic Site \|access-dateSeptember 27, 2013}}</ref> was a <!-- Read note above prior to modifying this introduction --> Scottish-born{{refn\|Bell was a British subject for most of his early life. When he moved to Canada in 1870, Canadian and British citizenship were functionally identical, with Canadian citizenship only becoming a formal classification in 1910. He applied for American citizenship after 1877, gained it in 1882, and referred to himself as an American citizen from that point on. Quote from Bell speaking to his wife: "you are a citizen because you can't help it – you were born one, but I chose to be one."{{sfn\|Gray\|2006\|p228}} Aside from Bell's own view of his citizenship, many, if not most Canadians considered him also as one of theirs as evidenced in an address by the Governor General of Canada. On October 24, 1917, in Brantford, Ontario, the Governor General spoke at the unveiling of the Bell Telephone Memorial to an audience numbering in the thousands, saying: "Dr. Bell is to be congratulated upon being able to receive the recognition of his fellow citizens and fellow countrymen".<ref>{{cite book \|lastReville \|firstF. Douglas \|urlhttp://brantford.library.on.ca/localhistory/pdfs/reville1.pdf \|titleHistory of the County of Brant: Illustrated With Fifty Half-Tones Taken From Miniatures And Photographs \|publisherBrantford Historical Society & Hurley Printing \|locationBrantford, Ontario \|date1920 \|page319 \|access-dateMay 4, 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120419162041/http://brantford.library.on.ca/localhistory/pdfs/reville1.pdf \|archive-dateApril 19, 2012 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> \|groupN}} Canadian-American inventor, scientist, and engineer who is credited with patenting the first practical telephone. He also co-founded the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) in 1885.{{sfn\|Bruce\|1990\|p=291}} Bell's father, grandfather, and brother had all been associated with work on elocution and speech, and both his mother and wife were deaf, profoundly influencing Bell's life's work.<ref>{{cite book \|lastBruce \|firstRobert V. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZmR0MOQAu0UC \|titleBell: Alexander Bell and the Conquest of Solitude \|locationIthaca, New York \|publisherCornell University Press \|date1990 \|page419 \|isbn978-0-8014-9691-2 }}</ref> His research on hearing and speech further led him to experiment with hearing devices, which eventually culminated in his being awarded the first U.S. patent for the telephone, on March 7, 1876.{{refn\|From {{harvp\|Black\|1997\|p18}}: "He thought he could harness the new electronic technology by creating a machine with a transmitter and receiver that would send sounds telegraphically to help people hear."\|groupN}} Bell considered his invention an intrusion on his real work as a scientist and refused to have a telephone in his study.<ref>{{cite book \|lastMacLeod \|firstElizabeth \|titleAlexander Graham Bell: An Inventive Life \|locationToronto, Ontario \|publisherKids Can Press \|date1999 \|page19 \|isbn978-1-55074-456-9 }}</ref>{{refn\|After Bell's death his wife Mabel wrote to John J. Carty, an AT&T vice-president, and commented on her husband's reluctance to have a phone in his study, saying "[of the statements in the newspapers] ...publishing of Mr. Bell's dislike of the telephone. Of course, he never had one in his study. That was where he went when he wanted to be alone with his thoughts and his work. The telephone, of course, means intrusion by the outside world. And the little difficulties and delays often attending the establishment of conversation... did irritate him, so that as a rule he preferred having others send and receive messages. But all really important business over the telephone he transacted himself. There are few private houses more completely equipped with telephones than ours... and there was nothing that Mr. Bell was more particular about than our telephone service... We never could have come here [to Beinn Bhreagh] in the first place or continued here, but for the telephone which kept us in close touch with doctors and neighbours and the regular telegraph office... Mr. Bell did like to say in fun, "Why did I ever invent the Telephone," but no one had a higher appreciation of its indispensableness or used it more freely when need was—either personally or by deputy—and he was really tremendously proud of it and all it was accomplishing."<ref>{{cite journal \|lastBell \|firstMabel \|titleDr. Bell's Appreciation of the Telephone Service \|journalBell Telephone Quarterly \|volume1 \|issue3 \|dateOctober 1922 \|page65 \|urlhttps://archive.org/stream/belltelephonemag01amer#page/64/mode/2up \|access-dateSeptember 18, 2015}}</ref>\|group=N}} Many other inventions marked Bell's later life, including ground-breaking work in optical telecommunications, hydrofoils, and aeronautics. Bell also had a strong influence on the National Geographic Society<ref>{{cite web \|lastHowley \|firstAndrew \|dateMay 26, 2011 \|titleNGS Celebrates 23rd Founders Day \|websiteNGS \|publisherNational Geographic Society \|urlhttp://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2011/05/26/ngs-celebrates-23rd-founders-day \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160202163557/http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2011/05/26/ngs-celebrates-23rd-founders-day/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-dateFebruary 2, 2016 \|access-dateJanuary 18, 2016 \|quoteThough he wasn't one of the original 33 founders, Bell had a major influence on the Society.}}</ref> and its magazine while serving as its second president from 1898 to 1903. Beyond his work in engineering, Bell had a deep interest in the emerging science of heredity.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastStansfield\|firstW. D.\|date2005-01-01\|titleThe Bell Family Legacies\|journalJournal of Heredity\|volume96\|issue1\|pages1–3\|doi10.1093/jhered/esi007\|pmid15618310\|issn0022-1503\|doi-access}}</ref> His work in this area has been called "the soundest, and most useful study of human heredity proposed in nineteenth-century America... Bell's most notable contribution to basic science, as distinct from invention."<ref name"bruce1990" />Early lifeBell was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, on March 3, 1847, to Alexander Melville Bell, a phonetician, and his Eliza Grace Bell (née Symonds).<ref>{{cite news \|titleAlexander M. Bell Dead. Father of Prof. A. G. Bell Developed Sign Language for Mutes \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1905/08/08/archives/alexander-m-bell-dead-father-of-prof-ag-bell-developed-sign.html \|workThe New York Times \|dateAugust 8, 1905 \|access-dateSeptember 18, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|lastPetrie \|firstA. Roy \|titleAlexander Graham Bell \|locationDon Mills, Ontario \|publisherFitzhenry & Whiteside \|date1975 \|page[https://archive.org/details/alexandergrahamb0000petr_q2x0/page/4 4] \|isbn978-0-88902-209-6 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/alexandergrahamb0000petr_q2x0/page/4 }}</ref> The family home was on South Charlotte Street in Edinburgh, where a stone inscription marks it as Bell's birthplace. He had two brothers: Melville James Bell (1845–1870) and Edward Charles Bell (1848–1867), both who died of tuberculosis.<ref>[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/bellhtml/belltime.html "Time Line of Alexander Graham Bell."] memory.loc.goiv. Retrieved: July 28, 2010. {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051024211905/http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/bellhtml/belltime.html \|dateOctober 24, 2005 }}</ref> He was born as just "Alexander Bell". At age 10, however, he made a plea to his father to have a middle name like his two brothers.<ref>{{cite web\|url http://learn.fi.edu/learn/case-files/bell/agb.html\|title Call me Alexander Graham Bell\|website The Franklin Institute\|access-date February 24, 2015\|date January 14, 2014\|archive-date February 24, 2015\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20150224032704/http://learn.fi.edu/learn/case-files/bell/agb.html\|url-status dead}}</ref>{{refn\| Bell typically signed his name in full on his correspondence.\|groupN}} For his 11th birthday, his father acquiesced and allowed him to adopt the name "Graham", chosen out of respect for Alexander Graham, a Canadian being treated by his father who was also a family friend.<ref>{{cite book \|lastGroundwater \|firstJennifer \|titleAlexander Graham Bell: The Spirit of Invention \|locationCalgary, Alberta \|publisherAltitude Publishing \|date2005 \|page[https://archive.org/details/alexandergrahamb0000grou/page/23 23] \|isbn978-1-55439-006-9 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/alexandergrahamb0000grou/page/23 }}</ref> To close relatives and friends he remained "Aleck".{{sfn\|Bruce\|1990\|pp17–19}} Bell and his siblings attended a Presbyterian Church in their youth.{{sfn\|Bruce\|1990\|p490}}First inventionAs a child, Bell displayed a curiosity about his world; he gathered botanical specimens and ran experiments at an early age. His best friend was Ben Herdman, a neighbour whose family operated a flour mill. At the age of 12, Bell built a homemade device that combined rotating paddles with sets of nail brushes, creating a simple dehusking machine that was put into operation at the mill and used steadily for a number of years.{{sfn\|Bruce\|1990\|p16}} In return, Ben's father John Herdman gave both boys the run of a small workshop in which to "invent".{{sfn\|Bruce\|1990\|p=16}} From his early years, Bell showed a sensitive nature and a talent for art, poetry, and music that his mother encouraged. With no formal training, he mastered the piano and became the family's pianist.{{sfn\|Gray\|2006\|p8}} Though normally quiet and introspective, he revelled in mimicry and "voice tricks" akin to ventriloquism that entertained family guests.{{sfn\|Gray\|2006\|p8}} Bell was also deeply affected by his mother's gradual deafness (she began to lose her hearing when he was 12), and learned a manual finger language so he could sit at her side and tap out silently the conversations swirling around the family parlour.{{sfn\|Gray\|2006\|p9}} He also developed a technique of speaking in clear, modulated tones directly into his mother's forehead, whereby she would hear him with reasonable clarity.<ref>{{cite book \|lastMackay \|firstJames \|titleSounds Out of Silence: A life of Alexander Graham Bell \|locationEdinburgh, UK \|publisherMainstream Publishing \|date1997 \|page25 \|isbn=978-1-85158-833-6 }}</ref> Bell's preoccupation with his mother's deafness led him to study acoustics. His family was long associated with the teaching of elocution: his grandfather, Alexander Bell, in London, his uncle in Dublin, and his father, in Edinburgh, were all elocutionists. His father published a variety of works on the subject, several of which are still well known, especially The Standard Elocutionist (1860),{{sfn\|Gray\|2006\|p8}} which appeared in Edinburgh in 1868. The Standard Elocutionist appeared in 168 British editions and sold over 250,000 copies in the United States alone. It explains methods to instruct deaf-mutes (as they were then known) to articulate words and read other people's lip movements to decipher meaning. Bell's father taught him and his brothers not only to write Visible Speech but to identify any symbol and its accompanying sound.{{sfn\|Petrie\|1975\|p7}} Bell became so proficient that he became a part of his father's public demonstrations and astounded audiences with his abilities. He could decipher Visible Speech representing virtually every language, including Latin, Scottish Gaelic, and even Sanskrit, accurately reciting written tracts without any prior knowledge of their pronunciation.{{sfn\|Petrie\|1975\|p7}}EducationAs a young child, Bell, like his brothers, was schooled at home by his father. At an early age, he was enrolled at the Royal High School in Edinburgh. But he left at age 15, having completed only the first four forms.{{sfn\|Mackay\|1997\|p31}} His school record was undistinguished, marked by absenteeism and lacklustre grades. His main interest remained in the sciences, especially biology, while he treated other school subjects with indifference, to his father's dismay.{{sfn\|Gray\|2006\|p11}} Upon leaving school, Bell travelled to London to live with his grandfather, Alexander Bell, on Harrington Square. During the year he spent with his grandfather, a love of learning was born, with long hours spent in serious discussion and study. The elder Bell took great efforts to have his young pupil learn to speak clearly and with conviction, attributes he would need to become a teacher himself.<ref>{{cite book \|lastTown \|firstFlorida \|titleAlexander Graham Bell \|locationToronto, Ontario \|publisherGrolier \|date1988 \|page7 \|isbn978-0-7172-1950-6 }}</ref> At age 16, Bell secured a position as a "pupil-teacher" of elocution and music at Weston House Academy in Elgin, Moray, Scotland. Although enrolled as a student in Latin and Greek, he instructed classes himself in return for board and £10 per session.{{sfn\|Bruce\|1990\|p37}} The next year, he attended the University of Edinburgh, joining his brother Melville, who had enrolled there the previous year. In 1868, Bell completed his matriculation exams and was accepted for admission to University College London, though he did not complete his studies, as his family emigrated to Canada in 1870 following the deaths of his brothers Edward and Melville from tuberculosis.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAlexander Graham Bell \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Alexander-Graham-Bell \|websiteEncyclopaedia Britannica \|access-date17 March 2025}}</ref> First experiments with sound Bell's father encouraged his interest in speech and, in 1863, took his sons to see a unique automaton developed by Sir Charles Wheatstone based on the earlier work of Baron Wolfgang von Kempelen.{{sfn\|Groundwater\|2005\|p25}} The rudimentary "mechanical man" simulated a human voice. Bell was fascinated by the machine, and after he obtained a copy of von Kempelen's book, published in German, and had laboriously translated it, he and Melville built their own automaton head. Their father, highly interested in their project, offered to pay for any supplies and spurred the boys on with the enticement of a "big prize" if they were successful.{{sfn\|Groundwater\|2005\|p25}} While his brother constructed the throat and larynx, Bell tackled the more difficult task of recreating a realistic skull. His efforts resulted in a remarkably lifelike head that could "speak", albeit only a few words.{{sfn\|Groundwater\|2005\|p25}} The boys would carefully adjust the "lips" and when a bellows forced air through the windpipe, a very recognizable Mama ensued, to the delight of neighbours who came to see the invention.{{sfn\|Petrie\|1975\|pp7–9}} Intrigued by the results of the automaton, Bell continued to experiment with a live subject, the family's Skye Terrier, Trouve.{{sfn\|Petrie\|1975\|p9}} After he taught it to growl continuously, Bell would reach into its mouth and manipulate the dog's lips and vocal cords to produce a crude-sounding "Ow ah oo ga ma ma". With little convincing, visitors believed his dog could articulate "How are you, grandmama?"<ref>{{Cite web\|lastMessenger\|firstStephen\|titleBefore Inventing The Telephone, Alexander Graham Bell Tried To Teach His Dog To Talk\|urlhttps://www.thedodo.com/before-inventing-the-telephone-489117573.html\|access-date2021-01-30\|websiteThe Dodo\|dateMarch 29, 2014 \|languageen}}</ref> Indicative of his playful nature, his experiments convinced onlookers that they saw a "talking dog".{{sfn\|Groundwater\|2005\|p30}} These initial forays into experimentation with sound led Bell to undertake his first serious work on the transmission of sound, using tuning forks to explore resonance. At age 19, Bell wrote a report on his work and sent it to philologist Alexander Ellis, a colleague of his father.{{sfn\|Groundwater\|2005\|p30}} Ellis immediately wrote back indicating that the experiments were similar to existing work in Germany, and also lent Bell a copy of Hermann von Helmholtz's work, The Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music.<ref>{{cite book \|lastShulman \|firstSeth \|titleThe Telephone Gambit: Chasing Alexander Bell's Secret \|locationNew York \|publisherNorton & Company \|date2008 \|page[https://archive.org/details/telephonegambitc00shul/page/46 46] \|isbn978-0-393-06206-9 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/telephonegambitc00shul }}</ref> Dismayed to find that groundbreaking work had already been undertaken by Helmholtz, who had conveyed vowel sounds by means of a similar tuning fork "contraption", Bell pored over the book. Working from his own erroneous mistranslation of a French edition,<ref name"DCB" /> Bell fortuitously then made a deduction that would underpin all his future work on transmitting sound, reporting: "Without knowing much about the subject, it seemed to me that if vowel sounds could be produced by electrical means, so could consonants, so could articulate speech." He also later remarked: "I thought that Helmholtz had done it&nbsp;... and that my failure was due only to my ignorance of electricity. It was a valuable blunder&nbsp;... If I had been able to read German in those days, I might never have commenced my experiments!"<ref>{{cite book \|lastMacKenzie \|firstCatherine \|author-linkCatherine MacKenzie \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiFOcw4lN_ZYC \|titleAlexander Graham Bell \|locationBoston, Massachusetts \|publisherGrosset and Dunlap \|date2003 \|orig-year1928 \|page41 \|isbn978-0-7661-4385-2 }}</ref>{{sfn\|Groundwater\|2005\|p31}}{{sfn\|Shulman\|2008\|pp46–48}}{{refn\| Helmholtz's The Sensations of Tone is credited with inspiring Bell, at the age of 23, to further his studies of electricity and electromagnetism.<ref name"DCB" />\|groupN}}Family tragedyIn 1865, when the Bell family moved to London,<ref>{{cite book \|lastMicklos \|firstJohn Jr. \|titleAlexander Graham Bell: Inventor of the Telephone \|locationNew York \|publisherHarperCollins \|date2006 \|page8 \|isbn978-0-06-057618-9 }}</ref> Bell returned to Weston House as an assistant master and, in his spare hours, continued experiments on sound using a minimum of laboratory equipment. Bell concentrated on experimenting with electricity to convey sound and later installed a telegraph wire from his room in Somerset College to that of a friend.{{sfn\|Bruce\|1990\|p45}} Throughout late 1867, his health faltered mainly through exhaustion. His brother Edward was similarly affected by tuberculosis. While Bell recovered (by then referring to himself in correspondence as "A. G. Bell") and served the next year as an instructor at Somerset College, Bath, England, his brother's condition deteriorated. Edward never recovered. Upon his brother's death, Bell returned home in 1867. Melville had married and moved out. With aspirations to obtain a degree at University College London, Bell considered his next years preparation for the degree examinations, devoting his spare time to studying. Helping his father in Visible Speech demonstrations and lectures brought Bell to Susanna E. Hull's private school for the deaf in South Kensington, London. His first two pupils were deaf-mute girls who made remarkable progress under his tutelage. While Melville seemed to achieve success on many fronts, including opening his own elocution school, applying for a patent on an invention, and starting a family, Bell continued as a teacher. In May 1870, Melville died from complications of tuberculosis, causing a family crisis. His father had also experienced a debilitating illness earlier in life and been restored to health by convalescence in Newfoundland. Bell's parents embarked upon a long-planned move when they realized that their remaining son was also sickly. Acting decisively, Alexander Melville Bell asked Bell to arrange for the sale of all the family property,{{sfn\|Bruce\|1990\|pp67–28}}{{refn\|The family pet was given to his brother's family.\|groupN}} conclude all his brother's affairs (Bell took on his last student, curing a pronounced lisp),{{sfn\|Bruce\|1990\|p68}} and join his father and mother in setting out for Canada. Reluctantly, Bell also had to conclude a relationship with Marie Eccleston, who, as he had surmised, was not prepared to leave England with him.{{sfn\|Groundwater\|2005\|p33}} Canada {{Main\|Bell Homestead National Historic Site}} , the Bells' first home in North America, now a National Historic Site of Canada]] In 1870, 23-year-old Bell travelled with his parents and his brother's widow, Caroline Margaret Ottaway,{{sfn\|Mackay\|1997\|p50}} to Paris, Ontario,{{sfn\|Gray\|2006\|p21}} to stay with Thomas Henderson, a Baptist minister and family friend.<ref>{{cite web \|titleReverend Thomas Henderson House \|urlhttps://www.historicplaces.ca/en/rep-reg/place-lieu.aspx?id10130 \|websiteCanada's Historic Places \|access-dateAugust 5, 2020}}</ref> The Bells soon purchased a farm of {{convert\|10.5\|acre\|ha}} at Tutelo Heights (now called Tutela Heights), near Brantford, Ontario. The property consisted of an orchard, large farmhouse, stable, pigsty, hen-house, and a carriage house, which bordered the Grand River.{{sfn\|Mackay\|1997\|p61}}{{refn\| The estate, dating from 1858, is in the present day located at 94 Tutela Heights Road, Brantford, and is now known as the "Bell Homestead", and formally as the Bell Homestead National Historic Site of Canada. It received its historical designation from the Government of Canada on June 1, 1996.<ref>{{CRHP\|12773\|Bell Homestead National Historic Site of Canada\|September 17, 2015}}</ref>\|group=N}} At the homestead, Bell set up a workshop in the converted carriage house near what he called his "dreaming place",<ref>{{cite book \|lastWing \|firstChris \|titleAlexander Graham Bell at Baddeck \|locationBaddeck, Nova Scotia \|publisherChristopher King \|date1980 \|page10}}</ref> a large hollow nestled in trees at the back of the property above the river.{{sfn\|Groundwater\|2005\|p34}} Despite his frail condition upon arriving in Canada, Bell found the climate and environs to his liking and rapidly improved.{{sfn\|Mackay\|1997\|p62}}{{refn\| Bell would later write that he had come to Canada a "dying man".\|groupN}} He continued his interest in the study of the human voice, and when he discovered the Six Nations Reserve across the river at Onondaga, learned the Mohawk language and translated its unwritten vocabulary into Visible Speech symbols. For his work, Bell was awarded the title of Honorary Chief and participated in a ceremony where he donned a Mohawk headdress and danced traditional dances.{{sfn\|Groundwater\|2005\|p35}}{{refn\|Bell was thrilled at his recognition by the Six Nations Reserve and throughout his life would launch into a Mohawk war dance when he was excited.\|groupN}} After setting up his workshop, Bell continued experiments based on Helmholtz's work with electricity and sound.{{Sfn\|Wing\|1980\|p10}} He also modified a melodeon (a type of pump organ) to transmit its music electrically over a distance.<ref name"Waldi-undated">{{cite news \|lastWaldie \|firstJean H. \|titleHistoric Melodeon Is Given To Bell Museum \|publisherlikely published either by the London Free Press or by the Brantford Expositor, date unknown}}</ref> Once the family was settled, Bell and his father made plans to establish a teaching practice and in 1871, he accompanied his father to Montreal, where Melville was offered a position to teach his System of Visible Speech. Work with deaf people to teachers at the Boston School for Deaf Mutes, 1871; throughout his life, he referred to himself as "a teacher of the deaf"]] Bell's father was invited by Sarah Fuller, principal of the Boston School for Deaf Mutes (later to become the public Horace Mann School for the Deaf){{sfn\|Bruce\|1990\|p74}} to introduce the Visible Speech System by providing training for Fuller's instructors, but he declined the post in favour of his son. Travelling to Boston in April 1871, Bell proved successful in training the school's instructors.{{sfn\|Town\|1988\|p12}} He was asked to repeat the programme at the American Asylum for Deaf-mutes in Hartford, Connecticut, and the Clarke School for the Deaf in Northampton, Massachusetts. Returning home to Brantford after six months abroad, Bell continued his experiments with his "harmonic telegraph".<ref>{{cite book \|titleAlexander Graham Bell \|type(booklet) \|locationHalifax, Nova Scotia \|publisherMaritime Telegraph & Telephone Limited \|date1979 \|page8 \|ref{{sfnRef\|Alexander Graham Bell\|1979}} }}</ref>{{refn\|In later years, Bell described the invention of the telephone and linked it to his "dreaming place".\|groupN}} The basic concept behind his device was that messages could be sent through a single wire if each was transmitted at a different pitch, but work on both the transmitter and receiver was needed.{{sfn\|Groundwater\|2005\|p=39}} Unsure of his future, he contemplated returning to London to complete his studies, but decided to return to Boston as a teacher.{{sfn\|Petrie\|1975\|p14}} His father helped him set up his private practice by contacting Gardiner Greene Hubbard, the president of the Clarke School for the Deaf for a recommendation. Teaching his father's system, in October 1872, Alexander Bell opened his "School of Vocal Physiology and Mechanics of Speech" in Boston, which attracted a large number of deaf pupils, with his first class numbering 30 students.{{sfn\|Petrie\|1975\|p15}}{{sfn\|Town\|1988\|pp12–13}} While he was working as a private tutor, one of his pupils was Helen Keller, who came to him as a young child unable to see, hear, or speak. She later said that Bell dedicated his life to the penetration of that "inhuman silence which separates and estranges".{{sfn\|Petrie\|1975\|p17}} In 1893, Keller performed the sod-breaking ceremony for the construction of Bell's new Volta Bureau, dedicated to "the increase and diffusion of knowledge relating to the deaf".<ref name"Schoenherr2005">{{cite web \|lastSchoenherr \|firstSteven E. \|urlhttp://www.aes.org/aeshc/docs/recording.technology.history/graphophone.html \|websiteRecording Technology History \|titleCharles Sumner Tainter and the Graphophone \|publisherAudio Engineering Society \|dateFebruary 10, 2000 \|access-dateSeptember 19, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia \|titleAlexander Graham Bell \|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica \|firstDavid \|lastHochfelder \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Alexander-Graham-Bell \|dateJuly 31, 2015 \|access-dateSeptember 18, 2015}}</ref> Throughout his life, Bell sought to assimilate the deaf and hard of hearing with the hearing world. He encouraged speech therapy and lip-reading over sign language. He outlined this in an 1898 paper<ref>{{Cite web\|titleImage 1 of Pamphlet by Alexander Graham Bell, 1898\|urlhttps://www.loc.gov/resource/magbell.37600801/\|access-date2021-06-11\|websiteLibrary of Congress, Washington, D.C.}}</ref> detailing his belief that, with resources and effort, the deaf could be taught to read lips and speak (known as oralism),<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.disabilitymuseum.org/dhm/edu/essay.html?id59#:~:textBell%20used%20his%20fame%20and,favor%20of%20speaking%20and%20lipreading.\|websiteDisabilitymuseum.org\|titleAlexander Graham Bell and His Role in Oral Education}}</ref> enabling their integration with wider society.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Miller \|first1Don \|first2Jan \|last2Branson \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/damnedfortheirdi00bran_0 \|url-accessregistration \|titleDamned For Their Difference: The Cultural Construction Of Deaf People as Disabled: A Sociological History \|locationWashington, D.C. \|publisherGallaudet University Press \|date2002 \|pages[https://archive.org/details/damnedfortheirdi00bran_0/page/30 30]–31, 152–153 \|isbn978-1-56368-121-9 }}</ref> Members of the Deaf community have criticized Bell for supporting ideas that could cause the closure of dozens of deaf schools, and what some consider eugenicist ideas.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastJay \|firstMichelle \|date2020-01-02 \|titleAlexander Graham Bell - Helpful or Harmful? {{!}} Start ASL \|urlhttps://www.startasl.com/alexander-graham-bell/ \|access-date2022-03-11 \|languageen-US}}</ref> Bell did not support a ban on deaf people marrying each other, an idea articulated by the National Association of the Deaf (United States),<ref>{{Cite web \|titleEugenics and Deaf People in 20th Century America \|urlhttps://medium.com/sun-shine/trigger-warning-allusion-to-the-holocaust-552353668 \|access-date2022-06-28 \|websiteMedium \|dateMay 11, 2021 \|languageen-US}}</ref> but in his memoir Memoir upon the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race, he observed that if deaf people tended to marry other deaf people, this could result in the emergence of a "deaf race".<ref>{{Cite web \|titleA Deaf Variety Of The Human Race \|urlhttps://www.gallaudet.edu/history-through-deaf-eyes/online-exhibition/language-and-identity/a-deaf-variety-of-the-human-race/ \|access-date2022-03-11 \|websiteGallaudet University \|languageen-US}}</ref> Ultimately, in 1880, the Second International Congress on Education of the Deaf passed a resolution mandating the teaching of oral communication and banning signing in schools.<ref>{{Cite book\|titleReport of the proceedings of the International Congress on the Education of the Deaf, held at Milan, September 6th-11th, 1880\|dateJanuary 1, 1880\|authorInternationalCongressontheDeaf\|author-maskInternational Congress on the Deaf\|publisherW. H. Allen & Co.\|urlhttps://gaislandora.wrlc.org/islandora/object/rarebooks%3A56/datastream/PDF/view}}</ref>Continuing experimentation <!--Linked from infobox at start of article--> In 1872, Bell became professor of Vocal Physiology and Elocution at the Boston University School of Oratory. During this period, he alternated between Boston and Brantford, spending summers in his Canadian home. At Boston University, Bell was "swept up" by the excitement engendered by the many scientists and inventors living in the city. He continued his research in sound and endeavoured to find a way to transmit musical notes and articulate speech, but although absorbed by his experiments, he found it difficult to devote enough time to experimentation. With days and evenings occupied by his teaching and private classes, Bell began to stay awake late into the night, running experiment after experiment in rented facilities at his boarding house. Keeping "night owl" hours, he worried that his work would be discovered and took great pains to lock up his notebooks and laboratory equipment. Bell had a specially made table where he could place his notes and equipment inside a locking cover.{{sfn\|Town\|1988\|p15}} His health deteriorated as he had severe headaches.{{sfn\|Groundwater\|2005\|p39}} Returning to Boston in autumn 1873, Bell made a far-reaching decision to concentrate on his experiments in sound. Giving up his lucrative private Boston practice, Bell retained only two students, six-year-old "Georgie" Sanders, deaf from birth, and 15-year-old Mabel Hubbard. Each played an important role in the next developments. Georgie's father, Thomas Sanders, a wealthy businessman, offered Bell a place to stay in nearby Salem with Georgie's grandmother, complete with a room to "experiment". Although the offer was made by Georgie's mother and followed the year-long arrangement in 1872 where her son and his nurse had moved to quarters next to Bell's boarding house, it was clear that Mr. Sanders backed the proposal. The arrangement was for teacher and student to continue their work together, with free room and board thrown in.{{sfn\|Town\|1988\|p16}} Mabel was a bright, attractive girl ten years Bell's junior who became the object of his affection. Having lost her hearing after a near-fatal bout of scarlet fever close to her fifth birthday,<ref>{{cite book \|lastToward \|firstLilias M. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWXjSAAAACAAJ \|titleMabel Bell: Alexander's Silent Partner \|locationToronto, Ontario \|publisherMethuen \|date1984 \|page1 \|isbn978-0-458-98090-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|author-linkDorothy Harley Eber \|lastEber \|firstDorothy Harley \|titleGenius at Work: Images of Alexander Graham Bell \|locationToronto, Ontario \|publisherMcClelland and Stewart \|date1991 \|orig-year1982 \|editionreprint \|page43 \|isbn978-0-7710-3036-9 }}</ref>{{refn\| {{harvp\|Eber\|1991\|p43}} claimed that Mabel had scarlet fever in New York "...shortly before her fifth birthday..."; however, {{harvp\|Toward\|1984}} provided a detailed chronology of the event claiming "...&nbsp;shortly after their arrival in New York [in January 1863]" when Mabel would have been at least five years and five weeks of age. Mabel's exact age when she became deaf would later play a part in the debate on the effectiveness of manual versus oral education for deaf children, as children who are older at the onset of deafness retain greater vocalization skills and are thus more successful in oral education programmes. Some of the debate centred on whether Mabel had to relearn oral speech from scratch, or whether she never lost it.\|groupN}} she had learned to read lips but her father, Gardiner Greene Hubbard, Bell's benefactor and personal friend, wanted her to work directly with her teacher.<ref>{{cite book \|lastDunn \|firstAndrew \|titleAlexander Graham Bell \|series(Pioneers of Science) \|locationEast Sussex, UK \|publisherWayland Publishers \|date1990 \|page20 \|isbn978-1-85210-958-5 }}</ref>The telephone <!----Please note: The question of authorship or claims to the invention of the telephone is discussed in the sub-article Invention of the Telephone. Although there remain disputes between various parties that were eventually resolved in litigation, this still remains a contentious issue. Before introducing any further controversial issues related to the invention of the telephone, please discuss on the talk page. -----> <!--Linked from infobox above--> {{external media \| width 210px \| float right \| audio1 [https://www.cbc.ca/player/play/1752176982 Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Watson], 26:57, CBC Archives<ref name"CBC archives">{{cite web \| title Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Watson \| publisherCBC \| date July 25, 1975 \| url https://www.cbc.ca/player/play/1752176982 \| access-date =February 7, 2023 }}</ref> }} {{Main\|Invention of the telephone}} By 1874, Bell's initial work on the harmonic telegraph had entered a formative stage, with progress made both at his new Boston "laboratory" (a rented facility) and at his family home in Canada a big success.{{refn\| From {{harvp\|Alexander Graham Bell\|1979\|p8}}: "Brantford is justified in calling herself 'The Telephone City' because the telephone originated there. It was invented in Brantford at Tutela Heights in the summer of 1874."\|groupN}} While working that summer in Brantford, Bell experimented with a "phonautograph", a pen-like machine that could draw shapes of sound waves on smoked glass by tracing their vibrations. Bell thought it might be possible to generate undulating electrical currents that corresponded to sound waves.<ref>{{cite book \|lastMatthews \|firstTom L. \|titleAlways Inventing: A Photobiography of Alexander Graham Bell \|locationWashington, D.C. \|publisherNational Geographic Society \|date1999 \|pages19–21 \|isbn978-0-7922-7391-2 }}</ref> He also thought that multiple metal reeds tuned to different frequencies like a harp would be able to convert the undulating currents back into sound. But he had no working model to demonstrate the feasibility of these ideas.{{sfn\|Matthews\|1999\|p=21}} In 1874, telegraph message traffic was rapidly expanding and, in the words of Western Union President William Orton, had become "the nervous system of commerce". Orton had contracted with inventors Thomas Edison and Elisha Gray to find a way to send multiple telegraph messages on each telegraph line to avoid the great cost of constructing new lines.<ref>{{cite journal\|first1Blaine \|last1McCormick \|first2Paul \|last2Israel \|urlhttp://ieee.cincinnati.fuse.net/reiman/03_2005.htm \|titleUnderrated entrepreneur: Thomas Edison's overlooked business story \|journalIEEE Power & Energy Magazine \|volume3 \|issue1 \|pages76–79 \|dateJanuary–February 2005 \|doi10.1109/MPAE.2005.1380243 \|s2cid19680450 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091223075458/http://ieee.cincinnati.fuse.net/reiman/03_2005.htm \|archive-dateDecember 23, 2009 \| issn1540-7977 }}</ref> When Bell mentioned to Gardiner Hubbard and Thomas Sanders that he was working on a method of sending multiple tones on a telegraph wire using a multi-reed device, the two began to financially support Bell's experiments.{{sfn\|Town\|1988\|p17}} Patent matters were handled by Hubbard's patent attorney, Anthony Pollok.{{sfn\|Evenson\|2000\|pages=18–25}} In March 1875, Bell and Pollok visited the scientist Joseph Henry, then the director of the Smithsonian Institution, to ask his advice on the electrical multi-reed apparatus that Bell hoped would transmit the human voice by telegraph. Henry said Bell had "the germ of a great invention". When Bell said that he lacked the necessary knowledge, Henry replied, "Get it!" That declaration greatly encouraged Bell to keep trying, even though he had neither the equipment needed to continue his experiments nor the ability to create a working model of his ideas. But a chance meeting in 1874 between Bell and Thomas A. Watson, an experienced electrical designer and mechanic at the electrical machine shop of Charles Williams, changed that. With financial support from Sanders and Hubbard, Bell hired Watson as his assistant,{{refn\| Hubbard's financial support to the research efforts fell far short of the funds needed, necessitating Bell to continue teaching while conducting his experiments.<ref>{{cite news \|lastFitzgerald \|firstBrian \|urlhttp://www.bu.edu/bridge/archive/2001/09-14/bell.html \|titleAlexander Graham Bell: The BU Years \|newspaperB.U. Bridge \|publisherBoston University \|volumeV \|issue5 \|dateSeptember 14, 2001 \|access-dateMarch 28, 2010}}</ref> Bell was so short of funds at times that he had to borrow money from his own employee, Thomas Watson. Bell also sought an additional CAD$150 from the former Premier of Canada, George Brown, in exchange for 50% of the patent rights in the British Empire (Brown later retracted his offer to patent the telephone in the U.K. for fear of being ridiculed). The Bell Patent Association, composed of Hubbard, Sanders and Bell and which would become the precursor of the Bell Telephone Company (and later, AT&T), would later assign an approximate 10% interest of its shares to Watson,{{sfn\|Bruce\|1990\|p291}} in lieu of salary and for his earlier financial support to Bell while they worked together creating their first functional telephone.\|groupN}} and the two experimented with acoustic telegraphy. On June 2, 1875, Watson accidentally plucked one of the reeds and Bell, at the receiving end of the wire, heard the reed's overtones that would be necessary for transmitting speech. That demonstrated to Bell that only one reed or armature was necessary, not multiple reeds. This led to the "gallows" sound-powered telephone, which could transmit indistinct, voice-like sounds, but not clear speech. The race to the patent office {{Main\|Elisha Gray and Alexander Bell telephone controversy}} In 1875, Bell developed an acoustic telegraph and drew up a patent application for it. Since he had agreed to share U.S. profits with his investors Gardiner Hubbard and Thomas Sanders, Bell requested that an associate in Ontario, George Brown, attempt to patent it in Britain, instructing his lawyers to apply for a patent in the U.S. only after they received word from Britain (Britain issued patents only for discoveries not previously patented elsewhere).{{sfn\|Bruce\|1990\|pp=158–159}} <!--not in the right article- belongs in the Gray and Bell controversy---NPOV involved-----> Meanwhile, Elisha Gray was also experimenting with acoustic telegraphy and thought of a way to transmit speech using a water transmitter. On February 14, 1876, Gray filed a caveat with the U.S. Patent Office for a telephone design that used a water transmitter. That same morning, Bell's lawyer filed Bell's application with the patent office. There is considerable debate about who arrived first and Gray later challenged the primacy of Bell's patent. Bell was in Boston on February 14 and did not arrive in Washington until February 26. On March 7, 1876, the U.S. Patent Office issued Bell patent 174,465. It covered "the method of, and apparatus for, transmitting vocal or other sounds telegraphically ... by causing electrical undulations, similar in form to the vibrations of the air accompanying the said vocal or other sound"{{Sfn\|MacLeod\|1999\|pp12–13}}{{refn\|A copy of a draft of the patent application is shown, described as "probably the most valuable patent ever."\|groupN}} Bell returned to Boston that day and the next day resumed work, drawing in his notebook a diagram similar to that in Gray's patent caveat.{{citation needed\|date=July 2022}} On March 10, Bell succeeded in getting his telephone to work, using a liquid transmitter similar to Gray's design. Vibration of the diaphragm caused a needle to vibrate in the water, varying the electrical resistance in the circuit. When Bell spoke the sentence "Mr. Watson—Come here—I want to see you" into the liquid transmitter,<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://quotegrab.com/telephones/mr-watson-come-here \|titleAlexander Graham Bell – Lab notebook pp. 40–41 (image 22) \|websiteQuotegrab \|publisherIAP Quotegrab \|access-dateSeptember 17, 2019 \|dateAugust 2, 2019 \|archive-dateMay 14, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200514084103/https://quotegrab.com/telephones/mr-watson-come-here/ \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Watson, listening at the receiving end in an adjoining room, heard the words clearly.{{Sfn\|MacLeod\|1999\|p12}} Although Bell was, and still is, accused of stealing the telephone from Gray,{{sfn\|Shulman\|2008\|p211}} Bell used Gray's water transmitter design only after Bell's patent had been granted, and only as a proof of concept scientific experiment,{{sfn\|Evenson\|2000\|p99}} to prove to his own satisfaction that intelligible "articulate speech" (Bell's words) could be electrically transmitted.{{sfn\|Evenson\|2000\|p98}} After March 1876, Bell focused on improving the electromagnetic telephone and never used Gray's liquid transmitter in public demonstrations or commercial use.{{sfn\|Evenson\|2000\|p100}} The examiner raised the question of priority for the variable resistance feature of the telephone before approving Bell's patent application. He told Bell that his claim for the variable resistance feature was also described in Gray's caveat. Bell pointed to a variable resistance device in his previous application in which he described a cup of mercury, not water. He had filed the mercury application at the patent office on February 25, 1875, long before Gray described the water device. In addition, Gray abandoned his caveat, and because he did not contest Bell's priority, the examiner approved Bell's patent on March 3, 1876. Gray had reinvented the variable resistance telephone, but Bell was the first to write down the idea and test it in a telephone.{{sfn\|Evenson\|2000\|pp=81–82}} The patent examiner, Zenas Fisk Wilber, later stated in an affidavit that he was an alcoholic who was much in debt to Bell's lawyer, Marcellus Bailey, with whom he had served in the Civil War. He said he had shown Bailey Gray's patent caveat. Wilber also said (after Bell arrived in Washington D.C. from Boston) that he showed Bell Gray's caveat and that Bell paid him $100 ({{Inflation\|US\|100\|1875\|r-2\|fmteq}}). Bell said they discussed the patent only in general terms, although in a letter to Gray, Bell admitted that he learned some of the technical details. Bell denied in an affidavit that he ever gave Wilber any money.<ref>{{cite news \| newspaperThe Washington Post \|titleMr. Wilbur "confesses"\|dateMay 22, 1886\|page1\|urlhttp://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Mr._Wilber_Confesses}}</ref>Later developments ]] On March 10, 1876, Bell used "the instrument" in Boston to call Thomas Watson who was in another room but out of earshot. He said, "Mr. Watson, come here – I want to see you" and Watson soon appeared at his side.<ref>{{cite book \|lastEvenson \|firstA Edward \|dateNovember 10, 2000 \|titleThe Telephone Patent Conspiracy of 1876: The Elisha Gray-Alexander Bell Controversy and Its Many Players \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKiJJ7Bp-xtcC&qMr.+Watson+%E2%80%94+Come+here+%E2%80%94+I+want+to+see+you&pgPA99 \|publisherMcFarland \|page99 \|isbn=0786408839}}</ref> Continuing his experiments in Brantford, Bell brought home a working model of his telephone. On August 3, 1876, from the telegraph office in Brantford, Bell sent a telegram to the village of Mount Pleasant {{convert\|4\|mi\|0\|abbroff\|spellon}} away, indicating that he was ready. He made a telephone call via telegraph wires and faint voices were heard replying. The following night, he amazed guests as well as his family with a call between the Bell Homestead and the office of the Dominion Telegraph Company in Brantford along an improvised wire strung up along telegraph lines and fences, and laid through a tunnel. This time, guests at the household distinctly heard people in Brantford reading and singing. The third test, on August 10, 1876, was made via the telegraph line between Brantford and Paris, Ontario, {{convert\|8\|mi\|0\|abbroff\|spellon}} away. This test is said by many sources to be the "world's first long-distance call".<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.telecommunications.ca/alexander-graham-bell-invention-telephone.htm \|titleAlexander Graham Bell 1847–1922 Inventor of the Bell System \|publisherTelecommunications Canada \|access-dateJanuary 14, 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.pc.gc.ca/apps/dfhd/page_nhs_eng.aspx?id1187 \|titleInvention of the Telephone National Historic Event \|publisherParks Canada \|access-dateJanuary 14, 2020 \|quoteBell made public demonstrations of his now patented invention, culminating in the world's first long distance call, to Paris, 13 kilometres away, on 10 August}}</ref> It proved that the telephone could work over long distances, at least as a one-way call.{{Sfn\|MacLeod\|1999\|p=14}} The first two-way (reciprocal) conversation over a line occurred between Cambridge and Boston (roughly 2.5 miles) on October 9, 1876.<ref>{{cite book\|titlePopular Mechanics Aug 1912 \|date August 1912\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8t0DAAAAMBAJ&qThe+first+reciprocal+conversation+over+a+line+occurred+in+Boston+on+October+9,+1876.&pgPA186 \|locationNew York \|publisherPopular Mechanics \|page186}}</ref> During that conversation, Bell was on Kilby Street in Boston and Watson was at the offices of the Walworth Manufacturing Company.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://cambridgehistory.org/innovation/First%20Phone%20Call.html\|title=First Phone Call}}</ref> Bell and his partners, Hubbard and Sanders, offered to sell the patent outright to Western Union for $100,000, equal to ${{Inflation\|US\|100000\|1876\|fmtc}} today, but it did not work (according to an apocryphal story, the president of Western Union balked, countering that the telephone was nothing but a toy<ref>{{cite web \|last1Lapsley \|first1Phil \|titleThe Greatest "Bad Business Decision" Quotation That Never Was \|urlhttps://blog.historyofphonephreaking.org/2011/01/the-greatest-bad-business-decision-quotation-that-never-was.html \|websiteThe History of Phone Phreaking Blog \|access-date2 February 2024 \|date8 January 2011}}</ref>). Two years later, he told colleagues that if he could get the patent for $25 million (equal to ${{Inflation\|US\|25000000\|1878\|fmtc}} today), he would consider it a bargain. By then, the Bell company no longer wanted to sell the patent.<ref>{{cite web \|lastFenster \|firstJulie M. \|titleInventing the Telephone—And Triggering All-Out Patent War \|websiteAmerican Heritage \|urlhttp://www.americanheritage.com/events/articles/web/20060307-alexander-graham-bell-telephone-patent-telegraph-elisha-gray-thomas-watson-gardiner-hubbard-western-union-thomas-edison.shtml \|dateMarch 7, 2006 \|archive-dateMarch 11, 2006 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060311000120/http://www.americanheritage.com/events/articles/web/20060307-alexander-graham-bell-telephone-patent-telegraph-elisha-gray-thomas-watson-gardiner-hubbard-western-union-thomas-edison.shtml \|access-dateSeptember 19, 2015}}</ref> Bell's investors became millionaires while he fared well from residuals and at one point had assets of nearly $1 million.<ref>{{cite book \|lastWinfield \|firstRichard \|titleNever the Twain Shall Meet: Bell, Gallaudet, and the Communications Debate \|locationWashington, D.C. \|publisherGallaudet University Press \|date1987 \|page21 \|isbn978-0-913580-99-8 }}</ref> Bell began a series of public demonstrations and lectures to introduce the new invention to the scientific community as well as the general public. A short time later, his demonstration of an early telephone prototype at the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia brought the telephone to international attention.<ref>{{cite book \|editor-lastWebb \|editor-firstMichael \|titleAlexander Graham Bell: Inventor of the Telephone \|locationMississauga, Ontario \|publisherCopp Clark Pitman \|date1991 \|page[https://archive.org/details/alexandergrahamb0000webb/page/15 15] \|isbn978-0-7730-5049-5 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/alexandergrahamb0000webb/page/15 }}</ref> Influential visitors to the exhibition included Emperor Pedro II of Brazil. One of the judges at the Exhibition, Sir William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin), a renowned Scottish scientist, described the telephone as "the greatest by far of all the marvels of the electric telegraph".<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20170407132609/http://www.ingenious.org.uk/See/Scienceandtechnology/Telecommunications/?targetSeeMedium&ObjectID{26E01AAD-9528-A037-3F8D-18F71C87E944}&sS1&viewbyimages& \|titleBell's centennial telephone transmitter, 1876 \|publisherNational Archives UK \|access-date=January 14, 2020 }}</ref> On January 14, 1878, at Osborne House, on the Isle of Wight, Bell demonstrated the device to Queen Victoria,<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.islandecho.co.uk/140-years-since-first-telephone-call-queen-victoria-isle-wight/ \|title140 Years Since the First Telephone Call to Queen Victoria on the Isle of Wight \|dateJanuary 14, 2018 \|publisherIsland Echo \|access-dateJanuary 14, 2020 \|quoteHe made the UK's first publicly-witnessed long distance calls, calling Cowes, Southampton and London. Queen Victoria liked the telephone so much she wanted to buy it.}}</ref> placing calls to Cowes, Southampton, and London. These were the first publicly witnessed long-distance telephone calls in the UK. The queen found the process "quite extraordinary" although the sound was "rather faint".<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/connecting-britain/alexander-graham-bell-unveils-telephone/ \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/connecting-britain/alexander-graham-bell-unveils-telephone/ \|archive-dateJanuary 11, 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive \|titleAlexander Graham Bell demonstrates the newly invented telephone \|dateJanuary 13, 2017 \|newspaperThe Telegraph \|access-dateJanuary 14, 2020 \|quoteone of the Queen's staff wrote to Professor Bell to inform him "how much gratified and surprised the Queen was at the exhibition of the Telephone"}}{{cbignore}}</ref> She later asked to buy the equipment that was used, but Bell offered to make "a set of telephones" specifically for her.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.loc.gov/item/magbell.30000106/ \|titlepdf, Letter from Alexander Graham Bell to Sir Thomas Biddulph, February 1, 1878 \|publisherLibrary of Congress \|access-dateJanuary 14, 2020 \|quote"The instruments at present in Osborne are merely those supplied for ordinary commercial purposes, and it will afford me much pleasure to be permitted to offer to the Queen a set of Telephones to be made expressly for her Majesty's use."}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|lastRoss \|firstStewart \|titleAlexander Graham Bell \|series(Scientists who Made History) \|locationNew York \|publisherRaintree Steck-Vaughn \|date2001 \|pages[https://archive.org/details/alexandergrahamb00ross/page/21 21–22] \|isbn978-0-7398-4415-1 \|url=https://archive.org/details/alexandergrahamb00ross/page/21}}</ref> The Bell Telephone Company was created in 1877, and by 1886, more than 150,000 people in the U.S. owned telephones. Bell Company engineers made numerous other improvements to the telephone, which emerged as one of the most successful products ever. In 1879, the company acquired Edison's patents for the carbon microphone from Western Union. This made the telephone practical for longer distances, and it was no longer necessary to shout to be heard at the receiving telephone.{{citation needed\|date=July 2022}} Pedro II of Brazil was the first person to buy stock in the Bell Telephone Company. One of the first telephones in a private residence was installed in his palace in Petrópolis, his summer retreat {{convert\|40\|mi\|0\|abbroff\|spellon}} from Rio de Janeiro.<ref>{{cite web \|titleDom Pedro II and America \|websiteThe Library of Congress \|urlhttps://memory.loc.gov/intldl/brhtml/br-1/br-1-5-2.html \|access-dateMarch 7, 2018}}</ref> In January 1915, Bell made the first ceremonial transcontinental telephone call. Calling from the AT&T head office at 15 Dey Street in New York City, Bell was heard by Thomas Watson at 333 Grant Avenue in San Francisco. The New York Times reported: {{blockquote\|On October 9, 1876, Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas A. Watson talked by telephone to each other over a two-mile wire stretched between Cambridge and Boston. It was the first wire conversation ever held. Yesterday afternoon [on January 25, 1915], the same two men talked by telephone to each other over a 3,400-mile wire between New York and San Francisco. Dr. Bell, the veteran inventor of the telephone, was in New York, and Mr. Watson, his former associate, was on the other side of the continent.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/0125.html \|titlePhone to Pacific From the Atlantic \|workThe New York Times \|dateJanuary 26, 1915 \|access-dateJuly 21, 2007}}</ref>}}CompetitorsAs is sometimes common in scientific discoveries, simultaneous developments occurred, as evidenced by a number of inventors who were at work on the telephone.{{Sfn\|MacLeod\|1999\|p19}} Over 18 years, the Bell Telephone Company faced 587 court challenges to its patents, including five that went to the U.S. Supreme Court,<ref name"ATCS">{{cite web \|titleWho Really Invented The Telephone? \|websiteAustralasian Telephone Collecting Society \|urlhttp://www.telephonecollecting.org/invent.htm \|locationMoorebank, NSW, Australia \|access-dateApril 22, 2011 \|archive-dateSeptember 24, 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150924114048/http://www.telephonecollecting.org/invent.htm \|url-statusdead }}</ref> but none was successful in establishing priority over Bell's original patent,{{sfn\|Groundwater\|2005\|p95}}<ref>{{cite book \|lastBlack \|firstHarry \|titleCanadian Scientists and Inventors: Biographies of People who made a Difference \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/canadianscientis0000blac \|url-accessregistration \|locationMarkham, Ontario \|publisherPembroke \|date1997 \|page[https://archive.org/details/canadianscientis0000blac/page/19 19] \|isbn978-1-55138-081-0 }}</ref> and the Bell Telephone Company never lost a case that had proceeded to a final trial stage.{{sfn\|Groundwater\|2005\|p95}} Bell's laboratory notes and family letters were the key to establishing a long lineage to his experiments.{{sfn\|Groundwater\|2005\|p95}} The Bell company lawyers successfully fought off myriad lawsuits generated initially around the challenges by Elisha Gray and Amos Dolbear. In personal correspondence to Bell, both Gray and Dolbear had acknowledged his prior work, which considerably weakened their later claims.{{sfn\|Mackay\|1997\|p=179}} On January 13, 1887, the U.S. government moved to annul the patent issued to Bell on the grounds of fraud and misrepresentation. After a series of decisions and reversals, the Bell company won a decision in the Supreme Court, though a couple of the original claims from the lower court cases were left undecided.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-supreme-court/167/224.html \|titleUS v. American Bell Tel Co (1897) \|dateMay 10, 1897 \|websiteFindlaw \|access-dateJuly 28, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://supreme.justia.com/us/128/315/case.html \|titleUnited States V. American Bell Telephone Co., 128 U.S. 315 (1888) \|websiteJusrtia US Supreme Court \|dateNovember 12, 1885 \|access-dateJuly 28, 2010}}</ref> By the time the trial had wound its way through nine years of legal battles, the U.S. prosecuting attorney had died and the two Bell patents (No. 174,465, dated March 7, 1876, and No. 186,787, dated January 30, 1877) were no longer in effect, although the presiding judges agreed to continue the proceedings due to the case's importance as a precedent. With a change in administration and charges of conflict of interest (on both sides) arising from the original trial, the U.S. attorney general dropped the lawsuit on November 30, 1897, leaving several issues undecided on the merits.<ref>{{cite journal \|titleThe United States Government vs. Alexander Graham Bell. An important acknowledgment for Antonio Meucci \|journalBulletin of Science, Technology & Society \|volume22 \|issue6 \|pages426–442 \|dateDecember 2002 \|doi10.1177/0270467602238886 \|last1Catania \|first1Basilio\|s2cid144185363 }}</ref> During a deposition filed for the 1887 trial, Italian inventor Antonio Meucci also claimed to have created the first working model of a telephone in Italy in 1834. In 1886, in the first of three cases in which he was involved,{{refn\|Meucci was not involved in the final trial.{{clarify\|dateJune 2018\|reasonWhat final trial is this talking about?}}\|groupN}} Meucci took the stand as a witness in hope of establishing his invention's priority. Meucci's testimony was disputed due to lack of material evidence for his inventions, as his working models were purportedly lost at the laboratory of American District Telegraph (ADT) of New York, which was incorporated as a subsidiary of Western Union in 1901.<ref name"Catania">{{cite web \|lastCatania \|firstBasilio \|urlhttp://www.chezbasilio.org/meucci_faq.htm#25 \|titleAntonio Meucci – Questions and Answers: What did Meucci to bring his invention to the public? \|websiteChezbasilio.org \|dateNovember 6, 2009 \|access-dateSeptember 19, 2015}}</ref><ref name"ADT">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.adt.com/about-adt/history \|titleOur History \|websiteADT \|access-dateSeptember 18, 2015}}</ref> Meucci's work, like that of many other inventors of the period, was based on earlier acoustic principles and, despite evidence of earlier experiments, the final case involving Meucci was eventually dropped upon Meucci's death.{{sfn\|Bruce\|1990\|pp271–272}} But due to the efforts of Congressman Vito Fossella, on June 11, 2002, the U.S. House of Representatives stated that Meucci's "work in the invention of the telephone should be acknowledged".<ref name"guardian.co.uk">{{cite news \|authorRory Carroll \|titleBell did not invent telephone, US rules \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/jun/17/humanities.internationaleducationnews \|workThe Guardian\|dateJune 17, 2002\|access-dateOctober 25, 2015}}</ref><ref>[http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c107 "H.RES.269: Resolution 269."] thomas.loc.gov. Retrieved: July 28, 2010. {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150713175614/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c107 \|dateJuly 13, 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.chezbasilio.it/us_congr_rec.htm \|titleCongressional Record – Speech by Prof. Basillio \|dateSeptember 5, 2001 \|archive-dateJuly 17, 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110717032953/http://www.chezbasilio.it/us_congr_rec.htm \|access-dateSeptember 18, 2015}}</ref> This did not put an end to the still contentious issue.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAntonio Meucci (1808–1889) \|websiteItalian Historical Society of America \|urlhttp://www.italianhistorical.org/page42.html \|access-dateSeptember 18, 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151015195124/http://www.italianhistorical.org/page42.html \|archive-dateOctober 15, 2015 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Some modern scholars do not agree that Bell's work on the telephone was influenced by Meucci's inventions.<ref nameBellis>{{cite web \|firstMary \|lastBellis \|urlhttp://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bl_Antonio_Meucci.htm \|titleThe History of the Telephone – Antonio Meucci \|websiteAbout.com Inventors \|access-dateDecember 29, 2009 \|archive-dateMay 28, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200528235654/https://www.thoughtco.com/antonio-meucci-4071768 \|url-statusdead }}</ref>{{refn\|Tomas Farley also writes that "Nearly every scholar agrees that Bell and Watson were the first to transmit intelligible speech by electrical means. Others transmitted a sound or a click or a buzz but our boys [Bell and Watson] were the first to transmit speech one could understand."<ref nameBellis/>\|group=N}} The value of Bell's patent was acknowledged throughout the world, and patent applications were made in most major countries. When Bell delayed the German patent application, the electrical firm Siemens & Halske set up a rival manufacturer of Bell telephones under its own patent. Siemens produced near-identical copies of the Bell telephone without having to pay royalties.{{sfn\|Mackay\|1997\|p178}} The establishment of the International Bell Telephone Company in Brussels, Belgium, in 1880, as well as a series of agreements in other countries eventually consolidated a global telephone operation. The strain put on Bell by his constant appearances in court, necessitated by the legal battles, eventually resulted in his resignation from the company.<ref>{{multiref2\|{{Cite book \|lastParker \|firstSteve \|titleAlexander Graham Bell and the Telephone \|series(Science Discoveries) \|date1995 \|page23 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/alexandergrahamb00park/page/23 \|url-accessregistration \|isbn978-0-7910-3004-2 \| oclc1024162541\|publisherChelsea House}}\| {{Cite journal\|date=June 1910 \|journalScientific American \|volume102 \|issue23 \|titleAlexander Graham Bell and the Telephone \|page=462 \|bibcode1910SciAm.102..462. \|doi10.1038/scientificamerican06041910-462 }}}}</ref>{{refn\| Many of the lawsuits became rancorous, with Elisha Gray becoming particularly bitter over Bell's ascendancy in the telephone debate, but Bell refused to launch a countersuit for libel.{{citation needed\|dateFebruary 2020}}\|groupN}} {{Further\|The Telephone Cases}} Family life {{Further\|Beinn Bhreagh, Nova Scotia}} , and their daughters Elsie (left) and Marian ca. 1885]] On July 11, 1877, a few days after the Bell Telephone Company was established, Bell married Mabel Hubbard (1857–1923) at the Hubbard estate in Cambridge, Massachusetts. His wedding present to his bride was to turn over 1,487 of his 1,497 shares in the newly formed Bell Telephone Company.{{sfn\|Eber\|1991\|p44}} Shortly thereafter, the newly-weds embarked on a year-long honeymoon in Europe. During that excursion, Bell took a handmade model of his telephone with him, making it a "working holiday". The courtship had begun years earlier; however, Bell waited until he was more financially secure before marrying. Although the telephone appeared to be an "instant" success, it was not initially a profitable venture and Bell's main sources of income were from lectures until after 1897.{{sfn\|Dunn\|1990\|p28}} One unusual request exacted by his fiancée was that he use "Alec" rather than the family's earlier familiar name of "Aleck". From 1876, he would sign his name "Alec Bell".{{sfn\|Mackay\|1997\|p120}}<ref>{{cite news \|titleMrs. A.G. Bell Dies. Inspired Telephone. Deaf Girl's Romance With Distinguished Inventor Was Due to Her Affliction \|workThe New York Times \|dateJanuary 4, 1923 \|urlhttps://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1923/01/04/105839500.html?pageNumber19}}</ref> They had four children: * Elsie May Bell (1878–1964) who married Gilbert Hovey Grosvenor of National Geographic fame.<ref>{{cite news \|titleDr. Gilbert H. Grosvenor Dies \|workThe New York Times \|agencyCanadian Press \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1966/02/05/archives/dr-gilbert-h-grosvenor-dies-head-of-national-geographic-90-editor.html \|dateFebruary 5, 1966 \|access-dateSeptember 18, 2015 \|url-accesssubscription \|quoteDr. Gilbert H. Grosvenor ... died on the Cape Breton Island estate once owned by his father-in-law, the inventor Alexander Graham Bell.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|titleMrs. Gilbert Grosvenor Dead \|workThe New York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1964/12/27/mrs-gilbert-grosvenor-dead.html \|dateDecember 27, 1964 \|access-date=September 18, 2015}}</ref> * Marian Hubbard Bell (1880–1962) who was referred to as "Daisy". Married David Fairchild.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Grosvenor \|first1Edwin S. \|first2Morgan \|last2Wesson \|titleAlexander Graham Bell: The Life and Times of the Man Who Invented the Telephone \|locationNew York \|publisherHarry N. Abrahms \|date1997 \|page[https://archive.org/details/alexandergrahamb00gros/page/104 104] \|isbn978-0-8109-4005-5 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/alexandergrahamb00gros/page/104 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|titleMrs. David Fairchild, 82, Dead; Daughter of Bell, Phone Inventor \|workThe New York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1962/09/25/archives/mrs-david-fairchild-82-dead-daughter-of-bell-phone-inventor.html \|dateSeptember 25, 1962 \|agencyCanadian Press \|url-accesssubscription }}</ref>{{refn\|Marian was born only days after Bell and his assistant Sumner Tainter had successfully tested their new wireless telecommunication invention at their Volta Laboratory, one which Bell would name as his greatest achievement. Bell was so ecstatic that he wanted to jointly name his new invention and his new daughter Photophone (Greek: "light–sound"),{{sfn\|Grosvenor\|Wesson\|1997\|p104}}<ref>{{cite book \|lastCarson \|firstMary Kay \|date2007 \|titleAlexander Graham Bell: Giving Voice To The World \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/alexandergrahamb0000cars \|url-accessregistration \|seriesSterling Biographies \|locationNew York \|publisherSterling Publishing \|page[https://archive.org/details/alexandergrahamb0000cars/page/77 77] \|isbn978-1-4027-3230-0 \|oclc182527281 }}</ref> Bell wrote: "Only think!—Two babies in one week! Mabel's baby was light enough at birth but mine was LIGHT ITSELF! Mabel's baby screamed inarticulately but mine spoke with distinct enunciation from the first." Bell's suggested scientific name for their new infant daughter did not go over well with Marian's mother, Mabel Gardiner Hubbard Bell.{{sfn\|Grosvenor\|Wesson\|1997\|p104}}\|groupN}} * Two sons who died in infancy (Edward in 1881 and Robert in 1883). The Bell family home was in Cambridge, Massachusetts, until 1880 when Bell's father-in-law bought a house in Washington, D.C.; in 1882 he bought a home in the same city for Bell's family, so they could be with him while he attended to the numerous court cases involving patent disputes.{{sfn\|Gray\|2006\|pp=202–205}} Bell was a British subject throughout his early life in Scotland and later in Canada until 1882 when he became a naturalized citizen of the United States. In 1915, he characterized his status as: "I am not one of those hyphenated Americans who claim allegiance to two countries."<ref name"bruce1990">{{Cite web\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkLLWDwAAQBAJ&pgPT395\|titleBell: Alexander Graham Bell and the Conquest of Solitude\|firstRobert V.\|lastBruce\|dateMarch 15, 2020\|publisherPlunkett Lake Press\|viaGoogle Books}}</ref>{{Page needed\|dateNovember 2021}}{{sfn\|Bruce\|1990\|p90}} Despite this declaration, Bell has been proudly claimed as a "native son" by all three countries he resided in: the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom<!-- Bell also lived in London, so 'UK' is more appropriate than 'Scotland' -->.{{sfn\|Bruce\|1990\|pp=471–472}} By 1885, a new summer retreat was contemplated. That summer, the Bells had a vacation on Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia, Canada, spending time at the small village of Baddeck.<ref>{{cite book \|lastBethune \|firstJocelyn \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYmtoPgAACAAJ \|titleHistoric Baddeck \|series(Images of our Past) \|locationHalifax, Nova Scotia \|publisherNimbus Publishing \|date2009 \|page2 \|isbn978-1-55109-706-0 }}</ref> Returning in 1886, Bell started building an estate on a point across from Baddeck, overlooking Bras d'Or Lake.{{sfn\|Bethune\|2009\|p92}} By 1889, a large house, christened The Lodge was completed and two years later, a larger complex of buildings, including a new laboratory,{{sfn\|Bethune\|2009\|p2}} were begun that the Bells would name Beinn Bhreagh (Gaelic: Beautiful Mountain) after Bell's ancestral Scottish highlands.<ref>{{cite book \|lastTulloch \|firstJudith \|titleThe Bell Family in Baddeck: Alexander Graham Bell and Mabel Bell in Cape Breton \|locationHalifax, Nova Scotia \|publisherFormac Publishing \|date2006 \|pages25–27 \|isbn978-0-88780-713-8 }}</ref>{{refn\|Under the direction of the Boston architects, Cabot, Everett & Mead, a Nova Scotia company, Rhodes, Curry & Company, carried out the actual construction.\|groupN}} Bell also built the Bell Boatyard on the estate, employing up to 40 people building experimental craft as well as wartime lifeboats and workboats for the Royal Canadian Navy and pleasure craft for the Bell family. He was an enthusiastic boater, and Bell and his family sailed or rowed a long series of vessels on Bras d'Or Lake, ordering additional vessels from the H.W. Embree and Sons boatyard in Port Hawkesbury, Nova Scotia. In his final, and some of his most productive years, Bell split his residency between Washington, D.C., where he and his family initially resided for most of the year, and Beinn Bhreagh, where they spent increasing amounts of time.{{Sfn\|MacLeod\|1999\|p=22}} Until the end of his life, Bell and his family would alternate between the two homes, but Beinn Bhreagh would, over the next 30 years, become more than a summer home as Bell became so absorbed in his experiments that his annual stays lengthened. Both Mabel and Bell became immersed in the Baddeck community and were accepted by the villagers as "their own".{{sfn\|Bethune\|2009\|p2}}{{refn\| In one memorable incident, the newly arrived Bells were walking down one of Baddeck's central streets when Bell peered into a storefront window and saw a frustrated shopkeeper fiddling with his problematic telephone. Bell quickly disassembled it and effected a repair, to the owner's amazement. When asked how he was able to do so Bell only needed to introduce himself.\|groupN}} The Bells were still in residence at Beinn Bhreagh when the Halifax Explosion occurred on December 6, 1917. Mabel and Bell mobilized the community to help victims in Halifax.{{Sfn\|Tulloch\|2006\|p42}}Later inventions{{more citations needed section\|dateJuly 2022}} Although Alexander Graham Bell is most often associated with the invention of the telephone, his interests were extremely varied. According to one of his biographers, Charlotte Gray, Bell's work ranged "unfettered across the scientific landscape" and he often went to bed voraciously reading the Encyclopædia Britannica, scouring it for new areas of interest.{{sfn\|Gray\|2006\|p219}} The range of Bell's inventive genius is represented only in part by the 18 patents granted in his name alone and the 12 he shared with his collaborators. These included 14 for the telephone and telegraph, four for the photophone, one for the phonograph, five for aerial vehicles, four for "hydroairplanes", and two for selenium cells. Bell's inventions spanned a wide range of interests and included a metal jacket to assist in breathing, the audiometer to detect minor hearing problems, a device to locate icebergs, investigations on how to separate salt from seawater, and work on finding alternative fuels.{{citation needed\|dateJuly 2022}} Bell worked extensively in medical research and invented techniques for teaching speech to the deaf. During his Volta Laboratory period, Bell and his associates considered impressing a magnetic field on a record as a means of reproducing sound. Although the trio briefly experimented with the concept, they could not develop a workable prototype. They abandoned the idea, never realizing they had glimpsed a basic principle which would one day find its application in the tape recorder, the hard disc and floppy disc drive, and other magnetic media.{{citation needed\|date=July 2022}} Bell's own home used a primitive form of air conditioning, in which fans blew currents of air across great blocks of ice. He also anticipated modern concerns with fuel shortages and industrial pollution. Methane gas, he reasoned, could be produced from the waste of farms and factories. At his Canadian estate in Nova Scotia, he experimented with composting toilets and devices to capture water from the atmosphere. In a magazine article published in 1917, he reflected on the possibility of using solar energy to heat houses.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastBell \|firstAlexander Graham \|dateFebruary 1917 \|titlePrizes for the Inventor: Some of the Problems Awaiting Solution \|urlhttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/National_Geographic_Magazine/Volume_31/Number_2/Prizes_for_the_Inventor \|journalThe National Geographic Magazine \|volume31 \|issue2}}</ref> Photophone {{Main\|Photophone}} system, ca. 1880]] Bell and his assistant Charles Sumner Tainter jointly invented a wireless telephone, named a photophone, which allowed for the transmission of both sounds and normal human conversations on a beam of light.{{sfn\|Bruce\|1990\|p336}}<ref name"SDU">{{cite web\|lastJones \|firstNewell \|urlhttp://history.sandiego.edu/gen/recording/ar304.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20020219111153/http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/recording/ar304.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-dateFebruary 19, 2002 \|titleFirst 'Radio' Built by San Diego Resident Partner of Inventor of Telephone: Keeps Notebook of Experiences With Bell \|locationSan Diego, California \|websiteEvening Tribune \|dateJuly 31, 1937 \|access-date=November 26, 2009 }}</ref> Both men later became full associates in the Volta Laboratory Association. On June 21, 1880, Bell's assistant transmitted a wireless voice telephone message a considerable distance, from the roof of the Franklin School in Washington, D.C., to Bell at the window of his laboratory, some {{convert\|213\|m\|round5\|orderflip}} away, 19 years before the first voice radio transmissions.{{sfn\|Carson\|2007\|pp76–78}}{{sfn\|Bruce\|1990\|p338}}<ref>{{cite journal\|lastGroth \|firstMike \|urlhttp://www.bluehaze.com.au/modlight/GrothArticle1.htm \|titlePhotophones Revisted \|journalAmateur Radio \|dateApril 1987 \|pages12–17 \|access-dateSeptember 19, 2015 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150802001855/http://www.bluehaze.com.au/modlight/GrothArticle1.htm \|archive-dateAugust 2, 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|lastMims III \|firstForest M. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idzoaSp1BJu50C \|titleThe First Century of Lightwave Communications \|journalFiber Optics Weekly Update \|dateFebruary 10–26, 1982 \|pages=11 of 6–23 }}</ref> Bell believed the photophone's principles were his life's "greatest achievement", telling a reporter shortly before his death that the photophone was "the greatest invention [I have] ever made, greater than the telephone".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia \|last1Phillipson \|first1Donald J.C. \|first2Laura \|last2Neilson \|titleAlexander Graham Bell \|encyclopediaThe Canadian Encyclopedia \|publisherHistorica Canada \|editiononline \|dateMarch 4, 2015 \|urlhttps://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/alexander-graham-bell \|access-dateSeptember 19, 2015 \|archive-dateSeptember 25, 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150925112928/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/alexander-graham-bell/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The photophone was a precursor to the fiber-optic communication systems which achieved popular worldwide usage in the 1980s.<ref>{{cite report\|lastMorgan \|firstTim J. \|titleThe Fiber Optic Backbone \|publisherUniversity of North Texas \|date2011 \|urlhttps://classes.lt.unt.edu/Summer_10W_2011/LTEC_4550_020/tjm0146/Fiber%20Optic%20Backbone%20.docx \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150925132141/https://classes.lt.unt.edu/Summer_10W_2011/LTEC_4550_020/tjm0146/Fiber%20Optic%20Backbone%20.docx \|url-statusdead \|archive-dateSeptember 25, 2015 \|access-dateSeptember 19, 2015 }}</ref><ref name"AmericanScientist-1984.V72.No1">{{cite journal \|lastMiller \|firstStewart E. \|jstori27852430 \|titleLightwaves and Telecommunication\|journalAmerican Scientist \|volume72 \|issue1 \|dateJanuary–February 1984 \|pages66–71\|bibcode1984AmSci..72...66M }}</ref> Its master patent was issued in December 1880, many decades before the photophone's principles came into popular use.Metal detectorBell is also credited with developing one of the early versions of a metal detector through the use of an induction balance, after the shooting of U.S. President James A. Garfield in 1881. According to some accounts, the metal detector worked flawlessly in tests but did not find Guiteau's bullet, partly because the metal bed frame on which the President was lying disturbed the instrument, resulting in static.{{sfn\|Grosvenor\|Wesson\|1997\|p107}} Garfield's surgeons, led by self-appointed chief physician Doctor Willard Bliss, were sceptical of the device, and ignored Bell's requests to move the President to a bed not fitted with metal springs.{{sfn\|Grosvenor\|Wesson\|1997\|p107}} Alternatively, although Bell had detected a slight sound on his first test, the bullet may have been lodged too deeply to be detected by the crude apparatus.{{sfn\|Grosvenor\|Wesson\|1997\|p107}} Bell's own detailed account, presented to the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1882, differs in several particulars from most of the many and varied versions now in circulation, by concluding that extraneous metal was not to blame for failure to locate the bullet. Perplexed by the peculiar results he had obtained during an examination of Garfield, Bell "proceeded to the Executive Mansion the next morning&nbsp;... to ascertain from the surgeons whether they were perfectly sure that all metal had been removed from the neighborhood of the bed. It was then recollected that underneath the horse-hair mattress on which the President lay was another mattress composed of steel wires. Upon obtaining a duplicate, the mattress was found to consist of a sort of net of woven steel wires, with large meshes. The extent of the [area that produced a response from the detector] having been so small, as compared with the area of the bed, it seemed reasonable to conclude that the steel mattress had produced no detrimental effect." In a footnote, Bell adds, "The death of President Garfield and the subsequent post-mortem examination, however, proved that the bullet was at too great a distance from the surface to have affected our apparatus."<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastBell \|firstAlexander Graham \|date1882 \|titleUpon the electrical experiments to determine the location of the bullet in the body of the late President Garfield; and upon a successful form of induction balance for the painless detection of metallic masses in the human body \|journalAmerican Journal of Science \|volume25 \|issue145 \|pages22–61 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/uponelectricalex00bell \|access-dateApril 29, 2013 \|bibcode1883AmJS...25...22B \|doi10.2475/ajs.s3-25.145.22 \|s2cid130896535 }}</ref>Hydrofoils {{Main\|HD-4}} on a test run ca. 1919]] The March 1906 Scientific American article by American pioneer William E. Meacham explained the basic principle of hydrofoils and hydroplanes. Bell considered the invention of the hydroplane as a very significant achievement. Based on information gained from that article, he began to sketch concepts of what is now called a hydrofoil boat. Bell and assistant Frederick W. "Casey" Baldwin began hydrofoil experimentation in the summer of 1908 as a possible aid to airplane takeoff from water. Baldwin studied the work of the Italian inventor Enrico Forlanini and began testing models. This led him and Bell to the development of practical hydrofoil watercraft. During his world tour of 1910–11, Bell and Baldwin met with Forlanini in France. They had rides in the Forlanini hydrofoil boat over Lake Maggiore. Baldwin described it as being as smooth as flying. On returning to Baddeck, a number of initial concepts were built as experimental models, including the Dhonnas Beag (Scottish Gaelic for 'little devil'), the first self-propelled Bell-Baldwin hydrofoil.{{sfn\|Boileau\|2004\|p18}} The experimental boats were essentially proof-of-concept prototypes that culminated in the more substantial HD-4, powered by Renault engines. A top speed of {{convert\|54\|mph\|km/h}} was achieved, with the hydrofoil exhibiting rapid acceleration, good stability, and steering, along with the ability to take waves without difficulty.{{sfn\|Boileau\|2004\|pp28–30}} In 1913, Dr. Bell hired Walter Pinaud, a Sydney yacht designer and builder as well as the proprietor of Pinaud's Yacht Yard in Westmount, Nova Scotia, to work on the pontoons of the HD-4. Pinaud soon took over the boatyard at Bell Laboratories on Beinn Bhreagh, Bell's estate near Baddeck, Nova Scotia. Pinaud's experience in boatbuilding enabled him to make useful design changes to the HD-4. After the First World War, work began again on the HD-4. Bell's report to the U.S. Navy permitted him to obtain two {{convert\|350\|hp\|kW\|abbroff\|adjon}} engines in July 1919. On September 9, 1919, the HD-4 set a world marine speed record of {{convert\|70.86\|mph\|km/h\|abbroff}},{{sfn\|Boileau\|2004\|p30}} a record which stood for ten years. Aeronautics {{Main\|Aerial Experiment Association\|AEA Silver Dart}} In 1891, Bell had begun experiments to develop motor-powered heavier-than-air aircraft. The AEA was first formed as Bell shared the vision to fly with his wife, who advised him to seek "young" help as Bell was at the age of 60. In 1898, Bell experimented with tetrahedral box kites and wings constructed of multiple compound tetrahedral kites covered in maroon silk.{{refn\|Bell was inspired in part by Australian aeronautical engineer Lawrence Hargrave's work with man-carrying box kites.<ref>{{cite book \|titleTechnical Gazette \|locationNew South Wales, Australia \|date1924 \|page46}}</ref> Hargrave declined to take patents on his inventions, similar to Bell's decision not to file patents on some of his inventions. Bell also chose maroon-coloured silk as it would show up clearly against the light-coloured sky in his photographic studies.\|group"N"}} The tetrahedral wings were named Cygnet I, II, and III, and were flown both unmanned and manned (Cygnet I crashed during a flight carrying Selfridge) in the period from 1907 to 1912. Some of Bell's kites are on display at the Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site.<ref>[http://ns1763.ca/victco/bellmusbbm.html "Nova Scotia's Electric Scrapbook."] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090417080338/http://ns1763.ca/victco/bellmusbbm.html \|date=April 17, 2009 }} ns1763.ca. Retrieved: December 29, 2009.</ref> Bell was a supporter of aerospace engineering research through the Aerial Experiment Association (AEA), officially formed at Baddeck, Nova Scotia, in October 1907 at the suggestion of his wife Mabel and with her financial support after the sale of some of her real estate.<ref>{{cite news \|lastGillis \|firstRannie \|urlhttp://www.capebretonpost.com/Columnists/2008-09-29/article-781848/Mabel-Bell-was-a-focal-figure-in-the-first-flight-of-the-Silver-Dart/1 \|titleMabel Bell Was A Focal Figure In The First Flight of the Silver Dart \|workCape Breton Post \|locationSydney, Nova Scotia \|dateSeptember 29, 2008 \|access-dateJune 12, 2010 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20160724050315/http://www.capebretonpost.com/Columnists/2008-09-29/article-781848/Mabel-Bell-was-a-focal-figure-in-the-first-flight-of-the-Silver-Dart/1 \|archive-dateJuly 24, 2016 }}</ref> The AEA was headed by Bell and the founding members were four young men: American Glenn H. Curtiss, a motorcycle manufacturer at the time and who held the title "world's fastest man", having ridden his self-constructed motor bicycle around in the shortest time, and who was later awarded the Scientific American Trophy for the first official one-kilometre flight in the Western hemisphere, and who later became a world-renowned airplane manufacturer; Lieutenant Thomas Selfridge, an official observer from the U.S. Federal government and one of the few people in the army who believed that aviation was the future; Frederick W. Baldwin, the first Canadian and first British subject to pilot a public flight in Hammondsport, New York; and J. A. D. McCurdy–Baldwin and McCurdy being new engineering graduates from the University of Toronto.<ref>{{cite magazine \|dateFebruary 27, 1959\|titleCanada's Golden Anniversary \|magazineFlight \|volume75\|issue2614\|page280\|url http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1959/1959%20-%200579.html\|access-date=August 28, 2013}}</ref> The AEA's work progressed to heavier-than-air machines, applying their knowledge of kites to gliders. Moving to Hammondsport, the group then designed and built the Red Wing, framed in bamboo and covered in red silk and powered by a small air-cooled engine.<ref>{{cite book \|lastPhillips \|firstAllan \|titleInto the 20th Century: 1900/1910 \|series(Canada's Illustrated Heritage) \|locationToronto, Ontario \|publisherNatural Science of Canada \|date1977 \|page95 \|isbn978-0-919644-22-9 }}</ref> On March 12, 1908, over Keuka Lake, the biplane lifted off on the first public flight in North America.{{refn\|"Selfridge Aerodrome Sails Steadily for {{convert\|319\|ft\|m}}." The Washington Post May 13, 1908.\|groupN}}{{refn\| At 25 to 30 Miles an Hour. First Public Trip of Heavier-than-air Car in America. Professor Alexander Graham Bell's New Machine, Built After Plans by Lieutenant Selfridge, Shown to Be Practicable by Flight Over Keuka Lake. Portion of Tail Gives Way, Bringing the Test to an End. Views of an Expert. Hammondsport, New York, March 12, 1908.\|groupN}} The innovations that were incorporated into this design included a cockpit enclosure and tail rudder (later variations on the original design would add ailerons as a means of control). One of the AEA's inventions, a practical wingtip form of the aileron, was to become a standard component on all aircraft.{{refn\|The aileron had been conceived of as early as 1868 by British inventor M.P.W. Boulton and was also created independently by Robert Esnault-Pelterie and several others.\|group"N"}} The White Wing and June Bug were to follow and by the end of 1908, over 150 flights without mishap had been accomplished. However, the AEA had depleted its initial reserves and only a $15,000 grant from Mrs. Bell allowed it to continue with experiments.{{sfn\|Phillips\|1977\|p=96}} Lt. Selfridge had also become the first person killed in a powered heavier-than-air flight in a crash of the Wright Flyer at Fort Myer, Virginia, on September 17, 1908. Their final aircraft design, the Silver Dart, embodied all of the advancements found in the earlier machines. On February 23, 1909, Bell was present as the Silver Dart flown by J. A. D. McCurdy from the frozen ice of Bras d'Or made the first aircraft flight in Canada.<ref>{{cite magazine \|dateOctober 19, 1956\|titleLink with Canadian Pioneers \|magazineFlight \|volume70\|issue2491\|page642\|urlhttp://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1956/1956%20-%201488.html\|access-dateAugust 28, 2013}}</ref> Bell had worried that the flight was too dangerous and had arranged for a doctor to be on hand. With the successful flight, the AEA disbanded and the Silver Dart would revert to Baldwin and McCurdy, who began the Canadian Aerodrome Company and would later demonstrate the aircraft to the Canadian Army.{{sfn\|Phillips\|1977\|pp96–97}}Heredity and genetics {{Eugenics sidebar\|activists}} <!--Bell's work with Eugenics is still considered contentious. Any submissions to this section should be documented in the "talk page" associated with this article.--> Bell, along with many members of the scientific community at the time, took an interest in the popular science of heredity which grew out of the publication of Charles Darwin's book On the Origin of Species in 1859.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleBell Rings for Darwin {{!}} National Center for Science Education\|urlhttps://ncse.ngo/bell-rings-darwin\|access-date2021-03-02\|websitencse.ngo\|languageen}}</ref> On his estate in Nova Scotia, Bell conducted meticulously recorded breeding experiments with rams and ewes. Over the course of more than 30 years, Bell sought to produce a breed of sheep with multiple nipples that would bear twins.<ref>{{Cite web\|dateOctober 2, 1997\|titleTelephone inventor researched sheep teats\|urlhttps://www.producer.com/news/telephone-inventor-researched-sheep-teats/\|websiteThe Western Producer}}</ref> He specifically wanted to see if selective breeding could produce sheep with four functional nipples with enough milk for twin lambs.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastCastle\|firstW. E.\|date1924-02-01\|titleTHE GENETICS OF MULTI-NIPPLED SHEEPAn Analysis of the Sheep-Breeding Experiments of Dr. and Mrs. Alexander Graham Bell at Beinn Bhreagh, N. S.\|urlhttps://academic.oup.com/jhered/article/15/2/75/789352\|journalJournal of Heredity\|languageen\|volume15\|issue2\|pages75–85\|doi10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a102421\|issn0022-1503}}</ref> This interest in animal breeding caught the attention of scientists focused on the study of heredity and genetics in humans.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastGreenwald\|firstBrian H.\|date2009\|titleThe Real "Toll" of A. G. Bell: Lessons about Eugenics\|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/26190555\|journalSign Language Studies\|volume9\|issue3\|pages258–265\|jstor26190555\|issn0302-1475}}</ref> In November 1883, Bell presented a paper at a meeting of the National Academy of Sciences titled Upon the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race.<ref name":1">{{Cite book\|lastBell\|firstAlexander Graham\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKQ02AQAAMAAJ&pgPP2\|titleUpon the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race\|date1884\|publisherU.S. Government Printing Office\|languageen}}</ref> The paper is a compilation of data on the hereditary aspects of deafness. Bell's research indicated that a hereditary tendency toward deafness, as indicated by the possession of deaf relatives, was an important element in determining the production of deaf offspring. He noted that the proportion of deaf children born to deaf parents was many times greater than the proportion of deaf children born to the general population.<ref>{{Cite book\|titleMemoir Upon the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race.\|urlhttps://eric.ed.gov/?idED033502\|viaInstitute for Education Sciences\|year 1969\|publisher Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf \| last1Bell \| first1Alexander Graham }}</ref> In the paper, Bell delved into social commentary and discussed hypothetical public policies to bring an end to deafness. He also criticized educational practices that segregated deaf children rather than integrated them fulling into mainstream classrooms. The paper did not propose sterilization of deaf people or prohibition on intermarriage,<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Greenwald\|first1Brian H.\|last2Van Cleve\|first2John Vickrey\|title"A Deaf Variety of the Human Race": Historical Memory, Alexander Graham Bell, and Eugenics\|date2015\|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/43903056\|journalThe Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era\|volume14\|issue1\|pages28–48\|doi10.1017/S1537781414000528\|jstor43903056\|s2cid163891681\|issn1537-7814}}</ref> noting that "We cannot dictate to men and women whom they should marry and natural selection no longer influences mankind to any great extent."<ref name":1" /> A review of Bell's Memoir upon the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race appearing in an 1885 issue of the American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb states that "Dr. Bell does not advocate legislative interference with the marriages of the deaf for several reasons one of which is that the results of such marriages have not yet been sufficiently investigated." The article goes on to say that "the editorial remarks based thereon did injustice to the author."<ref name":2">{{Cite journal\|lastF.\|firstE. A.\|date1885\|titleReview of Memoir upon the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race\|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/44468521\|journalAmerican Annals of the Deaf and Dumb\|volume30\|issue2\|pages155–162\|jstor44468521\|issn0093-1284}}</ref> The paper's author concludes by saying "A wiser way to prevent the extension of hereditary deafness, it seems to us, would be to continue the investigations which Dr. Bell has so admirable begun until the laws of the transmission of the tendency to deafness are fully understood, and then by explaining those laws to the pupils of our schools to lead them to choose their partners in marriage in such a way that deaf-mute offspring will not be the result."<ref name=":2" /> Historians have noted that Bell explicitly opposed laws regulating marriage, and never mentioned sterilization in any of his writings. Even after Bell agreed to engage with scientists conducting eugenic research, he consistently refused to support public policy that limited the rights or privileges of the deaf.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Greenwald\|first1Brian H.\|last2Cleve\|first2John Vickrey Van\|title"A Deaf Variety of the Human Race": Historical Memory, Alexander Graham Bell, and Eugenics\|dateJanuary 2015\|urlhttps://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-gilded-age-and-progressive-era/article/abs/deaf-variety-of-the-human-race-historical-memory-alexander-graham-bell-and-eugenics/8F7B5F2EBB7B4CF199686B7B8C9B5C5B\|journalThe Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era\|languageen\|volume14\|issue1\|pages28–48\|doi10.1017/S1537781414000528\|s2cid163891681\|issn=1537-7814}}</ref> Bell's interest and research on heredity attracted the interest of Charles Davenport, a Harvard professor and head of the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. In 1906, Davenport, who was also the founder of the American Breeder's Association, approached Bell about joining a new committee on eugenics chaired by David Starr Jordan. In 1910, Davenport opened the Eugenics Records office at Cold Spring Harbor. To give the organization scientific credibility, Davenport set up a Board of Scientific Directors naming Bell as chairman.<ref name":3">{{Cite journal\|lastAllen\|firstGarland E.\|date1986\|titleThe Eugenics Record Office at Cold Spring Harbor, 1910-1940: An Essay in Institutional History\|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/301835\|journalOsiris\|volume2\|pages225–264\|doi10.1086/368657\|jstor301835\|pmid11621591\|s2cid411710\|issn0369-7827}}</ref> Other members of the board included Luther Burbank, Roswell H. Johnson, Vernon L. Kellogg, and William E. Castle.<ref name=":3" /> In 1921, a Second International Congress of Eugenics was held in New York at the Museum of Natural History and chaired by Davenport. Although Bell did not present any research or speak as part of the proceedings, he was named as honorary president as a means to attract other scientists to attend the event.<ref name":4">{{Cite book\|lastInternational Congress of Eugenics (2nd : 1921 : New York)\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/scientificpapers02inte\|titleScientific papers of the second International Congress of Eugenics :held at American Museum of Natural History, New York, September 22-28, 1921 / (Vol. 2)\|date1923\|publisherBaltimore : Williams & Williams\|othersThe Library of Congress}}</ref> A summary of the event notes that Bell was a "pioneering investigator in the field of human heredity".<ref name":4" /> Death Bell died of complications arising from diabetes on August 2, 1922, at his private estate in Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, at age 75.<ref>{{cite book \|lastGray \|firstCharlotte \|titleReluctant Genius: The Passionate Life and Inventive Mind of Alexander Graham Bell \|url{{google books\|ujlCgf1uSJIC\|plainurlyes\|page151}} \|year2006 \|publisherArcade \|locationNew York \|page419 \|isbn978-1-55970-809-8 }}</ref> Bell had also been affected by pernicious anemia.{{sfn\|Gray\|2006\|p418}} His last view of the land he had inhabited was by moonlight on his mountain estate at 2:00&nbsp;a.m.{{refn\|In the last years of his life, as his final projects wound down, Bell and his wife, their extended family and friends, lived exclusively at their beloved Beinn Bhreagh.{{sfn\|Bethune\|2009\|p95}}<ref>{{cite news \|lastDuffy \|firstAndrew \|titleThe Silver Dart sputtered into history \|urlhttp://www2.canada.com/news/national/canada+flight/1319873/story.html?id1319873 \|workOttawa Citizen \|dateFebruary 23, 2009 \|access-dateSeptember 18, 2015 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150713175706/http://www2.canada.com/news/national/canada+flight/1319873/story.html?id1319873 \|archive-dateJuly 13, 2015 }}.</ref>\|groupN}}{{sfn\|Bethune\|2009\|p119}}{{refn\|From {{harvp\|Bethune\|2009\|p119}}: "[his end came] at 2:00&nbsp;am... His wife, Mabel, daughter Daisy, and son-in-law David Fairchild had gathered around him. His last view was of the moon rising above the mountain he loved".\|groupN}} While tending to him after his long illness, Mabel, his wife, whispered, "Don't leave me." By way of reply, Bell signed "no...", lost consciousness, and died shortly after.<ref name"NYTimes">{{cite news \|urlhttps://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1922/08/03/99050024.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1922/08/03/99050024.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|titleDr. Bell, Inventor of Telephone, Dies \|workThe New York Times \|dateAugust 3, 1922 \|access-dateMarch 3, 2009}}</ref>{{sfn\|Bruce\|1990\|p=491}} On learning of Bell's death, the Canadian Prime Minister, Mackenzie King, cabled Mrs. Bell, saying:<ref name="NYTimes"/> {{blockquote\|My colleagues in the Government join with me in expressing to you our sense of the world's loss in the death of your distinguished husband. It will ever be a source of pride to our country that the great invention, with which his name is immortally associated, is a part of its history. On the behalf of the citizens of Canada, may I extend to you an expression of our combined gratitude and sympathy.}} Bell's coffin was constructed of Beinn Bhreagh pine by his laboratory staff, lined with the same red silk fabric used in his tetrahedral kite experiments. To help celebrate his life, his wife asked guests not to wear black (the traditional funeral colour) while attending his service, during which soloist Jean MacDonald sang a verse of Robert Louis Stevenson's "Requiem":{{sfn\|Bethune\|2009\|pp=119–120}} {{poemquote\|Under a wide and starry sky, Dig the grave and let me lie. Glad did I live and gladly die And I laid me down with a will.}} Upon the conclusion of Bell's funeral, for one minute at 6:25&nbsp;p.m. Eastern Time,<ref>{{cite book \|lastPasachoff \|firstNaomi \|date1996 \|titleAlexander Graham Bell: Making Connections \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/alexandergrahamb00pasa_0/page/130 \|locationNew York \|publisherOxford University Press \|page[https://archive.org/details/alexandergrahamb00pasa_0/page/130 130] \|isbn978-0-19-509908-9 \|url-accessregistration }}</ref> "every phone on the continent of North America was silenced in honor of the man who had given to mankind the means for direct communication at a distance".{{sfn\|Bethune\|2009\|p2}}{{sfn\|Osborne\|1943\|pp18–19}} Alexander Graham Bell was buried atop Beinn Bhreagh mountain, on his estate where he had resided increasingly for the last 35 years of his life, overlooking Bras d'Or Lake.<ref name"NYTimes"/> He was survived by his wife Mabel, his two daughters, Elsie May and Marian, and nine of his grandchildren<!-- Note: grandson Alexander Graham Bell Grosvenor had died seven years prior, as seen here: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/bellhtml/embgtree.html -->.<ref name"NYTimes"/><ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0303.html \|titleDr. Bell, Inventor of Telephone, Dies \|workThe New York Times \|dateAugust 3, 1922 \|access-dateJuly 21, 2007 \|quoteDr. Alexander Graham Bell, inventor of the telephone, died at 2 o'clock this morning at Beinn Breagh, his estate near Baddeck}}</ref> Legacy and honours {{Main\|Volta Laboratory and Bureau\|Alexander Graham Bell honors and tributes}} in front of the Bell Telephone Building of Brantford, Ontario, The Telephone City.{{refn\| The Charles Fleetford Sise Chapter of the Telephone Pioneers of America commissioned and dedicated the large bronze statue of Bell in the front portico of Brantford, Ontario's new Bell Telephone Building plant on June 17, 1949. Attending the formal ceremony were Bell's daughter, Mrs. Gillbert Grosvenor, Frederick Johnson, President of the Bell Telephone Company of Canada, T.N. Lacy, President of the Telephone Pioneers, and Brantford Mayor Walter J. Dowden. To each side of the portico facing the monument are the engraved inscriptions "In Grateful Recognition of the Inventor of the Telephone". Its dedication was broadcast live nationally by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation.<ref>{{cite news \|lastIreland \|firstCarolyn \|titleThe Portrait Studio House \|workThe Globe and Mail \|dateFebruary 27, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|titleDaughter Unveils Inventor's Statue: Bronze Figure Is Dedicated By Phone Pioneers \|workBrantford Expositor \|dateJune 18, 1949}}</ref>\|group="N"}} (Brantford Heritage Inventory, City of Brantford)]] Honours and tributes flowed to Bell in increasing numbers as his invention became ubiquitous and his personal fame grew. Bell received numerous honorary degrees from colleges and universities to the point that the requests almost became burdensome.<ref name"AGB Family Papers">{{cite web \|titleAbout this Collection \|websiteAlexander Graham Bell Family Papers \|publisherLibrary of Congress \|urlhttps://www.loc.gov/collection/alexander-graham-bell-papers/about-this-collection/#overview \|access-dateSeptember 18, 2015}}</ref> During his life, he also received dozens of major awards, medals, and other tributes. These included statuary monuments to both him and the new form of communication his telephone created, including the Bell Telephone Memorial erected in his honour in Alexander Graham Bell Gardens in Brantford, Ontario, in 1917.<ref>{{cite book \|lastOsborne \|firstHarold S. \|titleBiographical Memoir of Alexander Graham Bell 1847–1922 \|publisherNational Academy of Sciences \|urlhttp://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/bell-alexander-graham.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/bell-alexander-graham.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|seriesBiographical Memoirs \|volumeXXIII \|page18 \|date1943 \|access-date=September 18, 2015 }}</ref> (in Manitoba Canada and North Dakota, USA)]] A large number of Bell's writings, personal correspondence, notebooks, papers, and other documents reside in both the United States Library of Congress Manuscript Division (as the Alexander Graham Bell Family Papers),<ref name="AGB Family Papers"/> and at the Alexander Graham Bell Institute, Cape Breton University, Nova Scotia; major portions of which are available for online viewing. A number of historic sites and other marks commemorate Bell in North America and Europe, including the first telephone companies in the United States and Canada. Among the major sites are: * The Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site, maintained by Parks Canada, which incorporates the Alexander Graham Bell Museum, in Baddeck, Nova Scotia, close to the Bell estate Beinn Bhreagh;<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.pc.gc.ca/lhn-nhs/ns/grahambell/index_e.asp \|titleAlexander Graham Bell National Historic Site \|publisherParks Canada \|dateAugust 7, 2015 \|access-dateSeptember 18, 2015 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071011122233/http://www.pc.gc.ca/lhn-nhs/ns/grahambell/index_e.asp \|archive-dateOctober 11, 2007 }}</ref> * The Bell Homestead National Historic Site, includes the Bell family home, "Melville House", and farm overlooking Brantford, Ontario and the Grand River. It was their first home in North America; * Canada's first telephone company building, the "Henderson Home" of the late 1870s, a predecessor of the Bell Telephone Company of Canada (officially chartered in 1880). In 1969, the building was carefully moved to the historic Bell Homestead National Historic Site in Brantford, Ontario, and was refurbished to become a telephone museum. The Bell Homestead, the Henderson Home telephone museum, and the National Historic Site's reception centre are all maintained by the Bell Homestead Society;<ref>{{cite web \|titlePay Us a Call at Melville House! \|urlhttp://www.bellhomestead.ca/Pages/default.aspx \|websiteBell Homestead National Historic Site \|access-dateSeptember 18, 2015}}</ref> * The Alexander Graham Bell Memorial Park, which features a broad neoclassical monument built in 1917 by public subscription. The monument depicts mankind's ability to span the globe through telecommunications;<ref>[https://maps.google.com/maps?fq&q%22Alexander+Graham+Bell+%22,+Cambridge,+Ontario&vps34&jsv153e&sll40.657722,-74.098663&sspn0.674038,1.30188&cd1&cid43141094,-80268023,15275653568269528224&lilmd&z14&t=m "Alexander Graham Bell Memorial Park."] maps.google.com. Retrieved: February 14, 2012.</ref> * The Alexander Graham Bell Museum (opened in 1956), part of the Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site which was completed in 1978 in Baddeck, Nova Scotia. Many of the museum's artifacts were donated by Bell's daughters.<br />, Cape Breton, part of the Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site]] In 1880, Bell received the Volta Prize with a purse of 50,000 French francs (approximately US${{formatnum:{{Inflation\|US\|10000\|1879\|r-4}}}} in today's currency{{Inflation-fn\|US}}) for the invention of the telephone from the French government.<ref name"NYTimes" /><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.loc.gov/resource/magbell.21000309/?sp1\|titleHonors to Professor Bell Daily Evening Traveller\|dateSeptember 1, 1880\|websiteAlexander Graham Bell Family Papers\|publisherLibrary of Congress\|access-dateSeptember 18, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.loc.gov/resource/magbell.21000309/?sp1\|titleVolta Prize of the French Academy Awarded to Prof. Alexander Graham Bell\|dateSeptember 1, 1880\|websiteAlexander Graham Bell Family Papers\|publisherLibrary of Congress\|access-dateSeptember 18, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.loc.gov/resource/magbell.21000308/\|titleTelegram from Grossman to Alexander Graham Bell\|dateAugust 2, 1880\|websiteAlexander Graham Bell Family Papers\|publisherLibrary of Congress\|access-dateSeptember 18, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.loc.gov/resource/magbell.21000307/\|titleTelegram from Alexander Graham Bell to Count du Moncel, undated\|date1880\|websiteAlexander Graham Bell Family Papers\|publisherLibrary of Congress\|access-dateSeptember 18, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.loc.gov/item/magbell.21000102/\|titleLetter from Frederick T. Frelinghuysen to Alexander Graham Bell\|dateJanuary 7, 1882\|websiteAlexander Graham Bell Family Papers\|publisherLibrary of Congress\|access-dateSeptember 18, 2015}}</ref> Among the luminaries who judged were Victor Hugo and Alexandre Dumas.<ref>{{cite report\|chapter-urlhttp://keionline.org/misc-docs/research_notes/kei_rn_2008_1.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://keionline.org/misc-docs/research_notes/kei_rn_2008_1.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|titleSelected Innovation Prizes and Reward Programs\|date2008\|publisherKnowledge Ecology International\|access-dateSeptember 18, 2015\|chapterThe Volta Prize For Electricity\|page16}}</ref>{{Better source needed\|dateAugust 2018}} The Volta Prize was conceived by Napoleon III in 1852, and named in honour of Alessandro Volta, with Bell becoming the second recipient of the grand prize in its history.<ref name":0">{{Cite book\|urlhttps://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k97893365/f145.image\|titleLes fondations de prix à l'Académie des sciences : les lauréats de l'Académie, 1714–1880\|lastMaindron\|firstErnest\|year1881\|editor-lastGauthier-Villars\|volume1\|pages131–133\|languagefr}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|lastDavis\|firstJohn L.\|dateJuly 1998\|titleArtisans and savants: The Role of the Academy of Sciences in the Process of Electrical Innovation in France, 1850–1880\|journalAnnals of Science\|volume55\|issue3\|pages291–314\|doi10.1080/00033799800200211}}</ref> Since Bell was becoming increasingly affluent, he used his prize money to create endowment funds (the 'Volta Fund') and institutions in and around Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States, including the Volta Laboratory Association (1880), also known as Volta Laboratory and as the Alexander Graham Bell Laboratory, which eventually led to the Volta Bureau (1887), a centre for studies on deafness, which remains in operation in the Georgetown neighborhood of Washington, D.C. The Volta Laboratory became an experimental facility devoted to scientific discovery, and the very next year it improved Edison's phonograph by substituting wax for tinfoil as the recording medium and incising the recording rather than indenting it, key upgrades that Edison himself later adopted.<ref>{{cite web \|titleLetter from Mabel Hubbard Bell \|websiteAlexander Graham Bell Family Papers \|publisher=Library of Congress \|urlhttps://www.loc.gov/item/magbell.21000301/ \|dateFebruary 27, 1880 \|access-date=September 18, 2015 \|quote=The last line of the typed note refers to the future disposition of award funds: He intends putting the full amount into his Laboratory and Library.}}</ref> The laboratory was also the site where he and his associate invented his "proudest achievement", "the photophone", the "optical telephone" which presaged fibre optical telecommunications while the Volta Bureau would later evolve into the Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing (the AG Bell), a centre for the research and pedagogy of deafness. In partnership with Gardiner Greene Hubbard, Bell helped establish the publication Science during the early 1880s. In 1898, Bell was elected as the second president of the National Geographic Society, serving until 1903, and was primarily responsible for the extensive use of illustrations, including photography, in the magazine.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://press.nationalgeographic.com/about-national-geographic/milestones/ \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120728093734/http://press.nationalgeographic.com/about-national-geographic/milestones/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-dateJuly 28, 2012 \|titleNational Geographic Milestones \|author<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> \|dateJune 20, 2012\|websiteNational Geographic Milestones\|publisherNational Geographic Society \|access-dateJanuary 18, 2016 }}</ref> He also served for many years as a Regent of the Smithsonian Institution (1898–1922).<ref>{{citation \| title Volume IV of the Proceedings of the Board of Regents, Dec. 9, 1920 – Dec. 10, 1931 \| publisher Smithsonian Institution \| location Washington, D. C. \| chapter Proceedings of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution at the Annual Meeting held December 14, 1922 \| date December 14, 1922 \| page 547 \| quote RESOLVED: That the Executive Committee be requested to prepare a memorial commemorative of the life and work of Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, Regent of the Smithsonian Institution from 1898 to 1922, said memorial to be presented at the next Annual Meeting of the Board. \| chapter-url https://transcription.si.edu/transcribe/11810/SIA-SIA_000001_BORMTG_1920-1931_098}}</ref> The French government conferred on him the decoration of the Légion d'honneur (Legion of Honour); the Royal Society of Arts in London awarded him the Albert Medal in 1902; the University of Würzburg, Bavaria, granted him a PhD, and he was awarded the Franklin Institute's Elliott Cresson Medal in 1912. He was one of the founders of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers in 1884 and served as its president from 1891 to 1892. Bell was later awarded the AIEE's Edison Medal in 1914 "For meritorious achievement in the invention of the telephone".<ref>{{cite web \|titleAlexander Graham Bell \|websiteEngineering and Technology History Wiki \|urlhttp://ethw.org/Alexander_Graham_Bell \|access-dateSeptember 18, 2015}}</ref> The bel (B) and the smaller decibel (dB) are units of measurement of sound pressure level (SPL) invented by Bell Labs and named after him.<ref>[https://www.sfu.ca/sonic-studio/handbook/Decibel.html "Decibel."] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170809145931/http://www.sfu.ca/sonic-studio/handbook/Decibel.html \|dateAugust 9, 2017 }} sfu.ca. Retrieved: July 28, 2010.</ref>{{refn\|The decibel is defined as one tenth of a bel.\|groupN}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia \|titlebel \|encyclopediaThe American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language \|urlhttp://www.thefreedictionary.com/bel \|publisherHoughton Mifflin Harcourt \|editionFifth \|date2011 \|access-dateSeptember 18, 2015}}</ref> Since 1976, the IEEE's Alexander Graham Bell Medal has been awarded to honour outstanding contributions in the field of telecommunications. In 1936, the US Patent Office declared Bell first on its list of the country's greatest inventors,<ref>{{cite journal \|lastBeauchamp \|firstChristopher \|titleWho Invented the Telephone?: Lawyers, Patents, and the Judgments of History \|journalTechnology and Culture \|volume51 \|issue4 \|dateOctober 2010 \|pages854–878 \|doi10.1353/tech.2010.0038 \|jstor40928028 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> leading to the US Post Office issuing a commemorative stamp honouring Bell in 1940 as part of its 'Famous Americans Series'. The First Day of Issue ceremony was held on October 28 in Boston, Massachusetts, the city where Bell spent considerable time on research and working with the deaf. The Bell stamp became very popular and sold out in little time. The stamp became, and remains to this day, the most valuable one of the series.<ref>''Scott's United States Stamp catalogue.''</ref> The 150th anniversary of Bell's birth in 1997 was marked by a special issue of commemorative £1 banknotes from the Royal Bank of Scotland. The illustrations on the reverse of the note include Bell's face in profile, his signature, and objects from Bell's life and career: users of the telephone over the ages; an audio wave signal; a diagram of a telephone receiver; geometric shapes from engineering structures; representations of sign language and the phonetic alphabet; the geese which helped him to understand flight; and the sheep which he studied to understand genetics.<ref name"commemorative">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.rampantscotland.com/SCM/royalcomm.htm \|titleRoyal Bank Commemorative Notes \|websiteRampant Scotland \|access-dateOctober 14, 2008}}</ref> Additionally, the Government of Canada honoured Bell in 1997 with a C$100 gold coin, in tribute also to the 150th anniversary of his birth, and with a silver dollar coin in 2009 in honour of the 100th anniversary of flight in Canada. That first flight was made by an airplane designed under Dr. Bell's tutelage, named the Silver Dart.<ref>{{cite web \|titleProof Set – 100th Anniversary of Flight in Canada (2009) \|websiteRoyal Canadian Mint \|urlhttp://www.mint.ca/store/coin/proof-set-100th-anniversary-of-flight-in-canada-2009-prod530013 \|access-dateSeptember 18, 2015 \|archive-dateSeptember 9, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170909044935/http://www.mint.ca/store/coin/proof-set-100th-anniversary-of-flight-in-canada-2009-prod530013 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Bell's image, and also those of his many inventions have graced paper money, coinage, and postal stamps in numerous countries worldwide for many dozens of years. Alexander Graham Bell was ranked 57th among the 100 Greatest Britons (2002) in an official BBC nationwide poll,<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/2208671.stm \|title100 great British heroes \|workBBC News World Edition \|dateAugust 21, 2002 \|access-dateApril 5, 2010}}</ref> and among the Top Ten Greatest Canadians (2004), and the 100 Greatest Americans (2005). In 2006, Bell was also named as one of the 10 greatest Scottish scientists in history after having been listed in the National Library of Scotland's 'Scottish Science Hall of Fame'.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAlexander Graham Bell (1847–1922) \|urlhttp://digital.nls.uk/scientists/biographies/alexander-graham-bell/index.html \|websiteScottish Science Hall of Fame\|year=2009 }}</ref> Bell's name is still widely known and used as part of the names of dozens of educational institutes, corporate namesakes, street and place names around the world. , Scotland, receiving an honorary Doctor of Laws degree (LL.D.) at the university in 1906]] {{See also\|Bell Telephone Memorial}} Honorary degrees {{Incomplete list\|date=August 2016}} Alexander Graham Bell, who could not complete the university program of his youth, received at least a dozen honorary degrees from academic institutions, including eight honorary LL.D.s (Doctorate of Law), two Ph.D.s, a D.Sc., and an M.D.:<ref>{{cite book \|editor-lastMacDougall \|editor-firstD. \|titleScots and Scots Descendant in America \|chapterPart V: Alexander Graham Bell \|chapter-url{{google books\|kX3XAAAAMAAJ\|plainurlyes\|page162}} \|publisherCaledonian \|locationNew York \|date1917 \|page162 \|access-dateSeptember 18, 2015 }}</ref> * Gallaudet College (then named National Deaf-Mute College) in Washington, D.C. (Ph.D.) in 1880{{sfn\|MacDougall\|1917\|p162}}<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://provost.gallaudet.edu/Academic_Affairs/Honorary_Degrees/Honorary_Degree_Recipients.html \|titleHonorary Degree Recipients \|websiteGallaudet University \|locationWashington, DC \|access-dateJuly 28, 2010 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100618060032/http://provost.gallaudet.edu/Academic_Affairs/Honorary_Degrees/Honorary_Degree_Recipients.html \|archive-date=June 18, 2010 }}</ref> * University of Würzburg in Würzburg, Bavaria (Ph.D.) in 1882{{sfn\|MacDougall\|1917\|p=162}} * Heidelberg University in Heidelberg, Germany (M.D.) in 1886{{sfn\|MacDougall\|1917\|p162}}<ref name"DCB">{{cite DCB \|firstLawrence \|lastSurtees \|urlhttp://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/bell_alexander_graham_15E.html \|titleBELL, ALEXANDER GRAHAM \|volume15 \|access-dateMarch 6, 2009}}</ref> * Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts (LL.D.) in 1896{{sfn\|MacDougall\|1917\|p=162}} * Illinois College, in Jacksonville, Illinois (LL.D.) in 1896, possibly 1881{{sfn\|MacDougall\|1917\|p162}}<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.ic.edu/RelId/614303/ISvars/default/Honorary_Degrees_Conferred.htm \|websiteIllinois College \|titleHonorary Degrees Conferred \|access-dateSeptember 18, 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150924032410/http://www.ic.edu/RelId/614303/ISvars/default/Honorary_Degrees_Conferred.htm \|archive-dateSeptember 24, 2015 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> * Amherst College in Amherst, Massachusetts (LL.D.) in 1901{{sfn\|MacDougall\|1917\|p=162}} * University of St Andrews in St Andrews, Scotland (LL.D) in 1902{{sfn\|MacDougall\|1917\|p=162}} * University of Oxford in Oxford, England (D.Sc.) in 1906{{sfn\|MacDougall\|1917\|p=162}} * University of Edinburgh in Edinburgh, Scotland (LL.D.) in 1906{{sfn\|MacDougall\|1917\|p162}}<ref>{{cite web\|titleGraduations \|websiteUniversity of Edinburgh \|urlhttp://www.scripts.sasg.ed.ac.uk/registry/Graduations/Honorary_Graduates.cfm \|access-dateSeptember 18, 2015 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150901034227/http://www.scripts.sasg.ed.ac.uk/registry/Graduations/Honorary_Graduates.cfm \|archive-dateSeptember 1, 2015 }}</ref> * The George Washington University in Washington, D.C. (LL.D.) in 1913{{sfn\|MacDougall\|1917\|p=162}} * Queen's University at Kingston in Kingston, Ontario, Canada (LL.D.) in 1908{{sfn\|MacDougall\|1917\|p162}}<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.queensu.ca/encyclopedia/h/honorary-degrees \|titleHonorary Degrees \|websiteQueen's University \|access-date= October 14, 2020 }}</ref> * Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire (LL.D.) in 1913,<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1913/06/26/100569465.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1913/06/26/100569465.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|titleDartmouth graduates 208: Alexander Graham Bell Among Those Receiving Honorary Degrees \|newspaperThe New York Times \|dateJuly 26, 1913 \|access-dateJuly 30, 2009}}</ref> possibly 1914{{sfn\|MacDougall\|1917\|p162}}Portrayal in film, television and fiction* The 1939 film The Story of Alexander Graham Bell was based on his life and works.<ref>{{cite news\|titleTHE SCREEN; The founding of the Wrong-Number Industry WellDramatized in Roxy's 'Alexander Graham Bell' At the 86th St. Garden Theatre At Three Theatres At the 86th Street Casino\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res9504E3D6133CE73ABC4953DFB2668382629EDE\|newspaperThe New York Times\|access-dateFebruary 2, 2017\|date=April 1, 1939}}</ref> * Eyewitness No. 90 A Great Inventor Is Remembered, a 1957 NFB short about Bell. * The 1965 BBC miniseries Alexander Graham Bell starring Alec McCowen and Francesca Annis. * The 1992 film The Sound and the Silence was a TV film. * Biography aired an episode Alexander Graham Bell: Voice of Invention on August 6, 1996. * John Tench portrays Bell five times in the Canadian television period detective series Murdoch Mysteries. Bell appeared in "Invention Convention" (April 24, 2012), "Murdoch in Toyland" (May 8, 2012), "8 Footsteps" (October 9, 2017), "Staring Blindly into the Future" (January 13, 2020) and "Murdoch and the Sonic Boom" (October 24, 2022). * A Sign of Her Own, by Sarah Marsh (2024),<ref>{{Cite book \|lastMarsh \|firstSarah \|titleA Sign of Her Own \|dateFebruary 2024 \|publisherHeadline \|isbn9781035401642 \|languageen}}</ref> a novel about a pupil of Bell's Visible Speech, who is "gradually realising and acting upon the harm he was inflicting on her and other deaf people."<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastStraus \|firstJean \|date2024 \|titleThoughts shared - RNID SUMMER 2024 \|journalRNID \|issueSummer 2024 \|pages26}}</ref> Bibliography {{Refbegin}} * {{cite journal \|last1Bell \|first1Alexander Graham \|dateOctober 1880 \|titleOn the Production and Reproduction of Sound by Light \|urlhttps://www.histv.net/bell-production-of-sound-by-light \|journalAmerican Journal of Science \|typeRead before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, in Boston, August 27, 1880 \|seriesThird \|volume20 \|issue118 \|pages305–324 \|doi10.2475/ajs.s3-20.118.305 \|bibcode1880AmJS...20..305B \|s2cid130048089 }}<br />Also published as: {{cite journal \|lastBell \|firstAlexander Graham \|dateSeptember 23, 1880 \|titleSelenium and the Photophone \|journalNature \|volume22 \|issue569\|pages500–503 \|doi10.1038/022500a0 \|bibcode1880Natur..22..500. \|doi-access=free }} * {{cite book \|lastBell \|firstAlexander Graham \|urlhttp://saveourdeafschools.org/question.pdf \|titleThe Question of Sign-Language and The Utility of Signs in the Instruction of the Deaf—Two papers \|locationWashington, D.C. \|publisherSanders Printing Office \|date1898 \|access-dateJanuary 2, 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121029172445/http://saveourdeafschools.org/question.pdf \|archive-dateOctober 29, 2012 \|url-status=dead }} * {{cite magazine \|lastBell \|firstAlexander Graham \|dateFebruary 1917 \|titlePrizes for the Inventor: Some of the Problems Awaiting Solution \|urlhttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/National_Geographic_Magazine/Volume_31/Number_2/Prizes_for_the_Inventor \|magazineThe National Geographic Magazine \|volume31 \|issue2 \|pages131–146 \|publisherNational Geographic Society }} {{Refend}} See also {{Div col\|colwidth=35em}} * Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing * Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site * Bell Boatyard * Bell Homestead National Historic Site * Bell Telephone Memorial * Berliner, Emile * Bourseul, Charles * IEEE Alexander Graham Bell Medal * Manzetti, Innocenzo * Meucci, Antonio * Oriental Telephone Company * People on Scottish banknotes * Pioneers, a Volunteer Network * Reis, Philipp * The Story of Alexander Graham Bell, a 1939 movie of his life * The Telephone Cases * Volta Laboratory and Bureau {{colend}} References Notes {{reflist\|groupN}}Citations{{reflist}} Further reading * Mullett, Mary B. [https://books.google.com/books?idMaFXAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA10 The Story of A Famous Inventor.] New York: Rogers and Fowle, 1921. * Walters, Eric. The Hydrofoil Mystery. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Puffin Books, 1999. {{ISBN\|0-14-130220-8}}. * Winzer, Margret A. [https://archive.org/details/historyofspecial00winz The History Of Special Education: From Isolation To Integration.] Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press, 1993. {{ISBN\|978-1-56368-018-2}}. External links {{sister project links\|dQ34286\|nno\|commonsyes\|cCategory:Alexander Graham Bell\|sAuthor:Alexander Graham Bell\|voyno\|mno\|mwno\|wiktno\|bno\|v=no}} * [https://www.belllegacy.org/ Alexander and Mabel Bell Legacy Foundation] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240303055405/https://www.belllegacy.org/ \|dateMarch 3, 2024 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151208211550/http://bell.cbu.ca/agbi_about.asp Alexander Graham Bell Institute at Cape Breton University] (archived 8 December 2015) * [http://www.telephonetribute.com/pdf/bell_memorial_booklet.pdf Bell Telephone Memorial], Brantford, Ontario * [http://www.bellhomestead.ca/Pages/default.aspx Bell Homestead National Historic Site], Brantford, Ontario * [http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/lhn-nhs/ns/grahambell/index.aspx Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site of Canada], Baddeck, Nova Scotia * [https://www.loc.gov/collection/alexander-graham-bell-papers/about-this-collection/#overview Alexander Graham Bell Family Papers at the Library of Congress] * {{Biographical Memoirs\|bell-alexander-graham}} * [http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/bell_alexander_graham_15E.html Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online] * [http://www.science.ca/scientists/scientistprofile.php?pID=120 Science.ca profile: Alexander Graham Bell] * {{Gutenberg author\|id=48508}} * {{IMDb name\|id1745080\|nameAlexander Graham Bell}} * [https://archive.org/details/AlexanderGrahamBellsNotebooks Alexander Graham Bell's notebooks] at the Internet Archive * [https://www.histv.net/graham-bell-contribution-indirecte "Téléphone et photophone : les contributions indirectes de Graham Bell à l'idée de la vision à distance par l'électricité"] at the [https://www.histv.net Histoire de la télévision] * {{PM20\|FID=pe/001393}} * [https://digitalcollections.museumofflight.org/collections/show/656 Alexander Graham Bell and the Aerial Experiment Association Photograph Collection] at [https://www.museumofflight.org/ The Museum of Flight (Seattle, Washington).] Multimedia * [http://www.biography.com/people/alexander-graham-bell-9205497 Alexander Graham Bell] at The Biography Channel * {{IMDb title\|0031981\|The Story of Alexander Graham Bell\|(1939)}} * {{cite AV media \|peopleAlexander Graham Bell portrayed by John Bach\|year1992 \|titleThe Sound and the Silence\|mediumTelevision production \|publisherAtlantis Films \|locationCanada, New Zealand, Ireland}} * {{IMDb title\|id0956089\|titleThe Animated Hero Classics: Alexander Graham Bell\|3= (1995)}} * {{cite news\|lastGray\|firstCharlotte\|titleWe Had No Idea What Alexander Graham Bell Sounded Like. Until Now\|urlhttp://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/We-Had-No-Idea-What-Alexander-Graham-Bell-Sounded-Like-Until-Now-204137471.html\|newspaperSmithsonian\|dateMay 2013}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150922192029/https://www.historica-dominion.ca/content/heritage-minutes/shaping-future Shaping The Future], from the Heritage Minutes and Radio Minutes collection at HistoricaCanada.ca (1:31 audio drama, Adobe Flash required) {{s-start}} {{s-npo}} {{s-bef\|before=Gardiner Greene Hubbard}} {{s-ttl\|titlePresident of the National Geographic Society\|years 1897–1904}} {{s-aft\|after= William John McGee}} {{s-end}} {{Alexander Graham Bell\|state=expanded}} {{Navboxes \|title=Links to related articles \|list1= {{Hall of Fame for Great Americans}} {{National Geographic}} {{IEEE Edison Medal Laureates 1909-1925}} {{John Fritz Medal}} {{Scientists whose names are used as non SI units}} {{Baddeck}} {{Telecommunications}} }} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Bell, Alexander Graham}} Category:1847 births Category:1922 deaths Category:19th-century Scottish inventors Category:19th-century Canadian inventors Category:19th-century Canadian scientists Category:19th-century Scottish businesspeople Category:19th-century Scottish scientists Category:19th-century Scottish engineers Category:20th-century American inventors Category:20th-century American scientists Category:20th-century Canadian scientists Category:Alumni of the University of Edinburgh Category:Alumni of University College London Category:American agnostics Category:American educational theorists Category:American eugenicists Category:American physicists Category:American recipients of the Legion of Honour Category:American Unitarians Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Aviation pioneers Category:Businesspeople from Boston Category:Canadian activists Category:Canadian agnostics Category:Canadian Aviation Hall of Fame inductees Category:Canadian educational theorists Category:Canadian emigrants to the United States Category:Canadian eugenicists Category:Canadian physicists Category:Canadian Unitarians Category:Deaths from diabetes in Canada Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Category:Gardiner family Category:George Washington University trustees Category:Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees Category:History of telecommunications Category:IEEE Edison Medal recipients Category:John Fritz Medal recipients Category:Language teachers Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society Category:Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences Category:National Aviation Hall of Fame inductees Category:National Geographic Society Category:Officers of the Legion of Honour Category:People educated at the Royal High School, Edinburgh Category:People from Baddeck, Nova Scotia Category:People from Brantford Category:Scientists from Edinburgh Category:Scientists from Washington, D.C. Category:Scottish agnostics Category:Scottish emigrants to Canada Category:Scottish emigrants to the United States Category:Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame inductees Category:Scottish eugenicists Category:Scottish physicists Category:Scottish Unitarians Category:Smithsonian Institution people	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell	2025-04-05T18:25:24.376508
854	Anatolia	{{Short description\|Peninsula of Turkey in Western Asia}} {{Other uses}} {{Redirect\|Asia Minor}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=August 2024}} {{Infobox islands \| name = Anatolia<br />{{small\|Asia Minor}} \| local_name = {{nobold\|{{lang\|tr\|Anadolu}} (Turkish)}} \| image_name = Anatolia composite NASA.png \| image_caption = Satellite imagery centred on Anatolia, which accounts for the bulk of modern-day Turkey \| image_map = Map of the geographic region of Anatolia.png \| image_map_caption Map of Anatolia (dark green), which according to one definition is delineated by an imprecise line from the Gulf of Alexandretta to the Black Sea.<ref nameMerriam>{{cite book \|titleMerriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary \|year2001 \|isbn978-0-87779-546-9 \|page46 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCo_VIPIJerIC&qanatolia+geographical+dictionary&pgPA883 \|access-date18 May 2001 \|last1Hopkins \|first1Daniel J. \|last2Staff \|first2Merriam-Webster \|author3편집부 \|publisherMerriam-Webster \|archive-date28 November 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211128204112/https://books.google.com/books?idCo_VIPIJerIC&qanatolia+geographical+dictionary&pgPA883 \|url-statuslive \|quoteAnatolia: The part of Turkey in Asia equivalent to the peninsula of Asia Minor up to indefinite line on E from Gulf of Iskenderun to Black Sea comprising about three fifths of Turkey's provinces}}</ref> According to another definition, it is coterminous with the Asian part of Turkey.<ref name=anatolia_definition> * {{harvnb\|McColl\|2014\|p=922}}: "Thrace, its European area, is about the size of VERMONT at 9,412 square mi (24,378 square km). Its Asian area (Asia Minor) is called Anatolia and covers 291,971 square mi (756,202 square km)" * {{harvnb\|Cohen\|2008\|p125}}: "Anatolia, [Gr.sunrise], Asiatic part of Turkey; its area covers 97% of all Turkey" * {{harvnb\|Tockner\|Uehlinger\|Robinson\|2009\|location=Chapter 17}}: "About 97% of the country is in Asia Minor (Anatolia) and 3% in Europe (Thrace)" * {{cite web \|urlhttps://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey-turkiye/#geography \|titleTurkey \|workThe World Factbook \|publisherCentral Intelligence Agency \|access-date=20 February 2024}}: "the 97% of the country in Asia is referred to as Anatolia" * {{cite web \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/place/Anatolia \|titleAnatolia \|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica \|access-date29 February 2024}}: "Anatolia, the peninsula of land that today constitutes the Asian portion of Turkey" * {{harvnb\|Steadman\|McMahon\|2011\|p=466}} * {{harvnb\|Howard\|2016\|p=7}} * {{cite web \|urlhttp://countrystudies.us/turkey/18.htm \|editorHelen Chapin Metz \|titleTurkey: A Country Study &#124; Geography \|year1995 \|locationWashington \|publisherGPO for the Library of Congress \|access-date=31 May 2024}}: "The Asian part of the country is known by a variety of names--Asia Minor, Asiatic Turkey, the Anatolian Plateau, and Anatolia (Anadolu)"</ref> \| coordinates {{coord\|39\|N\|35\|E\|type:country\|displayinline,title}} \| etymology "The East" (from {{langx\|grc\|Ἀνατολή\|labelGreek}}, {{transliteration\|grc\|Anatolḗ}}) \| location = West Asia \| island_type = Peninsula \| area_km2 = 537,886 \| area_footnotes <ref>{{cite book \|author1Stephen Mitchell \|titleAnatolia: land, men, and Gods in Asia Minor \|date1995-07-06 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn0198150296 \|urlhttps://libunix.ku.edu.tr/search~S9/?searchtypet&searchargAnatolia%3A+Land%2C+Men%2C+and+Gods+in+Asia+Minor&searchscope9&SORTDZ&extended0&SUBMITSearch&searchlimits&searchorigargtAnatolian+Civilizations+and+Antique+Cities+of+Turkey \|volume2 }}</ref> \| country_capital_and_largest_city = Ankara \| country_largest_city_population = 5,803,482 \| demonym = Anatolian \| population \| languages {{vunblist \| Predominantly Turkish<ref> * {{harvnb\|KONDA\|2006\|p=19}} * {{harvnb\|Comrie\|2018\|p537}}</ref>}} {{collapsible list \|titleOthers:\|Kurdish\|Zaza\|Arabic\|Circassian\|Laz\|Greek\|Armenian\|Albanian\|Bosnian\|Bulgarian\|Other languages}} \| ethnic_groups = {{Plainlist\| Majority: Turks<ref nameWorld_Factbook_People>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey-turkiye/#people-and-society \|titleTurkey (Turkiye) \|workThe World Factbook \|publisherCentral Intelligence Agency \|access-date9 October 2024}}</ref><ref name"KONDA 2006 17">{{harvnb\|KONDA\|2006\|p17}}</ref> Minority: Kurds and other peoples<ref nameWorld_Factbook_People/><ref name"KONDA 2006 17"/>}} \| timezone1 = TRT \| utc_offset1 = +03:00 }} Anatolia ({{langx\|tr\|Anadolu}}), also known as Asia Minor,{{efn\|Additional alternative names include Asian/Asiatic Turkey, the Anatolian Peninsula, and the Anatolian Plateau.}} is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean Sea to the west, the Turkish Straits to the northwest, and the Black Sea to the north. The eastern and southeastern limits have been expanded either to the entirety of Asiatic Turkey<ref name"anatolia_definition" /> or to an imprecise line from the Black Sea to the Gulf of Alexandretta.<ref name"Merriam" /> Topographically, the Sea of Marmara connects the Black Sea with the Aegean Sea through the Bosporus and the Dardanelles, and separates Anatolia from Thrace in Southeast Europe. During the Neolithic, Anatolia was an early centre for the development of farming after it originated in the adjacent Fertile Crescent. Beginning around 9,000 years ago, there was a major migration of Anatolian Neolithic Farmers into Europe, with their descendants coming to dominate the continent as far west as the Iberian Peninsula and the British Isles. The earliest recorded inhabitants of Anatolia, who were neither Indo-European nor Semitic, were gradually absorbed by the incoming Indo-European Anatolian peoples, who spoke the now-extinct Anatolian languages. The major Anatolian languages included Hittite, Luwian, and Lydian; other local languages, albeit poorly attested, included Phrygian and Mysian. The Hurro-Urartian languages were spoken throughout Mitanni in the southeast, while Galatian, a Celtic language, was spoken throughout Galatia in the central peninsula. Among the other peoples who established a significant presence in ancient Anatolia were the Galatians, the Hurrians, the Assyrians, the Armenians, the Hattians, and the Cimmerians, as well as some of the ancient Greek tribes, including the Ionians, the Dorians, and the Aeolians. In the era of classical antiquity (see Classical Anatolia), the Anatolian languages were largely replaced by the Greek language, which came to further dominate the region during the Hellenistic period and the Roman period. The Byzantine period saw the decline of Greek influence throughout the peninsula as the Byzantine–Seljuk wars enabled the incoming Seljuk Turks to establish a foothold in the region. Thus, the process of Anatolia's Turkification began under the Seljuk Empire in the late 11th century and continued under the Ottoman Empire until the early 20th century, when the Ottoman dynasty collapsed in the aftermath of World War I. Between 1894 and 1924, millions of non-Turkic peoples and Christians were suppressed and removed by the Ottoman Turkish authorities from the bulk of the area of modern-day Turkey. Nonetheless, a variety of non-Turkic languages continue to be spoken by ethnic minorities in Anatolia today, including Arabic, Kurdish, Neo-Aramaic, Armenian, the North Caucasian languages, Laz, Georgian, and Greek. Geography {{Main\|Geography of Turkey}} , c. 20,000 years ago. Anatolia was connected to the European mainland until {{Circa\|5600 BCE}},<ref name"Black Sea Deluge">{{cite web\|urlhttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Deluge-NASA.png\|titleIllustration of the Lake (later Sea) of Marmara and the formation of the Turkish Straits after the Black Sea deluge\|websitewww.ncdc.noaa.gov\|date26 January 2014\|access-date22 May 2021\|archive-date31 August 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210831144627/https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Deluge-NASA.png\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Dimitrov1">Dimitrov P., 2003. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284602641_The_Black_Sea_-_a_Clue_to_the_Secret_of_World_Flood "The Black Sea – a Clue to the Secret of World Flood"]. {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210521201345/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284602641_The_Black_Sea_-_a_Clue_to_the_Secret_of_World_Flood \|date21 May 2021 }}. Oceanology, 4, 52–57.</ref><ref name"Dimitrov2">Dimitrov P., D. Dimitrov. 2004. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290938137_The_Black_Sea_The_Flood_and_the_ancient_myths The Black Sea The Flood and the ancient myths]. {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210515095644/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290938137_The_Black_Sea_The_Flood_and_the_ancient_myths \|date15 May 2021 }}. "Slavena", Varna, {{ISBN\|954579335X}}, 91 pp., {{doi\|10.13140/RG.2.2.18954.16327}}.</ref> when the melting ice sheets caused the sea level in the Mediterranean to rise around {{convert\|120\|m\|-1\|abbron}},<ref name"Dimitrov1"/><ref name"Dimitrov2"/> triggering the formation of the Turkish Straits.<ref name"Black Sea Deluge"/><ref name"Dimitrov1"/><ref name"Dimitrov2"/> As a result, two former lakes (the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea)<ref name"Black Sea Deluge"/> were connected to the Mediterranean Sea, which separated Anatolia from Europe.]] Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to an indefinite line running from the Gulf of Alexandretta to the Black Sea,<ref name"Niewohner2017">{{cite book\|authorPhilipp Niewohner\|titleThe Archaeology of Byzantine Anatolia: From the End of Late Antiquity until the Coming of the Turks\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idcAUmDwAAQBAJ&pgPA18\|date2017\|publisherOxford University Press\|isbn978-0190610470\|pages18–\|access-date7 December 2018\|archive-date11 March 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200311111958/https://books.google.com/books?idcAUmDwAAQBAJ&pgPA18\|url-statuslive}}</ref> coterminous with the Anatolian Plateau. This traditional geographical definition is used, for example, in the latest edition of ''Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary.<ref name"Merriam" /> Under this definition, Anatolia is bounded to the east by the Armenian Highlands, and the Euphrates before that river bends to the southeast to enter Mesopotamia.<ref name"Mitchell">Stephen Mitchell (1995). Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor. The Celts in Anatolia and the impact of Roman rule. Clarendon Press, 266 pp. {{ISBN\|978-0198150299}} [https://books.google.com/books?idpUYtwuve40kC] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170329114033/https://books.google.com/books?idpUYtwuve40kC\|date29 March 2017}}</ref> To the southeast, it is bounded by the ranges that separate it from the Orontes valley in Syria and the Mesopotamian plain.<ref name="Mitchell"/> Following the Armenian genocide, Western Armenia was renamed the Eastern Anatolia region by the newly established Turkish government.<ref name"Sahakyan">{{cite book\|lastSahakyan\|firstLusine\|titleTurkification of the Toponyms in the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Turkey\|year2010\|publisherArod Books\|locationMontreal\|isbn978-0969987970}}</ref><ref name":0">{{cite book \|last1Hovannisian \|first1Richard \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idK3monyE4CVQC \|titleThe Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies \|date2007 \|publisherTransaction Publishers \|isbn978-1412835923 \|locationNew Brunswick, NJ \|page3 \|access-date10 September 2015 \|archive-date10 October 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171010030024/https://books.google.com/books?idK3monyE4CVQC \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In 1941, with the First Geography Congress which divided Turkey into seven geographical regions based on differences in climate and landscape, the eastern provinces of Turkey were placed into the Eastern Anatolia region,<ref>[http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2167/irgee216.0 A Comparative Analysis Regarding Pictures Included in Secondary School Geography Textbooks Taught in Turkey]. {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150413141440/http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2167/irgee216.0 \|date13 April 2015 }}, Okan Yasar and Mehmet Seremet, International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 2007.</ref> which largely corresponds to the historical region of Western Armenia. Vazken Davidian terms the expanded use of "Anatolia" to apply to territory in eastern Turkey that was formerly referred to as Armenia'' (which had a sizeable Armenian population before the Armenian genocide) an "ahistorical imposition" and notes that a growing body of literature is uncomfortable with referring to the Ottoman East as "Eastern Anatolia".<ref>Vazken Khatchig Davidian, "Imagining Ottoman Armenia: Realism and Allegory in Garabed Nichanian's Provincial Wedding in Moush and Late Ottoman Art Criticism", p.&nbsp;7 & footnote 34, in Études arméniennes contemporaines volume 6, 2015.</ref><ref name"Sahakyan"/><ref name":0" /> The highest mountain in the Eastern Anatolia region (also the highest peak in the Armenian Highlands) is Mount Ararat (5123&nbsp;m).<ref>{{Cite journal\| volume 42\| issue 2\| pages 143–149\| last1 Fevzi Özgökçe\| last2 Kit Tan\| last3 Vladimir Stevanović\| title A new subspecies of Silene acaulis (Caryophyllaceae) from East Anatolia, Turkey\| journal Annales Botanici Fennici\|year 2005\| jstor 23726860}}</ref> The Euphrates, Aras, Karasu and Murat rivers connect the Armenian Highlands to the South Caucasus and the Upper Euphrates Valley. Along with the Çoruh, these rivers are the longest in the Eastern Anatolia region.<ref namepalumbi>{{Cite journal\| doi 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0009\| last Palumbi\| first Giulio\| title The Chalcolithic of Eastern Anatolia\| journal The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia\| volume 1\| access-date 6 May 2018\| date 5 September 2011\| url http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195376142-e-9\| editor1-last McMahon\| editor1-first Gregory\| editor2-last Steadman\| editor2-first Sharon\| archive-date 12 May 2018\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20180512155433/http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195376142-e-9\| url-status live}}</ref> Etymology The English-language name Anatolia derives from the Greek {{lang\|grc\|Ἀνατολή}} ({{lang\|grc-Latn\|Anatolḗ}}) meaning "the East" and designating (from a Greek point of view) eastern regions in general. The Greek word refers to the direction where the sun rises, coming from {{lang\|grc\|ἀνατέλλω}} anatello '(Ι) rise up', comparable to terms in other languages such as "levant" from Latin {{Lang\|la\|levo}} 'to rise', "orient" from Latin {{Lang\|la\|orior}} 'to arise, to originate', Hebrew {{Lang\|he\|מִזְרָח}} mizraḥ 'east' from {{Lang\|he\|זָרַח}} zaraḥ 'to rise, to shine', Aramaic {{Lang\|arc\|מִדְנָח}} midnaḥ from {{Lang\|arc\|דְּנַח}} denaḥ 'to rise, to shine'.<ref name"etym">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%237638 \|authorHenry George Liddell \|author2 Robert Scott \|titleἀνατολή \|website A Greek-English Lexicon \|access-date20 February 2021 \|archive-date 26 May 2007 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070526063014/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%237638 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"OED">{{Cite web \|titleAnatolia &#124; Origin and meaning of the name Anatolia \|urlhttps://www.etymonline.com/word/anatolia \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170713102500/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?termAnatolia \|archive-date13 July 2017 \|access-date14 May 2021 \|websiteOnline Etymology Dictionary \|language=en-US}}</ref> The use of Anatolian designations has varied over time, perhaps originally referring to the Aeolian, Ionian and Dorian colonies situated along the eastern coasts of the Aegean Sea, but also encompassing eastern regions in general. Such use of Anatolian designations was employed during the reign of Roman Emperor Diocletian ({{Reign\|284\|305}}), who created the Diocese of the East, known in Greek as the Eastern Diocese, but completely unrelated to the regions of Asia Minor. In their widest territorial scope, Anatolian designations were employed during the reign of Roman Emperor Constantine&nbsp;I (306–337), who created the Praetorian prefecture of the East, known in Greek as the Eastern Prefecture, encompassing all eastern regions of the Late Roman Empire and spanning from Thrace to Egypt. Only after the loss of other eastern regions during the 7th century and the reduction of Byzantine eastern domains to Asia Minor, that region became the only remaining part of the Byzantine East, and thus commonly referred to (in Greek) as the Eastern part of the Empire. At the same time, the Anatolic Theme ({{lang\|grc\|Ἀνατολικὸν θέμα}} / "the Eastern theme") was created, as a province (theme) covering the western and central parts of Turkey's present-day Central Anatolia Region, centered around Iconium, but ruled from the city of Amorium.<ref name"First Thema 1952, p. 59">"On the First Thema, called Anatolikón. This theme is called Anatolikón or Theme of the Anatolics, not because it is above and in the direction of the east where the sun rises, but because it lies to the East of Byzantium and Europe." Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, De Thematibus, ed. A.&nbsp;Pertusi. Vatican: Vatican Library, 1952, pp.&nbsp;59&nbsp;ff.</ref><ref name"John Haldon 2002. Page 32">John Haldon, Byzantium, a History, 2002, p.&nbsp;32.</ref> The Latinized form "{{Lang\|la-x-medieval\|Anatolia\|italicno}}", with its -ia ending, is probably a Medieval Latin innovation.<ref nameOED /> The modern Turkish form {{Lang\|tr\|Anadolu}} derives directly from the Greek name {{lang\|el\|Aνατολή}} (Anatolḗ). The Russian male name Anatoly, the French Anatole and plain Anatol, all stemming from saints Anatolius of Laodicea (d.&nbsp;283) and Anatolius of Constantinople (d.&nbsp;458; the first Patriarch of Constantinople), share the same linguistic origin. Names {{Further\|Place name changes in Turkey}} The oldest known name for any region within Anatolia is related to its central area, known as the "Land of Hatti" – a designation that was initially used for the land of ancient Hattians, but later became the most common name for the entire territory under the rule of ancient Hittites.{{sfn\|Bryce\|2009\|pp=297–98}} The first recorded name the Greeks used for the Anatolian peninsula, though not particularly popular at the time, was Ἀσία (Asía),<ref>Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%29asi%2Fa Ἀσία]. {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110427042823/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%29asi%2Fa \|date27 April 2011 }}, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus.</ref> perhaps from an Akkadian expression for the "sunrise" or possibly echoing the name of the Assuwa league in western Anatolia.{{citation needed\|date=January 2013}} The Romans used it as the name of their province, comprising the west of the peninsula plus the nearby Aegean Islands. As the name "Asia" broadened its scope to apply to the vaster region east of the Mediterranean, some Greeks in Late Antiquity came to use the name Asia Minor (Μικρὰ Ἀσία, Mikrà Asía), meaning "Lesser Asia" to refer to present-day Anatolia, whereas the administration of the Empire preferred the description Ἀνατολή (Anatolḗ; {{lit\|the East}}). The endonym Ῥωμανία (Rōmanía "the land of the Romans, i.e. the Eastern Roman Empire") was understood as another name for the province by the invading Seljuq Turks, who founded a Sultanate of Rûm in 1077. Thus (land of the) Rûm became another name for Anatolia. By the 12th century Europeans had started referring to Anatolia as Turchia.<ref nameoxfordreference>{{Cite book\| publisher Oxford University Press\| isbn 978-0191866326\| last Everett-Heath\| first John\| title The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names\| volume 1\| chapter Anatolia\| access-date 5 December 2018\| year 2018\| chapter-url http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191866326.001.0001/acref-9780191866326-e-258\| doi 10.1093/acref/9780191866326.001.0001\| archive-date 6 December 2018\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20181206102228/http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191866326.001.0001/acref-9780191866326-e-258\| url-status = live}}</ref> During the era of the Ottoman Empire, many mapmakers referred to the mountainous plateau in eastern Anatolia as Armenia. Other contemporary sources called the same area Kurdistan.<ref namesuny>{{Cite book\| publisher Princeton University Press\| isbn 978-1400865581\| last Suny\| first Ronald Grigor\| title 'They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else': A History of the Armenian Genocide\| year2015\|page31}}</ref> Geographers have used East Anatolian plateau, Armenian plateau and the Iranian plateau to refer to the region; the former two largely overlap.<ref nameOxford_Handbook_p466>{{harvnb\|Steadman\|McMahon\|2011\|p466}}</ref> While a standard definition of Anatolia refers to the entire Asian side of Turkey, according to archaeologist Lori Khatchadourian, this difference in terminology "primarily result[s] from the shifting political fortunes and cultural trajectories of the region since the nineteenth century".<ref name=Oxford_Handbook_p466/> Turkey's First Geography Congress in 1941 created two geographical regions of Turkey to the east of the Gulf of Iskenderun-Black Sea line, the Eastern Anatolia region and the Southeastern Anatolia region,<ref name"Yigit">Ali Yiğit, "Geçmişten Günümüze Türkiye'yi Bölgelere Ayıran Çalışmalar ve Yapılması Gerekenler", ''Ankara Üniversitesi Türkiye Coğrafyası Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi, IV. Ulural Coğrafya Sempozyumu, "Avrupa Birliği Sürecindeki Türkiye'de Bölgesel Farklılıklar"'', [http://www.fka.org.tr/SayfaDownload/bildiri_nihan_atay.pdf pp.&nbsp;34–35]. {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131109013737/http://www.fka.org.tr/SayfaDownload/bildiri_nihan_atay.pdf \|date9 November 2013 }}.</ref> the former largely corresponding to the western part of the Armenian Highlands, the latter to the northern part of the Mesopotamian plain. According to Richard Hovannisian, this changing of toponyms was "necessary to obscure all evidence" of the Armenian presence as part of the policy of Armenian genocide denial embarked upon by the newly established Turkish government and what Hovannisian calls its "foreign collaborators".<ref>{{Cite book\| publisher Wayne State University Press\| isbn 978-0814327777\| last Hovannisian\| first Richard G.\| title Remembrance and Denial: The Case of the Armenian Genocide\| date 1998\| url https://books.google.com/books?idkiBHkRtRmIIC&pgPA204\| access-date 5 December 2018\| archive-date 10 March 2020\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20200310025218/https://books.google.com/books?idkiBHkRtRmIIC&pgPA204\| url-status live}}</ref> History {{Main\|History of Anatolia}} Prehistoric Anatolia s in Göbekli Tepe were erected as far back as 9600 BC.]] {{main\|Prehistory of Anatolia}} Human habitation in Anatolia dates back to the Paleolithic.<ref>{{cite journal \|lastStiner \|firstMary C. \|author2Kuhn, Steven L. \|author3 Güleç, Erksin \|titleEarly Upper Paleolithic shell beads at Üçağızlı Cave I (Turkey): Technology and the socioeconomic context of ornament life-histories \|journalJournal of Human Evolution \|volume64 \|issue5 \|pages380–98 \|doi10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.01.008 \|issn0047-2484 \|year2013 \|pmid23481346\|bibcode2013JHumE..64..380S }}</ref> Neolithic settlements include Çatalhöyük, Çayönü, Nevali Cori, Aşıklı Höyük, Boncuklu Höyük, Hacilar, Göbekli Tepe, Norşuntepe, Köşk Höyük, and Yumuktepe. Çatalhöyük (7.000 BCE) is considered the most advanced of these.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Whitehouse \|first1Harvey \|last2Martin \|first2Luther H. \|titleTheorizing Religions Past: Archaeology, History, and Cognition \|date2004 \|publisherRowman Altamira \|isbn978-0-7591-0621-5 \|page38 \|languageen}}</ref> Recent advances in archaeogenetics have confirmed that the spread of agriculture from the Middle East to Europe was strongly correlated with the migration of early farmers from Anatolia about 9,000 years ago, and was not just a cultural exchange.<ref>{{cite news \|lastCurry \|firstAndrew \|dateAugust 2019 \|titleThe first Europeans weren't who you might think \|urlhttps://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/first-europeans-immigrants-genetic-testing-feature \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210319032852/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/first-europeans-immigrants-genetic-testing-feature \|archive-date19 March 2021 \|workNational Geographic}}</ref> Anatolian Neolithic farmers derived most of their ancestry from local Anatolian hunter-gatherers, suggesting that agriculture was adopted in site by these hunter-gatherers and not spread by demic diffusion into the region.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Krause \|first1Johannes \|last2Jeong \|first2Choongwon \|last3Haak \|first3Wolfgang \|last4Posth \|first4Cosimo \|last5Stockhammer \|first5Philipp W. \|last6Mustafaoğlu \|first6Gökhan \|last7Fairbairn \|first7Andrew \|last8Bianco \|first8Raffaela A. \|last9Julia Gresky \|date19 March 2019 \|titleLate Pleistocene human genome suggests a local origin for the first farmers of central Anatolia \|journalNature Communications \|languageen \|volume10 \|issue1 \|pages1218 \|bibcode2019NatCo..10.1218F \|doi10.1038/s41467-019-09209-7 \|issn2041-1723 \|pmc6425003 \|pmid30890703 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Anatolian derived Neolithic Farmers would subsequently spread across Europe, as far west as the Iberian Peninsula and the British Isles,<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Brace \|first1Selina \|last2Diekmann \|first2Yoan \|last3Booth \|first3Thomas J. \|last4van Dorp \|first4Lucy \|last5Faltyskova \|first5Zuzana \|last6Rohland \|first6Nadin \|last7Mallick \|first7Swapan \|last8Olalde \|first8Iñigo \|last9Ferry \|first9Matthew \|last10Michel \|first10Megan \|last11Oppenheimer \|first11Jonas \|last12Broomandkhoshbacht \|first12Nasreen \|last13Stewardson \|first13Kristin \|last14Martiniano \|first14Rui \|last15Walsh \|first15Susan \|date15 April 2019 \|titleAncient genomes indicate population replacement in Early Neolithic Britain \|journalNature Ecology & Evolution \|languageen \|volume3 \|issue5 \|pages765–771 \|doi10.1038/s41559-019-0871-9 \|issn2397-334X \|pmc6520225 \|pmid30988490\|bibcode2019NatEE...3..765B }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Olalde \|first1Iñigo \|last2Mallick \|first2Swapan \|last3Patterson \|first3Nick \|last4Rohland \|first4Nadin \|last5Villalba-Mouco \|first5Vanessa \|last6Silva \|first6Marina \|last7Dulias \|first7Katharina \|last8Edwards \|first8Ceiridwen J. \|last9Gandini \|first9Francesca \|last10Pala \|first10Maria \|last11Soares \|first11Pedro \|last12Ferrando-Bernal \|first12Manuel \|last13Adamski \|first13Nicole \|last14Broomandkhoshbacht \|first14Nasreen \|last15Cheronet \|first15Olivia \|date15 March 2019 \|titleThe genomic history of the Iberian Peninsula over the past 8000 years \|journalScience \|languageen \|volume363 \|issue6432 \|pages1230–1234 \|doi10.1126/science.aav4040 \|issn0036-8075 \|pmc6436108 \|pmid30872528\|bibcode2019Sci...363.1230O }}</ref> as well as to the Maghreb.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Simões \|first1Luciana G. \|last2Günther \|first2Torsten \|last3Martínez-Sánchez \|first3Rafael M. \|last4Vera-Rodríguez \|first4Juan Carlos \|last5Iriarte \|first5Eneko \|last6Rodríguez-Varela \|first6Ricardo \|last7Bokbot \|first7Youssef \|last8Valdiosera \|first8Cristina \|last9Jakobsson \|first9Mattias \|date15 June 2023 \|titleNorthwest African Neolithic initiated by migrants from Iberia and Levant \|journalNature \|languageen \|volume618 \|issue7965 \|pages550–556 \|bibcode2023Natur.618..550S \|doi10.1038/s41586-023-06166-6 \|issn0028-0836 \|pmc10266975 \|pmid37286608}}</ref> Most modern Europeans derive a significant part of their ancestry from these Neolithic Anatolian farmers.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Allentoft \|first1Morten E. \|last2Sikora \|first2Martin \|last3Refoyo-Martínez \|first3Alba \|last4Irving-Pease \|first4Evan K. \|last5Fischer \|first5Anders \|last6Barrie \|first6William \|last7Ingason \|first7Andrés \|last8Stenderup \|first8Jesper \|last9Sjögren \|first9Karl-Göran \|last10Pearson \|first10Alice \|last11Sousa da Mota \|first11Bárbara \|last12Schulz Paulsson \|first12Bettina \|last13Halgren \|first13Alma \|last14Macleod \|first14Ruairidh \|last15Jørkov \|first15Marie Louise Schjellerup \|date11 January 2024 \|titlePopulation genomics of post-glacial western Eurasia \|journalNature \|languageen \|volume625 \|issue7994 \|pages301–311 \|doi10.1038/s41586-023-06865-0 \|issn0028-0836 \|pmc10781627 \|pmid38200295\|bibcode=2024Natur.625..301A }}</ref> Neolithic Anatolia has been proposed as the homeland of the Indo-European language family, although linguists tend to favour a later origin in the steppes north of the Black Sea. However, it is clear that the Anatolian languages, the earliest attested branch of Indo-European, have been spoken in Anatolia since at least the 19th century BCE.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleIndo-European Daughter Languages: Anatolian\|urlhttps://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesMiddEast/AnatoliaLanguage01.htm\|access-date26 January 2021\|websitewww.historyfiles.co.uk\|archive-date13 May 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210513212533/https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesMiddEast/AnatoliaLanguage01.htm\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|titleAnatolian languages\|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/Anatolian-languages\|access-date26 January 2021\|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica\|languageen\|archive-date6 September 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150906190429/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Anatolian-languages\|url-statuslive}}</ref>Ancient Anatolia {{Main\|List of ancient kingdoms of Anatolia\|Ancient regions of Anatolia}} The earliest historical data related to Anatolia appear during the Bronze Age and continue throughout the Iron Age. The most ancient period in the history of Anatolia spans from the emergence of ancient Hattians, up to the conquest of Anatolia by the Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BCE. Hattians and Hurrians {{main\|Hattians\|Hurrians}} The earliest historically attested populations of Anatolia were the Hattians in central Anatolia, and Hurrians further to the east. The Hattians were an indigenous people, whose main center was the city of Hattush. Affiliation of Hattian language remains unclear, while Hurrian language belongs to a distinctive family of Hurro-Urartian languages. All of those languages are extinct; relationships with indigenous languages of the Caucasus have been proposed,{{sfn\|Bryce\|2005\|p12}} but are not generally accepted. The region became famous for exporting raw materials. Organized trade between Anatolia and Mesopotamia started to emerge during the period of the Akkadian Empire, and was continued and intensified during the period of the Old Assyrian Empire, between the 21st and the 18th centuries BCE. Assyrian traders were bringing tin and textiles in exchange for copper, silver or gold. Cuneiform records, dated {{Circa\|20th century BCE}}, found in Anatolia at the Assyrian colony of Kanesh, use an advanced system of trading computations and credit lines.<ref name"Freeman">{{cite book\|lastFreeman\|firstCharles\|titleEgypt, Greece and Rome: Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean\|publisherOxford University Press \|year1999\|isbn978-0198721949}}</ref>{{sfn\|Akurgal\|2001\|p}}{{sfn\|Barjamovic\|2011\|p}} Hittite Anatolia (18th–12th centuries BCE) {{main\|Hittites}} ]] Unlike the Akkadians and Assyrians, whose Anatolian trading posts were peripheral to their core lands in Mesopotamia, the Hittites were centered at Hattusa (modern Boğazkale) in north-central Anatolia by the 17th century BCE. They were speakers of an Indo-European language, the Hittite language, or nesili (the language of Nesa) in Hittite. The Hittites originated from local ancient cultures that grew in Anatolia, in addition to the arrival of Indo-European languages. Attested for the first time in the Assyrian tablets of Nesa around 2000 BCE, they conquered Hattusa in the 18th century BCE, imposing themselves over Hattian- and Hurrian-speaking populations. According to the widely accepted Kurgan theory on the Proto-Indo-European homeland, however, the Hittites (along with the other Indo-European ancient Anatolians) were themselves relatively recent immigrants to Anatolia from the north. However, they did not necessarily displace the population genetically; they assimilated into the former peoples' culture, preserving the Hittite language. The Hittites adopted the Mesopotamian cuneiform script. In the Late Bronze Age, Hittite New Kingdom ({{circa\|1650 BCE}}) was founded, becoming an empire in the 14th century BCE after the conquest of Kizzuwatna in the south-east and the defeat of the Assuwa league in western Anatolia. The empire reached its height in the 13th century BCE, controlling much of Asia Minor, northwestern Syria, and northwest upper Mesopotamia. However, the Hittite advance toward the Black Sea coast was halted by the semi-nomadic pastoralist and tribal Kaskians, a non-Indo-European people who had earlier displaced the Palaic-speaking Indo-Europeans.<ref>Carruba, O. Das Palaische. Texte, Grammatik, Lexikon. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1970. StBoT 10</ref> Much of the history of the Hittite Empire concerned war with the rival empires of Egypt, Assyria and the Mitanni.<ref name="Roux">Georges Roux – Ancient Iraq</ref> The Ancient Egyptians eventually withdrew from the region after failing to gain the upper hand over the Hittites and becoming wary of the power of Assyria, which had destroyed the Mitanni Empire.<ref name"Roux"/> The Assyrians and Hittites were then left to battle over control of eastern and southern Anatolia and colonial territories in Syria. The Assyrians had better success than the Egyptians, annexing much Hittite (and Hurrian) territory in these regions.<ref name"Georges Roux 1966">Georges Roux, Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books, 1966. {{ISBN?}}</ref> Post-Hittite Anatolia (12th–6th centuries BCE) {{multiple image \| align = right \| direction = vertical \| width = 230 \| image1 = The_theatre_of_ancient_Halicarnassus,_built_in_the_4th_century_BC_during_the_reign_of_King_Mausolos_and_enlarged_in_the_2nd_century_AD,_the_original_capacity_of_the_theatre_was_10,000,_Bodrum,_Turkey_(16456817694).jpg\|245 \| caption1 The Theatre at Halicarnassus (modern Bodrum) was built in the 4th century BC by Mausolus, the Persian satrap (governor) of Caria. The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.<ref namehistory>{{cite web \| title History of the Past: World History \| url http://worldhistory.byethost8.com/}}</ref><ref nameseven>{{cite web \| title The Seven Wonders \| author Paul Lunde \| date May–June 1980 \| publisher Saudi Aramco World \| url http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198003/the.seven.wonders.htm \| access-date 12 September 2009 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20091013125703/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198003/the.seven.wonders.htm \| archive-date 13 October 2009 \| url-statusdead }}</ref> \| image2 = Ephesus_Celsus_Library_Façade.jpg\|245 \| caption2 The Library of Celsus in Ephesus was built by the Romans in 114–117.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.worldhistory.org/Celsus_Library/\|titleCelsus Library\|publisherWorld History Encyclopedia\|authorMark Cartwright\|access-date2 February 2017}}</ref> The Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, built by king Croesus of Lydia in the 6th century BC, was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.<ref>{{cite web\|titleThe Temple of Artemis at Ephesus: The Un-Greek Temple and Wonder\|urlhttps://www.worldhistory.org/article/128/\|websiteWorld History Encyclopedia\|access-date17 February 2017}}</ref> \| total_width \| alt1 }} After 1180 BCE, during the Late Bronze Age collapse, the Hittite Empire disintegrated into several independent Syro-Hittite states, subsequent to losing much territory to the Middle Assyrian Empire and being finally overrun by the Phrygians, another Indo-European people who are believed to have migrated from the Balkans. The Phrygian expansion into southeast Anatolia was eventually halted by the Assyrians, who controlled that region.<ref name="Georges Roux 1966"/> :Luwians Another Indo-European people, the Luwians, rose to prominence in central and western Anatolia {{circa\|2000}} BCE. Their language belonged to the same linguistic branch as Hittite.<ref>Melchert 2003</ref> The general consensus amongst scholars is that Luwian was spoken across a large area of western Anatolia, including (possibly) Wilusa (Troy), the Seha River Land (to be identified with the Hermos and/or Kaikos valley), and the kingdom of Mira-Kuwaliya with its core territory of the Maeander valley.<ref>Watkins 1994; id. 1995:144–51; Starke 1997; Melchert 2003; for the geography Hawkins 1998</ref> From the 9th century BCE, Luwian regions coalesced into a number of states such as Lydia, Caria, and Lycia, all of which had Hellenic influence. :Arameans Arameans encroached over the borders of south-central Anatolia in the century or so after the fall of the Hittite empire, and some of the Syro-Hittite states in this region became an amalgam of Hittites and Arameans. These became known as Syro-Hittite states. :Neo-Assyrian Empire ]] From the 10th to late 7th centuries BCE, much of Anatolia (particularly the southeastern regions) fell to the Neo-Assyrian Empire, including all of the Syro-Hittite states, Tabal, Commagene, the Cimmerians and Scythians, and swathes of Cappadocia. The Neo-Assyrian empire collapsed due to a bitter series of civil wars followed by a combined attack by Medes, Persians, Scythians and their own Babylonian relations. The last Assyrian city to fall was Harran in southeast Anatolia. This city was the birthplace of the last king of Babylon, the Assyrian Nabonidus and his son and regent Belshazzar. Much of the region then fell to the short-lived Iran-based Median Empire, with the Babylonians and Scythians briefly appropriating some territory. :Cimmerian and Scythian invasions From the late 8th century BCE, a new wave of Indo-European-speaking raiders entered northern and northeast Anatolia: the Cimmerians and Scythians. The Cimmerians overran Phrygia and the Scythians threatened to do the same to Urartu and Lydia, before both were finally checked by the Assyrians. :Early Greek presence {{multiple image \| align = right \| image1 = Afrodisias_-_Sebastión_-_Sebasteion.jpg \| width1 = 280 \| alt1 \| caption1 \| image2 = Tetrapilón_-_Afrodisias_-_02.jpg \| width2 = 180 \| alt2 \| caption2 \| footer = The Sebasteion (left) and Tetrapylon (right) in Aphrodisias of Caria, which was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage Site List in 2017. }} The north-western coast of Anatolia was inhabited by Greeks of the Achaean/Mycenaean culture from the 20th century BCE, related to the Greeks of southeastern Europe and the Aegean.<ref name"ReferenceA">Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times</ref> Beginning with the Bronze Age collapse at the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, the west coast of Anatolia was settled by Ionian Greeks, usurping the area of the related but earlier Mycenaean Greeks. Over several centuries, numerous Ancient Greek city-states were established on the coasts of Anatolia. Greeks started Western philosophy on the western coast of Anatolia (Pre-Socratic philosophy).<ref name"ReferenceA"/> Classical Anatolia {{main\|Classical Anatolia}} In Classical antiquity, Anatolia was described by the Ancient Greek historian Herodotus and later historians as divided into regions that were diverse in culture, language, and religious practices.<ref nameyavuz>{{Cite book\| publisher Oxford University Press\| isbn 978-0195170726\| last Yavuz\| first Mehmet Fatih\| title The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome\| chapter Anatolia\| access-date 5 December 2018\| date 2010\| chapter-url http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001/acref-9780195170726-e-61\| doi 10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001\| archive-date 6 December 2018\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20181206102239/http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001/acref-9780195170726-e-61\| url-status live}}</ref> The northern regions included Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and Pontus; to the west were Mysia, Lydia, and Caria; and Lycia, Pamphylia, and Cilicia belonged to the southern shore. There were also several inland regions: Phrygia, Cappadocia, Pisidia, and Galatia.<ref nameyavuz /> Languages spoken included the late surviving Anatolic languages, Isaurian,<ref>{{Cite book\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5geoDQAAQBAJ&qisaurian%20personal%20names&pgPT64\|titleViolence in Late Antiquity: Perceptions and Practices\|lastHoney\|firstLinda\|isbn978-1351875745\|page50\|chapterJustifiably Outraged or Simply Outrageous? The Isaurian Incident of Ammianus Marcellinus\|date5 December 2016\|publisherRoutledge \|access-date8 November 2020\|archive-date19 May 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220519052917/https://books.google.com/books?id5geoDQAAQBAJ&qisaurian%20personal%20names&pgPT64\|url-statuslive}}</ref> and Pisidian, Greek in western and coastal regions, Phrygian spoken until the 7th century CE,<ref>{{cite book\|last1Swain\|first1Simon\|last2Adams\|first2J. Maxwell\|last3Janse\|first3Mark\|titleBilingualism in Ancient Society: Language Contact and the Written Word\|publisherOxford University Press\|locationOxford [Oxfordshire]\|year2002 \|pages246–66\|isbn0199245061}}</ref> local variants of Thracian in the northwest, the Galatian variant of Gaulish in Galatia until the 6th century CE,<ref>Freeman, Philip, The Galatian Language, Edwin Mellen, 2001, pp. 11–12.</ref><ref>Clackson, James. "Language maintenance and language shift in the Mediterranean world during the Roman Empire." Multilingualism in the Graeco-Roman Worlds (2012): 36–57. p. 46: The second testimonium for the late survival of Galatian appears in the Life of Saint Euthymius, who died in ad 487.</ref><ref>Norton, Tom. [https://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/402/1/TOM%20NORTON.pdf] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181102201528/http://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/402/1/TOM%20NORTON.pdf\|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/402/1/TOM%20NORTON.pdf\|archive-date9 October 2022\|url-statuslive\|date=2 November 2018}} \| A question of identity: who were the Galatians?. University of Wales. p. 62: The final reference to Galatian comes two hundred years later in the sixth century CE when Cyril of Scythopolis attests that Galatian was still being spoken eight hundred years after the Galatians arrived in Asia Minor. Cyril tells of the temporary possession of a monk from Galatia by Satan and rendered speechless, but when he recovered he spoke only in his native Galatian when questioned: 'If he were pressed, he spoke only in Galatian'.180 After this, the rest is silence, and further archaeological or literary discoveries are awaited to see if Galatian survived any later. In this regard, the example of Crimean Gothic is instructive. It was presumed to have died out in the fifth century CE, but the discovery of a small corpus of the language dating from the sixteenth century altered this perception.</ref> Cappadocian in the homonymous region,<ref>J. Eric Cooper, Michael J. Decker, Life and Society in Byzantine Cappadocia {{ISBN\|0230361064}}, p. 14</ref> Armenian in the east, and Kartvelian languages in the northeast. Anatolia is known as the birthplace of minted coinage (as opposed to unminted coinage, which first appears in Mesopotamia at a much earlier date) as a medium of exchange, some time in the 7th century BCE in Lydia. The use of minted coins continued to flourish during the Greek and Roman eras.<ref>{{Cite book\|isbn978-0415089920\|lastHowgego\|firstC. J.\|titleAncient History from Coins\|author-linkChristopher Howgego\| year1995\|publisherRoutledge }}</ref><ref>[http://www.asiaminorcoins.com/ Asia Minor Coins] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200317151148/https://www.asiaminorcoins.com/ \|date=17 March 2020 }} – an index of Greek and Roman coins from Asia Minor (ancient Anatolia)</ref> During the 6th century BCE, all of Anatolia was conquered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire, the Persians having usurped the Medes as the dominant dynasty of Persia. In 499 BCE, the Ionian city-states on the west coast of Anatolia rebelled against Persian rule. The Ionian Revolt, as it became known, though quelled, initiated the Greco-Persian Wars, which ended in a Greek victory in 449 BCE, and the Ionian cities regained their independence. By the Peace of Antalcidas (387 BCE), which ended the Corinthian War, Persia regained control over Ionia.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Dandamaev \|first1M. A. \|author-link1Muhammad Dandamayev \|titleA Political History of the Achaemenid Empire \|date1989 \|publisherBrill \|isbn978-9004091726 \|page294}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia \| title ARTAXERXES II \| last Schmitt \| first R. \| author-link Rüdiger Schmitt \| url http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/artaxerxes-ii-achaemenid-king \| encyclopedia Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 6 \| pages 656–58 \| year 1986 \| access-date 21 April 2019 \| archive-date 9 April 2019 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20190409011010/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/artaxerxes-ii-achaemenid-king \| url-status live }}</ref> In 334 BCE, the Macedonian Greek king Alexander the Great conquered the Anatolian peninsula from the Achaemenid Persian Empire.<ref>{{cite book\|last1Roisman\|first1Joseph\|last2Worthington\|first2Ian\|titleA Companion to Ancient Macedonia\|publisherJohn Wiley and Sons\|year2010\|isbn978-1405179362\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlkYFVJ3U-BIC\|access-date20 June 2015\|archive-date16 April 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200416185650/https://books.google.com/books?idlkYFVJ3U-BIC\|url-status=live}}</ref> Alexander's conquest opened up the interior of Asia Minor to Greek settlement and influence. on Mount Nemrut (1st century BCE)]] Following the death of Alexander the Great and the subsequent breakup of the Macedonian Empire, Anatolia was ruled by a series of Hellenistic kingdoms, such as the Attalids of Pergamum and the Seleucids, the latter controlling most of Anatolia. A period of peaceful Hellenization followed, such that the local Anatolian languages had been supplanted by Greek by the 1st century BCE. In 133 BCE the last Attalid king bequeathed his kingdom to the Roman Republic; western and central Anatolia came under Roman control, but Hellenistic culture remained predominant. Mithridates VI Eupator, ruler of the Kingdom of Pontus in northern Anatolia, waged war against the Roman Republic in the year 88 BCE in order to halt the advance of Roman hegemony in the Aegean Sea region. Mithridates VI sought to dominate Asia Minor and the Black Sea region, waging several hard-fought but ultimately unsuccessful wars (the Mithridatic Wars) to break Roman dominion over Asia and the Hellenic world.<ref>"[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mithradates-VI-Eupator Mithradates VI Eupator]", Encyclopædia Britannica</ref> He has been called the greatest ruler of the Kingdom of Pontus.<ref>{{cite book\|lastHewsen\|firstRobert H.\|titleArmenian Pontus: The Trebizond-Black Sea Communities\|year2009\|publisherMazda Publishers, Inc.\|locationCosta Mesa, CA\|isbn978-1-56859-155-1\|pages41, 37–66\|editorRichard G. Hovannisian\|chapterArmenians on the Black Sea: The Province of Trebizond}}</ref> Further annexations by Rome, in particular of the Kingdom of Pontus by Pompey, brought all of Anatolia under Roman control, except for the southeastern frontier with the Parthian Empire, which remained unstable for centuries, causing a series of military conflicts that culminated in the Roman–Parthian Wars (54 BCE – 217 CE). Early Christian period {{Main\|Christianity as the Roman state religion\|Spread of Christianity}} {{Further\|Christianity in late antiquity\|Crisis of the Third Century}} in 117 CE at its greatest extent, at the time of Trajan's death.}} {{legend\|#d28989\|vassal states<ref>{{Cite book \|lastBennett, Julian \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqk_tofvS8EsC \|titleTrajan: Optimus Princeps : a Life and Times \|publisherRoutledge \|year1997 \|isbn=978-0-415-16524-2}}. Fig. 1. Regions east of the Euphrates river were held only in the years 116–117.</ref>}}]] ]] After the first division of the Roman Empire, Anatolia became part of the Eastern Roman Empire, otherwise known as the Byzantine Empire or Byzantium.<ref name"Niewöhner 2017">{{cite book \|author-lastNiewöhner \|author-firstPhilipp \|year2017 \|chapterChapter 3: Urbanism – The Archaeology of Byzantine Anatolia \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idcgUmDwAAQBAJ&pgPA39 \|editor-lastNiewöhner \|editor-firstPhilipp \|titleThe Archaeology of Byzantine Anatolia: From the End of Late Antiquity until the Coming of the Turks \|locationOxford and New York \|publisherOxford University Press \|pages39–59 \|doi10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190610463.003.0004 \|isbn9780190610487}}</ref> In the 1st century CE, Anatolia became one of the first places where Christianity spread, so that by the 4th century CE, western and central Anatolia were overwhelmingly Christian and Greek-speaking.<ref name="Niewöhner 2017"/> Byzantine Anatolia was one of the wealthiest and most densely populated places in the Later Roman Empire. Anatolia's wealth grew during the 4th and 5th centuries thanks, in part, to the Pilgrim's Road that ran through the peninsula. Literary evidence about the rural landscape stems from the Christian hagiographies of the 6th-century Nicholas of Sion and 7th-century Theodore of Sykeon. Large and prosperous urban centers of Byzantine Anatolia included Assos, Ephesus, Miletus, Nicaea, Pergamum, Priene, Sardis, and Aphrodisias.<ref name="Niewöhner 2017"/> From the mid-5th century onwards, urbanism was affected negatively and began to decline, while the rural areas reached unprecedented levels of prosperity in the region.<ref name"Niewöhner 2017"/> Historians and scholars continue to debate the cause of the urban decline in Byzantine Anatolia between the 6th and 7th centuries,<ref name"Niewöhner 2017"/> variously attributing it to the Plague of Justinian (541), the Byzantine–Sasanian War (602–628), and the Arab invasion of the Levant (634–638).<ref namethonemann>{{Cite book\| publisher Oxford University Press\| isbn 978-0198662778\| last Thonemann\| first Peter\| title The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity\| volume 1\| chapter Anatolia\| access-date 6 December 2018\| year 2018\| chapter-url http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-241\| doi 10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001\| archive-date 6 December 2018\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20181206102258/http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-241\| url-status live}}</ref>Medieval period {{further\|Byzantine Anatolia}} {{see also\|List of states in late medieval Anatolia}} and the Byzantine-Arab frontier zone in the mid-9th century]] In the 10 years following the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, the Seljuk Turks from Central Asia migrated over large areas of Anatolia, with particular concentrations around the northwestern rim.<ref>{{cite book \|titleThe Byzantine Empire 1025–1204 \|lastAngold \|firstMichael \|year1997 \|isbn978-0582294684 \|page117\|publisherLongman }}</ref> The Turkish language and the Islamic religion were gradually introduced as a result of the Seljuk conquest, and this period marks the start of Anatolia's slow transition from predominantly Christian and Greek-speaking, to predominantly Muslim and Turkish-speaking (although ethnic groups such as Armenians, Greeks, and Assyrians remained numerous and retained Christianity and their native languages). In the following century, the Byzantines managed to reassert their control in western and northern Anatolia. Control of Anatolia was then split between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm, with the Byzantine holdings gradually being reduced.<ref nameBalyuzi/> in Asia Minor (11th–13th century)]] In 1255, the Mongols swept through eastern and central Anatolia, and would remain until 1335. The Ilkhanate garrison was stationed near Ankara.<ref name=Balyuzi>H. M. Balyuzi Muḥammad and the course of Islám, p. 342</ref><ref>John Freely Storm on Horseback: The Seljuk Warriors of Turkey, p. 83</ref> After the decline of the Ilkhanate from 1335 to 1353, the Mongol Empire's legacy in the region was the Uyghur Eretna Dynasty that was overthrown by Kadi Burhan al-Din in 1381.<ref>Clifford Edmund Bosworth-The new Islamic dynasties: a chronological and genealogical manual, p. 234</ref> By the end of the 14th century, most of Anatolia was controlled by various Anatolian beyliks. Smyrna fell in 1330, and the last Byzantine stronghold in Anatolia, Philadelphia, fell in 1390. The Turkmen Beyliks were under the control of the Mongols, at least nominally, through declining Seljuk sultans.<ref>Mehmet Fuat Köprülü, Gary Leiser-The origins of the Ottoman Empire, p. 33</ref><ref>Peter Partner God of battles: holy wars of Christianity and Islam, p. 122</ref> The Beyliks did not mint coins in the names of their own leaders while they remained under the suzerainty of the Mongol Ilkhanids.<ref>''Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire, p. 13</ref> The Osmanli ruler Osman I was the first Turkish ruler who minted coins in his own name in 1320s; they bear the legend "Minted by Osman son of Ertugrul".<ref>Artuk – Osmanli Beyliginin Kurucusu, 27f</ref> Since the minting of coins was a prerogative accorded in Islamic practice only to a sovereign, it can be considered that the Osmanli, or Ottoman Turks, had become formally independent from the Mongol Khans.<ref>Pamuk – A Monetary History'', pp. 30–31</ref> Ottoman Empire {{further\|Ottoman Empire}} between 1359 and 1683]] Among the Turkish leaders, the Ottomans emerged as great power under Osman I and his son Orhan.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia\|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Osman-I\|titleOsman I {{!}} Ottoman sultan\|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica\|access-date23 April 2018\|archive-date24 April 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180424073731/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Osman-I\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia\|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Orhan\|titleOrhan {{!}} Ottoman sultan\|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica\|access-date23 April 2018\|archive-date10 March 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180310140006/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Orhan\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The Anatolian beyliks were successively absorbed into the rising Ottoman Empire during the 15th century.<ref>{{Cite book\|chapter-urlhttps://www.cambridge.org/core/books/new-cambridge-history-of-islam/rise-of-the-ottomans/015D10BC98EA8A2D69B29D54AC7241CC\|titleThe rise of the Ottomans (Chapter 11) – The New Cambridge History of Islam\|pages313–31\|lastFleet\|firstKate\|publisherCambridge Core\|languageen\|access-date23 April 2018\|doi10.1017/CHOL9780521839570.013\|chapterThe rise of the Ottomans\|year2010\|isbn978-1139056151\|archive-date24 April 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180424071602/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/new-cambridge-history-of-islam/rise-of-the-ottomans/015D10BC98EA8A2D69B29D54AC7241CC\|url-statuslive}}</ref> It is not well understood how the Osmanlı, or Ottoman Turks, came to dominate their neighbours, as the history of medieval Anatolia is still little known.<ref>{{cite book \|lastFinkel \|firstCaroline \|titleOsman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9cTHyUQoTyUC&pgPA5 \|year2007 \|publisherBasic Books \|isbn978-0465008506 \|page5 \|access-date6 June 2013 \|archive-date2 January 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140102002603/http://books.google.com/books?id9cTHyUQoTyUC&pgPA5 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The Ottomans completed the conquest of the peninsula in 1517 with the taking of Halicarnassus (modern Bodrum) from the Knights of Saint John.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/halicarnassus\|titleHalicarnassus \|websiteEncyclopaedia Iranica \|orig-date15 December 2003 \|date1 March 2012 \|first1Bruno \|last1Genito \|access-date23 April 2018\|archive-date24 April 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180424071811/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/halicarnassus\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Modern times {{further\|History of Turkey}} With the acceleration of the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century, and as a result of the expansionist policies of the Russian Empire in the Caucasus, many Muslim nations and groups in that region, mainly Circassians, Tatars, Azeris, Lezgis, Chechens and several Turkic groups left their homelands and settled in Anatolia. As the Ottoman Empire further shrank in the Balkan regions and then fragmented during the Balkan Wars, much of the non-Christian populations of its former possessions, mainly Balkan Muslims (Bosniaks, Albanians, Turks, Muslim Bulgarians and Greek Muslims such as the Vallahades from Greek Macedonia), were resettled in various parts of Anatolia, mostly in formerly Christian villages throughout Anatolia. .]] A continuous reverse migration occurred since the early 19th century, when Greeks from Anatolia, Constantinople and Pontus area migrated toward the newly independent Kingdom of Greece, and also towards the United States, the southern part of the Russian Empire, Latin America, and the rest of Europe. ]] Following the Russo-Persian Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828) and the incorporation of Eastern Armenia into the Russian Empire, another migration involved the large Armenian population of Anatolia, which recorded significant migration rates from Western Armenia (Eastern Anatolia) toward the Russian Empire, especially toward its newly established Armenian provinces.<ref name"Swietochowski Borderland">{{cite book \|lastSwietochowski \|firstTadeusz \|author-linkTadeusz Swietochowski \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idFfRYRwAACAAJ&qRussia+and+Iran+in+the+great+game:+travelogues+and+orientalism \|titleRussia and Azerbaijan: A Borderland in Transition \|publisherColumbia University Press \|year1995 \|isbn978-0-231-07068-3 \|pages69, 133}}</ref> Anatolia remained multi-ethnic until the early 20th century (see the rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire). During World War I, the Armenian genocide, the Greek genocide (especially in Pontus), and the Assyrian genocide almost entirely removed the ancient indigenous communities of Armenian, Greek, and Assyrian populations in Anatolia and surrounding regions. Following the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, most remaining ethnic Anatolian Greeks were forced out during the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey. Of the remainder, most have left Turkey since then, leaving fewer than 5,000 Greeks in Anatolia today.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2023-09-07 \|titleThe uncertain future of Greeks in Turkey \|urlhttps://www.economist.com/europe/2023/09/07/the-uncertain-future-of-greeks-in-turkey#selection-1030.0-1030.1 \|access-date2024-09-03 \|websitearchive.is \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20230907151019/https://www.economist.com/europe/2023/09/07/the-uncertain-future-of-greeks-in-turkey#selection-1030.0-1030.1 \|archive-date2023-09-07}}</ref> According to Morris and Ze'evi, 4 million Christians were ethnically cleansed from Asia minor by the Turks from 1894 to 1924.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Morris \|first1Benny \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTHSPDwAAQBAJ&qBenny+Morris+the+thirty+year+genocide \|titleThe Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924 \|last2Ze'evi \|first2Dror \|date2019-04-24 \|publisherHarvard University Press \|isbn978-0-674-91645-6 \|pages3 \|languageen}}</ref> Geology ]] Anatolia's terrain is structurally complex. A central massif composed of uplifted blocks and downfolded troughs, covered by recent deposits and giving the appearance of a plateau with rough terrain, is wedged between two folded mountain ranges that converge in the east. True lowland is confined to a few narrow coastal strips along the Aegean, Mediterranean, and the Black Sea coasts. Flat or gently sloping land is rare and largely confined to the deltas of the Kızıl River, the coastal plains of Çukurova and the valley floors of the Gediz River and the Büyük Menderes River as well as some interior high plains in Anatolia, mainly around Lake Tuz (Salt Lake) and the Konya Basin (Konya Ovasi). There are two mountain ranges in southern Anatolia: the Taurus and the Zagros mountains.<ref namewiley>{{Cite book\| publisher John Wiley & Sons\| isbn 978-1118945018\| last1 Cemen\| first1 Ibrahim\| last2 Yilmaz\| first2 Yucel\| title Active Global Seismology: Neotectonics and Earthquake Potential of the Eastern Mediterranean Region\| year2017}}</ref>Climate {{Main\|Climate of Turkey}} <gallery caption"Temperatures of Anatolia" widths"180px"> File:Klima_ankara.png\|Ankara (central Anatolia) File:Klima_antalya.png\|Antalya (southern Anatolia) File:Klima_van.png\|Van (eastern Anatolia) </gallery> Anatolia has a varied range of climates. The central plateau is characterized by a continental climate, with hot summers and cold snowy winters. The south and west coasts enjoy a typical Mediterranean climate, with mild rainy winters, and warm dry summers.<ref nameProthero19>{{cite book\|lastProthero\|firstW.G.\|titleAnatolia\|year1920\|publisherH.M. Stationery Office\|locationLondon\|urlhttp://www.wdl.org/en/item/11766/view/1/19/\|access-date6 September 2013\|archive-date2 November 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131102025925/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11766/view/1/19/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The Black Sea and Marmara coasts have a temperate oceanic climate, with warm, foggy summers and much rainfall throughout the year. Ecoregions is prevalent in the Turkish Riviera]] There is a diverse number of plant and animal communities. The mountains and coastal plain of northern Anatolia experience a humid and mild climate. There are temperate broadleaf, mixed and coniferous forests. The central and eastern plateau, with its drier continental climate, has deciduous forests and forest steppes. Western and southern Anatolia, which have a Mediterranean climate, contain Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub ecoregions. * Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests: These temperate broadleaf and mixed forests extend across northern Anatolia, lying between the mountains of northern Anatolia and the Black Sea. They include the enclaves of temperate rainforest lying along the southeastern coast of the Black Sea in eastern Turkey and Georgia.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion\|idpa0422\|nameEuxine-Colchic deciduous forests\|access-date=25 May 2008}}</ref> * Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests: These forests occupy the mountains of northern Anatolia, running east and west between the coastal Euxine-Colchic forests and the drier, continental climate forests of central and eastern Anatolia.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion\|idpa0515\|nameNorthern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests\|access-date=25 May 2008}}</ref> * Central Anatolian deciduous forests: These forests of deciduous oaks and evergreen pines cover the plateau of central Anatolia.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion\|idpa0410\|nameCentral Anatolian deciduous forests\|access-date=25 May 2008}}</ref> * Central Anatolian steppe: These dry grasslands cover the drier valleys and surround the saline lakes of central Anatolia, and include halophytic (salt tolerant) plant communities.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion\|nameCentral Anatolian steppe\|access-date25 May 2008\|id=pa0803}}</ref> in the Black Sea Region of northern Anatolia, Turkey]] * Eastern Anatolian deciduous forests: This ecoregion occupies the plateau of eastern Anatolia. The drier and more continental climate is beneficial for steppe-forests dominated by deciduous oaks, with areas of shrubland, montane forest, and valley forest.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion\|idpa0420\|nameEastern Anatolian deciduous forests\|access-date=25 May 2008}}</ref> * Anatolian conifer and deciduous mixed forests: These forests occupy the western, Mediterranean-climate portion of the Anatolian plateau. Pine forests and mixed pine and oak woodlands and shrublands are predominant.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion\|nameAnatolian conifer and deciduous mixed forests\|access-date25 May 2008\|id=pa1202}}</ref> * Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests: These Mediterranean-climate forests occupy the coastal lowlands and valleys of western Anatolia bordering the Aegean Sea. The ecoregion has forests of Turkish pine (Pinus brutia), oak forests and woodlands, and maquis shrubland of Turkish pine and evergreen sclerophyllous trees and shrubs, including Olive (Olea europaea), Strawberry Tree (Arbutus unedo), Arbutus andrachne, Kermes Oak (Quercus coccifera), and Bay Laurel (Laurus nobilis).<ref>{{WWF ecoregion\|nameAegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests\|access-date25 May 2008\|id=pa1201}}</ref> * Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests: These mountain forests occupy the Mediterranean-climate Taurus Mountains of southern Anatolia. Conifer forests are predominant, chiefly Anatolian black pine (Pinus nigra), Cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus libani), Taurus fir (Abies cilicica), and juniper (Juniperus foetidissima and J. excelsa). Broadleaf trees include oaks, hornbeam, and maples.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion\|nameSouthern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests\|access-date25 May 2008\|id=pa1220}}</ref> * Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests: This ecoregion occupies the coastal strip of southern Anatolia between the Taurus Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea. Plant communities include broadleaf sclerophyllous maquis shrublands, forests of Aleppo Pine (Pinus halepensis) and Turkish Pine (Pinus brutia), and dry oak (Quercus spp.) woodlands and steppes.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion\|idpa1207\|nameEastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests\|access-date25 May 2008}}</ref>Demographics {{Main\|Demographics of Turkey}} The largest cities in Anatolia (aside from the Asian side of Istanbul) are Ankara, İzmir, Bursa, Antalya, Konya, Adana, İzmit, Mersin, Manisa, Kayseri, Samsun, Balıkesir, Kahramanmaraş, Aydın, Adapazarı, Denizli, Muğla, Eskişehir, Trabzon, Ordu, Afyonkarahisar, Sivas, Tokat, Zonguldak, Kütahya, Çanakkale, Osmaniye and Çorum. All have populations of more than 500,000.{{Citation needed\|dateMay 2022}}See also {{Portal\|Turkey}} {{div col\|colwidth=10em}} * Aeolis * Anatolian hypothesis * Anatolianism * Anatolian leopard * Anatolian Plate * Anatolian Shepherd * Ancient kingdoms of Anatolia * Antigonid dynasty * Doris (Asia Minor) * Empire of Nicaea * Empire of Trebizond * Gordium * Lycaonia * Midas * Miletus * Myra * Pentarchy * Pontic Greeks * Rumi * Saint Anatolia * Saint John * Saint Nicholas * Saint Paul * Seleucid Empire * Seven churches of Asia * Seven Sleepers * Tarsus * Troad * Turkic migration {{div col end}} Explanatory notes {{Notelist}} References Citations {{Reflist}} Sources {{refbegin}} * {{cite book \|lastAkurgal \|firstEkrem \|author-linkEkrem Akurgal \|titleThe Hattian and Hittite Civilizations \|year2001 \|locationAnkara \|publisherMinistry of Culture \|isbn978-9751727565 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIZ1tAAAAMAAJ \|access-date7 January 2021 \|archive-date28 April 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210428164117/https://books.google.com/books?idIZ1tAAAAMAAJ \|url-status=live }} * {{cite book \|lastBarjamovic \|firstGojko \|author-linkGojko Barjamovic \|titleA Historical Geography of Anatolia in the Old Assyrian Colony Period \|year2011 \|locationCopenhagen \|publisherMuseum Tusculanum Press \|isbn978-8763536455 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhB9feN_sbx4C \|access-date7 January 2021 \|archive-date28 April 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210428164116/https://books.google.com/books?idhB9feN_sbx4C \|url-status=live }} * {{cite book \|lastBryce \|firstTrevor R. \|author-linkTrevor R. Bryce \|titleThe Kingdom of the Hittites \|year2005 \|orig-year1998 \|edition2nd revised \|locationNew York \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0199279081 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHMHmCwAAQBAJ \|access-date7 January 2021 \|archive-date5 May 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210505123630/https://books.google.com/books?idHMHmCwAAQBAJ \|url-status=live }} * {{cite book \|lastBryce \|firstTrevor R. \|author-linkTrevor R. Bryce \|titleThe Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the fall of the Persian Empire \|year2009 \|locationLondon & New York \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn978-1134159079 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAwwNS0diXP4C }} * {{cite book \| editor-last1Cohen \| editor-first1Saul B. \| titleThe Columbia Gazetteer of the World: Volume 1 A to G \| publisherColumbia University Press \|edition2nd \| year2008 \| isbn978-0-231-14554-1 \| oclc212893637}} * {{cite book \| lastComrie \| firstBernard \| editor-first1Bernard \| editor-last1Comrie \| titleThe World's Major Languages \| publisherRoutledge \| date2018 \|edition3rd \| isbn978-0-19-506511-4 \|doi10.4324/9781315644936}} * {{cite book \| lastHoward \| firstDouglas A. \| titleThe History of Turkey \| publisherGreenwood \| publication-placeSanta Barbara, California \| year2016 \| isbn978-1-4408-3466-0 \|edition2nd}} * {{cite book \| lastMcColl \| firstR. W. \| titleEncyclopedia of World Geography \| publisherFacts On File \| year2014 \| isbn978-0-8160-7229-3}} * {{cite book \|last1Steadman \|first1Sharon R. \|last2McMahon \|first2Gregory \|year2011 \|title The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia:(10,000–323 BCE) \|publisherOxford University Press Inc. \|isbn978-0195376142 \|doi10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.001.0001 \|hdl11693/51311 \|editor1-lastMcMahon \|editor1-firstGregory \|editor2-lastSteadman \|editor2-firstSharon }} * {{cite book \| editor-last1Tockner \| editor-first1Klement \| editor-last2Uehlinger \| editor-first2Urs \| editor-last3Robinson \| editor-first3Christopher T. \| titleRivers of Europe \| publisherAcademic Press \| year2009 \| isbn978-0-08-091908-9 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idGDmX5XKkQCcC}} * {{cite report \|ref{{harvid\|KONDA\|2006}} \|urlhttp://www.konda.com.tr/tr/raporlar/2006_09_KONDA_Toplumsal_Yapi.pdf \|titleToplumsal Yapı Araştırması 2006 \|date2006 \|publisherKONDA Research and Consultancy \|access-date21 February 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170215004933/http://www.konda.com.tr/tr/raporlar/2006_09_KONDA_Toplumsal_Yapi.pdf \|archive-date15 February 2017}} {{refend}} Further reading {{Library resources box \|byno\|onlinebooksyes \|othersyes \|aboutyes \|labelAnatolia \|viaf \|lcheading\|wikititle }} Akat, Yücel, Neşe Özgünel, and Aynur Durukan. 1991. Anatolia: A World Heritage. Ankara: Kültür Bakanliǧi. Brewster, Harry. 1993. Classical Anatolia: The Glory of Hellenism. London: I. B. Tauris. Donbaz, Veysel, and Şemsi Güner. 1995. The Royal Roads of Anatolia. Istanbul: Dünya. Dusinberre, Elspeth R. M. 2013. Empire, Authority, and Autonomy In Achaemenid Anatolia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gates, Charles, Jacques Morin, and Thomas Zimmermann. 2009. Sacred Landscapes In Anatolia and Neighboring Regions. Oxford: Archaeopress. Mikasa, Takahito, ed. 1999. Essays On Ancient Anatolia. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. Takaoğlu, Turan. 2004. Ethnoarchaeological Investigations In Rural Anatolia. İstanbul: Ege Yayınları. Taracha, Piotr. 2009. Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. Taymaz, Tuncay, Y. Yilmaz, and Yildirim Dilek. 2007. The Geodynamics of the Aegean and Anatolia. London: Geological Society. External links {{Commons category-inline}} {{Navboxes \|list = {{Turkey topics}} {{Regions of the world}} {{Peninsulas of Turkey}} }} {{Authority control}} Category:Ancient Greek geography Category:Geography of the Middle East Category:Historical regions in Turkey Category:Peninsulas of Asia Category:Peninsulas of Turkey Category:Physiographic provinces Category:Regions of Asia Category:Regions of Turkey	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolia	2025-04-05T18:25:24.441338
856	Apple Inc.	{{Short description\|American multinational technology company}} {{Redirect\|Apple (company)\|other companies with the same name\|Apple (disambiguation)#Businesses and organisations}} {{Pp-semi-indef}} {{Use American English\|date=June 2024}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=September 2024}} {{Infobox company \| name = Apple Inc. \| logo \| logo_caption Apple logo used since 1998 \| image = Aerial view of Apple Park dllu.jpg \| image_upright = 1.15 \| image_caption = Aerial view of Apple Park in Cupertino, California \| former_name = {{Unbulleted list \| Apple Computer Company (1976–1977) \| Apple Computer, Inc. (1977–2007) }} \| type = Public \| traded_as = {{Unbulleted list \| {{NASDAQ\|AAPL}} \| Nasdaq-100 component \| DJIA component \| S&P 100 component \| S&P 500 component}} \| ISIN {{ISIN\|sln\|pl=y\|US0378331005}} \| industry = {{Unbulleted list \| Consumer electronics \| Software services \| Online services }} \| founded = {{Start date and age\|1976\|04\|01}}, in Los Altos, California, U.S. \| founders = {{Unbulleted list \| Steve Jobs \| Steve Wozniak \| Ronald Wayne}} \| hq_location = 1 Apple Park Way \| hq_location_city = {{nowrap\|Cupertino, California}} \| hq_location_country = U.S. \| num_locations = 535 Apple Stores \| num_locations_year = 2025 \| area_served = Worldwide \| key_people = {{Unbulleted list \| Tim Cook (CEO) \| Arthur Levinson (chairman) }} \| products = <!-- This list is not comprehensive, but rather a representative selection of the company's well-known products --> {{flatlist\| * AirPods * Apple TV * Apple Watch * iPad * iPhone * Mac }} \| brands \| services <!-- This list is not comprehensive, but rather a representative selection of the company's well-known services --> {{flatlist\| * App Store * Apple Card * Apple Music * Apple Pay * Apple TV+ * iCloud }} \| revenue {{increase}} {{US$\|391 billion\|linkyes}} \| revenue_year = FY24 \| operating_income = {{increase}} {{US$\|123 billion}} \| income_year = FY24 \| net_income = {{decrease}} {{US$\|94 billion}} \| net_income_year = FY24 \| assets = {{increase}} {{US$\|365 billion}} \| assets_year = FY24 \| equity = {{decrease}} {{US$\|57 billion}} \| equity_year = FY24 \| num_employees = 164,000 \| num_employees_year = FY24 \| subsid = {{Unbulleted list \| Apple Studios \| Beats Electronics \| Beddit \| Braeburn Capital \| Claris \| Globalstar (20%) }} \| website = {{url\|https://www.apple.com/\|apple.com}} \| footnotes Financials {{as of\|2024\|9\|28\|dfUS\|prefiscal year ended\|lcy}}.<br />References:<ref name"Apple-10-K-Report-2024">{{Cite web \|dateNovember 1, 2024 \|titleApple 10-K Report FY2024 \|urlhttps://www.sec.gov/ix?doc/Archives/edgar/data/0000320193/000032019324000123/aapl-20240928.htm \|access-dateNovember 1, 2024}}</ref><ref name"storelist" /><ref>[https://businesssearch.sos.ca.gov/Document/RetrievePDF?Id00806592-5959973 Certificate of Amendment of Articles of Incorporation] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200926125141/https://businesssearch.sos.ca.gov/Document/RetrievePDF?Id00806592-5959973 \|dateSeptember 26, 2020 }}, November 17, 1977. California Secretary of State</ref><ref>[https://businesssearch.sos.ca.gov/Document/RetrievePDF?Id00806592-6322847 Certificate of Ownership] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210217170421/https://businesssearch.sos.ca.gov/Document/RetrievePDF?Id00806592-6322847 \|date=February 17, 2021 }}, January 9, 2007. California Secretary of State.</ref> \| module {{infobox network service provider\|childyes\|asn=714}} }} <!--Brief intro-->Apple Inc. is an American multinational corporation and technology company headquartered in Cupertino, California, in Silicon Valley. It is best known for its consumer electronics, software, and services. Founded in 1976 as Apple Computer Company by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak and Ronald Wayne, the company was incorporated by Jobs and Wozniak as Apple Computer, Inc. the following year. It was renamed Apple Inc. in 2007 as the company had expanded its focus from computers to consumer electronics. Apple is the largest technology company by revenue, with {{US$\|391.04}}{{nbsp}}billion in the 2024 fiscal year.<!--END Brief intro; do not overload this section, keep it brief and simple.--> <!--Notable history & products-->The company was founded to produce and market Wozniak's Apple I personal computer. Its second computer, the Apple II, became a best seller as one of the first mass-produced microcomputers. Apple introduced the Lisa in 1983 and the Macintosh in 1984, as some of the first computers to use a graphical user interface and a mouse. By 1985, internal company problems led to Jobs leaving to form NeXT, Inc., and Wozniak withdrawing to other ventures; John Sculley served as long-time CEO for over a decade. In the 1990s, Apple lost considerable market share in the personal computer industry to the lower-priced Wintel duopoly of the Microsoft Windows operating system on Intel-powered PC clones. In 1997, Apple was weeks away from bankruptcy. To resolve its failed operating system strategy, it bought NeXT, effectively bringing Jobs back to the company, who guided Apple back to profitability over the next decade with the introductions of the iMac, iPod, iPhone, and iPad devices to critical acclaim as well as the iTunes Store, launching the "Think different" advertising campaign, and opening the Apple Store retail chain. These moves elevated Apple to consistently be one of the world's most valuable brands since about 2010. Jobs resigned in 2011 for health reasons, and died two months later; he was succeeded as CEO by Tim Cook.<!--END Notable history & products--> <!--Current products & status-->Apple's product lineup includes portable and home hardware such as the iPhone, iPad, Apple Watch, Mac, and Apple TV; operating systems such as iOS, iPadOS, and macOS; and various software and services including Apple Pay, iCloud, and multimedia streaming services like Apple Music and Apple TV+. Apple is one of the Big Five American information technology companies;{{Efn\|Alongside Alphabet (the parent company of Google), Amazon, Meta (the parent company of Facebook), and Microsoft}} for the most part since 2011,{{efn\|Except when Microsoft briefly held the position between January and June 2024<ref>{{Cite news \|titleMicrosoft Tops Apple to Become Most Valuable Public Company – The New York Times \|workThe New York Times \|dateJanuary 12, 2024 \|access-dateFebruary 21, 2024 \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/12/technology/microsoft-apple-most-valuable-company.html\|archive-dateJanuary 31, 2024\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240131175132/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/12/technology/microsoft-apple-most-valuable-company.html\|url-statuslive \|last1Mickle \|first1Tripp \|last2Weise \|first2Karen}}</ref><ref name":69">{{Cite web \|titleLargest Companies by Market Cap \|urlhttps://companiesmarketcap.com/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210414112804/https://companiesmarketcap.com/ \|archive-dateApril 14, 2021 \|access-dateMarch 17, 2024 \|websiteCompaniesMarketcap.com}}</ref><ref name":5">{{Cite web \|lastwww.ETTelecom.com \|titleApple overtakes Microsoft to return as world's most valuable company – ET Telecom \|urlhttps://telecom.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/devices/apple-overtakes-microsoft-to-return-as-worlds-most-valuable-company/110945302 \|access-dateJune 12, 2024 \|websiteETTelecom.com \|languageen}}</ref>}} Apple has been the world's largest company by market capitalization, and, {{As of\|2023\|lcy}}, is the largest manufacturing company by revenue, the fourth-largest personal computer vendor by unit sales, the largest vendor of tablet computers, and the largest vendor of mobile phones in the world. Apple became the first publicly traded U.S. company to be valued at over $1&nbsp;trillion in 2018, and, {{As of\|2024\|12\|lc=y}}, is valued at just over $3.74&nbsp;trillion.<!--END Current products & status--> <!--Public image-->Apple has received criticism regarding its contractors' labor practices, its relationship with trade unions, its environmental practices, and its business ethics, including anti-competitive practices and materials sourcing. Nevertheless, the company has a large following and enjoys a high level of brand loyalty.<!--END Public image--> <!--Do NOT add more than 4 paragraphs.--> History {{Main\|History of Apple Inc.}} 1976–1980: Founding and incorporation {{See also\|History of Apple Inc.#1971–1985: Jobs and Wozniak}} and Steve Wozniak co-founded Apple in Jobs's parents' home on Crist Drive in Los Altos, California.{{Sfn\|Linzmayer\|2004\|pages6–8}} Wozniak called the popular belief that the company was founded in the garage "a bit of a myth",<ref>{{Cite web \|lastGibbs \|firstSamuel \|dateDecember 5, 2014 \|titleSteve Wozniak: Apple starting in a garage is a myth \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/dec/05/steve-wozniak-apple-starting-in-a-garage-is-a-myth \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150425011132/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/dec/05/steve-wozniak-apple-starting-in-a-garage-is-a-myth \|archive-dateApril 25, 2015 \|access-dateNovember 12, 2019 \|websiteThe Guardian}}</ref> although they moved some operations to the garage when the bedroom became too crowded.<ref name"Linzmayer01">{{Cite news \|lastLinzmayer \|firstOwen W. \|titleApple Confidential: The Real Story of Apple Computer, Inc \|workThe Denver Post \|urlhttp://extras.denverpost.com/books/chap0411h.htm \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120414125259/http://extras.denverpost.com/books/chap0411h.htm \|archive-date=April 14, 2012}}</ref>]] is Apple's first product, designed by Wozniak and sold as an assembled circuit board without the required keyboard, monitor, power supply, and the optional case.]] Apple Computer Company was founded on April 1, 1976, by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne as a partnership.{{Sfn\|Linzmayer\|2004\|pages6–8}}<ref>{{Cite news \|lastWilliams \|firstRhiannon \|dateApril 1, 2015 \|titleApple celebrates 39th year on April 1 \|workThe Telegraph \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/apple/11507451/Apple-celebrates-39th-year-on-April-1.html \|url-statuslive \|url-accesssubscription \|access-dateJuly 9, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/apple/11507451/Apple-celebrates-39th-year-on-April-1.html \|archive-dateJanuary 10, 2022}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The company's first product is the Apple I, a computer designed and hand-built entirely by Wozniak.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateSeptember 28, 2006 \|titleApple co-founder tells his side of the story \|urlhttps://www.smh.com.au/news/laptops--desktops/wozniak-tells-his-side-of-the-story/2006/09/28/1159337270259.html \|access-dateJuly 9, 2017 \|websiteThe Sydney Morning Herald \|archive-dateJuly 3, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170703154618/http://www.smh.com.au/news/laptops--desktops/wozniak-tells-his-side-of-the-story/2006/09/28/1159337270259.html \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite news \|titleA Chat with Computing Pioneer Steve Wozniak \|urlhttps://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId6167297 \|websiteNPR \|dateSeptember 29, 2006 \|access-dateJuly 9, 2017 \|archive-dateMarch 27, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190327091333/https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId6167297 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> To finance its creation, Jobs sold his Volkswagen Bus, and Wozniak sold his HP-65 calculator.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastIsaacson \|firstWalter \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id26ev_abfrU8C \|titleSteve Jobs: The Exclusive Biography \|dateOctober 24, 2011 \|publisherLittle, Brown Book Group \|isbn978-0-7481-3132-7 \|languageen}}</ref>{{Rp\|page57}} Neither received the full selling price but in total earned {{US$\|1300\|1976\|longno\|round-2}}. Wozniak debuted the first prototype {{nowrap\|Apple I}} at the Homebrew Computer Club in July 1976.<ref>{{Harvnb\|O'Grady\|2009\|pages2–3}}; {{Cite web \|titleThe Homebrew Computer Club \|urlhttp://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/personal-computers/17/312 \|access-dateJuly 9, 2017 \|publisherComputer History Museum \|archive-dateMarch 27, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190327102109/https://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/personal-computers/17/312 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The Apple I was sold as a motherboard with CPU, RAM, and basic textual-video chips—a base kit concept which was not yet marketed as a complete personal computer.<ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastKahney \|firstLeander \|dateNovember 19, 2002 \|titleRebuilding an Apple From the Past \|languageen-US \|magazineWired \|urlhttps://www.wired.com/2002/12/56426/ \|access-dateNovember 7, 2022 \|issn1059-1028 \|archive-dateNovember 7, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221107195134/https://www.wired.com/2002/12/56426/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> It was priced soon after debut for {{US$\|666.66\|1976\|round-2\|longno}}.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/7091190.stm \|workBBC News \|titleBuilding the digital age \|access-dateJanuary 19, 2008 \|dateNovember 15, 2007 \|archive-dateNovember 28, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171128173707/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/7091190.stm \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|titleApple I \|urlhttp://staging.computerhistory.org/exhibits/highlights/apple1.shtml \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070326115844/http://staging.computerhistory.org/exhibits/highlights/apple1.shtml \|archive-dateMarch 26, 2007 \|access-dateJanuary 19, 2008 \|publisherComputer History Museum}}; [https://web.archive.org/web/20170204212503/http://www.g4tv.com/gamemakers/episodes/3781/Apple_II.html Game Makers (TV Show)]: Apple II. Originally aired January 6, 2005; {{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.macmothership.com/gallery/newads7/1976apple1.jpg \|titlePicture of original ad featuring US666.66 price\|access-dateJanuary 21, 2008\|archive-dateJanuary 15, 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200115222510/http://www.macmothership.com/gallery/newads7/1976apple1.jpg\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"iWoz">{{Cite book \|last1Wozniak \|first1Steve \|titleiWoz: Computer Geek to Cult Icon: How I Invented the Personal Computer, Co-Founded Apple, and Had Fun Doing It \|title-linkiWoz: Computer Geek to Cult Icon: How I Invented the Personal Computer, Co-Founded Apple, and Had Fun Doing It \|last2Smith \|first2Gina \|publisherW. W. Norton & Company \|year2006 \|isbn978-0-393-06143-7 \|oclc502898652 \|author-linkSteve Wozniak \|author-link2Gina Smith (author)}}</ref>{{Rp\|180}} Wozniak later said he was unaware of the coincidental mark of the beast in the number 666, and that he came up with the price because he liked "repeating digits".<ref name"VintageNews">{{Cite news \|lastBlazeski \|firstGoran \|dateNovember 25, 2017 \|titleApple-1, Steve Wozniak's hand-built creation, was Apple's first official product, priced at $666.66 \|workThe Vintage News \|urlhttps://www.thevintagenews.com/2017/11/25/apples-first-official-product-was-priced-at-666-66 \|access-dateNovember 24, 2019 \|archive-dateJuly 26, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200726090158/https://www.thevintagenews.com/2017/11/25/apples-first-official-product-was-priced-at-666-66/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Apple Computer, Inc. was incorporated in Cupertino, California,<ref name"Apple-10-K-Report-2024" /> on January 3, 1977,{{Sfn\|Linzmayer\|2004\|page10}}<ref name"Apple FAQ">{{Cite web \|titleFrequently Asked Questions \|urlhttps://investor.apple.com/faq/default.aspx \|access-dateJanuary 19, 2020 \|publisherApple Inc. \|archive-dateMarch 12, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200312205405/https://investor.apple.com/faq/default.aspx \|url-statuslive}}</ref> without Wayne, who had left and sold his share of the company back to Jobs and Wozniak for $800 only twelve days after having co-founded it.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastLuo \|firstBenny \|dateSeptember 12, 2013 \|titleRonald Wayne: On Co-founding Apple and Working With Steve Jobs \|urlhttps://nextshark.com/ronald-wayne-interview \|access-dateJuly 9, 2017 \|websiteNext Shark \|archive-dateMarch 30, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190330085628/https://nextshark.com/ronald-wayne-interview \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|firstDan \|lastSimon \|titleThe gambling man who co-founded Apple and left for $800 \|urlhttp://edition.cnn.com/2010/TECH/web/06/24/apple.forgotten.founder/index.html \|publisherCNN \|dateJune 24, 2010 \|access-dateJuly 9, 2017 \|archive-dateApril 10, 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140410065148/http://edition.cnn.com/2010/TECH/web/06/24/apple.forgotten.founder/index.html?hptC1&fbidlG95iTlU4iD \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Multimillionaire Mike Markkula provided essential business expertise and funding of {{US$\|250000\|1977\|round-3\|longno}} to Jobs and Wozniak during the incorporation of Apple.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateJanuary 6, 1998 \|titleApple chronology \|urlhttps://money.cnn.com/1998/01/06/technology/apple_chrono \|access-dateMay 2, 2017 \|publisherCNNMoney \|archive-dateMay 25, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170525081036/http://money.cnn.com/1998/01/06/technology/apple_chrono/ \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|firstBen \|lastGilbert \|titleWhere are the first 10 Apple employees today? \|urlhttp://www.businessinsider.com/the-first-10-apple-employees-2016-12 \|websiteBusiness Insider \|dateDecember 26, 2016 \|access-dateMay 2, 2017 \|archive-dateMarch 30, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190330085628/https://www.businessinsider.com/the-first-10-apple-employees-2016-12 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> During the first five years of operations, revenues grew exponentially, doubling about every four months. Between September 1977 and September 1980, yearly sales grew from $775,000 to {{US$\|118}}{{nbsp}}million, an average annual growth rate of 533%.<ref>Infinite Loop {{Cite book\|author-linkMichael S. Malone \|firstMichael S. \|lastMalone \|year1999 \|titleInfinite loop: how the world's most insanely great computer company went insane \|isbn978-0-385-48684-2 \|oclc971131326 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/infiniteloophoww00malo \|locationNew York \|publisherCurrency/Doubleday \|page157}}; {{Cite web \|lastMcCracken \|firstHarry \|dateApril 1, 2016 \|titleApple's sales grew 150x between 1977–1980 \|urlhttps://news.fastcompany.com/apples-sales-grew-150x-between-1977-1980-4001956 \|access-dateMay 2, 2017 \|websiteFast Company \|archive-dateMay 25, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170525081616/https://news.fastcompany.com/apples-sales-grew-150x-between-1977-1980-4001956 \|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Apple II, also designed by Wozniak, was introduced on April 16, 1977, at the first West Coast Computer Faire.{{Sfn\|Linzmayer\|2004\|page12}} It differs from its major rivals, the TRS-80 and Commodore PET, because of its character cell-based color graphics and open architecture. The Apple I and early Apple II models use ordinary audio cassette tapes as storage devices, which were superseded by the {{Frac\|5\|1\|4}}-inch floppy disk drive and interface called the Disk II in 1978.{{Sfn\|Linzmayer\|2004\|pages13–15}}<ref>{{Cite web \|lastWeyhrich \|firstSteven \|dateApril 21, 2002 \|titleApple II History Chapter 4 \|urlhttp://apple2history.org/history/ah04 \|access-dateAugust 18, 2008 \|archive-dateAugust 1, 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100801191644/http://apple2history.org/history/ah04/ \|url-status=live}}</ref> , introduced in 1977 and designed primarily by Wozniak, was the company's first major success.]] The Apple II was chosen to be the desktop platform for the first killer application of the business world: VisiCalc, a spreadsheet program released in 1979.{{Sfn\|Linzmayer\|2004\|pages13–15}} VisiCalc created a business market for the Apple II and gave home users an additional reason to buy an Apple II: compatibility with the office,{{Sfn\|Linzmayer\|2004\|pages13–15}} but Apple II market share remained behind home computers made by competitors such as Atari, Commodore, and Tandy.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastBagnall \|firstBrian \|titleOn the Edge: The Spectacular Rise and Fall of Commodore \|publisherVariant Press \|year2005 \|isbn978-0-9738649-0-8 \|pages109–112}}; [http://www.jeremyreimer.com/total_share.html Personal Computer Market Share: 1975–2004] {{Webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120606003537/http://www.jeremyreimer.com/total_share.html \|dateJune 6, 2012}} The figures show Mac higher, but that is not a single model.</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://arstechnica.com/features/2005/12/total-share/ \|titleTotal share: 30 years of personal computer market share figures \|firstJeremy \|lastReimer \|dateDecember 15, 2005 \|websiteArs Technica \|accessdateSeptember 1, 2023\|archive-dateJune 7, 2012\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120607023023/http://arstechnica.com/features/2005/12/total-share/\|url-status=live}}</ref> On December 12, 1980, Apple (ticker symbol "AAPL") went public selling 4.6 million shares at $22 per share ($.10 per share when adjusting for stock splits {{As of\|2022\|09\|03\|lcy\|dfUS}}),<ref name"Apple FAQ" /> generating over $100&nbsp;million, which was more capital than any IPO since Ford Motor Company in 1956.<ref name"EDNAAPLSTOCK">{{Cite web \|lastDeffree \|firstSuzanne \|dateDecember 12, 2018 \|titleApple IPO makes instant millionaires, December 12, 1980 \|urlhttps://www.edn.com/electronics-blogs/edn-moments/4403276/Apple-IPO-makes-instant-millionaires--December-12--1980 \|access-dateMay 16, 2019 \|archive-dateJune 10, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190610002442/https://www.edn.com/electronics-blogs/edn-moments/4403276/Apple-IPO-makes-instant-millionaires--December-12--1980 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> By the end of the day, around 300&nbsp;millionaires were created, including Jobs and Wozniak, from a stock price of $29 per share<ref name"DEDIPO">{{Cite web \|lastDilger \|firstDaniel Eran \|dateDecember 12, 2013 \|titleApple, Inc. stock IPO created 300 millionaires 33 years ago today \|urlhttp://appleinsider.com/articles/13/12/12/apple-inc-stock-ipo-created-300-millionaires-33-years-ago-today \|access-dateApril 18, 2017 \|websiteAppleInsider \|archive-dateMarch 30, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190330102914/https://appleinsider.com/articles/13/12/12/apple-inc-stock-ipo-created-300-millionaires-33-years-ago-today \|url-statuslive}}</ref> and a market cap of $1.778&nbsp;billion.<ref name"EDNAAPLSTOCK" /><ref name"DEDIPO" /> 1980–1990: Success with Macintosh {{See also\|List of Mac models\|Timeline of the Apple II family}} in 1984 with the Macintosh, the first mass-market personal computer to feature an integral graphical user interface and mouse]] In December 1979, Steve Jobs and Apple employees, including Jef Raskin, visited Xerox PARC, where they observed the Xerox Alto, featuring a graphical user interface (GUI). Apple subsequently negotiated access to PARC's technology, leading to Apple's option to buy shares at a preferential rate. This visit influenced Jobs to implement a GUI in Apple's products, starting with the Apple Lisa. Despite being pioneering as a mass-marketed GUI computer, the Lisa suffered from high costs and limited software options, leading to commercial failure. Jobs, angered by being pushed off the Lisa team, took over the company's Macintosh division. Wozniak and Raskin had envisioned the Macintosh as a low-cost computer with a text-based interface like the Apple II, but a plane crash in 1981 forced Wozniak to step back from the project. Jobs quickly redefined the Macintosh as a graphical system that would be cheaper than the Lisa, undercutting his former division.<ref name"TheVerge">{{Cite web \|dateJune 27, 2013 \|titleSteve Wozniak on Newton, Tesla, and why the original Macintosh was a 'lousy' product \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2013/6/27/4468314/steve-wozniak-on-how-the-newton-changed-his-life \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160312014832/http://www.theverge.com/2013/6/27/4468314/steve-wozniak-on-how-the-newton-changed-his-life \|archive-dateMarch 12, 2016 \|access-dateJune 25, 2018}}</ref> Jobs was also hostile to the Apple II division, which at the time, generated most of the company's revenue.<ref name"rice19850415" /> In 1984, Apple launched the Macintosh, the first personal computer without a bundled programming language.<ref name"IsProgramingObsolete">{{Cite web \|lastHarvey \|firstBrian \|date1994 \|titleIs Programing Obsolete? \|urlhttp://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/~bh/obsolete.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131005000323/http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/~bh/obsolete.html \|archive-dateOctober 5, 2013 \|access-dateJune 14, 2013 \|publisherElectrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley}}</ref> Its debut was signified by "1984", a {{US$\|1.5}}{{nbsp}}million television advertisement directed by Ridley Scott that aired during the third quarter of Super Bowl XVIII on January 22, 1984.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastFriedman \|firstTed \|titleApple's 1984: The Introduction of the Macintosh in the Cultural History of Personal Computers \|urlhttp://www.duke.edu/~tlove/mac.htm \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121014051705/http://www.duke.edu/~tlove/mac.htm \|archive-dateOctober 14, 2012}}</ref> This was hailed as a watershed event for Apple's success<ref>{{Cite news \|lastManey \|firstKevin \|dateJanuary 28, 2004 \|titleApple's '1984' Super Bowl commercial still stands as watershed event \|workUSA Today \|urlhttps://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/columnist/kevinmaney/2004-01-28-maney_x.htm \|access-dateApril 18, 2017 \|archive-dateMarch 13, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180313054828/https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/columnist/kevinmaney/2004-01-28-maney_x.htm \|url-statuslive}}</ref> and was called a "masterpiece" by CNN<ref>{{Cite web \|lastLeopold \|firstTodd \|dateFebruary 3, 2006 \|titleWhy 2006 isn't like '1984' \|urlhttp://edition.cnn.com/2006/SHOWBIZ/02/02/eye.ent.commercials \|access-dateApril 18, 2017 \|publisherCNN \|archive-dateApril 5, 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140405133016/http://edition.cnn.com/2006/SHOWBIZ/02/02/eye.ent.commercials \|url-statuslive}}</ref> and one of the greatest TV advertisements of all time by TV Guide.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateOctober 12, 1999 \|titleThe greatest commercials of all time \|urlhttps://www.tvguide.com/tv/magazine/990628/ftr6.asp \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/19991012071246/http://www.tvguide.com/tv/magazine/990628/ftr6.asp \|archive-dateOctober 12, 1999 \|access-dateApril 18, 2017 \|websiteTV Guide}}; {{Cite web \|firstAaron \|lastTaube \|titleHow The Greatest Super Bowl Ad Ever – Apple's '1984' – Almost Didn't Make It To Air \|urlhttp://www.businessinsider.com/apple-super-bowl-retrospective-2014-1 \|websiteBusiness Insider \|dateJanuary 22, 2014 \|access-dateApril 18, 2017 \|archive-dateMarch 30, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190330104642/https://www.businessinsider.com/apple-super-bowl-retrospective-2014-1 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The advertisement created great interest in Macintosh, and sales were initially good, but began to taper off dramatically after the first three months as reviews started to come in. Jobs had required {{nowrap\|128 kilobytes}} of RAM, which limited its speed and software in favor of aspiring for a projected price point of {{US$\|1000\|1984\|round-2\|longno}}. The Macintosh shipped for {{US$\|2495\|1984\|round-2\|longno}}, a price panned by critics due to its slow performance.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Linzmayer\|2004\|page98}}; {{Harvnb\|Swaine\|2014\|pages441–443}}; {{Cite book \|lastIsaacson \|firstWalter \|titleSteve Jobs \|title-linkSteve Jobs (book) \|publisherSimon and Schuster \|year2015 \|isbn978-1-5011-2762-5}} pp. 186–187; {{Cite book \|firstAndy \|lastHertzfeld \|year2005 \|titleRevolution in The Valley: The Insanely Great Story of How the Mac Was Made \|publisherO'Reilly Media \|isbn978-0-596-00719-5}}</ref>{{Rp\|195}} In early 1985, this sales slump triggered a power struggle between Steve Jobs and CEO John Sculley, who had been hired away from Pepsi two years earlier by Jobs<ref>{{Harvnb\|Linzmayer\|2004\|page156}}; {{Harvnb\|Isaacson\|2015\|pages153–154}}</ref> saying, "Do you want to sell sugar water for the rest of your life or come with me and change the world?"<ref>{{Cite web \|lastGallo \|firstCarmine \|dateJanuary 22, 2014 \|titleHow Steve Jobs And Bill Gates Inspired John Sculley To Pursue The 'Noble Cause \|urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/carminegallo/2016/11/12/how-steve-jobs-and-bill-gates-inspired-john-sculley-to-pursue-the-noble-cause/#9eaee3232bd5 \|access-dateMarch 31, 2019 \|websiteForbes \|archive-dateMarch 31, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190331065556/https://www.forbes.com/sites/carminegallo/2016/11/12/how-steve-jobs-and-bill-gates-inspired-john-sculley-to-pursue-the-noble-cause/#9eaee3232bd5 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Sculley removed Jobs as the head of the Macintosh division, with unanimous support from the Apple board of directors.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Schlender \|first1Brent \|titleBecoming Steve Jobs: The Evolution of a Reckless Upstart into a Visionary Leader \|last2Tetzeli \|first2Rick \|date2016 \|publisherCrown Business; Reprint edition \|isbn978-0-385-34742-6 \|ref{{harvid\|Schlender\|2016}} \|pages87–92}}; {{Harvnb\|Linzmayer\|2004\|page156}}</ref> The board of directors instructed Sculley to contain Jobs and his ability to launch expensive forays into untested products. Rather than submit to Sculley's direction, Jobs attempted to oust him from leadership.{{Sfn\|Linzmayer\|2004\|pages156–157}} Jean-Louis Gassée informed Sculley that Jobs had been attempting to organize a boardroom coup and called an emergency meeting at which Apple's executive staff sided with Sculley and stripped Jobs of all operational duties.{{Sfn\|Linzmayer\|2004\|pages156–157}} Jobs resigned from Apple in September 1985 and took several Apple employees with him to found NeXT.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastSpector \|firstG \|dateSeptember 24, 1985 \|titleApple's Jobs Starts New Firm, Targets Education Market \|page109 \|workPC Week}}</ref> Wozniak had also quit his active employment at Apple earlier in 1985 to pursue other ventures, expressing his frustration with Apple's treatment of the Apple II division and stating that the company had "been going in the wrong direction for the last five years".<ref name"rice19850415">{{Cite news \|lastRice \|firstValerie \|dateApril 15, 1985 \|titleUnrecognized Apple II Employees Exit \|page35 \|workInfoWorld \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idzC4EAAAAMBAJ&pgPA35 \|access-dateNovember 6, 2017 \|archive-dateMarch 1, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230301054845/https://books.google.com/books?idzC4EAAAAMBAJ&pgPA35 \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"wozemployee">{{Cite news \|dateJanuary 3, 2018 \|titleI Never Left Apple \|languageen-US \|workOffally Woz \|urlhttp://woz.org/letters/never-left-apple \|access-dateOctober 2, 2018 \|archive-dateOctober 2, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181002215223/http://woz.org/letters/never-left-apple/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|titleCNN.com Video \|workCNN \|urlhttp://www.cnn.com/video/?/video/bestoftv/2011/08/25/exp.piers.wozniak.jobs.reaction.cnn \|access-dateMarch 27, 2019 \|archive-dateFebruary 3, 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140203113642/http://www.cnn.com/video/?%2Fvideo%2Fbestoftv%2F2011%2F08%2F25%2Fexp.piers.wozniak.jobs.reaction.cnn \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Wozniak remained employed by Apple as a representative,<ref name"wozemployee" /> receiving a stipend estimated to be $120,000 per year.<ref name"iWoz" /> Jobs and Wozniak remained Apple shareholders following their departures.<ref name"wozstock">[http://www.fool.com/research/2000/features000302.htm Apple's Other Steve (Stock Research)] {{Webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061019134707/http://www.fool.com/research/2000/features000302.htm \|date October 19, 2006}} March 2, 2000, The Motley Fool.</ref> After the departures of Jobs and Wozniak in 1985, Sculley launched the Macintosh 512K that year with quadruple the RAM, and introduced the LaserWriter, the first reasonably priced PostScript laser printer. PageMaker, an early desktop publishing application taking advantage of the PostScript language, was also released by Aldus Corporation in July 1985.{{Sfn\|Linzmayer\|2004\|pages158–159}} It has been suggested that the combination of Macintosh, LaserWriter, and PageMaker was responsible for the creation of the desktop publishing market.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleThe History of Desktop Publishing \|urlhttps://www.lifewire.com/when-was-desktop-publishing-invented-1073863 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210227131823/https://www.lifewire.com/when-was-desktop-publishing-invented-1073863 \|archive-dateFebruary 27, 2021 \|access-dateApril 30, 2007 \|publisherLifewire}}</ref> This dominant position in the desktop publishing market<ref>{{Cite book \|lastSwaine \|firstMichael \|titleFire in the Valley: The Birth and Death of the Personal Computer \|publisherPragmatic Bookshelf \|year2014 \|isbn978-1-68050-352-4}} pp. 359–363</ref> allowed the company to focus on higher price points, the so-called "high-right policy" named for the position on a chart of price vs. profits. Newer models selling at higher price points offered higher profit margin, and appeared to have no effect on total sales as power users snapped up every increase in speed. Although some worried about pricing themselves out of the market, the high-right policy was in full force by the mid-1980s, due to Jean-Louis Gassée's slogan of "fifty-five or die", referring to the 55% profit margins of the Macintosh II.<ref name"insidestoryCarlton">{{Cite book \|lastCarlton \|firstJim \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/appleinsidestory00carl \|titleApple: The inside story of intrigue, egomania, and business blunders \|publisherRandom House \|year1997 \|isbn978-0-8129-2851-8 \|location=New York}}</ref>{{Rp\|79–80}} This policy began to backfire late in the decade as desktop publishing programs appeared on IBM PC compatibles with some of the same functionality of the Macintosh at far lower price points. The company lost its dominant position in the desktop publishing market and estranged many of its original consumer customer base who could no longer afford Apple products. The Christmas season of 1989 was the first in the company's history to have declining sales, which led to a 20% drop in Apple's stock price.<ref name"insidestoryCarlton" />{{Rp\|117–129}} During this period, the relationship between Sculley and Gassée deteriorated, leading Sculley to effectively demote Gassée in January 1990 by appointing Michael Spindler as the chief operating officer.{{Sfn\|Linzmayer\|2004\|page184–185}} Gassée left the company later that year to set up a rival, Be Inc.{{Sfn\|Linzmayer\|2004\|page160}} 1990–1997: Decline and restructuring ]] The company pivoted strategy and, in October 1990, introduced three lower-cost models: the Macintosh Classic, the Macintosh LC, and the Macintosh IIsi, all of which generated significant sales due to pent-up demand.{{Sfn\|Linzmayer\|2004\|page=128}} In 1991, Apple introduced the hugely successful PowerBook with a design that set the current shape for almost all modern laptops. The same year, Apple introduced System 7, a major upgrade to the Macintosh operating system, adding color to the interface and introducing new networking capabilities. The success of the lower-cost Macs and PowerBook brought increasing revenue.<ref name"lemsculley">{{Cite web \|lastHormby \|firstThomas \|dateFebruary 22, 2006 \|titleGrowing Apple with the Macintosh: The Sculley years \|urlhttp://lowendmac.com/orchard/06/john-sculley-years-apple.html \|access-dateMarch 2, 2007 \|websiteLow End Mac \|archive-dateMarch 25, 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140325231124/http://lowendmac.com/orchard/06/john-sculley-years-apple.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> For some time, Apple was doing very well, introducing fresh new products at increasing profits. The magazine MacAddict named the period between 1989 and 1991 as the "first golden age" of the Macintosh.<ref>{{Cite magazine \|dateJanuary 2004 \|titleMacAddict \|urlhttps://archive.org/stream/MacAddict-089-200401/MacAddict-089-200401-BobKiwi-v1_djvu.txt \|magazineMacAddict \|issue89 \|access-dateApril 1, 2017}}</ref> is Apple's first tablet computer prototype, created in 1992 to bring the Mac OS to a tablet. It was canceled in favor of the Newton.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleExclusive: New pics of Apple's unreleased tablet prototype from 1992 – and the Mac that flew on the Space Shuttle \|urlhttp://www.stuff.tv/news/exclusive-new-pics-apples-unreleased-tablet-prototype-1992-and-mac-flew-space-shuttle \|access-dateApril 14, 2016 \|publisherstuff.tv \|archive-dateMarch 31, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190331081051/https://www.stuff.tv/news/exclusive-new-pics-apples-unreleased-tablet-prototype-1992-and-mac-flew-space-shuttle \|url-statuslive}}</ref>]] The success of lower-cost consumer Macs, especially the LC, cannibalized higher-priced machines. To address this, management introduced several new brands, selling largely identical machines at different price points, for different markets: the high-end Quadra series, the mid-range Centris series, and the consumer-marketed Performa series. This led to significant consumer confusion between so many models.<ref name"vawperforma">{{Cite web \|titleMacintosh Performa \|urlhttp://www.vectronicsappleworld.com/profiles/performa.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130419164519/http://www.vectronicsappleworld.com/profiles/performa.html \|archive-dateApril 19, 2013 \|access-dateNovember 29, 2010 \|publisher=Vectronics Apple World}}</ref> In 1993, the Apple II series was discontinued. It was expensive to produce, and the company decided it was still absorbing sales from lower-cost Macintosh models. After the launch of the LC, Apple encouraged developers to create applications for Macintosh rather than Apple II, and authorized salespersons to redirect consumers from Apple II and toward Macintosh.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateJuly 10, 2002 \|titleThe Apple IIGS, Cont \|urlhttp://apple2history.org/history/ah11.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080912044443/http://apple2history.org/history/ah11.html \|archive-dateSeptember 12, 2008 \|access-dateJuly 8, 2017 \|websiteApple II History}}</ref> The Apple IIe was discontinued in 1993.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastEdwards \|firstBenj \|dateJanuary 18, 2013 \|title30 years of the Apple Lisa and the Apple IIe \|urlhttps://www.macworld.com/article/2025408/30-years-of-the-apple-lisa-and-the-apple-iie.html \|access-dateJuly 8, 2017 \|websiteMacworld \|publisherInternational Data Group \|archive-dateAugust 19, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200819175606/https://www.macworld.com/article/2025408/30-years-of-the-apple-lisa-and-the-apple-iie.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Apple experimented with several other unsuccessful consumer targeted products during the 1990s, including QuickTake digital cameras, PowerCD portable CD audio players, speakers, the Pippin video game console, the eWorld online service, and Apple Interactive Television Box. Enormous resources were invested in the problematic Newton tablet division, based on John Sculley's unrealistic market forecasts.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastHuddleston \|firstTom Jr. \|dateJanuary 12, 2021 \|titleFrom Atari's 'Pong' console to the first CD player and Xbox: 10 of the biggest tech products to debut at Las Vegas' famous Consumer Electronics Show \|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2021/01/12/biggest-tech-products-to-debut-at-ces-over-the-years.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210218151001/https://www.cnbc.com/2021/01/12/biggest-tech-products-to-debut-at-ces-over-the-years.html \|archive-dateFebruary 18, 2021 \|access-dateMay 10, 2021 \|websiteCNBC \|language=en-US}}</ref> Throughout this period, Microsoft continued to gain market share with Windows by focusing on delivering software to inexpensive personal computers, while Apple was delivering a richly engineered but expensive experience.<ref>{{Cite web \|title1990–1995: Why the World Went Windows \|urlhttp://www.roughlydrafted.com/RD/Q4.06/3EC02E78-FD4D-4CDF-92A0-9C4CBDFAB3D2.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120104160236/http://www.roughlydrafted.com/RD/Q4.06/3EC02E78-FD4D-4CDF-92A0-9C4CBDFAB3D2.html \|archive-dateJanuary 4, 2012 \|access-dateAugust 12, 2008 \|websiteRoughly Drafted}}</ref> Apple relied on high profit margins and never developed a clear response; it sued Microsoft for making a GUI similar to the Lisa in Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corp.<ref name"lemms">Hormby, Thomas. [http://lowendmac.com/orchard/06/apple-vs-microsoft.html The Apple vs. Microsoft GUI lawsuit] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080304145809/http://lowendmac.com/orchard/06/apple-vs-microsoft.html \|dateMarch 4, 2008 }}, Low End Mac, August 25, 2006. Retrieved March 2, 2007.</ref> The lawsuit dragged on for years and was finally dismissed. The major product flops and the rapid loss of market share to Windows sullied Apple's reputation, and in 1993 Sculley was replaced as CEO by Michael Spindler.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMichael Spindler: The Peter Principle at Apple \|urlhttp://lowendmac.com/orchard/06/michael-spindler-apple.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080908030156/http://lowendmac.com/orchard//06/michael-spindler-apple.html \|archive-dateSeptember 8, 2008 \|access-dateAugust 12, 2008}}</ref> , introduced in 1994, was Apple's first new home computer model after the switch to PowerPC processors.]] Under Spindler, Apple, IBM, and Motorola formed the AIM alliance in 1994 to create a new computing platform (the PowerPC Reference Platform or PReP), with IBM and Motorola hardware coupled with Apple software. The AIM alliance hoped that PReP's performance and Apple's software would leave the PC far behind and thus counter the dominance of Windows. That year, Apple introduced the Power Macintosh, the first of many computers with Motorola's PowerPC processor.<ref>{{Cite web \|titlePower Macintosh 6100 \|urlhttp://www.apple-history.com/body.php?pagegallery&model6100&performaoff&sortdate&orderASC&range \|access-dateAugust 12, 2008 \|archive-dateSeptember 11, 2007 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070911010221/http://www.apple-history.com/body.php?pagegallery \|url-status=live}}</ref> In the wake of the alliance, Apple opened up to the idea of allowing Motorola and other companies to build Macintosh clones. Over the next two years, 75 distinct Macintosh clone models were introduced. However, by 1996, Apple executives were worried that the clones were cannibalizing sales of its own high-end computers, where profit margins were highest.{{sfn\|Linzmayer\|2004\|pp[https://books.google.com/books?idmXnw5tM8QRwC&pg=PA254 254–256]}} In 1996, Spindler was replaced as CEO by Gil Amelio, who was hired for his reputation as a corporate rehabilitator. Amelio made deep changes, including extensive layoffs and cost-cutting.<ref>Chaffin, Bryan. [http://www.macobserver.com/article/2001/02/06.13.shtml "Former Apple CEO Gil Amelio Lands A New CEO Job \| The Mac Observer"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171128173134/https://www.macobserver.com/article/2001/02/06.13.shtml \|dateNovember 28, 2017 }}, The Mac Observer, February 6, 2001. Retrieved August 15, 2008.</ref> This period was also marked by numerous failed attempts to modernize the Macintosh operating system (MacOS). The original Macintosh operating system (System 1) was not built for multitasking (running several applications at once). The company attempted to correct this by introducing cooperative multitasking in System 5, but still decided it needed a more modern approach.<ref>{{Cite web \|title1990–1995: Hitting the Wall \|urlhttp://www.roughlydrafted.com/RD/Home/B8DA34A3-333B-4204-BDF3-E74608998702.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080924063130/http://www.roughlydrafted.com/RD/Home/B8DA34A3-333B-4204-BDF3-E74608998702.html \|archive-dateSeptember 24, 2008 \|access-dateAugust 14, 2008 \|websiteRoughly Drafted}}</ref> This led to the Pink project in 1988, A/UX that same year, Copland in 1994, and evaluated the purchase of BeOS in 1996. Talks with Be stalled when the CEO, former Apple executive Jean-Louis Gassée, demanded $300&nbsp;million in contrast to Apple's $125&nbsp;million offer.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastTom \|firstHormby \|dateAugust 10, 2013 \|titleThe Rise and Fall of Apple's Gil Amelio \|urlhttp://lowendmac.com/2013/the-rise-and-fall-of-apples-gil-amelio \|access-dateMarch 28, 2015 \|websiteLow End Mac \|publisherCobweb Publishing, Inc. \|archive-dateMarch 29, 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150329041618/http://lowendmac.com/2013/the-rise-and-fall-of-apples-gil-amelio/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Only weeks away from bankruptcy,<ref>{{Cite web \|lastThompson \|firstBen \|author-linkBen Thompson (writer) \|dateFebruary 5, 2018 \|titleApple's Middle Age \|urlhttps://stratechery.com/2018/apples-middle-age \|access-dateMarch 31, 2019 \|websiteStratechery \|archive-dateMarch 31, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190331171319/https://stratechery.com/2018/apples-middle-age/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Apple's board preferred NeXTSTEP and purchased NeXT in late 1996 for $400&nbsp;million, retaining Steve Jobs.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastKawamoto \|firstDawn \|dateDecember 20, 1996 \|titleApple acquires Next, Jobs \|urlhttps://www.cnet.com/tech/tech-industry/apple-acquires-next-jobs/ \|access-dateOctober 26, 2022 \|websiteCNET \|languageen \|archive-dateJune 6, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220606093742/https://www.cnet.com/tech/tech-industry/apple-acquires-next-jobs/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> 1997–2007: Return to profitability The NeXT acquisition was finalized on February 9, 1997,<ref name"archive">{{Webarchive \|url https://web.archive.org/web//product.info.apple.com/pr/press.releases/1997/q2/970207.pr.rel.next.html \|date \|titleApple Computer, Inc. Finalizes Acquisition of NeXT Software Inc.}}, Apple Inc., February 7, 1997. Retrieved June 25, 2006.</ref> and the board brought Jobs back to Apple as an advisor. On July 9, 1997, Jobs staged a boardroom coup that resulted in Amelio's resignation after overseeing a three-year record-low stock price and crippling financial losses. The board named Jobs as interim CEO and he immediately reviewed the product lineup. Jobs canceled 70% of models, ending 3,000 jobs and paring to the core of its computer offerings.<ref name"Entrepreneur20111027">{{Cite web \|lastFell \|firstJason \|dateOctober 27, 2011 \|titleHow Steve Jobs Saved Apple \|urlhttps://www.entrepreneur.com/article/220604 \|access-dateJanuary 24, 2022 \|websiteEntrepreneur \|languageen \|archive-dateJanuary 24, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220124054654/https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/220604 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The next month, in August 1997, Steve Jobs convinced Microsoft to make a $150&nbsp;million investment in Apple and a commitment to continue developing Mac software.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Chrasekaran \|first1Rajiv \|last2Shannon \|first2Victoria \|dateAugust 7, 1997 \|titleStruggling Apple gets boost from Microsoft \|newspaperThe Washington Post \|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1997/08/07/struggling-apple-gets-boost-from-microsoft/41cfacec-5ec8-413b-a967-dd0f98a7c1e7/ \|access-dateJanuary 24, 2022 \|archive-dateJanuary 19, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230119143823/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1997/08/07/struggling-apple-gets-boost-from-microsoft/41cfacec-5ec8-413b-a967-dd0f98a7c1e7/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> This was seen as an "antitrust insurance policy" for Microsoft which had recently settled with the Department of Justice over anti-competitive practices in the United States v. Microsoft Corp. case.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastYoung \|firstSteve \|dateAugust 8, 1997 \|titleApple bailout questioned \|workCNN Money \|urlhttps://money.cnn.com/1997/08/08/technology/apple_microsoft_pkg/ \|access-dateJanuary 24, 2022 \|archive-dateJanuary 24, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220124054636/https://money.cnn.com/1997/08/08/technology/apple_microsoft_pkg/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Around then, Jobs donated Apple's internal library and archives to Stanford University, to focus more on the present and the future rather than the past.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateDecember 29, 2011 \|titleStanford archives offer look into Apple history \|urlhttps://www.engadget.com/2011-12-29-stanford-archives-offer-look-into-apple-history.html \|access-dateJanuary 18, 2024 \|websiteYahoo Finance \|languageen-US \|archive-dateJanuary 18, 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240118204645/https://www.engadget.com/2011-12-29-stanford-archives-offer-look-into-apple-history.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|dateDecember 29, 2011 \|titleApple's origins stored in secret Stanford archive \|urlhttps://www.seattletimes.com/business/apples-origins-stored-in-secret-stanford-archive/ \|access-dateJanuary 18, 2024 \|websiteThe Seattle Times \|languageen-US \|archive-dateJanuary 18, 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240118204645/https://www.seattletimes.com/business/apples-origins-stored-in-secret-stanford-archive/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> He ended the Mac clone deals and in September 1997, purchased the largest clone maker, Power Computing.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateFebruary 18, 2012 \|titlePower Computing Corporation \|urlhttps://support.apple.com/kb/TA37306?localeen_US \|access-dateMay 10, 2017 \|websiteOfficial Apple Support \|publisherApple Inc. \|archive-dateMarch 25, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210325120812/https://support.apple.com/kb/TA37306?localeen_US \|url-statuslive}}</ref> On November 10, 1997, the Apple Store website launched, which was tied to a new build-to-order manufacturing model similar to PC manufacturer Dell's success.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastHarreld \|firstHeather \|dateJanuary 5, 1997 \|titleApple gains tech, agency customers in Next deal \|urlhttp://www.fcw.com/print/3_1/news/64412-1.html?typepf \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081206061012/http://www.fcw.com/print/3_1/news/64412-1.html?typepf \|archive-dateDecember 6, 2008 \|access-dateAugust 15, 2008 \|websiteFederal Computer Week}}; {{Cite news \|dateNovember 10, 1997 \|titleApple unveils new marketing strategy \|workKnight Ridder/Tribune News Service \|urlhttp://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-5564882_ITM\|url-statusdead\|access-dateAugust 15, 2008\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081113132409/http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-5564882_ITM\|archive-dateNovember 13, 2008}}</ref> The moves paid off for Jobs; at the end of his first year as CEO, the company had a $309&nbsp;million profit.<ref name="Entrepreneur20111027" /> {{Multiple image \| direction = horizontal \| total_width = 250 \| image1 = IMac G3 Bondi Blue, three-quarters view.png \| caption1 = iMac \| image2 = Clamshell iBook G3.jpg \| caption2 = iBook \| image3 = Apple Yosemite.JPG \| caption3 = Power Macintosh G3 \| image4 = Apple PowerBook G3 500 Pismo-2763.jpg \| caption4 = PowerBook G3 \| perrow = 2 / 2 }} On May 6, 1998, Apple introduced a new all-in-one computer reminiscent of the original Macintosh: the iMac. The iMac was a huge success, with 800,000 units sold in its first five months,<ref name"800kimacs">{{Cite web \|lastApple Canada Inc \|dateJanuary 5, 1999 \|title800,000 iMacs Sold in First 139 Days \|urlhttp://www.ebooklyn.net/p/800000-imacs-sold-in-first-139-days.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141108074139/http://www.ebooklyn.net/p/800000-imacs-sold-in-first-139-days.html \|archive-dateNovember 8, 2014 \|access-dateJanuary 26, 2008}}</ref> and ushered in major shifts in the industry by abandoning legacy technologies like the {{frac\|3\|1\|2}}-inch diskette, being an early adopter of the USB connector, and coming pre-installed with Internet connectivity (the "i" in iMac)<ref name"Alyson Raletz">{{Cite web \|lastRaletz \|firstAlyson \|dateJune 7, 2012 \|titleMan who came up with iMac name tells what the 'i' stands for \|urlhttp://www.bizjournals.com/kansascity/blog/2012/06/man-who-came-up-with-imac-name-tells.html?pageall \|access-dateMarch 30, 2013 \|websiteKansas City Business Journal \|archive-dateNovember 6, 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121106125948/http://www.bizjournals.com/kansascity/blog/2012/06/man-who-came-up-with-imac-name-tells.html?pageall \|url-statuslive}}</ref> via Ethernet and a dial-up modem. Its striking teardrop shape and translucent materials were designed by Jonathan Ive, who had been hired by Amelio, and who collaborated with Jobs for more than a decade to reshape Apple's product design.<ref name"Time">{{Cite magazine \|lastJohn Arlidge \|dateMarch 17, 2014 \|titleJonathan Ive Designs Tomorrow \|magazineTime \|urlhttps://time.com/jonathan-ive-apple-interview/ \|access-dateMarch 22, 2014 \|archive-dateMarch 21, 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140321233000/http://time.com/jonathan-ive-apple-interview/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>Grossman, Lev. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070114062907/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1576854,00.html The Apple Of Your Ear], Time, January 12, 2007. Retrieved February 1, 2007; Wilson, Greg. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080228235549/http://www.nydailynews.com/news/2007/01/14/2007-01-14_private_icreator_is_genius_behind_apples.html Private iCreator is genius behind Apple's polish], New York Daily News, January 14, 2007. Retrieved February 1, 2007.</ref> A little more than a year later on July 21, 1999, Apple introduced the iBook consumer laptop. It culminated Jobs's strategy to produce only four products: refined versions of the Power Macintosh G3 desktop and PowerBook G3 laptop for professionals, and the iMac desktop and iBook laptop for consumers. Jobs said the small product line allowed for a greater focus on quality and innovation.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateJuly 26, 2019 \|titleThe one thing Steve Jobs did that turned around Apple \|urlhttps://www.launchtomorrow.com/2019/07/the-one-thing-steve-jobs-did-that-turned-around-apple \|access-dateJanuary 24, 2022 \|websiteLaunch Tomorrow \|languageen-US \|archive-dateMarch 30, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220330020730/https://www.launchtomorrow.com/2019/07/the-one-thing-steve-jobs-did-that-turned-around-apple \|url-status=dead}}</ref> Around then, Apple also completed numerous acquisitions to create a portfolio of digital media production software for both professionals and consumers. Apple acquired Macromedia's Key Grip digital video editing software project which was launched as Final Cut Pro in April 1999.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateOctober 25, 2006 \|titleWhy Apple Bounced Back \|urlhttp://www.roughlydrafted.com/RD/Q4.06/8F4B780E-674F-4421-A44D-7B1EAE9C1BA6.html \|access-dateNovember 8, 2014 \|websiteRoughly Drafted \|archive-dateAugust 15, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180815205629/http://www.roughlydrafted.com/RD/Q4.06/8F4B780E-674F-4421-A44D-7B1EAE9C1BA6.html \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|dateJune 7, 2013 \|titleA new beginning or swan song for Final Cut Pro X \|urlhttp://www.grreporter.info/en/new_beginning_or_swan_song_final_cut_pro_x/9411 \|access-dateNovember 8, 2014 \|websiteGR Reporter \|publisherGRRreporter Ltd \|archive-dateApril 2, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190402132734/http://www.grreporter.info/en/new_beginning_or_swan_song_final_cut_pro_x/9411 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Key Grip's development also led to Apple's release of the consumer video-editing product iMovie in October 1999.<ref name"Bell">{{Cite web \|lastMatt Bell, Mark Wherry \|dateSeptember 2002 \|titleAPPLE/EMAGIC TAKEOVER The Inside Story Of The Deal That Changed The Music World \|urlhttp://www.soundonsound.com/sos/sep02/articles/emagic.asp \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141108080250/https://www.soundonsound.com/sos/sep02/articles/emagic.asp \|archive-dateNovember 8, 2014 \|access-dateNovember 8, 2014 \|websiteSound on Sound \|publisherSOS Publications Group}}</ref> Apple acquired the German company Astarte in April 2000, which had developed the DVD authoring software DVDirector, which Apple repackaged as the professional-oriented DVD Studio Pro, and reused its technology to create iDVD for the consumer market.<ref name"Bell" /> In 2000, Apple purchased the SoundJam MP audio player software from Casady & Greene. Apple renamed the program iTunes, and simplified the user interface and added CD burning.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastSeff \|firstJonathan \|dateMay 1, 2001 \|titleThe Song Is Over for SoundJam \|urlhttps://www.macworld.com/article/1002145/11soundjam.html \|access-dateDecember 16, 2017 \|websiteMacworld \|publisherInternational Data Group \|archive-dateApril 2, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190402152452/https://www.macworld.com/article/1002145/11soundjam.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2001, Apple changed course with three announcements. First, on March 24, 2001, Apple announced the release of a new modern operating system, Mac OS X. This was after numerous failed attempts in the early 1990s, and several years of development. Mac OS X is based on NeXTSTEP, OpenStep, and BSD Unix, to combine the stability, reliability, and security of Unix with the ease of use of an overhauled user interface. Second, in May 2001, the first two Apple Store retail locations opened in Virginia and California, offering an improved presentation of the company's products.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleApple Stores 2001–2003 \|urlhttp://www.ifoapplestore.com/stores/chronology_2001-2003.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110927210608/http://www.ifoapplestore.com/stores/chronology_2001-2003.html \|archive-dateSeptember 27, 2011 \|access-dateOctober 7, 2011 \|publisherIFO Apple Store}}</ref><ref name"First stores" /><ref name"MacRumors stores" /> At the time, many speculated that the stores would fail, but they became highly successful, and the first of more than 500 stores around the world.<ref name"fortune-best-retailer" /><ref name"storelist" /> Third, on October 23, 2001, the iPod portable digital audio player debuted. The product was first sold on November 10, 2001, and was extremely successful, with over 100&nbsp;million units sold within six years.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4625262.stm Apple enjoys ongoing iPod demand] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171128173200/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4625262.stm \|dateNovember 28, 2017 }}, BBC News, January 18, 2006. Retrieved April 27, 2007; Cantrell, Amanda. [https://money.cnn.com/2006/03/29/technology/apple_anniversary Apple's remarkable comeback story] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200915151355/https://money.cnn.com/2006/03/29/technology/apple_anniversary/ \|date=September 15, 2020 }}, CNN, March 29, 2006. Retrieved March 2, 2007.</ref>ing industry; chart shows the number of songs sold from 2003 to 2010.]] In 2003, the iTunes Store was introduced with music downloads for 99¢ a song and iPod integration. It quickly became the market leader in online music services, with over 5&nbsp;billion downloads by June 19, 2008.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastChacksfield \|firstMarc \|dateJune 19, 2008 \|titleiTunes hits 5 billion downloads \|urlhttp://www.techradar.com/news/internet/itunes-hits-5-billion-downloads-397997 \|access-dateMay 24, 2017 \|websiteTechRadar \|publisherFuture plc \|archive-dateApril 3, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190403082332/https://www.techradar.com/news/internet/itunes-hits-5-billion-downloads-397997 \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|lastSkillings \|firstJon \|dateJune 19, 2008 \|titleApple's iTunes hits 5 billion mark \|urlhttps://www.cnet.com/news/apples-itunes-hits-5-billion-mark \|access-dateMay 24, 2017 \|websiteCNET \|archive-dateMay 25, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170525081517/https://www.cnet.com/news/apples-itunes-hits-5-billion-mark/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Two years later, the iTunes Store was the world's largest music retailer.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Griggs \|first1Brandon \|last2Leopold \|first2Todd \|dateApril 26, 2013 \|titleHow iTunes changed music, and the world \|publisherCNN \|urlhttp://edition.cnn.com/2013/04/26/tech/web/itunes-10th-anniversary \|access-dateMay 24, 2017 \|archive-dateDecember 3, 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131203003319/http://edition.cnn.com/2013/04/26/tech/web/itunes-10th-anniversary \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|lastArthur \|firstCharles \|dateApril 28, 2013 \|titleiTunes is 10 years old today. Was it the best idea Apple ever had? \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/apr/28/itunes-10-years-old-best-idea-apple-ever-had \|access-dateMay 24, 2017 \|websiteThe Guardian \|archive-dateApril 3, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190403082324/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/apr/28/itunes-10-years-old-best-idea-apple-ever-had \|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2002, Apple purchased Nothing Real for its advanced digital compositing application Shake,<ref>Chaffin, Bryan. [http://www.macobserver.com/article/2002/02/07.6.shtml "Apple Shake: Apple Buys Nothing Real, A High End Compositing Software Maker"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171128173026/https://www.macobserver.com/article/2002/02/07.6.shtml \|dateNovember 28, 2017 }}, The Mac Observer, February 7, 2002. Retrieved August 15, 2008.</ref> and Emagic for the music productivity application Logic. The purchase of Emagic made Apple the first computer manufacturer to own a music software company. The acquisition was followed by the development of Apple's consumer-level GarageBand application.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastDeitrich \|firstAndy \|dateFebruary 2, 2004 \|titleGarage Band \|urlhttps://arstechnica.com/features/2004/02/garageband \|access-dateMarch 23, 2017 \|websiteArs Technica \|archive-dateMarch 24, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170324084409/https://arstechnica.com/features/2004/02/garageband/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The release of iPhoto that year completed the iLife suite.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20151030021825/https://www.apple.com/pr/library/2002/01/07Apple-Introduces-iPhoto.html Apple Introduces iPhoto], Apple Inc., January 7, 2002. Retrieved October 30, 2015.</ref> is Apple's first laptop with an Intel microprocessor, introduced in 2006.]] At the Worldwide Developers Conference keynote address on June 6, 2005, Jobs announced that Apple would move away from PowerPC processors, and the Mac would transition to Intel processors in 2006.<ref name"printel">[https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2005/06/06Apple-to-Use-Intel-Microprocessors-Beginning-in-2006 Apple to Use Intel Microprocessors Beginning in 2006] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180130185804/https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2005/06/06Apple-to-Use-Intel-Microprocessors-Beginning-in-2006 \|dateJanuary 30, 2018 }}, Apple Inc., June 6, 2005. Retrieved March 2, 2007.</ref> On January 10, 2006, the new MacBook Pro and iMac became the first Apple computers to use Intel's Core Duo CPU. By August 7, 2006, Apple made the transition to Intel chips for the entire Mac product line—over one year sooner than announced.<ref name"printel" /> The Power Mac, iBook, and PowerBook brands were retired during the transition; the Mac Pro, MacBook, and MacBook Pro became their respective successors.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastJohnson \|firstBobbie \|dateAugust 10, 2006 \|titleBye-bye Power Mac... hello Mac Pro \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/technology/2006/aug/10/applemacs.guardianweeklytechnologysection \|access-dateMarch 23, 2017 \|websiteThe Guardian \|archive-dateApril 3, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190403090703/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2006/aug/10/applemacs.guardianweeklytechnologysection \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|dateMay 16, 2006 \|titleApple Unveils New MacBook Featuring Intel Core Duo Processors \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/newsroom/2006/05/16Apple-Unveils-New-MacBook-Featuring-Intel-Core-Duo-Processors \|publisherApple Inc. \|access-dateNovember 6, 2017 \|archive-dateNovember 7, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171107002431/https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2006/05/16Apple-Unveils-New-MacBook-Featuring-Intel-Core-Duo-Processors/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Apple also introduced Boot Camp in 2006 to help users install Windows XP or Windows Vista on their Intel Macs alongside Mac OS X.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastHesseldahl \|firstArik \|dateApril 5, 2006 \|titleNews Flash: Apple Introduces 'Boot Camp' To Run Windows XP on Macs \|workBusinessWeek \|publisherBloomberg L.P. \|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/bw/stories/2006-04-04/news-flash-apple-introduces-boot-camp-to-run-windows-xp-on-macs \|access-dateAugust 18, 2008 \|archive-dateMarch 4, 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304001009/http://www.bloomberg.com/bw/stories/2006-04-04/news-flash-apple-introduces-boot-camp-to-run-windows-xp-on-macs \|url-status=live}}</ref> Apple's success during this period was evident in its stock price. Between early 2003 and 2006, the price of Apple's stock increased more than tenfold, from around $6 per share (split-adjusted) to over $80.<ref>{{Cite web \|last1Carter \|first1Shawn M. \|last2Martin \|first2Emmie \|dateAugust 2, 2018 \|titleIf you invested $1,000 in Apple 10 years ago, here's how much you'd have now \|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2018/08/02/if-you-invested-1000-dollars-in-apple-10-years-ago-youd-have-this-now.html \|access-dateApril 5, 2020 \|websiteCNBC \|languageen \|archive-dateApril 3, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200403062834/https://www.cnbc.com/2018/08/02/if-you-invested-1000-dollars-in-apple-10-years-ago-youd-have-this-now.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> When Apple surpassed Dell's market cap in January 2006,<ref name"modell">Gamet, Jeff (January 16, 2006). [http://www.macobserver.com/stockwatch/2006/01/16.1.shtml Apple Passes Dell's Market Cap] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171128173617/https://www.macobserver.com/stockwatch/2006/01/16.1.shtml \|dateNovember 28, 2017 }}, The MacObserver. Retrieved March 2, 2007.</ref> Jobs sent an email to Apple employees saying Dell's CEO Michael Dell should eat his words.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastMarkoff \|firstJohn \|author-linkJohn Markoff \|dateJanuary 16, 2006 \|titleMichael Dell Should Eat His Words, Apple Chief Suggests \|workThe New York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/16/technology/michael-dell-should-eat-his-words-apple-chief-suggests.html \|url-statuslive \|url-accesssubscription \|access-dateApril 3, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170318032151/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/16/technology/michael-dell-should-eat-his-words-apple-chief-suggests.html \|archive-dateMarch 18, 2017}}</ref> Nine years prior, Dell had said that if he ran Apple he would "shut it down and give the money back to the shareholders".<ref>{{Cite web \|lastSingh \|firstJai \|dateOctober 6, 1997 \|titleDell: Apple should close shop \|urlhttps://www.cnet.com/news/dell-apple-should-close-shop \|access-dateMarch 23, 2017 \|websiteCNET \|archive-dateMarch 24, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170324085458/https://www.cnet.com/news/dell-apple-should-close-shop/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> 2007–2011: Success with mobile devices was on display at the 2007 MacWorld Expo.]] During his keynote speech at the Macworld Expo on January 9, 2007, Jobs announced the renaming of Apple Computer, Inc. to Apple Inc., because the company had broadened its focus from computers to consumer electronics.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateJanuary 11, 2007 \|titleDrop the Computer \|newspaperThe Economist \|publisherEconomist Group \|urlhttps://www.economist.com/node/8521960 \|access-dateMay 24, 2017 \|archive-dateMay 25, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170525090817/http://www.economist.com/node/8521960 \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite news \|titleWhat's In A Name Change? Look At Apple \|urlhttps://www.forbes.com/2007/01/25/apple-microsoft-motorola-ent-sales-cx_kw_0125wharton.html \|websiteForbes \|dateJanuary 25, 2007 \|access-date May 24, 2017 \|archive-dateApril 3, 2019 \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20190403110914/https://www.forbes.com/2007/01/25/apple-microsoft-motorola-ent-sales-cx_kw_0125wharton.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> This event also saw the announcement of the iPhone<ref>{{Cite web \|dateJanuary 9, 2007 \|titleApple Announces The iPhone \|urlhttps://www.macrumors.com/2007/01/09/apple-announces-the-iphone \|access-dateMay 24, 2017 \|websiteMacRumors \|archive-dateMay 25, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170525081631/https://www.macrumors.com/2007/01/09/apple-announces-the-iphone/ \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite news \|firstMichael \|lastArrington \|author-link Michael Arrington \|titleApple Announces iPhone, Stock Soars \|urlhttps://techcrunch.com/2007/01/09/apple-announces-iphone-stock-soars \|websiteTechCrunch \|publisherAOL \|dateJanuary 9, 2007 \|access-date May 24, 2017 \|archive-dateMay 25, 2017 \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20170525081220/https://techcrunch.com/2007/01/09/apple-announces-iphone-stock-soars/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> and the Apple TV.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateJanuary 9, 2007 \|titleApple Announces Apple TV (Formerly 'iTV') \|urlhttps://www.macrumors.com/2007/01/09/apple-announces-apple-tv-formerly-itv \|access-dateMay 24, 2017 \|websiteMacRumors \|archive-dateMay 25, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170525083813/https://www.macrumors.com/2007/01/09/apple-announces-apple-tv-formerly-itv/ \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|dateJanuary 9, 2007 \|titleApple TV Coming to Your Living Room \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/newsroom/2007/01/09Apple-TV-Coming-to-Your-Living-Room \|access-dateMay 24, 2017 \|publisherApple Inc. \|archive-dateMay 25, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170525090605/https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2007/01/09Apple-TV-Coming-to-Your-Living-Room/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The company sold 270,000 first-generation iPhones during the first 30 hours of sales,<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMiller \|firstPaul \|dateJuly 25, 2007 \|titleApple sold 270,000 iPhones in the first 30 hours \|urlhttps://www.engadget.com/2007/07/25/apple-sold-270-000-iphones-in-the-first-30-hours \|access-dateMay 24, 2017 \|websiteEngadget \|archive-dateMay 25, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170525081023/https://www.engadget.com/2007/07/25/apple-sold-270-000-iphones-in-the-first-30-hours/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> and the device was called "a game changer for the industry".<ref>{{Cite web \|lastOyedele \|firstAkin \|dateMarch 21, 2016 \|titleHere's how Apple shares do right after the new iPhone launches \|urlhttp://www.businessinsider.com/apple-stock-after-iphone-launches-2016-3 \|access-dateMay 24, 2017 \|websiteBusiness Insider \|archive-dateApril 3, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190403110155/https://www.businessinsider.com/apple-stock-after-iphone-launches-2016-3 \|url-status=live}}</ref> In an article posted on Apple's website on February 6, 2007, Jobs wrote that Apple would be willing to sell music on the iTunes Store without digital rights management, thereby allowing tracks to be played on third-party players if record labels would agree to drop the technology.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastBlock \|firstRyan \|author-linkRyan Block \|dateFebruary 6, 2007 \|titleA letter from Steve Jobs on DRM: let's get rid of it \|urlhttps://www.engadget.com/2007/02/06/a-letter-from-steve-jobs-on-drm-lets-get-rid-of-it \|access-dateMarch 23, 2017 \|websiteEngadget \|publisherAOL \|archive-dateMarch 24, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170324084248/https://www.engadget.com/2007/02/06/a-letter-from-steve-jobs-on-drm-lets-get-rid-of-it/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> On April 2, 2007, Apple and EMI jointly announced the removal of DRM technology from EMI's catalog in the iTunes Store, effective in May 2007.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastDalrymple \|firstJim \|dateApril 2, 2007 \|titleApple, EMI offer higher-quality DRM free downloads \|urlhttps://www.macworld.com/article/57098/2007/04/drmfree.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120104152526/http://www.macworld.com/article/57098/2007/04/drmfree.html \|archive-dateJanuary 4, 2012 \|access-dateNovember 29, 2010 \|websiteMacworld}}</ref> Other record labels eventually followed suit and Apple published a press release in January 2009 to announce that all songs on the iTunes Store are available without their FairPlay DRM.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateJanuary 6, 2009 \|titleChanges Coming to the iTunes Store \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/newsroom/2009/01/06Changes-Coming-to-the-iTunes-Store \|access-dateMarch 23, 2014 \|publisherApple Inc. \|archive-dateMay 25, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170525090607/https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2009/01/06Changes-Coming-to-the-iTunes-Store/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In July 2008, Apple launched the App Store to sell third-party applications for the iPhone and iPod Touch.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastFlandez \|firstRaymund \|dateAugust 5, 2008 \|titleProgrammers Jockey for iPhone Users at Apple Site \|workThe Wall Street Journal \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/SB121789232442511743 \|url-accesssubscription \|access-dateAugust 16, 2008 \|archive-dateApril 3, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190403110148/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB121789232442511743 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Within a month, the store sold 60&nbsp;million applications and registered an average daily revenue of $1&nbsp;million, with Jobs speculating in August 2008 that the App Store could become a billion-dollar business for Apple.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMcLaughlin \|firstKevin \|dateAugust 11, 2008 \|titleApple's Jobs Gushes Over App Store Success \|urlhttp://www.crn.com/software/210002313 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100301213959/http://crn.com/software/210002313 \|archive-dateMarch 1, 2010 \|access-dateAugust 16, 2008 \|publisherThe Channel Wire}}</ref> By October 2008, Apple was the third-largest mobile handset supplier in the world due to the popularity of the iPhone.<ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastChen \|firstBrian \|dateOctober 21, 2008 \|titleJobs: Apple Is Third Largest Handset Supplier \|urlhttps://www.wired.com/epicenter/2008/10/with-iphone-app \|magazineWired \|access-dateMarch 23, 2014 \|archive-dateNovember 11, 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111111185853/http://www.wired.com/epicenter/2008/10/with-iphone-app/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> ; Apple worked with other manufacturers to implement purpose-built "Made for iPod" docking stations.]] On January 14, 2009, Jobs announced in an internal memo that he would be taking a six-month medical leave of absence from Apple until the end of June 2009 and would spend the time focusing on his health. In the email, Jobs stated that "the curiosity over my personal health continues to be a distraction not only for me and my family, but everyone else at Apple as well", and explained that the break would allow the company "to focus on delivering extraordinary products".<ref>{{Cite press release \|titleApple Media Advisory \|dateJanuary 14, 2009 \|publisherApple Inc. \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/newsroom/2009/01/14Apple-Media-Advisory \|last1Jobs \|first1Steve \|access-dateMarch 23, 2014 \|author-link1Steve Jobs \|archive-dateMay 25, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170525091217/https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2009/01/14Apple-Media-Advisory/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Though Jobs was absent, Apple recorded its best non-holiday quarter (Q1 FY 2009) during the recession, with revenue of $8.16&nbsp;billion and profit of $1.21&nbsp;billion.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleApple Inc, Form 10-Q, Quarterly Report, Filing Date Apr 23, 2009 \|urlhttp://edgar.secdatabase.com/2508/119312509085781/filing-main.htm \|access-dateMarch 8, 2013 \|publishersecdatabase.com \|archive-dateMay 2, 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130502065621/http://edgar.secdatabase.com/2508/119312509085781/filing-main.htm \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|dateApril 22, 2009 \|titleApple reports the best non-holiday quarter in its history \|urlhttp://www.betanews.com/article/Apple-reports-the-best-nonholiday-quarter-in-its-history/1240433273 \|access-dateNovember 22, 2010 \|publisherBetanews \|archive-dateApril 25, 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090425074450/http://www.betanews.com/article/Apple-reports-the-best-nonholiday-quarter-in-its-history/1240433273 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> After years of speculation and multiple rumored "leaks", Apple unveiled a large screen, tablet-like media device known as the iPad on January 27, 2010. The iPad ran the same touch-based operating system as the iPhone, and all iPhone apps were compatible with the iPad. This gave the iPad a large app catalog on launch, though having very little development time before the release. Later that year on April 3, 2010, the iPad was launched in the U.S. It sold more than 300,000 units on its first day, and 500,000 by the end of the first week.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleApple iPad reaches 1 million sales faster than iPhone \|languageen-US \|workReuters \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-apple-ipad/apple-ipad-reaches-1-million-sales-faster-than-iphone-idUSTRE64002T20100503 \|access-dateSeptember 10, 2018 \|archive-dateApril 3, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190403110147/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-apple-ipad/apple-ipad-reaches-1-million-sales-faster-than-iphone-idUSTRE64002T20100503 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In May 2010, Apple's market cap exceeded that of competitor Microsoft for the first time since 1989.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateMay 27, 2010 \|titleApple passes Microsoft to be biggest tech company \|workBBC News \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/10168684.stm \|url-statuslive \|access-dateMay 29, 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100529063247/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/10168684.stm \|archive-dateMay 29, 2010}}</ref> In June 2010, Apple released the iPhone 4,<ref>{{Cite press release \|titleApple Presents iPhone 4 \|publisherApple Inc. \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/newsroom/2010/06/07Apple-Presents-iPhone-4 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110903135840/http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2010/06/07Apple-Presents-iPhone-4.html \|archive-dateSeptember 3, 2011}}; {{Cite news \|lastBeaumont \|firstClaudine \|dateJune 24, 2010 \|titleApple iPhone 4: Full review \|languageen-GB \|workThe Telegraph \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/apple/7849655/Apple-iPhone-4-Full-review.html \|url-statuslive \|url-accesssubscription \|access-dateSeptember 10, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/apple/7849655/Apple-iPhone-4-Full-review.html \|archive-dateJanuary 10, 2022 \|issn0307-1235}}{{cbignore}}</ref> which introduced video calling using FaceTime, multitasking, and a new design with an exposed stainless steel frame as the phone's antenna system. Later that year, Apple again refreshed the iPod line by introducing a multi-touch iPod Nano, an iPod Touch with FaceTime, and an iPod Shuffle that brought back the clickwheel buttons of earlier generations.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastTopolsky \|firstJoshua \|author-linkJoshua Topolsky \|dateSeptember 7, 2010 \|titleiPod touch review (2010) \|urlhttps://www.engadget.com/2010/09/07/ipod-touch-review-2010 \|access-dateMarch 23, 2017 \|websiteEngadget \|publisherAOL \|archive-dateMarch 24, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170324084759/https://www.engadget.com/2010/09/07/ipod-touch-review-2010/ \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite press release \|titleApple Reinvents iPod nano With Multi-Touch Interface \|dateSeptember 1, 2010 \|publisherApple Inc. \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/newsroom/2010/09/01Apple-Reinvents-iPod-nano-With-Multi-Touch-Interface \|access-dateNovember 11, 2010 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101115202127/http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2010/09/01ipodnano.html \|archive-dateNovember 15, 2010}}; {{Cite web \|lastBell \|firstDonald \|dateSeptember 7, 2010 \|titleApple iPod Shuffle 2010 (2&nbsp;GB) review \|urlhttps://www.cnet.com/reviews/apple-ipod-shuffle-2010-2gb-review \|access-dateApril 4, 2019 \|websiteCNet \|archive-dateApril 4, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190404032559/https://www.cnet.com/reviews/apple-ipod-shuffle-2010-2gb-review/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> It also introduced the smaller, cheaper second-generation Apple TV which allowed the rental of movies and shows.<ref name"yahoo1">{{Cite news \|last1Mintz \|first1Jessica \|last2Robertson \|first2Jordan \|titleApple unveils new TV box for renting movies, shows \|workYahoo! News \|publisherYahoo! \|urlhttps://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20100901/ap_on_hi_te/us_tec_apple \|access-dateSeptember 2, 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100902211653/https://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20100901/ap_on_hi_te/us_tec_apple \|archive-date=September 2, 2010}}</ref> On January 17, 2011, Jobs announced in an internal Apple memo that he would take another medical leave of absence for an indefinite period to allow him to focus on his health. Chief operating officer Tim Cook assumed Jobs's day-to-day operations at Apple, although Jobs would still remain "involved in major strategic decisions".<ref name"JobsLeave2011">{{Cite news \|dateJanuary 17, 2011 \|titleApple boss Steve Jobs takes 'medical leave' \|workBBC News \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-12205173 \|url-statuslive \|access-dateJanuary 17, 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110119050439/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-12205173 \|archive-dateJanuary 19, 2011}}</ref> Apple became the most valuable consumer-facing brand in the world.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastIndvik \|firstLauren \|dateMay 9, 2011 \|titleApple Now World's Most Valuable Brand \|urlhttp://mashable.com/2011/05/09/apple-google-brandz-study \|access-dateOctober 7, 2011 \|websiteMashable \|archive-dateApril 3, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190403110200/https://mashable.com/2011/05/09/apple-google-brandz-study/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In June 2011, Jobs surprisingly took the stage and unveiled iCloud, an online storage and syncing service for music, photos, files, and software which replaced MobileMe, Apple's previous attempt at content syncing.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastHelft \|firstMiguel \|dateJune 6, 2011 \|titleApple Unveils a 'Cloud' Music and Storage Service \|workThe New York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/07/technology/07apple.html \|url-accesslimited \|access-dateJune 7, 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/07/technology/07apple.html \|archive-date=January 1, 2022}}{{cbignore}}</ref> This would be the last product launch Jobs would attend before his death. On August 24, 2011, Jobs resigned his position as CEO of Apple.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastPrimack \|firstDoug \|titleFallen Apple: Steve Jobs resigns \|urlhttp://finance.fortune.cnn.com/2011/08/24/fallen-apple-steve-jobs-resigns \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926040400/http://finance.fortune.cnn.com/2011/08/24/fallen-apple-steve-jobs-resigns \|archive-dateSeptember 26, 2011 \|access-dateAugust 24, 2011 \|websiteFortune \|publisherCNN}}</ref> He was replaced by Cook and Jobs became Apple's chairman. Apple did not have a chairman at the time<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Olivarez-Giles \|first1Nathan \|last2Suh Lauder \|first2Thomas \|dateAugust 24, 2011 \|titleWhat does Steve Jobs' chairman role mean for Apple? \|workLos Angeles Times \|urlhttps://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2011/08/steve-jobs-apple-chairman.html \|access-dateApril 11, 2020 \|archive-dateApril 11, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200411222157/https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2011/08/steve-jobs-apple-chairman.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> and instead had two co-lead directors—Andrea Jung and Arthur D. Levinson<ref>{{Cite news \|lastForesman \|firstChris \|dateNovember 15, 2011 \|titleGenentech's Levinson replaces Steve Jobs as Apple chairman \|workars technica \|urlhttps://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2011/11/genetechs-levinson-now-apple-chairman-disneys-iger-joins-the-board \|access-dateApril 11, 2020 \|archive-dateApril 11, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200411222157/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2011/11/genetechs-levinson-now-apple-chairman-disneys-iger-joins-the-board/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref>—who continued with those titles until Levinson replaced Jobs as chairman of the board in November after Jobs's death.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateAugust 25, 2011 \|titleMeet Apple's Board of Directors \|urlhttp://www.ethiopianreview.com/index/20113/?p25598 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120928000035/http://www.ethiopianreview.com/index/20113/?p25598 \|archive-dateSeptember 28, 2012 \|access-dateOctober 7, 2011 \|websiteEthiopian Review}}</ref> 2011–present: Post-Jobs era, Tim Cook On October 5, 2011, Steve Jobs died, marking the end of an era for Apple.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastGriggs \|firstBrandon \|dateOctober 6, 2011 \|titleSteve Jobs, Apple founder, dies \|urlhttp://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/05/us/obit-steve-jobs/index.html \|access-dateMarch 27, 2017 \|publisherCNN \|archive-dateApril 4, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190404121737/https://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/05/us/obit-steve-jobs/index.html \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|firstKen \|lastHess \|titleOctober 5th, 2011. The day Apple died \|urlhttps://www.zdnet.com/article/october-5th-2011-the-day-apple-died/ \|websiteZDNet \|dateOctober 5, 2011 \|access-dateMarch 27, 2017 \|archive-dateMarch 28, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170328105730/http://www.zdnet.com/article/october-5th-2011-the-day-apple-died/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The next major product announcement by Apple was on January 19, 2012, when Apple's Phil Schiller introduced iBooks Textbooks for iOS and iBook Author for Mac OS X in New York City.<ref>{{Cite press release \|titleApple Reinvents Textbooks with iBooks 2 for iPad – New iBooks Author Lets Anyone Create Stunning iBooks Textbooks \|dateJanuary 19, 2012 \|publisherApple Inc. \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/newsroom/2012/01/19Apple-Reinvents-Textbooks-with-iBooks-2-for-iPad \|access-dateFebruary 22, 2012 \|archive-dateMay 25, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170525092914/https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2012/01/19Apple-Reinvents-Textbooks-with-iBooks-2-for-iPad/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Jobs stated in the biography Steve Jobs that he wanted to reinvent the textbook industry and education.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleSteve Jobs' Plans to Disrupt the Textbook Industry. How Disruptive Were They? \|urlhttps://www.insidehighered.com/blogs/hack-higher-education/steve-jobs-plans-disrupt-textbook-industry-how-disruptive-were-they \|access-dateNovember 10, 2017 \|websiteInside Higher Ed \|first1Audrey \|last1Watters \|dateNovember 7, 2011 \|archive-dateApril 4, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190404084144/https://www.insidehighered.com/blogs/hack-higher-education/steve-jobs-plans-disrupt-textbook-industry-how-disruptive-were-they \|url-statuslive}}</ref> From 2011 to 2012, Apple released the iPhone 4s<ref>{{Cite web \|lastZiegler \|firstChris \|dateOctober 4, 2011 \|titleiPhone 4S announced, available October 14th starting at $199 \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/apple/2011/10/4/2470139/iphone-4s-announced-available-october-14th-starting-at-199 \|access-dateMarch 23, 2017 \|websiteThe Verge \|archive-dateApril 4, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190404084143/https://www.theverge.com/apple/2011/10/4/2470139/iphone-4s-announced-available-october-14th-starting-at-199 \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|firstBen \|lastParr \|titleApple Announces iPhone 4S \|urlhttp://mashable.com/2011/10/04/apple-iphone-4s \|websiteMashable \|dateOctober 4, 2011 \|access-dateMarch 23, 2017 \|archive-dateMarch 24, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170324085238/http://mashable.com/2011/10/04/apple-iphone-4s/ \|url-statusdead}}</ref> and iPhone 5,<ref>{{Cite web \|lastSavov \|firstVlad \|dateSeptember 12, 2012 \|titleApple announces 4-inch iPhone 5 with LTE, Lightning connector, September 21st release date \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2012/9/12/3316830/iphone-5-release-date-specs-features-price-announcement \|access-dateMarch 23, 2017 \|websiteThe Verge \|archive-dateApril 4, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190404084145/https://www.theverge.com/2012/9/12/3316830/iphone-5-release-date-specs-features-price-announcement \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|firstAnand Lal \|lastShimpi \|titleApple iPhone 5: Announced \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/6280/apple-iphone-5-announced \|websiteAnandTech \|publisherPurch Group \|dateSeptember 12, 2012 \|access-dateMarch 23, 2017 \|archive-dateApril 4, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190404084149/https://www.anandtech.com/show/6280/apple-iphone-5-announced \|url-statuslive}}</ref> which featured improved cameras, an intelligent software assistant named Siri, and cloud-synced data with iCloud; the third- and fourth-generation iPads, which featured Retina displays;<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304459804577281472610072322 \|titleNew iPad: a Million More Pixels Than HDTV \|workThe Wall Street Journal \|dateMarch 15, 2012 \|access-date March 15, 2012 \|lastMossberg \|firstWalter \|author-linkWalter Mossberg \|url-access subscription \|archive-dateApril 4, 2019 \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20190404084143/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304459804577281472610072322 \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|lastLowensohn \|firstJosh \|dateMarch 7, 2012 \|titleApple iPad live blog (Wednesday, March 7) \|urlhttps://www.cnet.com/news/apple-ipad-live-blog-wednesday-march-7 \|access-dateMarch 23, 2017 \|websiteCNET \|archive-dateMarch 24, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170324092526/https://www.cnet.com/news/apple-ipad-live-blog-wednesday-march-7/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Lightning strikes again" /> and the iPad Mini, which featured a 7.9-inch screen in contrast to the iPad's 9.7-inch screen.<ref name"mini" /> These launches were successful, with the iPhone 5 (released September 21, 2012) becoming Apple's biggest iPhone launch with over two million pre-orders<ref>{{Cite web \|lastStein \|firstScott \|dateOctober 5, 2012 \|titleApple iPhone 5 review \|urlhttps://www.cnet.com/uk/products/apple-iphone-5/review \|access-dateMarch 23, 2017 \|websiteCNET \|archive-dateMarch 24, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170324095535/https://www.cnet.com/uk/products/apple-iphone-5/review/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> and sales of three million iPads in three days following the launch of the iPad Mini and fourth-generation iPad (released November 3, 2012).<ref>{{Cite press release \|titleApple Sells Three Million iPads in Three Days \|dateNovember 5, 2012 \|publisherApple Inc. \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/newsroom/2012/11/05Apple-Sells-Three-Million-iPads-in-Three-Days \|access-dateFebruary 22, 2013 \|archive-dateMay 25, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170525092916/https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2012/11/05Apple-Sells-Three-Million-iPads-in-Three-Days/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Apple also released a third-generation 13-inch MacBook Pro with a Retina display and new iMac and Mac Mini computers.<ref name"Lightning strikes again">{{Cite web \|lastWood \|firstMolly \|dateOctober 23, 2012 \|titleThe new 'new iPad': Lightning strikes again \|urlhttps://www.cnet.com/news/the-new-new-ipad-lightning-strikes-again \|access-dateMarch 23, 2017 \|websiteCNET \|archive-dateMarch 24, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170324092517/https://www.cnet.com/news/the-new-new-ipad-lightning-strikes-again/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"mini">{{Cite news \|lastDudley-Nicholson \|firstJennifer \|dateOctober 24, 2012 \|titleApple unveils new iPad Mini, updated iPad and new Macs \|workHerald Sun \|urlhttp://www.heraldsun.com.au/technology/apple-prepares-to-reveal-ipad-mini/story-fn7celvh-1226501774885 \|url-statusdead \|access-dateNovember 11, 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130217023327/http://www.heraldsun.com.au/technology/apple-prepares-to-reveal-ipad-mini/story-fn7celvh-1226501774885 \|archive-dateFebruary 17, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastBrown \|firstRich \|dateNovember 11, 2013 \|titleApple Mac Mini with Fusion Drive review \|urlhttps://www.cnet.com/products/apple-mac-mini/review \|access-dateMarch 23, 2017 \|websiteCNET \|archive-dateMarch 24, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170324085503/https://www.cnet.com/products/apple-mac-mini/review/ \|url-status=live}}</ref> On August 20, 2012, Apple's rising stock price increased the company's market capitalization to a then-record $624&nbsp;billion. This beat the non-inflation-adjusted record for market capitalization previously set by Microsoft in 1999.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastSvensson \|firstPeter \|titleApple Sets Record for Company Value at $624B \|agencyAssociated Press \|urlhttp://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/U/US_TEC_APPLE_BIGGEST_COMPANY?SITEAP&SECTIONHOME&TEMPLATEDEFAULT \|url-statusdead \|access-dateAugust 20, 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120822164535/http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/U/US_TEC_APPLE_BIGGEST_COMPANY?SITEAP&SECTIONHOME&TEMPLATEDEFAULT \|archive-dateAugust 22, 2012}}</ref> On August 24, 2012, a US jury ruled that Samsung should pay Apple $1.05&nbsp;billion (£665m) in damages in an intellectual property lawsuit.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateAugust 25, 2012 \|titleApple awarded $1bn in damages from Samsung in US court \|workBBC News \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-19377261 \|access-dateAugust 25, 2012 \|archive-dateApril 5, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190405222055/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-19377261 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Samsung appealed the damages award, which was reduced by $450&nbsp;million<ref name"FOSS Patents">{{Cite web \|titleJudge strikes $450 million from $1 billion damages award in Apple v. Samsung: second trial needed \|urlhttp://www.fosspatents.com/2013/03/judge-strikes-450-million-from-1.html \|access-dateMarch 1, 2013 \|publisherFOSS Patents \|archive-dateApril 4, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190404084143/http://www.fosspatents.com/2013/03/judge-strikes-450-million-from-1.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> and further granted Samsung's request for a new trial.<ref name"FOSS Patents" /> On November 10, 2012, Apple confirmed a global settlement that dismissed all existing lawsuits between Apple and HTC up to that date, in favor of a ten-year license agreement for current and future patents between the two companies.<ref>{{Cite press release \|titleHTC and Apple Settle Patent Dispute \|dateNovember 10, 2012 \|publisherApple Inc. \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/newsroom/2012/11/11HTC-and-Apple-Settle-Patent-Dispute \|access-dateFebruary 22, 2013 \|archive-dateMay 25, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170525092921/https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2012/11/11HTC-and-Apple-Settle-Patent-Dispute/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> It is predicted that Apple will make {{US$\|280}}{{nbsp}}million per year from this deal with HTC.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastReisinger \|firstDon \|dateNovember 12, 2012 \|titleApple predicted to generate up to $280 million a year in HTC deal \|urlhttps://www.cnet.com/news/apple-predicted-to-generate-up-to-280-million-a-year-in-htc-deal \|access-dateMarch 23, 2017 \|websiteCNET \|archive-dateMarch 24, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170324173724/https://www.cnet.com/news/apple-predicted-to-generate-up-to-280-million-a-year-in-htc-deal/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In May 2014, Apple confirmed its intent to acquire Dr. Dre and Jimmy Iovine's audio company Beats Electronics—producer of the "Beats by Dr. Dre" line of headphones and speaker products, and operator of the music streaming service Beats Music—for {{US$\|3}}{{nbsp}}billion, and to sell their products through Apple's retail outlets and resellers. Iovine believed that Beats had always "belonged" with Apple, as the company modeled itself after Apple's "unmatched ability to marry culture and technology". The acquisition was the largest purchase in Apple's history.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastSteele \|firstBilly \|dateMay 28, 2014 \|titleApple acquires Beats Electronics for $3 billion \|urlhttps://www.engadget.com/2014/05/28/apple-acquires-beats-electronics-for-3-billion \|access-dateMarch 23, 2017 \|websiteEngadget \|publisherAOL \|archive-dateMarch 24, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170324084801/https://www.engadget.com/2014/05/28/apple-acquires-beats-electronics-for-3-billion/ \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|lastWelch \|firstChris \|dateMay 28, 2014 \|titleApple confirms it's buying Beats for $3 billion \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2014/5/28/5700530/apple-confirms-beats-acquisition \|access-dateMarch 23, 2017 \|websiteThe Verge \|archive-dateMay 29, 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140529051629/http://www.theverge.com/2014/5/28/5700530/apple-confirms-beats-acquisition \|url-status=live}}</ref> (2015)]] During a press event on September 9, 2014, Apple introduced a smartwatch called the Apple Watch.<ref name"verge-watchannounce">{{Cite web \|dateSeptember 9, 2014 \|titleApple Watch announced: available for $349 early next year \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2014/9/9/6125873/apple-watch-smartwatch-announced \|access-dateJuly 15, 2015 \|websiteThe Verge \|archive-dateSeptember 9, 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140909183047/http://www.theverge.com/2014/9/9/6125873/apple-watch-smartwatch-announced \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|dateSeptember 9, 2014 \|titleThe Apple Watch is poised to dominate the market for digital fitness trackers \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2014/9/9/6127839/apple-watch-healthkit-digital-health-fitness \|access-dateJuly 15, 2015 \|websiteThe Verge \|archive-dateMay 25, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220525110122/https://www.theverge.com/2014/9/9/6127839/apple-watch-healthkit-digital-health-fitness \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Initially, Apple marketed the device as a fashion accessory<ref name"wp-fashion">{{Cite news \|titleApple Watch is competing as a fashion accessory, and that's a risky move \|newspaperThe Washington Post \|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/innovations/wp/2015/03/05/apple-watch-is-competing-as-a-fashion-accessory-and-thats-a-risky-move \|access-dateJuly 15, 2015 \|archive-dateJuly 16, 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150716123229/http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/innovations/wp/2015/03/05/apple-watch-is-competing-as-a-fashion-accessory-and-thats-a-risky-move \|url-statuslive}}</ref> and a complement to the iPhone, that would allow people to look at their smartphones less.<ref name"wired.com">{{Cite magazine \|titleiPhone Killer: The Secret History of the Apple Watch \|urlhttps://www.wired.com/2015/04/the-apple-watch \|magazineWired \|access-dateJanuary 31, 2022 \|archive-dateJune 18, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220618223947/https://www.wired.com/2015/04/the-apple-watch \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Over time, the company has focused on developing health and fitness-oriented features on the watch, in an effort to compete with dedicated activity trackers. In January 2016, Apple announced that over one billion Apple devices were in active use worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastStatt \|firstNick \|dateJanuary 26, 2016 \|title1 billion Apple devices are in active use around the world \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2016/1/26/10835748/apple-devices-active-1-billion-iphone-ipad-ios \|access-dateMay 24, 2017 \|websiteThe Verge \|archive-dateApril 4, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190404084144/https://www.theverge.com/2016/1/26/10835748/apple-devices-active-1-billion-iphone-ipad-ios \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite news \|lastRossignol \|firstJoe \|dateJanuary 26, 2016 \|titleApple Now Has Over 1 Billion Active Devices Worldwide \|workMacRumors \|urlhttps://www.macrumors.com/2016/01/26/apple-1-billion-active-device-installed-base \|access-dateMay 24, 2017 \|archive-dateMay 25, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170525083819/https://www.macrumors.com/2016/01/26/apple-1-billion-active-device-installed-base/ \|url-status=live}}</ref> On June 6, 2016, Fortune released Fortune 500, its list of companies ranked on revenue generation. In the trailing fiscal year of 2015, Apple was listed as the top tech company.<ref name"Top Tech Company">{{Cite web \|lastMcBride \|firstSarah \|dateJune 6, 2016 \|titleApple leads Tech Industry in Fortune 500 \|urlhttps://www.yahoo.com/tech/apple-top-tech-company-fortune-132100720.html \|access-dateJune 6, 2016 \|websiteYahoo Tech \|archive-dateMay 25, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170525081107/https://www.yahoo.com/tech/apple-top-tech-company-fortune-132100720.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> It ranked third, overall, with {{US$\|233}}{{nbsp}}billion in revenue.<ref name"Top Tech Company" /> This represents a movement upward of two spots from the previous year's list.<ref name="Top Tech Company" /> In June 2017, Apple announced the HomePod, its smart speaker aimed to compete against Sonos, Google Home, and Amazon Echo.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastGartenberg \|firstChaim \|dateJune 5, 2017 \|titleApple announces HomePod speaker to take on Sonos \|workThe Verge \|publisherVox Media \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2017/6/5/15732144/apple-homepod-speaker-announced-siri-price-release-date-wwdc-2017 \|access-dateDecember 14, 2017 \|archive-dateJune 5, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170605203335/https://www.theverge.com/2017/6/5/15732144/apple-homepod-speaker-announced-siri-price-release-date-wwdc-2017 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Toward the end of the year, TechCrunch reported that Apple was acquiring Shazam, a company that introduced its products at WWDC and specializing in music, TV, film and advertising recognition.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Lunden \|first1Ingrid \|last2Roof \|first2Katie \|dateDecember 8, 2017 \|titleSources: Apple is acquiring music recognition app Shazam \|workTechCrunch \|publisherOath Inc. \|urlhttps://techcrunch.com/2017/12/08/sources-apple-is-acquiring-music-recognition-app-shazam \|access-dateDecember 14, 2017 \|archive-dateDecember 14, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171214023447/https://techcrunch.com/2017/12/08/sources-apple-is-acquiring-music-recognition-app-shazam/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The acquisition was confirmed a few days later, reportedly costing Apple {{US$\|400}}{{nbsp}}million, with media reports that the purchase looked like a move to acquire data and tools bolstering the Apple Music streaming service.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastSingleton \|firstMicah \|dateDecember 11, 2017 \|titleApple confirms it has acquired Shazam \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2017/12/11/16761984/apple-shazam-acquisition \|access-dateDecember 14, 2017 \|websiteThe Verge \|publisherVox Media \|archive-dateApril 4, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190404084143/https://www.theverge.com/2017/12/11/16761984/apple-shazam-acquisition \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The purchase was approved by the European Union in September 2018.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateSeptember 6, 2018 \|titleEU clears Apple's purchase of song-recognition app Shazam \|workCNBC \|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2018/09/06/the-associated-press-eu-clears-apples-purchase-of-song-recognition-app-shazam.html \|url-statusdead \|access-dateSeptember 7, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180907144731/https://www.cnbc.com/2018/09/06/the-associated-press-eu-clears-apples-purchase-of-song-recognition-app-shazam.html \|archive-dateSeptember 7, 2018}}; {{Cite news \|lastWelch \|firstChris \|dateSeptember 24, 2018 \|titleApple completes Shazam acquisition, will make app ad-free for everyone \|workThe Verge \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2018/9/24/17896350/apple-shazam-app-acquisition-complete-free \|access-dateSeptember 24, 2018 \|archive-dateApril 4, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190404084143/https://www.theverge.com/2018/9/24/17896350/apple-shazam-app-acquisition-complete-free \|url-status=live}}</ref> Also in June 2017, Apple appointed Jamie Erlicht and Zack Van Amburg to head the newly formed worldwide video unit. In November 2017, Apple announced it was branching out into original scripted programming: a drama series starring Jennifer Aniston and Reese Witherspoon, and a reboot of the anthology series Amazing Stories with Steven Spielberg.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastAndreeva \|firstNellie \|dateNovember 8, 2017 \|titleApple Gives Reese Witherspoon-Jennifer Aniston Morning Show Series 2-Season Order, Confirms 'Amazing Stories' Reboot \|urlhttps://deadline.com/2017/11/apple-reese-witherspoon-jennifer-aniston-morning-show-series-2-season-order-amazing-stories-reboot-1202204293 \|access-dateJanuary 18, 2019 \|websiteDeadline Hollywood \|languageen \|archive-dateJanuary 20, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190120044428/https://deadline.com/2017/11/apple-reese-witherspoon-jennifer-aniston-morning-show-series-2-season-order-amazing-stories-reboot-1202204293/ \|url-statusdead}}</ref> In June 2018, Apple signed the Writers Guild of America's minimum basic agreement and Oprah Winfrey to a multi-year content partnership.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastRobb \|firstDavid \|dateJune 7, 2018 \|titleApple Signs WGA Contract As It Ramps Up Scripted Shows \|urlhttps://deadline.com/2018/06/apple-signs-wga-contract-as-it-ramps-up-scripted-shows-1202405862 \|access-dateJanuary 18, 2019 \|websiteDeadline Hollywood \|languageen \|archive-dateMarch 27, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190327091242/https://deadline.com/2018/06/apple-signs-wga-contract-as-it-ramps-up-scripted-shows-1202405862/ \|url-statusdead}}; {{Cite web \|lastAndreeva \|firstNellie \|dateJune 15, 2018 \|titleOprah Winfrey Partners With Apple For Original Content \|urlhttps://deadline.com/2018/06/oprah-winfrey-content-partnership-apple-for-original-programming-1202411370 \|access-dateJanuary 18, 2019 \|websiteDeadline Hollywood \|languageen \|archive-dateMarch 26, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190326025016/https://deadline.com/2018/06/oprah-winfrey-content-partnership-apple-for-original-programming-1202411370/ \|url-statusdead}}</ref> Additional partnerships for original series include Sesame Workshop and DHX Media and its subsidiary Peanuts Worldwide, and a partnership with A24 to create original films.<ref>{{Cite web \|last1Andreeva \|first1Nellie \|last2Petski \|first2Denise \|dateJune 20, 2018 \|titleApple Teams With Sesame Workshop On Children's Programming Slate \|urlhttps://deadline.com/2018/06/apple-sesame-workshop-childrens-programming-slate-live-action-animated-series-1202414268 \|access-dateJanuary 18, 2019 \|websiteDeadline Hollywood \|languageen \|archive-dateMarch 27, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190327090610/https://deadline.com/2018/06/apple-sesame-workshop-childrens-programming-slate-live-action-animated-series-1202414268/ \|url-statusdead}}; {{Cite web \|last1Andreeva \|first1Nellie \|last2Petski \|first2Denise \|dateDecember 14, 2018 \|titleApple Makes 'Peanuts' Deal; DHX Media To Produce New Series, Specials & Shorts With Classic Characters For Streamer \|urlhttps://deadline.com/2018/12/apple-makes-peanuts-deal-dhx-media-to-produce-new-series-specials-shorts-with-classic-characters-for-streamer-1202520215 \|access-dateJanuary 18, 2019 \|websiteDeadline Hollywood \|languageen \|archive-dateFebruary 1, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190201080858/https://deadline.com/2018/12/apple-makes-peanuts-deal-dhx-media-to-produce-new-series-specials-shorts-with-classic-characters-for-streamer-1202520215/ \|url-statusdead}}; {{Cite web \|last1Hipes \|first1Patrick \|last2Andreeva \|first2Nellie \|dateNovember 15, 2018 \|titleApple Inks Deal With A24 For Multiple Films As Part Of Push Into Movies \|urlhttps://deadline.com/2018/11/apple-original-movies-a24-slate-deal-1202502828 \|access-dateJanuary 18, 2019 \|websiteDeadline Hollywood \|languageen \|archive-dateNovember 17, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181117104937/https://deadline.com/2018/11/apple-original-movies-a24-slate-deal-1202502828/ \|url-statusdead}}</ref> During the Apple Special Event in September 2017, the AirPower wireless charger was announced alongside the iPhone X, iPhone 8, and Watch Series 3. The AirPower was intended to wirelessly charge multiple devices, simultaneously. Though initially set to release in early 2018, the AirPower would be canceled in March 2019, marking the first cancellation of a device under Cook's leadership.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastGurman \|firstMark \|author-linkMark Gurman (journalist) \|dateMarch 29, 2019 \|titleApple Cancels Plan for AirPower Wireless Charger \|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-03-29/apple-cancels-anticipated-airpower-wireless-charging-accessory \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210805050713/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-03-29/apple-cancels-anticipated-airpower-wireless-charging-accessory \|archive-dateAugust 5, 2021 \|access-dateAugust 25, 2022 \|workBloomberg.com}}; {{Cite web \|lastPanzarino \|firstMatthew \|dateMarch 29, 2019 \|titleApple cancels AirPower product, citing inability to meet its high standards for hardware \|urlhttps://techcrunch.com/2019/03/29/apple-cancels-airpower-product-citing-inability-to-meet-its-high-standards-for-hardware/ \|access-dateAugust 25, 2022 \|websiteTechCrunch \|archive-dateMarch 29, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190329231507/https://techcrunch.com/2019/03/29/apple-cancels-airpower-product-citing-inability-to-meet-its-high-standards-for-hardware/ \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite magazine \|lastGoode \|firstLauren \|dateMarch 29, 2019 \|titleRIP AirPower: Apple Kills Its Elusive Wireless Charging Pad \|urlhttps://www.wired.com/story/apple-kills-airpower \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220825111224/https://www.wired.com/story/apple-kills-airpower/ \|archive-dateAugust 25, 2022 \|magazineWired \|issn1059-1028 \|accessdateAugust 25, 2022}}</ref> On August 19, 2020, Apple's share price briefly topped $467.77, making it the first US company with a market capitalization of {{US$\|2}}{{nbsp}}trillion.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastBursztynsky \|firstJessica \|dateAugust 19, 2020 \|titleApple becomes first U.S. company to reach a $2 trillion market cap \|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2020/08/19/apple-reaches-2-trillion-market-cap.html \|access-dateAugust 19, 2020 \|websiteCNBC \|languageen \|archive-dateJuly 21, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220721003235/https://www.cnbc.com/2020/08/19/apple-reaches-2-trillion-market-cap.html \|url-status=live}}</ref> (2020), Apple's first notebook computer following the switch from Intel x86 to ARM processors]] During its annual WWDC keynote speech on June 22, 2020, Apple announced it would move away from Intel processors, and the Mac would transition to processors developed in-house.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastWarren \|firstTom \|dateJune 22, 2020 \|titleApple announces it will switch to its own processors for future Macs \|workThe Verge \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2020/6/22/21295475/apple-mac-processors-arm-silicon-chips-wwdc-2020 \|access-dateJune 22, 2020 \|archive-dateJune 22, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200622192505/https://www.theverge.com/2020/6/22/21295475/apple-mac-processors-arm-silicon-chips-wwdc-2020 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The announcement was expected by industry analysts, and it has been noted that Macs featuring Apple's processors would allow for big increases in performance over current Intel-based models.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastHaselton \|firstTodd \|dateJune 22, 2020 \|titleApple will stop using Intel chips in all Macs by 2021, top analyst says \|workCNBC \|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2020/06/22/new-macbook-pro-and-imac-coming-with-arm-chips-instead-of-intel---kuo.html \|access-dateJune 22, 2020 \|archive-dateJune 1, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220601092329/https://www.cnbc.com/2020/06/22/new-macbook-pro-and-imac-coming-with-arm-chips-instead-of-intel---kuo.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> On November 10, 2020, the MacBook Air, MacBook Pro, and the Mac Mini became the first Macs powered by an Apple-designed processor, the Apple M1.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateNovember 2, 2020 \|titleApple announces 'One More Thing' event for November 10th \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2020/11/2/21546136/apple-event-date-time-november-10th-one-more-thing-arm-mac-silicon \|access-dateNovember 2, 2020 \|websiteThe Verge \|archive-dateJune 2, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220602162103/https://www.theverge.com/2020/11/2/21546136/apple-event-date-time-november-10th-one-more-thing-arm-mac-silicon \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In April 2022, it was reported that Samsung Electro-Mechanics would be collaborating with Apple on its M2 chip instead of LG Innotek.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMcDaniel \|firstAllison \|dateApril 21, 2022 \|titleApple's M2 chip nears as Samsung beats LG as processor packaging partner \|urlhttps://9to5mac.com/2022/04/21/apple-m2-chip-samsung \|access-dateApril 27, 2022 \|website9to5Mac \|languageen-US \|archive-dateApril 22, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220422080359/https://9to5mac.com/2022/04/21/apple-m2-chip-samsung/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Developer logs showed that at least nine Mac models with four different M2 chips were being tested.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateApril 14, 2022 \|titleApple tests several new Macs with next-generation M2 chips – Bloomberg News \|languageen \|workReuters \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/technology/apple-tests-several-new-macs-with-next-generation-m2-chips-bloomberg-news-2022-04-14 \|access-dateApril 27, 2022 \|archive-dateApril 27, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220427123652/https://www.reuters.com/technology/apple-tests-several-new-macs-with-next-generation-m2-chips-bloomberg-news-2022-04-14/ \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|lastClark \|firstMitchell \|dateApril 14, 2022 \|titleApple's M2 chips and the computers they'll power detailed in new leak \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2022/4/14/23026073/apple-m2-silicon-macbook-air-pro-mac-mini-rumors \|access-dateApril 27, 2022 \|websiteThe Verge \|languageen \|archive-dateJune 2, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220602195315/https://www.theverge.com/2022/4/14/23026073/apple-m2-silicon-macbook-air-pro-mac-mini-rumors \|url-status=live}}</ref> The Wall Street Journal reported that Apple's effort to develop its own chips left it better prepared to deal with the semiconductor shortage that emerged during the COVID-19 pandemic, which led to increased profitability, with sales of M1-based Mac computers rising sharply in 2020 and 2021. It also inspired other companies like Tesla, Amazon, and Meta Platforms to pursue a similar path.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastHiggins \|firstTim \|dateApril 16, 2022 \|titleThe Chips That Rebooted the Mac \|languageen-US \|workThe Wall Street Journal \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/the-chips-that-rebooted-the-mac-11650081649 \|access-dateApril 27, 2022 \|issn0099-9660 \|archive-dateJuly 29, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220729031056/https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-chips-that-rebooted-the-mac-11650081649 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In April 2022, Apple opened an online store that allowed anyone in the U.S. to view repair manuals and order replacement parts for specific recent iPhones, although the difference in cost between this method and official repair is anticipated to be minimal.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastBrown \|firstDalvin \|dateApril 27, 2022 \|titleApple Opens Self-Repair Store With $300 iPhone Screens, 19-Cent Screws \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/apple-opens-self-repair-store-with-300-iphone-screens-19-cent-screws-11651031828 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220801153719/https://www.wsj.com/articles/apple-opens-self-repair-store-with-300-iphone-screens-19-cent-screws-11651031828 \|archive-dateAugust 1, 2022 \|access-dateApril 27, 2022 \|workThe Wall Street Journal \|languageen-US \|issn0099-9660}}; {{Cite web \|lastFeiner \|firstLauren \|dateApril 27, 2022 \|titleApple now lets you buy parts so you can fix your iPhone yourself \|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2022/04/27/apple-now-lets-you-buy-iphone-parts-so-you-can-fix-it-yourself.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220625155230/https://www.cnbc.com/2022/04/27/apple-now-lets-you-buy-iphone-parts-so-you-can-fix-it-yourself.html \|archive-dateJune 25, 2022 \|access-dateApril 27, 2022 \|websiteCNBC \|languageen}}; {{Cite web \|lastPorter \|firstJon \|dateApril 27, 2022 \|titleApple's DIY repair service is now available in the US \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2022/4/27/23044301/apple-iphone-diy-repair-self-service-program-spare-parts-12-13 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220629180938/https://www.theverge.com/2022/4/27/23044301/apple-iphone-diy-repair-self-service-program-spare-parts-12-13 \|archive-dateJune 29, 2022 \|access-dateApril 27, 2022 \|websiteThe Verge \|languageen}}; {{Cite web \|dateApril 27, 2022 \|titleApple's Self Service Repair program is now open to iPhone owners in the US \|urlhttps://www.engadget.com/apple-self-service-repair-release-date-122332505.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220802150900/https://www.engadget.com/apple-self-service-repair-release-date-122332505.html \|archive-dateAugust 2, 2022 \|access-dateApril 27, 2022 \|websiteEngadget \|languageen-US}}; {{Cite web \|dateApril 27, 2022 \|titleApple opens Self Service Repair to US iPhone users \|urlhttps://techcrunch.com/2022/04/27/apple-opens-self-service-repair-to-us-iphone-users/ \|access-dateApril 27, 2022 \|websiteTechCrunch \|languageen-US \|archive-dateApril 27, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220427120236/https://techcrunch.com/2022/04/27/apple-opens-self-service-repair-to-us-iphone-users/ \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|lastSherr \|firstIan \|titleApple Launches Do-It-Yourself Repairs For iPhone 13, iPhone 12 and iPhone SE \|urlhttps://www.cnet.com/tech/mobile/apple-launches-do-it-yourself-repairs-for-iphone-13-iphone-12-and-iphone-se \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220427120621/https://www.cnet.com/tech/mobile/apple-launches-do-it-yourself-repairs-for-iphone-13-iphone-12-and-iphone-se/ \|archive-dateApril 27, 2022 \|access-dateApril 27, 2022 \|websiteCNET \|languageen}}; {{Cite web \|titleApple's Self-Service Repair Store Finally Launches \|urlhttps://www.pcmag.com/news/apples-self-service-repair-store-finally-launches \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220613180932/https://www.pcmag.com/news/apples-self-service-repair-store-finally-launches \|archive-dateJune 13, 2022 \|access-dateApril 27, 2022 \|websitePCMAG \|dateApril 27, 2022 \|language=en}}</ref> In May 2022, a trademark was filed for RealityOS, an operating system reportedly intended for virtual and augmented reality headsets, first mentioned in 2017. According to Bloomberg, the headset may come out in 2023.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastPorter \|firstJon \|dateMay 30, 2022 \|titleApple's RealityOS for rumored headset appears in trademark application \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2022/5/30/23147213/realityos-os-ros-trademark-apple-virtual-augmented-reality-headset \|access-dateMay 30, 2022 \|websiteThe Verge \|archive-dateJuly 8, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220708040805/https://www.theverge.com/2022/5/30/23147213/realityos-os-ros-trademark-apple-virtual-augmented-reality-headset \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|last1Gurman \|first1Mark \|author-link1Mark Gurman (journalist) \|last2Mochizuki \|first2Takashi \|last3Wu \|first3Debby \|dateJanuary 14, 2022 \|titleApple's New VR/AR Headset Risks Being Delayed Until 2023 \|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-01-14/apple-s-hotly-anticipated-headset-risks-being-delayed-until-2023?srefExbtjcSG \|access-dateMay 30, 2022 \|websiteBloomberg \|archive-dateApril 19, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220419120240/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-01-14/apple-s-hotly-anticipated-headset-risks-being-delayed-until-2023?srefExbtjcSG \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Further insider reports state that the device uses iris scanning for payment confirmation and signing into accounts.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Fingas \|first1Jon \|titleApple's mixed reality headset reportedly uses iris scanning for payments and sign-ins \|urlhttps://www.engadget.com/apple-mixed-reality-headset-iris-scanning-153036223.html \|websiteEngadget \|dateOctober 14, 2022 \|access-dateOctober 19, 2022 \|archive-dateOctober 19, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221019194454/https://www.engadget.com/apple-mixed-reality-headset-iris-scanning-153036223.html \|url-status=live}}</ref> On June 18, 2022, the Apple Store in Towson, Maryland, became the first to unionize in the U.S., with the employees voting to join the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Lerman \|first1Rachel \|last2Gregg \|first2Aaron \|last3Somasundaram \|first3Praveena \|dateJune 19, 2022 \|titleApple Store workers approve union, the first in the U.S. \|newspaperThe Washington Post \|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2022/06/18/apple-union-vote \|access-dateJune 19, 2022 \|archive-dateJune 19, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220619003224/https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2022/06/18/apple-union-vote/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> On July 7, 2022, Apple added Lockdown Mode to macOS 13 and iOS 16, as a response to the earlier Pegasus revelations; the mode increases security protections for high-risk users against targeted zero-day malware.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateJuly 6, 2022 \|titleApple launches Lockdown Mode to block spyware attacks on at-risk users \|publisherBBC News \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/technology-62069255 \|access-dateJuly 7, 2022 \|archive-dateJuly 28, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220728005310/https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-62069255 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Apple launched a buy now, pay later service called 'Apple Pay Later' for its Apple Wallet users in March 2023. The program allows its users to apply for loans between $50 and $1,000 to make online or in-app purchases and then repaying them through four installments spread over six weeks without any interest or fees.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Hunter \|first1Tatum \|last2Velazco \|first2Chris \|dateMarch 28, 2023 \|titleNow you can 'buy now, pay later' with Apple Wallet \|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2023/03/28/apple-buy-now-pay-later/ \|newspaperThe Washington Post \|access-dateMarch 29, 2023 \|archive-dateMarch 29, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230329102346/https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2023/03/28/apple-buy-now-pay-later/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|lastDe Avila \|firstJoseph \|dateMarch 28, 2023 \|titleApple Rolls Out Buy Now, Pay Later Plan \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/apple-rolls-out-buy-now-pay-later-plan-640ae583 \|newspaperThe Wall Street Journal \|access-dateMarch 29, 2023 \|archive-dateMarch 29, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230329053013/https://www.wsj.com/articles/apple-rolls-out-buy-now-pay-later-plan-640ae583 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In November 2023, Apple agreed to a $25 million settlement in a U.S. Department of Justice case that alleged Apple was discriminating against U.S. citizens in hiring. Apple created jobs that were not listed online and required paper submission to apply for, while advertising these jobs to foreign workers as part of recruitment for PERM.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Gurman \|first1Mark \|author-link1Mark Gurman (journalist) \|dateNovember 9, 2023 \|titleApple Settles DOJ Case That It Discriminated Against US Workers \|urlhttps://news.bloomberglaw.com/tech-and-telecom-law/apple-settles-doj-case-that-it-discriminated-against-us-workers \|newspaperBloomberg News \|access-dateNovember 27, 2023 \|archive-dateNovember 27, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231127152701/https://news.bloomberglaw.com/tech-and-telecom-law/apple-settles-doj-case-that-it-discriminated-against-us-workers \|url-status=live}}</ref> In January 2024, Apple announced compliance with the European Union's competition law, with major changes to the App Store and other services, effective on March 7. This enables iOS users in the 27-nation bloc to use alternative app stores, and alternative payment methods within apps. This adds a menu in Safari for downloading alternative browsers, such as Chrome or Firefox.<ref>{{Cite news \|languageen \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/25/technology/apple-app-store-europe.html \|titleApple Overhauls App Store in Europe, in Response to New Digital Law \|workThe New York Times \|dateJanuary 25, 2024 \|access-dateJanuary 29, 2024\|archive-dateJanuary 26, 2024\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240126040405/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/25/technology/apple-app-store-europe.html \|last1Satariano \|first1Adam \|last2Mickle \|first2Tripp}}</ref> In June 2024, Apple introduced Apple Intelligence to incorporate on-device artificial intelligence capabilities.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastTilley \|firstAaron \|titleApple Introduces 'Apple Intelligence,' New OpenAI Partnership as AI Takes Center Stage \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/tech/ai/apple-wwdc-2024-ai-release-356c5303 \|access-dateJune 11, 2024 \|workWSJ \|language=en-US}}</ref> On November 1, 2024, Apple announced its acquisition of Pixelmator, a company known for its image editing applications for iPhone and Mac. Apple had previously showcased Pixelmator's apps during its product launches, including naming Pixelmator Pro its Mac App of the Year in 2018 for its innovative use of machine learning and AI. In the announcement, Pixelmator stated that there would be no significant changes to its existing apps following the acquisition.<ref>{{cite news\|lastLeswing \|firstKif \|titleApple to buy Pixelmator, the iPhone image editing app with AI features \|date1 November 2024 \|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2024/11/01/apple-will-buy-pixelmator-iphone-image-editing-app-with-ai-features-.html \|websiteCNBC \|access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> On December 31, 2024, a preliminary settlement was filed in the Oakland, California federal court that accused Apple of unlawfully recording private conversations through unintentional Siri activations and shared them with third parties, including advertisers. Apple agreed to a $95 million cash settlement to resolve this lawsuit in which its Siri assistant violated user privacy. While denying any wrongdoing, Apple settled the case, allowing affected users to potentially claim up to $20 per device. Attorneys sought $28.5 million in fees from the settlement fund.<ref>{{cite news\|lastStempel \|firstJonathan \|titleApple to pay $95 million to settle Siri privacy lawsuit \|date2 January 2025 \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/legal/apple-pay-95-million-settle-siri-privacy-lawsuit-2025-01-02/ \|websiteReuters \|access-date4 January 2025}}</ref> Products {{see also\|List of Apple products}}Since the company's founding and into the early 2000s, Apple primarily sold computers, which are marketed as Macintosh since the mid-1980s. Since then, the company has expanded its product categories to include various portable devices, starting with the now discontinued iPod (2001), and later with the iPhone (2007) and iPad (2010). Apple also sells several other products that it categorizes as "Wearables, Home and Accessories", such as the Apple Watch, Apple TV, AirPods, HomePod, and Apple Vision Pro. Apple devices have been praised for creating a cohesive ecosystem when used in conjunction with other Apple products,<ref>{{Cite web \|lastRicker \|firstThomas \|date2016-09-07 \|titleApple's greatest innovation is its ecosystem \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2016/9/7/12828846/apple-s-greatest-product-is-its-ecosystem \|access-date2024-10-13 \|websiteThe Verge \|languageen-US}}</ref> though have received criticism for not functioning as well or with as many features when used with competitive devices and instead often relying on Apple's proprietary features, software, and services to work as intended by Apple, an approach often described as "walled garden".<ref>{{Cite web \|lastJohnson \|firstAllison \|date2024-04-27 \|titleThe walls of Apple's garden are tumbling down \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/24141929/apple-iphone-imessage-antitrust-dma-lock-in \|access-date2024-12-12 \|websiteThe Verge \|languageen}}</ref> As of 2023, there are over 2 billion Apple devices in active use worldwide.<ref name"TheVerge20230202"/> Mac {{Main\|Mac (computer)}} {{Multiple image \| total_width = 250 \| image1 = M2 Macbook Air Midnight model - 1.jpg \| caption1 = MacBook Air with M2 chip \| image2 = M1 iMac blue model (cropped).jpg \| caption2 = iMac with M1 chip \| alt1 = A MacBook Air, in midnight color, on a wooden desk. \| alt2 = An thin iMac in blue color on a desk. }} Mac, which is short for Macintosh—its official name until 1999—is Apple's line of personal computers that use the company's proprietary macOS operating system. Personal computers were Apple's original business line, but {{As of\|2024\|lcy\|prethe end of}} they account for only about eight percent of the company's revenue.<ref name="Apple-10-K-Report-2024" /> There are six Mac computer families in production: * iMac: Consumer all-in-one desktop computer, introduced in 1998. * Mac Mini: Consumer sub-desktop computer, introduced in 2005. * MacBook Pro: Professional notebook, introduced in 2006. * Mac Pro: Professional workstation, introduced in 2006. * MacBook Air: Consumer ultra-thin notebook, introduced in 2008. * Mac Studio: Professional small form-factor workstation, introduced in 2022. Often described as a walled garden, Macs use Apple silicon chips, run the macOS operating system, and include Apple software like the Safari web browser, iMovie for home movie editing, GarageBand for music creation, and the iWork productivity suite. Apple also sells pro apps: Final Cut Pro for video production, Logic Pro for musicians and producers, and Xcode for software developers. Apple also sells a variety of accessories for Macs, including the Pro Display XDR, Apple Studio Display, Magic Mouse, Magic Trackpad, and Magic Keyboard. iPhone {{Main\|iPhone}} (left) and iPhone 15 Pro (right)]] The iPhone is Apple's line of smartphones, which run the iOS operating system. The first iPhone was unveiled by Steve Jobs on January 9, 2007. Since then, new iPhone models have been released every year. When it was introduced, its multi-touch screen was described as "revolutionary" and a "game-changer" for the mobile phone industry. The device has been credited with creating the app economy. iOS is one of the two major smartphone platforms in the world, alongside Android. The iPhone has generated large profits for the company, and is credited with helping to make Apple one of the world's most valuable publicly traded companies.<ref>{{cite web \|lastSatariano \|firstAdam \|dateAugust 10, 2011 \|titleApple Surpasses Exxon as World's Most Valuable Company Before Retreating \|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-08-09/apple-rises-from-near-bankruptcy-to-become-most-valuable-company.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110810082324/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-08-09/apple-rises-from-near-bankruptcy-to-become-most-valuable-company.html \|archive-dateAugust 10, 2011 \|access-dateMay 28, 2017 \|workBloomberg News}}</ref> {{As of\|2024\|prethe end of}}, the iPhone accounts for nearly half<!-- 49% --> of the company's revenue.<ref name"Apple-10-K-Report-2024" /> iPad {{Main\|iPad}} The iPad is Apple's line of tablets which run iPadOS. The first-generation iPad was announced on January 27, 2010. The iPad is mainly marketed for consuming multimedia, creating art, working on documents, videoconferencing, and playing games. The iPad lineup consists of several base iPad models, and the smaller iPad Mini, upgraded iPad Air, and high-end iPad Pro. Apple has consistently improved the iPad's performance, with the iPad Pro adopting the same M1 and M2 chips as the Mac; but the iPad still receives criticism for its limited OS.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastBohn \|firstDieter \|dateMay 19, 2021 \|titleiPad Pro (2021) review: the best screen, but is that enough? \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/22442084/ipad-pro-2021-review-features-screen-mini-led-m1-processor \|access-dateNovember 7, 2022 \|websiteThe Verge \|languageen-US \|archive-dateNovember 5, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211105160939/https://www.theverge.com/22442084/ipad-pro-2021-review-features-screen-mini-led-m1-processor \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastIvanov \|firstDzhoro \|titleThe M1 iPad Pro can run a desktop OS – Apple just won't let it \|urlhttps://www.phonearena.com/news/The-M1-iPad-Pro-can-run-a-desktop-OS---Apple-just-wont-let-it_id142585 \|access-dateNovember 7, 2022 \|websitePhone Arena \|dateSeptember 18, 2022 \|languageen-US \|archive-dateNovember 7, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221107210123/https://www.phonearena.com/news/The-M1-iPad-Pro-can-run-a-desktop-OS---Apple-just-wont-let-it_id142585 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> {{as of\|2020\|September\|post,}} Apple has sold more than 500&nbsp;million iPads, though sales peaked in 2013.<ref name"500m ipads">{{Cite web \|titleApple has sold a total of 500 million iPads in the last 10 years \|urlhttps://appleinsider.com/articles/20/09/15/apple-has-sold-a-total-of-500-million-ipads-in-the-last-10-years \|access-dateSeptember 21, 2020 \|websiteAppleInsider \|dateSeptember 15, 2020 \|languageen \|archive-dateJanuary 30, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220130200317/https://appleinsider.com/articles/20/09/15/apple-has-sold-a-total-of-500-million-ipads-in-the-last-10-years \|url-statuslive}}; {{cite web \|lastFried \|firstIna \|dateJanuary 31, 2017 \|titleiPad sales keep shrinking – down another 20 percent \|urlhttps://www.recode.net/2017/1/31/14460952/apple-ipad-sales-still-falling\|access-dateMarch 20, 2019 \|websiteRecode\|archive-dateApril 29, 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190429144854/https://www.recode.net/2017/1/31/14460952/apple-ipad-sales-still-falling\|url-statuslive}}; {{cite news \|dateMarch 23, 2017 \|title'Clearance sale' shows Apple's iPad is over. It's done \|workThe Register \|urlhttps://www.theregister.co.uk/2017/03/23/clearance_sale_shows_the_ipad_is_over_its_done\|access-dateMarch 20, 2019\|archive-dateDecember 3, 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181203202632/https://www.theregister.co.uk/2017/03/23/clearance_sale_shows_the_ipad_is_over_its_done/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The iPad still remains the most popular tablet computer by sales {{As of\|2020\|lcy\|prethe second quarter of}},<ref>{{Cite web \|lastPotuck \|firstMichael \|dateAugust 5, 2020 \|titleLatest data suggests iPad sales hit highest growth rate in 6 years during Q2 \|urlhttps://9to5mac.com/2020/08/05/latest-data-suggests-ipad-sales-hit-highest-growth-rate-in-6-years-during-q2 \|access-dateSeptember 21, 2020 \|website9to5Mac \|languageen-US \|archive-dateJanuary 18, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210118135627/https://9to5mac.com/2020/08/05/latest-data-suggests-ipad-sales-hit-highest-growth-rate-in-6-years-during-q2/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> and accounted for seven percent of the company's revenue {{As of\|2024\|lcy\|prethe end of}}.<ref name"Apple-10-K-Report-2024" /> Apple sells several iPad accessories, including the Apple Pencil, Smart Keyboard, Smart Keyboard Folio, Magic Keyboard, and several adapters. Other products {{Multiple image \| image1 = Apple AirPods Max 6.jpg \| caption1 = AirPods Max \| image2 = Apple Watch Ultra - 2.jpg \| caption2 = Apple Watch Ultra \| total_width = 250 \| perrow = 2 / 2 }} Apple makes several other products that it categorizes as "Wearables, Home and Accessories".<ref>{{Cite web \|lastLeswing \|firstKif \|dateJanuary 28, 2020 \|titleApple's fastest-growing business segment, which includes AirPods and Watch, is now bigger than Mac \|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2020/01/28/apple-wearables-home-and-accessories-segment-now-bigger-than-mac.html \|access-dateOctober 19, 2022 \|websiteCNBC \|languageen \|archive-dateOctober 19, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221019225049/https://www.cnbc.com/2020/01/28/apple-wearables-home-and-accessories-segment-now-bigger-than-mac.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> These products include the AirPods line of wireless headphones, Apple TV digital media players, Apple Watch smartwatches, Beats headphones, HomePod smart speakers, and the Vision Pro mixed reality headset. {{As of\|2024\|prethe end of}}, this broad line of products comprises about ten percent of the company's revenues.<ref name"Apple-10-K-Report-2024" /> Services Apple offers a broad line of services, including advertising in the App Store and Apple News app, the AppleCare+ extended warranty plan, the iCloud+ cloud-based data storage service, payment services through the Apple Card credit card and the Apple Pay processing platform, digital content services including Apple Books, Apple Fitness+, Apple Music, Apple News+, Apple TV+, and the iTunes Store. {{As of\|2024\|prethe end of}}, services comprise about 26% of the company's revenue.<ref name"Apple-10-K-Report-2024" /> In 2019, Apple announced it would be making a concerted effort to expand its service revenues.<ref name"AppleVideoRevenue2">{{Cite news \|lastPullen \|firstJohn Patrick \|dateMarch 24, 2019 \|titleApple's Two-Word Plan for the Future of the Internet: Subscribe Now \|workForbes \|urlhttp://fortune.com/2019/03/24/watch-apple-event-live-stream-television-news-service \|url-statuslive \|access-dateMarch 25, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190325135825/http://fortune.com/2019/03/24/watch-apple-event-live-stream-television-news-service \|archive-dateMarch 25, 2019}}</ref> {{Clear}} Marketing {{Main\|Marketing of Apple Inc.}} Branding According to Steve Jobs, the company's name was inspired by his visit to an apple farm while on a fruitarian diet.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateOctober 20, 2011 \|titleSteve Jobs bio says Apple CEO abhorred 'corrupt' execs \|publisherCBC News \|urlhttps://www.cbc.ca/news/science/steve-jobs-chose-herbal-medicine-delayed-cancer-surgery-1.1124855 \|access-dateOctober 21, 2011 \|archive-dateSeptember 9, 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130909103558/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/10/20/steve-jobs-bio.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Apple's first logo, designed by Ron Wayne, depicts Sir Isaac Newton sitting under an apple tree. It was almost immediately replaced by Rob Janoff's "rainbow Apple", the now-familiar rainbow-colored silhouette of an apple with a bite taken out of it.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttp://www.wired.com/2003/09/apple-doin-the-logo-motion/ \|titleWired News: Apple Doin' the Logo-Motion \|dateSeptember 26, 2003 \|access-dateDecember 3, 2023 \|archive-dateDecember 3, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231203130321/https://www.wired.com/2003/09/apple-doin-the-logo-motion/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> This logo has been erroneously referred to as a tribute to Alan Turing, with the bite mark a reference to his method of suicide.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/media/logos-that-became-legends-icons-from-the-world-of-advertising-768077.html \|titleLogos that became legends: Icons from the world of advertising \|locationUK \|workThe Independent \|access-dateSeptember 14, 2009 \|dateJanuary 4, 2008 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091003003651/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/media/logos-that-became-legends-icons-from-the-world-of-advertising-768077.html \|archive-dateOctober 3, 2009 \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|dateMarch 14, 2005 \|titleArchived Interview with Rob Janoff \|urlhttp://www.unisourcedesign.ca/en/archive_design_technology.html_1.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050314132032/http://www.unisourcedesign.ca/en/archive_design_technology.html_1.html \|archive-dateMarch 14, 2005}}</ref> On August 27, 1999,<ref name"web.archive.org">{{Cite web \|dateAugust 27, 1999 \|titleApple Computer \|urlhttps://www.apple.com \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/19990827174523/http://www.apple.com \|archive-dateAugust 27, 1999 \|access-dateJanuary 1, 2014}}</ref> Apple officially dropped the rainbow scheme and began to use monochromatic logos nearly identical in shape to the previous rainbow incarnation. An Aqua-themed version of the monochrome logo was used from 1998 until 2003, and a glass-themed version was used from 2007 until 2013.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleThe Lost Apple Logos You've Never Seen \|urlhttp://thebrainfever.com/apple/the-lost-apple-logos-you-ve-never-seen \|publisherthebrainfever}}</ref> Apple evangelists were actively engaged by the company at one time, but this was after the phenomenon had already been firmly established. Apple evangelist Guy Kawasaki has called the brand fanaticism "something that was stumbled upon",<ref>{{Cite web \|last1McConnell \|first1Ben \|last2Huba \|first2Jackie \|titleThe father of evangelism marketing \|urlhttp://creatingcustomerevangelists.com/resources/evangelists/guy_kawasaki.asp \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20030725064021/http://creatingcustomerevangelists.com/resources/evangelists/guy_kawasaki.asp \|archive-dateJuly 25, 2003 \|access-dateApril 18, 2017 \|websiteCreating Customer Evangelists}}</ref> while Ive claimed in 2014 that "people have an incredibly personal relationship" with Apple's products.<ref name="Time" /> Fortune magazine named Apple the most admired company in the United States in 2008, and in the world from 2008 to 2012.<ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastFisher \|firstAnne \|dateMarch 17, 2008 \|titleAmerica's Most Admired Companies \|urlhttps://money.cnn.com/galleries/2008/fortune/0802/gallery.mostadmired_top20.fortune/index.html \|magazineFortune \|publisherCNN \|volume157 \|issue5 \|pages65–67 \|access-dateAugust 2, 2020 \|archive-dateMay 23, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220523090601/https://money.cnn.com/galleries/2008/fortune/0802/gallery.mostadmired_top20.fortune/index.html \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite magazine \|lastColvin \|firstGeoff \|titleThe World's Most Admired Companies 2009 \|magazineFortune \|publisherCNN \|volume159 \|issue5 \|page76 \|dateMarch 16, 2009 \|urlhttps://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/mostadmired/2009/full_list \|access-dateAugust 2, 2020 \|archive-dateAugust 14, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200814123717/https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/mostadmired/2009/full_list/ \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite magazine \|urlhttps://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/mostadmired/2010/snapshots/670.html \|titleWorld's Most Admired Companies \|magazineFortune \|publisherCNN \|dateMarch 2010 \|access-dateMarch 7, 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100307092117/https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/mostadmired/2010/snapshots/670.html \|archive-dateMarch 7, 2010 \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite magazine \|urlhttps://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/mostadmired/2011/snapshots/670.html \|titleWorld's Most Admired Companies \|magazineFortune \|publisherCNN \|dateNovember 2011 \|access-dateNovember 10, 2011 \|archive-dateJune 27, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220627230421/https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/mostadmired/2011/snapshots/670.html \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite magazine \|titleThe World's Most Admired Companies \|magazineFortune \|dateMarch 19, 2012 \|volume165 \|issue4 \|pages139–140 \|urlhttps://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/most-admired/2012/snapshots/670.html?iidsplwinners \|access-dateAugust 2, 2020 \|archive-dateJune 23, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220623014503/https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/most-admired/2012/snapshots/670.html?iidsplwinners \|url-statuslive}}</ref> On September 30, 2013, Apple surpassed Coca-Cola to become the world's most valuable brand in the Omnicom Group's "Best Global Brands" report.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastElliot \|firstStuart \|dateSeptember 29, 2013 \|titleApple Passes Coca-Cola as Most Valuable Brand \|workThe New York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/30/business/media/apple-passes-coca-cola-as-most-valuable-brand.html \|url-accesslimited \|access-dateOctober 21, 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/30/business/media/apple-passes-coca-cola-as-most-valuable-brand.html \|archive-dateJanuary 1, 2022}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Boston Consulting Group has ranked Apple as the world's most innovative brand every year {{as of\|2005\|lctrue}}.<ref>[https://www.forbes.com/sites/susanadams/2013/09/27/is-apple-the-worlds-most-innovative-company-still Is Apple The World's Most Innovative Company (Still)?] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170910005018/https://www.forbes.com/sites/susanadams/2013/09/27/is-apple-the-worlds-most-innovative-company-still/ \|dateSeptember 10, 2017 }}, Forbes, September 27, 2013.</ref> {{As of\|2021\|January\|post,}} 1.65 billion Apple products were in active use.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateJanuary 27, 2021 \|titleApple sees revenue growth accelerating after setting record for iPhone sales, China strength \|languageen \|workReuters \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-apple-results-idUSKBN29W2TD \|access-dateJuly 18, 2023 \|archive-dateJuly 18, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230718201014/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-apple-results-idUSKBN29W2TD \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|titleApple Now Has 1.65 Billion Active Devices Worldwide \|languageen \|urlhttps://www.macrumors.com/2021/01/27/apple-active-devices-worldwide-january-2021 \|access-dateJanuary 27, 2021 \|archive-dateJanuary 27, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210127220139/https://www.macrumors.com/2021/01/27/apple-active-devices-worldwide-january-2021/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In February 2023, that number exceeded 2 billion devices.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateFebruary 2, 2023 \|titleApple Now Has More Than Two Billion Active Devices Worldwide \|urlhttps://www.macrumors.com/2023/02/02/apple-two-billion-active-devices/ \|access-dateJuly 18, 2023 \|websiteMacRumors \|languageen \|archive-dateJuly 18, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230718194120/https://www.macrumors.com/2023/02/02/apple-two-billion-active-devices/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"TheVerge20230202">{{Cite web \|lastShakir \|firstUmar \|dateFebruary 2, 2023 \|titleApple surpasses 2 billion active devices \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2023/2/2/23583501/apple-iphone-ipad-active-2-billion-devices-q1-2023 \|access-dateJuly 18, 2023 \|websiteThe Verge \|languageen-US \|archive-dateJuly 18, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230718194119/https://www.theverge.com/2023/2/2/23583501/apple-iphone-ipad-active-2-billion-devices-q1-2023 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2023, the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)'s Madrid Yearly Review ranked Apple Inc.'s number of marks applications filled under the Madrid System as 10th in the world, with 74 trademarks applications submitted during 2023.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMadrid Yearly Review 2024 \|urlhttps://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo-pub-940-2024-en-madrid-yearly-review-2024.pdf \|page=22}}</ref> Apple was ranked the No. 3 company in the world in the 2024 Fortune 500 list.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleFortune 500 \|urlhttps://fortune.com/ranking/fortune500/ \|access-date2024-10-02 \|websiteFortune \|languageen}}</ref> Advertising {{Main\|Apple Inc. advertising}} Apple's first slogan, "Byte into an Apple", was coined in the late 1970s.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateDecember 10, 2007 \|titleApple Company \|urlhttp://www.operating-system.org/betriebssystem/_english/fa-apple.htm \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080921095608/http://www.operating-system.org/betriebssystem/_english/fa-apple.htm \|archive-dateSeptember 21, 2008 \|access-dateAugust 18, 2008 \|websiteOperating System Documentation Project}}</ref> From 1997 to 2002, the slogan "Think different" was used in advertising campaigns, and is still closely associated with Apple.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateOctober 6, 2005 \|titleApple Think Different Campaign \|urlhttp://www.theinspirationroom.com/daily/2005/apple-think-different \|access-dateAugust 12, 2008 \|websiteThe Inspiration Room Daily \|archive-dateAugust 19, 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100819174102/http://theinspirationroom.com/daily/2005/apple-think-different/ \|url-statusdead}}</ref> Apple also has slogans for specific product lines—for example, "iThink, therefore iMac" was used in 1998 to promote the iMac,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMacWorld New York: I think, therefore iMac \|urlhttp://www.wap.org/tours/macworldny/ithink.html \|access-dateAugust 13, 2008 \|archive-dateMay 21, 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110521031031/http://wap.org/tours/macworldny/ithink.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> and "Say hello to iPhone" has been used in iPhone advertisements.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateJune 29, 2007 \|titleSay hello to iPhone \|urlhttp://billday.com/2007/06/29/say-hello-to-iphone \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080907003704/http://billday.com/2007/06/29/say-hello-to-iphone \|archive-dateSeptember 7, 2008 \|access-dateAugust 13, 2008 \|websiteBillDay.com}}</ref> "Hello" was also used to introduce the original Macintosh, Newton, iMac ("hello (again)"), and iPod.<ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastManjoo \|firstFarhad \|dateJanuary 11, 2002 \|titleIMac: What's in a Design, Anyway? \|urlhttps://www.wired.com/2002/01/imac-whats-in-a-design-anyway \|url-statuslive \|magazineWired \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140304092046/http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2002/01/49652 \|archive-dateMarch 4, 2014 \|access-dateFebruary 15, 2010}}</ref> From the introduction of the Macintosh in 1984, with the 1984 Super Bowl advertisement to the more modern Get a Mac adverts, Apple has been recognized for its efforts toward effective advertising and marketing for its products. However, claims made by later campaigns were criticized,<ref>{{Cite web \|lastWilliams \|firstIan \|dateJune 13, 2007 \|titleUK watchdog clears Apple ads \|urlhttp://www.computing.co.uk/vnunet/news/2192019/asa-clears-apple-ads \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20080110012153/http://www.computing.co.uk/vnunet/news/2192019/asa-clears-apple-ads \|archive-dateJanuary 10, 2008 \|access-dateApril 18, 2017 \|websiteComputing \|publisherIncisive Media Ltd}}</ref> particularly the 2005 Power Mac ads.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateJune 11, 2004 \|titleApple Power Mac ads 'misleading' \|workBBC News \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3797261.stm \|access-dateApril 18, 2017 \|archive-dateJune 1, 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130601142554/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/3797261.stm \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Apple's product advertisements gained significant attention as a result of their eye-popping graphics and catchy tunes.<ref name"Daily News">Farber, Jim. [http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/music/2008/03/11/2008-03-11_apple_ad_creates_recognition_for_yael_na.html Apple ad creates recognition for Yael Naim] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111011102630/http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/music/2008/03/11/2008-03-11_apple_ad_creates_recognition_for_yael_na.html \|dateOctober 11, 2011 }}, New York Daily News, March 11, 2008.</ref> Musicians who benefited from an improved profile as a result of their songs being included on Apple advertisements include Canadian singer Feist with the song "1234" and Yael Naïm with the song "New Soul".<ref name"Daily News" /> Stores {{Main\|Apple Store}} is the flagship store in New York City.]] at Apple's Regent Street store in 2006.]] The first Apple Stores were originally opened as two locations in May 2001 by then-CEO Steve Jobs,<ref name"First stores">{{Cite press release \|titleApple to Open 25 Retail Stores in 2001 \|dateMay 15, 2001 \|publisherApple \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/newsroom/2001/05/15Apple-to-Open-25-Retail-Stores-in-2001 \|access-dateMay 27, 2017 \|archive-dateJuly 2, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702110910/https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2001/05/15Apple-to-Open-25-Retail-Stores-in-2001/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> after years of attempting but failing store-within-a-store concepts.<ref name"MacRumors stores">{{Cite web \|titleApple Stores \|urlhttps://www.macrumors.com/roundup/apple-retail-stores \|access-dateMay 27, 2017 \|websiteMacRumors \|archive-dateMay 27, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170527110627/https://www.macrumors.com/roundup/apple-retail-stores/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Seeing a need for improved retail presentation of the company's products, he began an effort in 1997 to revamp the retail program to get an improved relationship to consumers, and hired Ron Johnson in 2000.<ref name"MacRumors stores" /> Jobs relaunched Apple's online store in 1997,<ref>{{Cite web \|lastFiegerman \|firstSeth \|dateMay 16, 2014 \|titleThe Slow Evolution of Apple's Online Store \|urlhttp://mashable.com/2014/05/16/apple-online-store-history \|access-dateMay 27, 2017 \|websiteMashable \|archive-dateJuly 1, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170701015357/http://mashable.com/2014/05/16/apple-online-store-history/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> and opened the first two physical stores in 2001.<ref name"First stores" /> The media initially speculated that Apple would fail,<ref name"fortune-best-retailer">{{Cite web \|lastUseem \|firstJerry \|dateMarch 8, 2007 \|titleApple: America's best retailer \|urlhttps://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2007/03/19/8402321/index.htm \|access-dateMay 27, 2017 \|websiteFortune}}</ref> but its stores were highly successful, bypassing the sales numbers of competing nearby stores, and within three years reached US$1 billion in annual sales, becoming the fastest retailer in history to do so.<ref name"fortune-best-retailer" /> Over the years, Apple has expanded the number of retail locations and its geographical coverage, with 499 stores across 22 countries worldwide {{As of\|2017\|December\|lcy}}.<ref name"storelist">{{Cite web \|titleStore List \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/retail/storelist \|access-dateDecember 5, 2017 \|websiteApple Retail \|publisherApple Inc. \|archive-dateNovember 28, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171128172800/https://www.apple.com/retail/storelist/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Strong product sales have placed Apple among the top-tier retail stores, with sales over $16 billion globally in 2011.<ref name"retail army">{{Cite web \|lastSegal \|firstDavid \|dateJune 23, 2012 \|titleApple's Retail Army, Long on Loyalty but Short on Pay \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/24/business/apple-store-workers-loyal-but-short-on-pay.html \|url-accesslimited \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/24/business/apple-store-workers-loyal-but-short-on-pay.html \|archive-dateJanuary 1, 2022 \|access-dateMay 27, 2017 \|websiteThe New York Times}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Apple Stores underwent a period of significant redesign, beginning in May 2016. This redesign included physical changes to the Apple Stores, such as open spaces and re-branded rooms, and changes in function to facilitate interaction between consumers and professionals.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastWebb \|firstAlex \|dateMay 19, 2016 \|titleInside the New Apple Retail Store Design \|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-05-19/why-apple-is-building-a-town-inside-its-stores \|url-accesssubscription \|access-dateApril 26, 2017 \|publisherBloomberg L.P. \|archive-dateApril 27, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170427003823/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-05-19/why-apple-is-building-a-town-inside-its-stores \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|firstNick \|lastStatt \|titleApple just revealed the future of its retail stores \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2016/5/19/11715726/apple-flagship-store-opening-san-francisco-photos \|websiteThe Verge \|dateMay 19, 2016 \|access-dateMay 27, 2017 \|archive-dateApril 27, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170427003737/http://www.theverge.com/2016/5/19/11715726/apple-flagship-store-opening-san-francisco-photos \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Many Apple Stores are located inside shopping malls, but Apple has built several stand-alone "flagship" stores in high-profile locations.<ref name"MacRumors stores" /> It has been granted design patents and received architectural awards for its stores' designs and construction, specifically for its use of glass staircases and cubes.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastPanzarino \|firstMatthew \|dateApril 19, 2012 \|titleApple out to patent curved glass panels used in Shanghai Retail Store \|urlhttps://thenextweb.com/apple/2012/04/19/apple-out-to-patent-curved-glass-panels-used-in-shanghai-retail-store \|access-dateMay 27, 2017 \|websiteThe Next Web \|archive-dateOctober 26, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171026054352/https://thenextweb.com/apple/2012/04/19/apple-out-to-patent-curved-glass-panels-used-in-shanghai-retail-store/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The success of Apple Stores have had significant influence over other consumer electronics retailers, who have lost traffic, control and profits due to a perceived higher quality of service and products at Apple Stores.<ref>{{Cite news \|firstStephen D. \|lastSimpson \|titleHow Apple's fortunes affect other stocks \|urlhttps://www.theglobeandmail.com/globe-investor/investment-ideas/how-apples-fortunes-affect-other-stocks/article4596866 \|websiteThe Globe and Mail \|publisherThe Woodbridge Company \|dateOctober 8, 2012 \|access-dateMay 27, 2017 \|archive-dateApril 15, 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160415153836/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/globe-investor/investment-ideas/how-apples-fortunes-affect-other-stocks/article4596866/ \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|lastCrothers \|firstBrooke \|dateMarch 29, 2012 \|titleIs Best Buy following CompUSA, Circuit City to certain doom? \|urlhttps://www.cnet.com/news/is-best-buy-following-compusa-circuit-city-to-certain-doom \|access-dateMay 27, 2017 \|websiteCNET \|archive-dateJuly 9, 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160709072737/http://www.cnet.com/news/is-best-buy-following-compusa-circuit-city-to-certain-doom/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Due to the popularity of the brand, Apple receives a large number of job applications, many of which come from young workers.<ref name"retail army" /> Although Apple Store employees receive above-average pay, are offered money toward education and health care, and receive product discounts,<ref name"retail army" /> there are limited or no paths of career advancement.<ref name"retail army" /> Market power On March 16, 2020, France fined Apple €1.1 billion for colluding with two wholesalers to stifle competition and keep prices high by handicapping independent resellers. The arrangement created aligned prices for Apple products such as iPads and personal computers for about half the French retail market. According to the French regulators, the abuses occurred between 2005 and 2017 but were first discovered after a complaint by an independent reseller, eBizcuss, in 2012.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastAbboud \|firstLeila \|dateMarch 16, 2020 \|titleFrance hits Apple with €1.1bn antitrust fine \|workFinancial Times \|urlhttps://www.ft.com/content/e9bb4da1-867a-40ba-abc0-4a63d3421e31 \|url-statuslive \|url-accesssubscription \|access-dateMarch 16, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/e9bb4da1-867a-40ba-abc0-4a63d3421e31 \|archive-dateDecember 10, 2022}}</ref> On August 13, 2020, Epic Games, the maker of the popular game Fortnite, sued both Apple and Google after Fortnite was removed from Apple's and Google's app stores. The lawsuits came after Apple and Google blocked the game after it introduced a direct payment system that bypassed the fees that Apple and Google had imposed.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Nicas \|first1Jack \|last2Browning \|first2Kellen \|last3Griffith \|first3Erin \|dateAugust 13, 2020 \|titleFortnite Creator Sues Apple and Google After Ban From App Stores \|workThe New York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/13/technology/apple-fortnite-ban.html \|url-statuslive \|url-accesssubscription \|access-dateAugust 13, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200813200127/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/13/technology/apple-fortnite-ban.html \|archive-dateAugust 13, 2020}}</ref> In September 2020, Epic Games founded the Coalition for App Fairness together with thirteen other companies, which aims for better conditions for the inclusion of apps in the app stores.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastAmadeo \|firstRon \|dateSeptember 24, 2020 \|titleEpic, Spotify, and others take on Apple with "Coalition for App Fairness" \|urlhttps://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2020/09/epic-spotify-and-others-take-on-apple-with-coalition-for-app-fairness \|access-dateSeptember 26, 2020 \|websiteArs Technica \|languageen-us \|archive-dateSeptember 26, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200926044427/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2020/09/epic-spotify-and-others-take-on-apple-with-coalition-for-app-fairness/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Later, in December 2020, Facebook agreed to assist Epic in their legal game against Apple, planning to support the company by providing materials and documents to Epic. Facebook had, however, stated that the company would not participate directly with the lawsuit, although did commit to helping with the discovery of evidence relating to the trial of 2021. In the months prior to their agreement, Facebook had been dealing with feuds against Apple relating to the prices of paid apps and privacy rule changes.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastHorwitz \|firstPatience Haggin and Jeff \|dateAugust 26, 2020 \|titleFacebook Says Apple's New iPhone Update Will Disrupt Online Advertising \|languageen-US \|workThe Wall Street Journal \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/facebook-says-apples-new-iphone-update-will-disrupt-online-advertising-11598458715 \|access-dateDecember 25, 2020 \|issn0099-9660 \|archive-dateDecember 20, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201220162451/https://www.wsj.com/articles/facebook-says-apples-new-iphone-update-will-disrupt-online-advertising-11598458715 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Head of ad products for Facebook Dan Levy commented, saying that "this is not really about privacy for them, this is about an attack on personalized ads and the consequences it's going to have on small-business owners," commenting on the full-page ads placed by Facebook in various newspapers in December 2020.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateDecember 17, 2020 \|titleHow Convincing is Facebook's Case Against Apple? \|languageen \|workBloomberg.com \|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/newsletters/2020-12-17/how-convincing-is-facebook-s-case-against-apple \|access-dateDecember 25, 2020 \|archive-dateDecember 17, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201217121137/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/newsletters/2020-12-17/how-convincing-is-facebook-s-case-against-apple \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite news \|lastHorwitz \|firstSarah E. Needleman and Jeff \|dateDecember 16, 2020 \|titleFacebook Wades Into 'Fortnite' Maker's Dispute With Apple \|languageen-US \|workThe Wall Street Journal \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/facebook-looks-for-allies-in-privacy-battle-with-apple-11608138311 \|access-dateDecember 25, 2020 \|issn0099-9660 \|archive-dateMarch 28, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210328001211/https://www.wsj.com/articles/facebook-looks-for-allies-in-privacy-battle-with-apple-11608138311 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Privacy is a clandestine surveillance program under which the NSA collects user data from companies like Facebook and Apple.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastTsotsis \|firstAlexia \|dateJune 18, 2013 \|titleWhy Was Apple Late To The PRISM Party? \|workTechCrunch \|urlhttps://techcrunch.com/2013/06/17/apple-nsa/ \|access-dateJanuary 17, 2024 \|archive-dateJanuary 18, 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240118042920/https://techcrunch.com/2013/06/17/apple-nsa/ \|url-status=live}}</ref>]] Apple has publicly taken a pro-privacy stance, actively making privacy-conscious features and settings part of its conferences, promotional campaigns, and public image.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastVincent \|firstJames \|dateJune 13, 2016 \|titleApple promises to deliver AI smarts without sacrificing your privacy \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2016/6/13/11924080/apple-ai-on-device-privacy-wwdc-2016 \|access-dateDecember 9, 2017 \|websiteThe Verge \|publisherVox Media \|archive-dateJuly 13, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230713024019/https://www.theverge.com/2016/6/13/11924080/apple-ai-on-device-privacy-wwdc-2016 \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|lastHeisler \|firstYoni \|dateMay 22, 2017 \|titleApple is expertly trolling Android users with its new iPhone ads \|urlhttp://bgr.com/2017/05/22/iphone-vs-android-switchers-ad-campaign \|access-dateDecember 9, 2017 \|websiteBGR \|archive-dateDecember 14, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171214014228/http://bgr.com/2017/05/22/iphone-vs-android-switchers-ad-campaign/ \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite journal \|lastGreenberg \|firstAndy \|dateJune 8, 2015 \|titleApple's latest selling point: how little it knows about you \|urlhttps://www.wired.com/2015/06/apples-latest-selling-point-little-knows \|journalWired \|access-dateDecember 9, 2017 \|archive-dateMarch 28, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180328115215/https://www.wired.com/2015/06/apples-latest-selling-point-little-knows/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> With its iOS 8 mobile operating system in 2014, the company started encrypting all contents of iOS devices through users' passcodes, making it impossible at the time for the company to provide customer data to law enforcement requests seeking such information.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastFarivar \|firstCyrus \|dateSeptember 18, 2014 \|titleApple expands data encryption under iOS 8, making handover to cops moot \|urlhttps://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2014/09/apple-expands-data-encryption-under-ios-8-making-handover-to-cops-moot \|access-dateDecember 9, 2017 \|websiteArs Technica \|archive-dateDecember 13, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171213204234/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2014/09/apple-expands-data-encryption-under-ios-8-making-handover-to-cops-moot/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> With the popularity rise of cloud storage solutions, Apple began a technique in 2016 to do deep learning scans for facial data in photos on the user's local device and encrypting the content before uploading it to Apple's iCloud storage system.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastHall \|firstZac \|dateNovember 16, 2017 \|titleApple details how it performs on-device facial detection in latest machine learning journal entry \|urlhttps://9to5mac.com/2017/11/16/apple-machine-learning-journal-facial-detection \|access-dateDecember 9, 2017 \|website9to5Mac \|archive-dateDecember 13, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171213204531/https://9to5mac.com/2017/11/16/apple-machine-learning-journal-facial-detection/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> It also introduced "differential privacy", a way to collect crowdsourced data from many users, while keeping individual users anonymous, in a system that Wired described as "trying to learn as much as possible about a group while learning as little as possible about any individual in it".<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastGreenberg \|firstAndy \|dateJune 13, 2016 \|titleApple's 'differential privacy' is about collecting your data – but not your data \|urlhttps://www.wired.com/2016/06/apples-differential-privacy-collecting-data \|journalWired \|access-dateDecember 9, 2017 \|archive-dateDecember 13, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171213210548/https://www.wired.com/2016/06/apples-differential-privacy-collecting-data/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Users are explicitly asked if they want to participate, and can actively opt-in or opt-out.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastRossignol \|firstJoe \|dateDecember 6, 2017 \|titleHere's How Apple Improves the iOS and Mac User Experience While Protecting Your Privacy \|urlhttps://www.macrumors.com/2017/12/06/apple-differential-privacy-journal \|access-dateDecember 9, 2017 \|websiteMacRumors \|archive-dateDecember 10, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171210053953/https://www.macrumors.com/2017/12/06/apple-differential-privacy-journal/ \|url-status=live}}</ref> However, Apple has aided law enforcement in criminal investigations by providing iCloud backups of users' devices,<ref>{{cite news \|last1Menn \|first1Joseph \|dateJanuary 21, 2020 \|titleExclusive: Apple dropped plan for encrypting backups after FBI complained – sources \|languageen \|workReuters \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-apple-fbi-icloud-exclusive-idUSKBN1ZK1CT \|access-dateApril 15, 2020 \|refiCloudBackupsArePlainText \|archive-dateApril 23, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200423192006/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-apple-fbi-icloud-exclusive-idUSKBN1ZK1CT \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|lastPagliery \|firstJose \|dateFebruary 22, 2016 \|titleApple promises privacy – but not on iCloud \|urlhttps://money.cnn.com/2016/02/22/technology/apple-privacy-icloud/index.html \|access-dateDecember 13, 2017 \|websiteCNN \|archive-dateDecember 10, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171210143010/http://money.cnn.com/2016/02/22/technology/apple-privacy-icloud/index.html \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|lastCunningham \|firstAndrew \|dateFebruary 24, 2016 \|titleThe case for using iTunes, not iCloud, to back up your iPhone \|urlhttps://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2016/02/the-case-for-using-itunes-not-icloud-to-back-up-your-iphone \|access-dateDecember 13, 2017 \|websiteArs Technica \|archive-dateDecember 14, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171214014102/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2016/02/the-case-for-using-itunes-not-icloud-to-back-up-your-iphone/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> and the company's commitment to privacy has been questioned by its efforts to promote biometric authentication technology in its newer{{When\|dateOctober 2024}} iPhone models, which do not have the same level of constitutional privacy as a passcode in the United States.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastRobertson \|firstAdi \|dateSeptember 12, 2017 \|titleWhy Face ID won't give you the legal protection of a passcode \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2017/9/12/16298192/apple-iphone-face-id-legal-security-fifth-amendment \|access-dateDecember 13, 2017 \|websiteThe Verge \|publisherVox Media \|archive-dateMay 7, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180507104714/https://www.theverge.com/2017/9/12/16298192/apple-iphone-face-id-legal-security-fifth-amendment \|url-statuslive}}</ref> With Apple's release of an update to iOS 14, Apple required all developers of iPhone, iPad, and iPod Touch applications to directly ask iPhone users permission to track them. The feature, called "App Tracking Transparency", received heavy criticism from Facebook, whose primary business model revolves around the tracking of users' data and sharing such data with advertisers so users can see more relevant ads, a technique commonly known as targeted advertising. After Facebook's measures, including purchasing full-page newspaper advertisements protesting App Tracking Transparency, Apple released the update in early 2021. A study by Verizon subsidiary Flurry Analytics reported only 4% of iOS users in the United States and 12% worldwide have opted into tracking.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastAten \|firstJason \|dateMay 12, 2021 \|titleApple's App Tracking Transparency Update Is Turning Out to Be the Worst-Case Scenario for Facebook \|urlhttps://www.inc.com/jason-aten/apples-privacy-update-is-turning-out-to-be-worst-case-scenario-for-facebook.html \|access-dateMay 12, 2021 \|websiteInc.com \|languageen \|archive-dateMay 12, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210512071734/https://www.inc.com/jason-aten/apples-privacy-update-is-turning-out-to-be-worst-case-scenario-for-facebook.html \|url-statuslive\|postscript; }} {{Cite web \|titleNew data shows how devastating Apple's new anti-tracking feature is for Facebook \|urlhttps://www.msn.com/en-us/news/technology/new-data-shows-how-devastating-apple-e2-80-99s-new-anti-tracking-feature-is-for-facebook/ar-BB1gCVJc?ocidBingNewsSearch \|access-dateMay 12, 2021 \|websiteMSN \|agencyBGR \|first1Yoni \|last1Heisler \|archive-dateMay 12, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210512124835/https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/technology/new-data-shows-how-devastating-apple-e2-80-99s-new-anti-tracking-feature-is-for-facebook/ar-BB1gCVJc?ocidBingNewsSearch \|url-statusdead \|postscript; }} {{Cite web \|dateMay 8, 2021 \|titleToo Bad, Zuck: Just 4% of U.S. iPhone Users Let Apps Track Them After iOS Update \|first1 Alyse \|last1Stanley \|urlhttps://gizmodo.com/too-bad-zuck-just-4-of-u-s-iphone-users-let-apps-tra-1846851013 \|access-dateMay 12, 2021 \|websiteGizmodo \|languageen-us \|archive-dateMay 12, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210512124834/https://gizmodo.com/too-bad-zuck-just-4-of-u-s-iphone-users-let-apps-tra-1846851013 \|url-statuslive\|postscript; }} {{Cite web \|lastDatti \|firstSharmishte \|dateMay 12, 2021 \|titleApple's App Tracking Transparency Becomes Facebook's Nightmare: Only 4% Allow Tracking \|urlhttps://www.gizbot.com/mobile/news/apple-app-tracking-transparency-becomes-facebook-nightmare-only-4-percent-allow-tracking-074217.html \|access-dateMay 12, 2021 \|websiteGizbot \|languageen \|archive-dateJune 4, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210604024443/https://www.gizbot.com/mobile/news/apple-app-tracking-transparency-becomes-facebook-nightmare-only-4-percent-allow-tracking-074217.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Prior to the release of iOS 15, Apple announced new efforts at combating child sexual abuse material on iOS and Mac platforms. Parents of minor iMessage users can now be alerted if their child sends or receives nude photographs. Additionally, on-device hashing would take place on media destined for upload to iCloud, and hashes would be compared to a list of known abusive images provided by law enforcement; if enough matches were found, Apple would be alerted and authorities informed. The new features received praise from law enforcement and victims rights advocates. However, privacy advocates, including the Electronic Frontier Foundation, condemned the new features as invasive and highly prone to abuse by authoritarian governments.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateAugust 5, 2021 \|titleApple to scan U.S. iPhones for images of child sexual abuse \|urlhttps://apnews.com/article/technology-business-child-abuse-apple-inc-7fe2a09427d663cda8addfeeffc40196 \|first1 Frank \|last1Bajak \|first2Barbara \|last2Ortutay \|access-dateAugust 6, 2021 \|websiteAP NEWS \|languageen \|archive-dateAugust 5, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210805235943/https://apnews.com/article/technology-business-child-abuse-apple-inc-7fe2a09427d663cda8addfeeffc40196 \|url-statuslive\|postscript; }} {{Cite news \|first1India \|last1McKinney \|first2Erica \|last2Portnoy \|dateAugust 5, 2021 \|titleApple's Plan to "Think Different" About Encryption Opens a Backdoor to Your Private Life \|urlhttps://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2021/08/apples-plan-think-different-about-encryption-opens-backdoor-your-private-life \|access-dateAugust 6, 2021 \|websiteElectronic Frontier Foundation \|languageen \|archive-dateOctober 18, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221018221139/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2021/08/apples-plan-think-different-about-encryption-opens-backdoor-your-private-life \|url-status=live}}</ref> Ireland's Data Protection Commission launched a privacy investigation to examine whether Apple complied with the EU's GDPR law following an investigation into how the company processes personal data with targeted ads on its platform.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateJuly 3, 2019 \|titleIrish Regulator Opens Third Privacy Probe Into Apple \|publisherGadgets360 \|urlhttps://gadgets.ndtv.com/apps/news/apple-ireland-data-protection-commissioner-privacy-investigation-2063517 \|agencyReuters \|access-dateJuly 24, 2019 \|archive-dateJuly 24, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190724113326/https://gadgets.ndtv.com/apps/news/apple-ireland-data-protection-commissioner-privacy-investigation-2063517 \|url-statuslive\|postscript; }} {{Cite news \|dateJuly 2, 2019 \|titleData Protection Commission opens privacy investigation into Apple \|publisherRTE \|urlhttps://www.rte.ie/news/ireland/2019/0702/1059764-apple-privacy \|access-dateJuly 24, 2019 \|archive-dateJuly 24, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190724113325/https://www.rte.ie/news/ireland/2019/0702/1059764-apple-privacy/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In December 2019, security researcher Brian Krebs discovered that the iPhone 11 Pro would still show the arrow indicator –signifying location services are being used– at the top of the screen while the main location services toggle is enabled, despite all individual location services being disabled. Krebs was unable to replicate this behavior on older models and when asking Apple for comment, he was told by Apple that "It is expected behavior that the Location Services icon appears in the status bar when Location Services is enabled. The icon appears for system services that do not have a switch in Settings."<ref>{{Cite web \|dateDecember 3, 2019 \|titleThe iPhone 11 Pro's Location Data Puzzler \|urlhttps://krebsonsecurity.com/2019/12/the-iphone-11-pros-location-data-puzzler/ \|firstBrian \|lastKrebs \|access-dateMarch 2, 2024 \|websiteKrebsonSecurity \|languageen-us \|archive-dateMarch 2, 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240302163635/https://krebsonsecurity.com/2019/12/the-iphone-11-pros-location-data-puzzler/ \|url-status=live}}</ref> Apple later further clarified that this behavior was to ensure compliance with ultra-wideband regulations in specific countries, a technology Apple started implementing in iPhones starting with iPhone 11 Pro, and emphasized that "the management of ultra wideband compliance and its use of location data is done entirely on the device and Apple is not collecting user location data." Will Strafach, an executive at security firm Guardian Firewall, confirmed the lack of evidence that location data was sent off to a remote server. Apple promised to add a new toggle for this feature and in later iOS revisions Apple provided users with the option to tap on the location services indicator in Control Center to see which specific service is using the device's location.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateDecember 5, 2019 \|titleApple says its ultra wideband technology is why newer iPhones appear to share location data, even when the setting is disabled \|urlhttps://techcrunch.com/2019/12/05/apple-ultra-wideband-newer-iphones-location/ \|firstZack \|lastWhittaker \|access-dateMarch 2, 2024 \|websiteTechCrunch \|languageen-us \|archive-dateMarch 2, 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240302163635/https://techcrunch.com/2019/12/05/apple-ultra-wideband-newer-iphones-location/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleLearn the meaning of the iPhone status icons \|urlhttps://support.apple.com/guide/iphone/learn-the-meaning-of-the-status-icons-iphef7bb57dc/ios \|access-date March 2, 2024 \|websiteiPhone User Guide \|languageen-us \|archive-dateMarch 2, 2024 \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20240302163635/https://support.apple.com/guide/iphone/learn-the-meaning-of-the-status-icons-iphef7bb57dc/ios \|url-status= live}}</ref> According to published reports by Bloomberg News on March 30, 2022, Apple turned over data such as phone numbers, physical addresses, and IP addresses to hackers posing as law enforcement officials using forged documents. The law enforcement requests sometimes included forged signatures of real or fictional officials. When asked about the allegations, an Apple representative referred the reporter to a section of the company policy for law enforcement guidelines, which stated, "We review every data request for legal sufficiency and use advanced systems and processes to validate law enforcement requests and detect abuse."<ref>{{Cite news \|lastTurton \|firstWilliam \|dateMarch 30, 2022 \|titleApple and Meta Gave User Data to Hackers Who Used Forged Legal Requests \|workYahoo! Finance \|urlhttps://ca.finance.yahoo.com/news/apple-meta-gave-user-data-175918825.html \|access-dateMarch 30, 2022 \|archive-dateMay 30, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220530182914/https://ca.finance.yahoo.com/news/apple-meta-gave-user-data-175918825.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Corporate affairs {{See also\|List of mergers and acquisitions by Apple\|Braeburn Capital\|FileMaker}} Business trends The key trends for Apple are, as of each financial year ending September 24:<ref name"investor-relations">{{Cite web \|titleInvestor Relations – Apple \|urlhttps://investor.apple.com/investor-relations/default.aspx \|access-dateNovember 13, 2023 \|websiteinvestor.apple.com \|archive-dateMay 4, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200504135459/https://investor.apple.com/investor-relations/default.aspx \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"sec-fillings">{{Cite web \|titleSEC Filings – Apple \|urlhttps://investor.apple.com/sec-filings/default.aspx \|access-dateNovember 13, 2023 \|websiteinvestor.apple.com \|archive-dateNovember 11, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211111032600/https://investor.apple.com/sec-filings/default.aspx \|url-statuslive}}</ref> {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;" ! rowspan="2" \|Fiscal year ! colspan="6" \|Revenue figures ! colspan="2" \|Non-revenue figures ! rowspan="2" \|{{Refh}} \|- !Total<br>revenue{{Efn\|"Net sales"}}<br>(US$ b) !iPhone<br>revenue<br>(US$ b) !Mac<br>revenue<br>(US$ b) !iPad<br>revenue<br>(US$ b) !Wearables, Home,<br>and Accessories<br>revenue<br>(US$ b) !Services<br>revenue<br>(US$ b) !Net profit{{Efn\|"Net income"}}<br>(US$&nbsp;b) !Number of<br>employees<br>(k, FTE) \|- \|2011 \|108 \|45.9 \|21.7 \|19.1 \|11.9 \|9.3 \|25.9 \|60.4 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|title2011 10-K \|urlhttps://d18rn0p25nwr6d.cloudfront.net/CIK-0000320193/64c7905f-0468-48d9-8f25-e6ec8f3b5e32.pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231113212509/https://d18rn0p25nwr6d.cloudfront.net/CIK-0000320193/64c7905f-0468-48d9-8f25-e6ec8f3b5e32.pdf \|archive-dateNovember 13, 2023 \|access-dateNovember 13, 2023 \|website=Apple}}</ref> \|- \|2012 \|156 \|78.6 \|23.2 \|30.9 \|10.7 \|12.8 \|41.7 \|72.8 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|title2012 10-K \|urlhttps://d1lge852tjjqow.cloudfront.net/CIK-0000320193/da2b9499-7462-4333-bc37-75212f65699e.pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231113212507/https://d1lge852tjjqow.cloudfront.net/CIK-0000320193/da2b9499-7462-4333-bc37-75212f65699e.pdf \|archive-dateNovember 13, 2023 \|access-dateNovember 13, 2023 \|website=Apple}}</ref> \|- \|2013 \|170 \|91.2 \|21.4 \|31.9 \|10.1 \|16.0 \|37.0 \|80.3 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|title2013 10-K \|urlhttps://d1lge852tjjqow.cloudfront.net/CIK-0000320193/e3115d1d-4246-45ae-94f2-f8e3762d8e3e.pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231109122616/http://d1lge852tjjqow.cloudfront.net/CIK-0000320193/e3115d1d-4246-45ae-94f2-f8e3762d8e3e.pdf \|archive-dateNovember 9, 2023 \|access-dateNovember 13, 2023 \|website=Apple}}</ref> \|- \|2014 \|182 \|101 \|24.0 \|30.2 \|8.3 \|18.0 \|39.5 \|92.6 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|title2014 10-K \|urlhttps://d1lge852tjjqow.cloudfront.net/CIK-0000320193/61236a14-a4e7-4bb2-8130-ddc2c66c9678.pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231113164631/https://d1lge852tjjqow.cloudfront.net/CIK-0000320193/61236a14-a4e7-4bb2-8130-ddc2c66c9678.pdf \|archive-dateNovember 13, 2023 \|access-dateNovember 13, 2023 \|website=Apple}}</ref> \|- \|2015 \|233 \|155 \|25.4 \|23.2 \|10.0 \|19.9 \|53.3 \|110 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|title2015 10-K \|urlhttps://d1lge852tjjqow.cloudfront.net/CIK-0000320193/fae19475-b538-441b-ab15-0a311f161ebb.pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231113164631/https://d1lge852tjjqow.cloudfront.net/CIK-0000320193/fae19475-b538-441b-ab15-0a311f161ebb.pdf \|archive-dateNovember 13, 2023 \|access-dateNovember 13, 2023 \|website=Apple}}</ref> \|- \|2016 \|215 \|136 \|22.8 \|20.6 \|11.1 \|24.3 \|45.6 \|116 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|title2016 10-K \|urlhttps://d18rn0p25nwr6d.cloudfront.net/CIK-0000320193/ffb58afc-aa5d-4b55-8d12-8e0937575a35.pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231113164631/https://d18rn0p25nwr6d.cloudfront.net/CIK-0000320193/ffb58afc-aa5d-4b55-8d12-8e0937575a35.pdf \|archive-dateNovember 13, 2023 \|access-dateNovember 13, 2023 \|website=Apple}}</ref> \|- \|2017 \|229 \|139 \|25.5 \|18.8 \|12.8 \|32.7 \|48.3 \|123 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|title2017 10-K \|urlhttps://d18rn0p25nwr6d.cloudfront.net/CIK-0000320193/ca6735cd-5ab7-4bb9-abf8-564739c3506b.pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231113164632/https://d18rn0p25nwr6d.cloudfront.net/CIK-0000320193/ca6735cd-5ab7-4bb9-abf8-564739c3506b.pdf \|archive-dateNovember 13, 2023 \|access-dateNovember 13, 2023 \|website=Apple}}</ref> \|- \|2018 \|265 \|164 \|25.1 \|18.3 \|17.3 \|39.7 \|59.3 \|132 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|title2018 10-K \|urlhttps://d18rn0p25nwr6d.cloudfront.net/CIK-0000320193/68027c6d-356d-46a4-a524-65d8ec05a1da.pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190412094749/https://d18rn0p25nwr6d.cloudfront.net/CIK-0000320193/68027c6d-356d-46a4-a524-65d8ec05a1da.pdf \|archive-dateApril 12, 2019 \|access-dateNovember 13, 2023 \|website=Apple}}</ref> \|- \|2019 \|260 \|142 \|25.7 \|21.2 \|24.4 \|46.2 \|55.2 \|137 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|title2019 10-K \|urlhttps://s2.q4cdn.com/470004039/files/doc_financials/2019/ar/_10-K-2019-(As-Filed).pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200505181714/https://s2.q4cdn.com/470004039/files/doc_financials/2019/ar/_10-K-2019-%28As-Filed%29.pdf \|archive-dateMay 5, 2020 \|access-dateNovember 13, 2023 \|website=Apple}}</ref> \|- \|2020 \|274 \|137 \|28.6 \|23.7 \|30.6 \|53.7 \|57.4 \|147 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|title2020 10-K \|urlhttps://s2.q4cdn.com/470004039/files/doc_financials/2020/ar/_10-K-2020-(As-Filed).pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231204044601/https://s2.q4cdn.com/470004039/files/doc_financials/2020/ar/_10-K-2020-(As-Filed).pdf \|archive-dateDecember 4, 2023 \|access-dateNovember 13, 2023 \|website=Apple}}</ref> \|- \|2021 \|365 \|191 \|35.1 \|31.8 \|38.3 \|68.4 \|94.6 \|154 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|title2021 10-K \|urlhttps://s2.q4cdn.com/470004039/files/doc_financials/2021/q4/_10-K-2021-(As-Filed).pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231127162909/https://s2.q4cdn.com/470004039/files/doc_financials/2021/q4/_10-K-2021-(As-Filed).pdf \|archive-dateNovember 27, 2023 \|access-dateNovember 13, 2023 \|website=Apple}}</ref> \|- \|2022 \|394 \|205 \|40.1 \|29.2 \|41.2 \|78.1 \|99.8 \|164 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|title2022 10-K \|urlhttps://s2.q4cdn.com/470004039/files/doc_financials/2022/q4/_10-K-2022-(As-Filed).pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231127162943/https://s2.q4cdn.com/470004039/files/doc_financials/2022/q4/_10-K-2022-(As-Filed).pdf \|archive-dateNovember 27, 2023 \|access-dateNovember 13, 2023 \|website=Apple}}</ref> \|- \|2023 \|383 \|200 \|29.3 \|28.3 \|39.8 \|85.2 \|96.9 \|161 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|title2023 10-K \|urlhttps://d18rn0p25nwr6d.cloudfront.net/CIK-0000320193/faab4555-c69b-438a-aaf7-e09305f87ca3.pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231127073643/https://d18rn0p25nwr6d.cloudfront.net/CIK-0000320193/faab4555-c69b-438a-aaf7-e09305f87ca3.pdf \|archive-dateNovember 27, 2023 \|access-dateNovember 13, 2023 \|website=Apple}}</ref> \|- \|2024 \|391 \|201 \|29.9 \|26.6 \|37.0 \|96.1 \|93.7 \|164 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|date1 November 2024 \|title2024 10-K \|urlhttps://d18rn0p25nwr6d.cloudfront.net/CIK-0000320193/c87043b9-5d89-4717-9f49-c4f9663d0061.pdf \|websiteApple}}</ref> \|} Leadership Senior management {{As of\|2025\|1\|3\|dfUS}}, the management of Apple Inc. includes:<ref name"aaplLeadership">{{Cite web \|titleApple Leadership \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/leadership \|access-dateJanuary 3, 2025 \|publisherApple Inc. \|archive-dateJanuary 4, 2025 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20250104061052/https://www.apple.com/leadership/ \|url-status=live}}</ref><!-- By title then alphabetically by last name --> * Tim Cook (chief executive officer) * Jeff Williams (chief operating officer) * Kevan Parekh (senior vice president and chief financial officer) * Katherine L. Adams (senior vice president and general counsel) * Eddy Cue (senior vice president – Internet Software and Services) * Craig Federighi (senior vice president – Software Engineering) * John Giannandrea (senior vice president – Machine Learning and AI Strategy) * Deirdre O'Brien (senior vice president – Retail + People) * John Ternus (senior vice president – Hardware Engineering) * Greg Joswiak (senior vice president – Worldwide Marketing) * Johny Srouji (senior vice president – Hardware Technologies) * Sabih Khan (senior vice president – Operations) Board of directors {{As of\|2023\|1\|20\|dfUS}}, the board of directors of Apple Inc. includes:<ref name"aaplLeadership" /><!-- Chairman, CEO, then alphabetically by last name --> * Arthur D. Levinson (chairman) * Tim Cook (executive director and CEO) * James A. Bell * Alex Gorsky * Andrea Jung * Monica Lozano * Ronald Sugar * Susan Wagner Previous CEOs # Michael Scott (1977–1981) # Mike Markkula (1981–1983) # John Sculley (1983–1993) # Michael Spindler (1993–1996) # Gil Amelio (1996–1997) # Steve Jobs (1997–2011) Ownership {{As of\|2024\|12\|30\|dfUS}}, the largest shareholders of Apple were:<ref>{{Cite web \|titleApple Inc. (AAPL) Stock Major Holders – Yahoo Finance \|urlhttps://finance.yahoo.com/quote/AAPL/holders/ \|access-dateMarch 6, 2024 \|websitefinance.yahoo.com \|languageen-US \|archive-dateJune 3, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200603173427/https://finance.yahoo.com/quote/AAPL/holders/ \|url-status=live}}</ref> * The Vanguard Group (1,400,000,000 shares, 9.29%) * BlackRock (1,120,000,0000 shares, 7.48%) * State Street Corporation (595,500,000 shares, 3.96%) * Fidelity Investments (341,640,000 shares, 2.27%) * Geode Capital Management (340,160,000 shares, 2.26%) * Berkshire Hathaway (300,000,000 shares, 2.00%) * Morgan Stanley (238,260,000 shares, 1.59%) * T. Rowe Price (220,110,000 shares, 1.47%) * Norges Bank (187,160,000 shares, 1.25%) * JPMorgan Chase (183,010,000 shares, 1.22%) Corporate culture and Macintosh engineer Andy Hertzfeld attended the Apple User Group Connection club in 1985.]] Apple is one of several highly successful companies founded in the 1970s that bucked the traditional notions of corporate culture. Jobs often walked around the office barefoot even after Apple became a Fortune 500 company. By the time of the "1984" television advertisement, Apple's informal culture had become a key trait that differentiated it from its competitors.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastDeutschman \|firstAlan \|dateOctober 11, 2000 \|titleThe once and future Steve Jobs \|urlhttp://www.salon.com/technology/books/2000/10/11/jobs_excerpt \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101202183854/http://www.salon.com/technology/books/2000/10/11/jobs_excerpt \|archive-dateDecember 2, 2010 \|access-dateNovember 22, 2010 \|websiteSalon.com}}</ref> According to a 2011 report in Fortune, this has resulted in a corporate culture more akin to a startup rather than a multinational corporation.<ref name"Fortune1">{{Cite news \|lastLashinsky \|firstAdam \|dateAugust 25, 2011 \|titleHow Apple works: inside the world's largest startup \|workFortune \|publisherCNN \|urlhttp://tech.fortune.cnn.com/2011/08/25/how-apple-works-inside-the-worlds-biggest-startup \|url-statusdead \|access-dateNovember 14, 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111113121932/http://tech.fortune.cnn.com/2011/08/25/how-apple-works-inside-the-worlds-biggest-startup \|archive-dateNovember 13, 2011}}</ref> In a 2017 interview, Wozniak credited watching Star Trek and attending Star Trek conventions in his youth as inspiration for co-founding Apple.<ref>[https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/interview-steve-wozniak-on-sci-fi-comic-books-and_us_58f7e86de4b081380af51897 Huffingtonpost Interview: Steve Wozniak on Sci-Fi, Comic Books, and How Star Trek Shaped the Future] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170918211621/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/interview-steve-wozniak-on-sci-fi-comic-books-and_us_58f7e86de4b081380af51897 \|dateSeptember 18, 2017 }}. April 19, 2017.</ref> As the company has grown and been led by a series of differently opinionated chief executives, some media have suggested that it has lost some of its original character.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMurphy \|firstMargi \|date2018-07-31 \|titleHas the Apple brand really lost its bite? \|urlhttps://www.smh.com.au/business/companies/has-the-apple-brand-really-lost-its-bite-20180731-p4zujl.html \|access-date2024-10-12 \|websiteThe Sydney Morning Herald \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastLevy \|firstSteven \|date2022-05-06 \|titleApple Has Lost Its Soul. But Who Cares? \|urlhttps://www.wired.com/story/plaintext-apple-soul-who-cares/ \|access-date2024-10-12 \|magazineWired \|languageen-US \|issn1059-1028}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|date2021-10-04 \|titleA decade after Steve Jobs's death, has Apple lost its magic? \|urlhttps://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/a-decade-after-steve-jobss-death-has-apple-lost-its-magic/articleshow/86753764.cms?frommdr \|access-date2024-10-12 \|workThe Economic Times \|issn0013-0389}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastShirky \|firstClay \|date2022-05-01 \|titleApple Inc., 'After Steve' \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/01/books/review/after-steve-tripp-mickle.html \|access-date2024-10-12 \|websiteThe New York Times}}</ref> Nonetheless, it has maintained a reputation for fostering individuality and excellence that reliably attracts talented workers, particularly after Jobs returned.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastHaden \|firstJeff \|date2023-03-09 \|title27 Years Ago, Steve Jobs Said the Best Employees Focus on Content, Not Process. Research Shows He Was Right \|urlhttps://www.inc.com/jeff-haden/27-years-ago-steve-jobs-said-best-employees-focus-on-content-not-process-workplace-research-shows-he-was-right.html \|access-date2024-10-13 \|websiteInc.}}</ref> Numerous Apple employees have stated that projects without Jobs's involvement often took longer than others.<ref name"cultofmacwork">{{Cite web \|lastBrownlee \|firstJohn \|dateJuly 7, 2010 \|titleWhat It's Like To Work At Apple \|urlhttp://www.cultofmac.com/what-its-like-to-work-at-apple \|websiteCult of Mac \|access-dateNovember 10, 2010 \|archive-dateJuly 25, 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110725052719/http://www.cultofmac.com/what-its-like-to-work-at-apple \|url-status=live}}</ref> The Apple Fellows program awards employees for extraordinary technical or leadership contributions to personal computing. Recipients include Bill Atkinson,<ref name"hertzfeld">Hertzfeld, Andy. [http://www.folklore.org/StoryView.py?projectMacintosh&storyCredit_Where_Due.txt Credit Where Due] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140326024714/http://www.folklore.org/StoryView.py?projectMacintosh \|dateMarch 26, 2014 }}, Folklore.org, January 1983. Retrieved May 26, 2006.</ref> Steve Capps,<ref>{{Cite news \|titleNewton Hall of Fame! \|urlhttps://msu.edu/~luckie/hallofame.htm \|newspaperTechnology at Msu \|dateAugust 7, 2015 \|access-dateMarch 26, 2019 \|archive-dateMarch 26, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190326202443/https://msu.edu/~luckie/hallofame.htm \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Rod Holt,<ref name"hertzfeld" /> Alan Kay,<ref name"yoyow">Eisenhart, Mary. [http://www.yoyow.com/marye/mtstories/kawasaki.html Fighting Back For Mac] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170525081647/http://www.yoyow.com/marye/mtstories/kawasaki.html \|dateMay 25, 2017 }}, MicroTimes, 1997. Retrieved May 26, 2006.</ref><ref>Hertzfeld, Andy. [http://www.folklore.org/StoryView.py?projectMacintosh&storyLeave_Of_Absence.txt Leave of Absence] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140326024714/http://www.folklore.org/StoryView.py?projectMacintosh \|dateMarch 26, 2014 }}, Folklore.org, March 1984. Retrieved May 26, 2006.</ref> Guy Kawasaki,<ref name"yoyow" /><ref>Kawakami, John. [http://www.mactech.com/articles/mactech/Vol.11/11.09/Sep95Newsbits/index.html Apple Taps Guy Kawasaki For Apple Fellows Program] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170903042644/http://www.mactech.com/articles/mactech/Vol.11/11.09/Sep95Newsbits/index.html \|dateSeptember 3, 2017 }}, MacTech, September 1995. Retrieved May 26, 2006.</ref> Al Alcorn,<ref>{{Cite news \|lastMontfort \|firstNick \|titleWired 4.10: Spawn of Atari \|urlhttps://www.wired.com/wired/archive/4.10/atari.html \|access-dateMarch 5, 2017 \|archive-dateNovember 3, 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121103195502/http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/4.10/atari.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Don Norman,<ref name"yoyow" /> Rich Page,<ref name"hertzfeld" /> Steve Wozniak,<ref name"hertzfeld" /> and Phil Schiller.<ref>{{Cite web \|titlePhil Schiller advances to Apple Fellow \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/newsroom/2020/08/phil-schiller-advances-to-apple-fellow \|access-dateAugust 9, 2020 \|websiteApple Newsroom \|languageen-US \|archive-dateAugust 8, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200808213814/https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2020/08/phil-schiller-advances-to-apple-fellow/ \|url-status=live}}</ref> Jobs intended that employees were to be specialists who are not exposed to functions outside their area of expertise. For instance, Ron Johnson—Senior Vice President of Retail Operations until November 1, 2011—was responsible for site selection, in-store service, and store layout, yet had no control of the inventory in his stores. This was done by Tim Cook, who had a background in supply-chain management.<ref name"autogenerated1">{{Cite news \|lastLashinsky \|firstAdam \|titleHow Apple works: Inside the world's biggest startup – Fortune Tech \|publisherTech.fortune.cnn.com \|urlhttp://tech.fortune.cnn.com/2011/08/25/how-apple-works-inside-the-worlds-biggest-startup \|url-statusdead \|access-dateDecember 24, 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120102064844/http://tech.fortune.cnn.com/2011/08/25/how-apple-works-inside-the-worlds-biggest-startup \|archive-dateJanuary 2, 2012}}</ref> Apple is known for strictly enforcing accountability. Each project has a "directly responsible individual" or "DRI" in Apple jargon.<ref name"Fortune1" /><ref>{{Cite book \|last1Lichty \|first1Ron \|titleManaging the Unmanageable: Rules, Tools, and Insights for Managing Software \|last2Mantle \|first2Mickey \|page207}}</ref> Unlike other major U.S. companies, Apple provides a relatively simple compensation policy for executives that does not include perks enjoyed by other CEOs like country club fees or private use of company aircraft. The company typically grants stock options to executives every other year.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateDecember 27, 2012 \|titleApple CEO gets modest 2012 pay after huge 2011 \|urlhttp://www.ctvnews.ca/sci-tech/apple-ceo-gets-modest-2012-pay-after-huge-2011-1.1092906 \|access-dateDecember 27, 2012 \|archive-dateJune 27, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230627232805/https://www.ctvnews.ca/sci-tech/apple-ceo-gets-modest-2012-pay-after-huge-2011-1.1092906 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2015, Apple had 110,000&nbsp;full-time employees. This increased to 116,000&nbsp;full-time employees the next year, a notable hiring decrease, largely due to its first revenue decline. Apple does not specify how many of its employees work in retail, though its 2014 SEC filing put the number at approximately half of its employee base.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastLeswing \|firstKif \|dateOctober 27, 2016 \|titleApple added only 6,000 people last year – its slowest growth since 2009 \|urlhttp://nordic.businessinsider.com/apple-hired-only-6000-people-fin-fy-2016-2016-10 \|access-dateMay 29, 2017 \|websiteBusiness Insider \|archive-dateSeptember 26, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180926130646/https://nordic.businessinsider.com/apple-hired-only-6000-people-fin-fy-2016-2016-10 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In September 2017, Apple announced that it had over 123,000 full-time employees.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateNovember 3, 2017 \|titleBRIEF-Apple says had 123,000 full-time employees as of Sept. 30 \|workReuters \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/brief-apple-says-had-123000-full-time-em/brief-apple-says-had-123000-full-time-employees-as-of-sept-30-idUSFWN1N914R \|access-dateNovember 9, 2017 \|archive-dateJuly 13, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230713025416/https://www.reuters.com/article/brief-apple-says-had-123000-full-time-em/brief-apple-says-had-123000-full-time-employees-as-of-sept-30-idUSFWN1N914R \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Apple has a strong culture of corporate secrecy, and has an anti-leak Global Security team that recruits from the National Security Agency, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and the United States Secret Service.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastTurton \|firstWilliam \|dateJune 20, 2017 \|titleLeaked recording: Inside Apple's global war on leakers \|urlhttps://theoutline.com/post/1766/leaked-recording-inside-apple-s-global-war-on-leakers \|access-dateJune 20, 2017 \|websiteThe Outline \|archive-dateSeptember 20, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230920003844/https://theoutline.com/post/1766/leaked-recording-inside-apple-s-global-war-on-leakers \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|firstDani \|lastDeahl \|titleInternal Apple presentation on how to handle leaks gets leaked \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2017/6/20/15837522/apple-internal-presentation-leaks \|websiteThe Verge \|dateJune 20, 2017 \|access-dateJune 20, 2017 \|archive-dateJuly 13, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230713023601/https://www.theverge.com/2017/6/20/15837522/apple-internal-presentation-leaks \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|firstBenjamin \|lastMayo \|titleReport details Apple's efforts to increase product secrecy, more leaks from Apple campus than supply chain in 2016 \|urlhttps://9to5mac.com/2017/06/20/apple-product-secrecy-leaks-leaked-meeting \|website9to5Mac \|dateJune 20, 2017 \|access-dateJune 20, 2017 \|archive-dateJune 20, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170620225032/https://9to5mac.com/2017/06/20/apple-product-secrecy-leaks-leaked-meeting/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In December 2017, Glassdoor said Apple was the 48th best place to work, having originally entered at rank 19 in 2009, peaking at rank 10 in 2012, and falling down the ranks in subsequent years.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastLovejoy \|firstBen \|dateDecember 6, 2017 \|titleFacebook named Glassdoor's 'best place to work' as Apple falls 48 places to No. 84 \|urlhttps://9to5mac.com/2017/12/06/apple-glassdoor-rating-2017-2018 \|access-dateDecember 14, 2017 \|website9to5Mac \|archive-dateDecember 15, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171215110749/https://9to5mac.com/2017/12/06/apple-glassdoor-rating-2017-2018/ \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|firstJoe \|lastRossignol \|titleApple Plummets to Lowest Ranking Ever in Glassdoor's Annual List of Best Places to Work \|urlhttps://www.macrumors.com/2017/12/06/apple-drops-on-best-of-glassdoor \|websiteMacRumors \|dateDecember 6, 2017 \|access-dateDecember 14, 2017 \|archive-dateDecember 15, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171215053427/https://www.macrumors.com/2017/12/06/apple-drops-on-best-of-glassdoor/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2023, Bloomberg{{'s}} Mark Gurman revealed the existence of Apple's Exploratory Design Group (XDG), which was working to add glucose monitoring to the Apple Watch. Gurman compared XDG to Alphabet's X "moonshot factory".<ref>{{Cite news \|lastGurman \|firstMark \|author-linkMark Gurman (journalist) \|dateFebruary 26, 2023 \|titleApple's Secret 'XDG' Team Is Working on More Than Just a Glucose Monitor \|languageen \|workBloomberg.com \|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/newsletters/2023-02-26/apple-aapl-exploratory-design-group-xdg-no-prick-glucose-tracker \|access-dateFebruary 28, 2023 \|archive-dateFebruary 28, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230228003203/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/newsletters/2023-02-26/apple-aapl-exploratory-design-group-xdg-no-prick-glucose-tracker \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Offices {{Main\|Apple Park\|Apple Campus}} Apple Inc.'s world corporate headquarters are located in Cupertino, in the middle of California's Silicon Valley, at Apple Park, a massive circular groundscraper building with a circumference of {{Convert\|1\|mi\|abbrout\|spellin}}. The building opened in April 2017 and houses more than 12,000 employees. Apple co-founder Steve Jobs wanted Apple Park to look less like a business park and more like a nature refuge, and personally appeared before the Cupertino City Council in June 2011 to make the proposal, in his final public appearance before his death. Apple also operates from the Apple Campus (also known by its address, 1 Infinite Loop), a grouping of six buildings in Cupertino that total {{Convert\|850000\|ft2\|m2}} located about {{Convert\|1\|mi}} to the west of Apple Park.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastSimonson \|firstSharon \|dateOctober 2, 2005 \|titleApple gobbles up Cupertino office space \|urlhttp://sanjose.bizjournals.com/sanjose/stories/2005/10/03/story4.html \|access-dateJuly 31, 2006 \|archive-dateAugust 11, 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100811164932/http://sanjose.bizjournals.com/sanjose/stories/2005/10/03/story4.html \|url-status=live}}</ref> The Apple Campus was the company's headquarters from its opening in 1993, until the opening of Apple Park in 2017. The buildings, located at 1–6 Infinite Loop, are arranged in a circular pattern around a central green space, in a design that has been compared to that of a university. In addition to Apple Park and the Apple Campus, Apple occupies an additional thirty office buildings scattered throughout the city of Cupertino, including three buildings as prior headquarters: Stephens Creek Three from 1977 to 1978, Bandley One from 1978 to 1982, and Mariani One from 1982 to 1993.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastSteeber \|firstMichael \|dateNovember 13, 2017 \|titleBefore the spaceship: A look back at the previous campuses that Apple called home \|urlhttps://9to5mac.com/2017/11/13/apple-original-campus-headquarters \|access-dateJanuary 7, 2022 \|website9to5Mac \|languageen-US \|archive-dateJanuary 8, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220108225101/https://9to5mac.com/2017/11/13/apple-original-campus-headquarters/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In total, Apple occupies almost 40% of the available office space in the city.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastSimonson \|firstSharon \|dateSeptember 30, 2005 \|titleApple gobbles up Cupertino office space \|urlhttp://sanjose.bizjournals.com/sanjose/stories/2005/10/03/story4.html?page1 \|access-dateMay 11, 2010 \|websiteSan Jose Business Journal \|archive-dateMarch 20, 2006 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060320204822/http://sanjose.bizjournals.com/sanjose/stories/2005/10/03/story4.html?page1 \|url-status=live}}</ref> Apple's headquarters for Europe, the Middle East and Africa (EMEA) are located in Cork in the south of Ireland, called the Hollyhill campus.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastShead \|firstSam \|titleWe went to see Apple's European HQ in Ireland — here's what we found \|urlhttps://www.businessinsider.com/apples-growing-irish-empire-in-pictures-2016-2 \|access-dateJanuary 7, 2022 \|websiteBusiness Insider \|languageen-US \|archive-dateJanuary 7, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220107223809/https://www.businessinsider.com/apples-growing-irish-empire-in-pictures-2016-2 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The facility, which opened in 1980, houses 5,500 people and was Apple's first location outside of the United States.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateOctober 6, 2011 \|titleIrish Examiner Article \|urlhttp://www.irishexaminer.com/ireland/kfgbsnsnmhoj/rss2 \|access-dateApril 21, 2012 \|websiteIrish Examiner \|archive-dateJuly 11, 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120711192309/http://www.irishexaminer.com/ireland/kfgbsnsnmhoj/rss2/ \|url-statusdead}}</ref> Apple's international sales and distribution arms operate out of the campus in Cork.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleBloomberg Businessweek Profile of Apple Sales International \|urlhttp://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId26016763l \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130501232104/http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId26016763l \|url-statusdead \|archive-dateMay 1, 2013 \|access-dateApril 18, 2012 \|websiteBloomberg Businessweek}}{{Verify source\|dateNovember 2017}}; {{Cite web \|titleApple's Irish website with contact information for Apple Distribution International at Cork \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/ie/contact \|access-dateApril 18, 2012 \|websiteApple.com \|archive-dateApril 14, 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120414024251/http://www.apple.com/ie/contact/ \|url-status=live}}</ref> Apple has two campuses near Austin, Texas: a {{convert\|216,000\|ft2\|m2\|adjon}} campus opened in 2014 houses 500 engineers who work on Apple silicon<ref>{{Cite web \|lastGoel \|firstVindu \|dateNovember 20, 2016 \|titleHow Apple Empowers, and Employs, the American Working Class \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/21/technology/how-apple-empowers-and-employs-the-american-working-class.html \|url-accesslimited \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/21/technology/how-apple-empowers-and-employs-the-american-working-class.html \|archive-dateJanuary 1, 2022 \|access-dateJuly 14, 2017 \|websiteThe New York Times}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and a {{convert\|1.1\|e6ft2\|m2\|adjon}} campus opened in 2021 where 6,000 people work in technical support, supply chain management, online store curation, and Apple Maps data management. The company also has several other locations in Boulder, Colorado; Culver City, California; Herzliya (Israel), London, New York, Pittsburgh, San Diego, and Seattle that each employ hundreds of people.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Tsang \|first1Amie \|last2Satariano \|first2Adam \|dateDecember 13, 2018 \|titleApple to Add $1 Billion Campus in Austin, Tex., in Broad U.S. Hiring Push \|languageen-US \|workThe New York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/13/business/apple-austin-campus.html \|url-statuslive \|url-accesssubscription \|access-dateJanuary 7, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181213121245/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/13/business/apple-austin-campus.html \|archive-dateDecember 13, 2018 \|issn0362-4331}}; {{Cite news \|titleApple CEO Tim Cook to inaugurate new Israeli headquarters next week \|urlhttp://www.jpost.com/Israel-News/New-Tech/Apple-CEO-Tim-Cook-to-inaugurate-new-Israeli-headquarters-next-week-390866 \|access-dateFebruary 12, 2015 \|websiteThe Jerusalem Post \|archive-dateJune 27, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230627235000/https://www.jpost.com/Israel-News/New-Tech/Apple-CEO-Tim-Cook-to-inaugurate-new-Israeli-headquarters-next-week-390866 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Litigation {{Main\|Litigation involving Apple Inc.}} Apple has been a participant in various legal proceedings and claims since it began operation.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleFederal Court Cases Involving Apple, Inc \|urlhttps://www.docketalarm.com/cases/AllNaturesOfSuit/Apple%2C%20Inc. \|access-dateMay 10, 2014 \|publisherDocket Alarm, Inc. \|archive-dateJuly 6, 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140706223129/https://www.docketalarm.com/cases/AllNaturesOfSuit/Apple%2C%20Inc./ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In particular, Apple is known for and promotes itself as actively and aggressively enforcing its intellectual property interests. Some litigation examples include Apple v. Samsung, Apple v. Microsoft, Motorola Mobility v. Apple Inc., and Apple Corps v. Apple Computer. Apple has also had to defend itself against charges on numerous occasions of violating intellectual property rights. Most have been dismissed in the courts as shell companies known as patent trolls, with no evidence of actual use of patents in question.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMullin \|firstJoe \|dateJanuary 26, 2016 \|titlePatent troll VirnetX wants jury to give it a half-billion dollars of Apple's cash \|urlhttps://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2016/01/virnetx-kicks-off-final-massive-patent-trolling-attempt-vs-apple \|access-dateMarch 23, 2017 \|websiteArs Technica \|archive-dateMarch 24, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170324173704/https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2016/01/virnetx-kicks-off-final-massive-patent-trolling-attempt-vs-apple/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> On December 21, 2016, Nokia announced that in the U.S. and Germany, it has filed a suit against Apple, claiming that the latter's products infringe on Nokia's patents.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastNovet \|firstJordan \|dateDecember 21, 2016 \|titleNokia sues Apple for patent infringement in the U.S. and Germany \|urlhttps://venturebeat.com/2016/12/21/nokia-sues-apple-for-patent-infringement-in-the-u-s-and-germany \|access-dateMarch 23, 2017 \|websiteVentureBeat \|archive-dateMay 11, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170511194947/https://venturebeat.com/2016/12/21/nokia-sues-apple-for-patent-infringement-in-the-u-s-and-germany/ \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite news \|lastSwartz \|firstJon \|dateDecember 21, 2016 \|titleNokia sues Apple for patent infringement \|workUSA Today \|urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2016/12/21/nokia-sues-apple-patent-infringement/95709378 \|access-dateMarch 23, 2017 \|archive-dateMay 25, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170525081228/https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2016/12/21/nokia-sues-apple-patent-infringement/95709378/ \|url-status=live}}</ref> Most recently, in November 2017, the United States International Trade Commission announced an investigation into allegations of patent infringement in regards to Apple's remote desktop technology; Aqua Connect, a company that builds remote desktop software, has claimed that Apple infringed on two of its patents.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastOrlowski \|firstAndrew \|dateNovember 15, 2017 \|titleUS trade cops agree to investigate Apple's 'embrace and extend \|urlhttps://www.theregister.co.uk/2017/11/15/trade_cops_probe_apples_embrace_nextend \|access-dateNovember 16, 2017 \|websiteThe Register \|archive-dateNovember 15, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171115212535/https://www.theregister.co.uk/2017/11/15/trade_cops_probe_apples_embrace_nextend/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In January 2022, Ericsson sued Apple over payment of royalty of 5G technology.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastMukherjee \|firstSupantha \|dateJanuary 18, 2022 \|titleEricsson sues Apple again over 5G patent licensing \|languageen \|workReuters \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/technology/ericsson-sues-apple-again-over-5g-patent-licensing-2022-01-18 \|access-dateJanuary 18, 2022 \|archive-dateJanuary 18, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220118112833/https://www.reuters.com/technology/ericsson-sues-apple-again-over-5g-patent-licensing-2022-01-18/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> On June 24, 2024, the European Commission accused Apple of violating the Digital Markets Act by preventing "app developers from freely steering consumers to alternative channels for offers and content".<ref>{{cite news\| last Brodkin\| firstJon\| date June 24, 2024\| titleEU says Apple violated app developers' rights, could be fined 10% of revenue\| url https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2024/06/eu-says-apple-violated-app-developers-rights-could-be-fined-10-of-revenue/\| workarstechnica\| access-date June 25, 2024}}</ref> Finances {{See also\|List of mergers and acquisitions by Apple}} {{As of\|2023}}, Apple is the world's largest technology company by revenue, with US$383.28 billion;<ref name"Global 500 2023">{{Cite web \|titleGlobal 500 \|urlhttps://fortune.com/global500/2023/ \|access-dateAugust 11, 2023 \|websiteFortune \|languageen}}</ref> the world's largest technology company by total assets;<ref>{{Cite web \|lastChen \|firstLiyan \|dateMay 11, 2015 \|titleThe World's Largest Tech Companies: Apple Beats Samsung, Microsoft, Google \|urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/liyanchen/2015/05/11/the-worlds-largest-tech-companies-apple-beats-samsung-microsoft-google \|access-dateMay 24, 2017 \|websiteForbes \|archive-dateMay 25, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170525103525/https://www.forbes.com/sites/liyanchen/2015/05/11/the-worlds-largest-tech-companies-apple-beats-samsung-microsoft-google/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> the fourth-largest personal computer vendor by unit sales;<ref name"2023 PC">{{cite web \|dateJanuary 11, 2024 \|titleGartner Says Worldwide PC Shipments Increased 0.3% in Fourth Quarter of 2023 but Declined 14.8% for the Year \|urlhttps://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/01-10-2024-gartner-says-worldwide-pc-shipments-increased-zero-point-three-percent-in-fourth-quarter-of-2023-but-declined-fourteen-point-eight-percent-for-the-year \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240111045024/https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/01-10-2024-gartner-says-worldwide-pc-shipments-increased-zero-point-three-percent-in-fourth-quarter-of-2023-but-declined-fourteen-point-eight-percent-for-the-year \|archive-dateJanuary 11, 2024 \|access-dateJanuary 11, 2024 \|publisherGartner}}</ref> and the world's largest mobile phone manufacturer.<ref name":4">{{cite web \|lastPorter \|firstJon \|dateJanuary 16, 2024 \|titleApple tops Samsung for first time in global smartphone shipments \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2024/1/16/24039830/apple-bestselling-phone-manufacturer-2023-samsung-idc-canalys-research \|access-dateJanuary 17, 2024 \|websiteThe Verge \|archive-dateJanuary 17, 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240117014152/https://www.theverge.com/2024/1/16/24039830/apple-bestselling-phone-manufacturer-2023-samsung-idc-canalys-research \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In its fiscal year ending in September 2011, Apple Inc. reported a total of $108&nbsp;billion in annual revenues—a significant increase from its 2010 revenues of $65&nbsp;billion—and nearly $82&nbsp;billion in cash reserves.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastNuttall \|firstChris \|dateDecember 29, 2011 \|titleApple in race to keep ahead in 2012 \|urlhttp://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/2/6a7cac22-31db-11e1-9be2-00144feabdc0.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/2/6a7cac22-31db-11e1-9be2-00144feabdc0.html \|archive-dateDecember 10, 2022 \|url-statuslive \|url-accesssubscription \|websiteFinancial Times}}</ref> On March 19, 2012, Apple announced plans for a $2.65-per-share dividend beginning in fourth quarter of 2012, per approval by their board of directors.<ref name"dividendfaq">{{Cite news \|lastTsukayama \|firstHayley \|dateMarch 20, 2012 \|titleFAQ: Apple's Dividend \|newspaperThe Washington Post \|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/business/technology/faq-apples-dividend/2012/03/20/gIQAVxMgPS_story.html \|access-dateMarch 21, 2012 \|archive-dateJanuary 19, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230119143820/https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/technology/faq-apples-dividend/2012/03/20/gIQAVxMgPS_story.html \|url-status=live}}</ref> The company's worldwide annual revenue in 2013 totaled $170&nbsp;billion.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAnnual Financials for Apple \|urlhttp://www.marketwatch.com/investing/stock/aapl/financials \|access-dateFebruary 2, 2014 \|websiteMarketwatch \|archive-dateJuly 8, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230708160347/https://www.marketwatch.com/investing/stock/aapl/financials \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In May 2013, Apple entered the top ten of the Fortune 500 list of companies for the first time, rising 11 places above its 2012 ranking to take the sixth position.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastRodriguez \|firstSalvador \|dateMay 6, 2013 \|titleApple makes Fortune 500's top 10 for first time; Facebook makes list \|workLos Angeles Times \|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/business/technology/la-fi-tn-apple-facebook-fortune-500-20130506,0,6186624.story \|access-dateJune 10, 2013 \|archive-dateMay 27, 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130527220117/http://www.latimes.com/business/technology/la-fi-tn-apple-facebook-fortune-500-20130506,0,6186624.story \|url-statuslive}}</ref> {{As of\|2016}}, Apple has around US$234&nbsp;billion of cash and marketable securities, of which 90% is located outside the United States for tax purposes.<ref name"b200">{{Cite web \|lastLa Monica \|firstPaul R. \|dateJuly 22, 2015 \|titleApple has $203 billion in cash. Why? \|urlhttps://money.cnn.com/2015/07/22/investing/apple-stock-cash-earnings \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150818101000/https://money.cnn.com/2015/07/22/investing/apple-stock-cash-earnings \|archive-dateAugust 18, 2015 \|access-dateSeptember 28, 2015 \|publisherCNNMoney}}</ref> Apple amassed 65% of all profits made by the eight largest worldwide smartphone manufacturers in quarter one of 2014, according to a report by Canaccord Genuity. In the first quarter of 2015, the company garnered 92% of all earnings.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastFarivar \|firstCyrus \|dateJuly 13, 2015 \|titleApple makes 92 percent of all smartphone profits \|urlhttps://arstechnica.com/apple/2015/07/apple-makes-92-percent-of-all-smartphone-profits \|access-dateMarch 23, 2017 \|websiteArs Technica \|archive-dateMarch 22, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170322024409/https://arstechnica.com/apple/2015/07/apple-makes-92-percent-of-all-smartphone-profits/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> On April 30, 2017, The Wall Street Journal reported that Apple had cash reserves of $250&nbsp;billion,<ref>{{Cite news \|lastMickle \|firstTripp \|dateApril 30, 2017 \|titleApple's Cash Hoard Set to Top $250 Billion \|workThe Wall Street Journal \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/apples-250-billion-cash-pile-enlivens-hopes-fuels-expectations-1493566748 \|url-accesssubscription \|access-dateMay 24, 2017 \|archive-dateJuly 13, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230713023324/https://www.wsj.com/articles/apples-250-billion-cash-pile-enlivens-hopes-fuels-expectations-1493566748 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> officially confirmed by Apple as specifically $256.8&nbsp;billion a few days later.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastWang \|firstChristine \|dateMay 2, 2017 \|titleApple's cash hoard swells to record $256.8 billion \|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2017/05/02/apples-cash-hoard-swells-to-record-256-8-billion.html \|access-dateMay 24, 2017 \|publisherCNBC \|archive-dateJune 2, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230602132500/https://www.cnbc.com/2017/05/02/apples-cash-hoard-swells-to-record-256-8-billion.html \|url-status=live}}</ref> {{As of\|2018\|August\|3\|dfUS}}, Apple was the largest publicly traded corporation in the world by market capitalization. On August 2, 2018, Apple became the first publicly traded U.S. company to reach a $1&nbsp;trillion market value,<ref name"1t-CNBC">{{Cite news \|lastSalinas \|firstSara \|dateAugust 2, 2018 \|titleApple just hit a $1 trillion market cap \|publisherCNBC \|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2018/08/02/apple-hits-1-trillion-in-market-value.html \|access-dateAugust 2, 2018 \|archive-dateMay 28, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200528131244/https://www.cnbc.com/2018/08/02/apple-hits-1-trillion-in-market-value.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"1t-Guardian">{{Cite web \|lastDavies \|firstRob \|dateAugust 2, 2018 \|titleApple becomes world's first trillion dollar company \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/aug/02/apple-becomes-worlds-first-trillion-dollar-company \|access-dateAugust 2, 2018 \|websiteThe Guardian \|archive-dateApril 28, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200428201743/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/aug/02/apple-becomes-worlds-first-trillion-dollar-company \|url-statuslive}}</ref> and {{As of\|2024\|06\|lcy}}, is valued at just over $3.2 trillion.<ref name":5" /> Apple was ranked No. 4 on the 2018 Fortune 500 rankings of the largest United States corporations by revenue.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleFortune 500 Companies 2018: Who Made the List \|urlhttp://fortune.com/fortune500/list \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181110190356/http://fortune.com/fortune500/list \|archive-dateNovember 10, 2018 \|access-dateNovember 9, 2018 \|websiteFortune}}</ref> In July 2022, Apple reported an 11% decline in Q3 profits compared to 2021. Its revenue in the same period rose 2% year-on-year to $83 billion, though this figure was also lower than in 2021, where the increase was at 36%. The general downturn is reportedly caused by the slowing global economy and supply chain disruptions in China.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastDuffy \|firstClare \|dateJuly 28, 2022 \|titleApple's profit declines nearly 11% \|urlhttps://us.cnn.com/2022/07/28/tech/apple-q3-earnings/index.html \|access-dateAugust 2, 2022 \|websiteCNN Business \|publisherCNN \|archive-dateAugust 1, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220801214200/https://us.cnn.com/2022/07/28/tech/apple-q3-earnings/index.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> That year, Apple was one of the largest corporate spenders on research and development worldwide, with R&D expenditure amounting to over $27 billion.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastIrwin-Hunt \|firstAlex \|titleTop 100 global innovation leaders \|urlhttps://www.fdiintelligence.com/content/feature/global-innovation-leaders-2022-edition-82527 \|access-dateJune 16, 2024 \|websitefDi Intelligence \|dateJune 19, 2023 \|language=en}}</ref> In May 2023, Apple reported a decline in its sales for the first quarter of 2023. Compared to that of 2022, revenue for 2023 fell by 3%. This is Apple's second consecutive quarter of sales decline. This fall is attributed to the slowing economy and consumers putting off purchases of iPads and computers due to increased pricing. However, iPhone sales held up with a year-on-year increase of 1.5%. According to Apple, demands for such devices were strong, particularly in Latin America and South Asia.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/business-65487055 \|titleApple sales falter again but iPhone demand persists \|workBBC\|access-dateMay 5, 2023\|archive-dateMay 5, 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230505221331/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-65487055\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Taxes Apple has created subsidiaries in low-tax places such as Ireland, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and the British Virgin Islands to cut the taxes it pays around the world. According to The New York Times, in the 1980s Apple was among the first tech companies to designate overseas salespeople in high-tax countries in a manner that allowed the company to sell on behalf of low-tax subsidiaries on other continents, sidestepping income taxes. In the late 1980s, Apple was a pioneer of an accounting technique known as the "Double Irish with a Dutch sandwich", which reduces taxes by routing profits through Irish subsidiaries and the Netherlands and then to the Caribbean.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Duhigg \|first1Charles \|last2Kocieniewski \|first2David \|dateApril 28, 2012 \|titleHow Apple Sidesteps Billions in Taxes \|workThe New York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/29/business/apples-tax-strategy-aims-at-low-tax-states-and-nations.html \|url-accesslimited \|access-dateApril 29, 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/29/business/apples-tax-strategy-aims-at-low-tax-states-and-nations.html \|archive-dateJanuary 1, 2022}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|last1Drawbaugh \|first1Kevin \|last2Temple-West \|first2Patrick \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-tax-offshore-idUSBREA3729V20140409 \|titleUntaxed U.S. corporate profits held overseas top $2.1 trillion: study \|workReuters \|access-dateFebruary 11, 2015 \|archive-dateNovember 14, 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151114065547/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/04/09/us-usa-tax-offshore-idUSBREA3729V20140409 \|url-statuslive}}; {{Cite web \|titleApple Earnings Call \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/investor/earnings-call \|access-dateApril 28, 2016 \|publisherApple Inc. \|archive-dateMay 1, 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160501141522/http://www.apple.com/investor/earnings-call/ \|url-status=live}}</ref> British Conservative Party Member of Parliament Charlie Elphicke published research on October 30, 2012,<ref>{{Cite news \|lastWatson \|firstRoland \|dateOctober 30, 2012 \|titleForeign companies 'avoid billions in corporation tax' \|workThe Times \|urlhttp://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/politics/article3583772.ece \|access-dateNovember 4, 2012 \|archive-dateFebruary 23, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170223191504/http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/politics/article3583772.ece \|url-statuslive}}</ref> which showed that some multinational companies, including Apple Inc., were making billions of pounds of profit in the UK, but were paying an effective tax rate to the UK Treasury of only 3 percent, well below standard corporate tax rates. He followed this research by calling on the Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne to force these multinationals, which also included Google and The Coca-Cola Company, to state the effective rate of tax they pay on their UK revenues. Elphicke also said that government contracts should be withheld from multinationals who do not pay their fair share of UK tax.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastEbrahimi \|firstHelia \|dateNovember 2, 2012 \|titleForeign firms could owe UK £11bn in unpaid taxes \|workThe Telegraph \|locationLondon \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/personalfinance/consumertips/tax/9652516/Foreign-firms-could-owe-UK-11bn-in-unpaid-taxes.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121102231901/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/personalfinance/consumertips/tax/9652516/Foreign-firms-could-owe-UK-11bn-in-unpaid-taxes.html \|archive-dateNovember 2, 2012}}</ref> According to a US Senate report on the company's offshore tax structure concluded in May 2013, Apple has held billions of dollars in profits in Irish subsidiaries to pay little or no taxes to any government by using an unusual global tax structure.<ref>{{Citation \|last1Levin \|first1Carl \|titleMemorandum: Offshore profit shifting and the U.S. tax code – Part 2 (Apple Inc.) \|dateMay 2013 \|urlhttp://levin.senate.gov/download/exhibit1a_profitshiftingmemo_apple \|typememorandum of the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130629090950/http://www.levin.senate.gov/download/exhibit1a_profitshiftingmemo_apple \|formatPDF \|access-dateJune 27, 2013 \|archive-dateJune 29, 2013 \|last2McCain \|first2John \|url-statusdead}}</ref> The main subsidiary, a holding company that includes Apple's retail stores throughout Europe, has not paid any corporate income tax in the last five years. "Apple has exploited a difference between Irish and U.S. tax residency rules", the report said.<ref>{{cite web \|dateMay 20, 2013 \|titleSenate Probe Finds Apple Used Unusual Tax Structure to Avoid Taxes \|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2013/05/20/senate-probe-finds-apple-used-unusual-tax-structure-to-avoid-taxes.html \|access-dateMarch 21, 2025 \|websiteCNBC \|agencyReuters}}</ref> On May 21, 2013, Apple CEO Tim Cook defended his company's tax tactics at a Senate hearing.<ref>{{cite news \|last1McCoy \|first1Kevin \|dateMay 21, 2013 \|titleApple CEO defends tax tactics at Senate hearing \|workUSA Today \|urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/story/money/business/2013/05/21/apple-tax-hearing/2344351/ \|access-dateMay 21, 2013 \|archive-dateMay 22, 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130522064737/http://www.usatoday.com/story/money/business/2013/05/21/apple-tax-hearing/2344351/ \|url-status=live}}</ref> Apple says that it is the single largest taxpayer in the U.S., with an effective tax rate of approximately of 26% as of Q2 FY2016.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleInvestor Relations \|urlhttp://investor.apple.com/ \|access-dateApril 28, 2016 \|publisherApple Inc. \|archive-dateAugust 30, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180830172647/http://investor.apple.com/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In an interview with the German newspaper FAZ in October 2017, Tim Cook stated that Apple was the biggest taxpayer worldwide.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastKnop \|firstCarsten \|dateNovember 14, 2017 \|titleTim Cook im Interview: "Hoffentlich seid ihr Deutschen richtig stolz auf euch" \|languagede \|workFaz.net \|urlhttps://www.faz.net/1.5245252 \|access-dateMarch 26, 2019 \|archive-dateMarch 5, 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240305095121/https://www.faz.net/pro/d-economy/tim-cook-im-interview-hoffentlich-seid-ihr-deutschen-richtig-stolz-auf-euch-15245252.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2016, after a two-year investigation, the European Commission claimed that Apple's use of a hybrid Double Irish tax arrangement constituted "illegal state aid" from Ireland, and ordered Apple to pay 13 billion euros ($14.5 billion) in unpaid taxes, the largest corporate tax fine in history. This was later annulled, after the European General Court ruled that the commission had provided insufficient evidence.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateJuly 15, 2020 \|titleApple ne devra pas rembourser 13 milliards d'euros à l'Irlande, a conclu la justice européenne \|languagefr \|workLe Monde \|urlhttps://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2020/07/15/la-justice-europeenne-annule-la-decision-sommant-apple-de-rembourser-13-milliards-d-euros-a-l-irlande_6046257_3234.html \|access-dateJune 22, 2021 \|archive-dateAugust 16, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210816095531/https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2020/07/15/la-justice-europeenne-annule-la-decision-sommant-apple-de-rembourser-13-milliards-d-euros-a-l-irlande_6046257_3234.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"IT11">{{cite news \|lastBrennan \|firstJoe \|dateJuly 15, 2020 \|titleIreland wins appeal in €13bn Apple tax case \|newspaperIrish Times \|urlhttps://www.irishtimes.com/business/economy/ireland-wins-appeal-in-13bn-apple-tax-case-1.4305044 \|access-dateJuly 15, 2020 \|archive-dateJuly 15, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200715093010/https://www.irishtimes.com/business/economy/ireland-wins-appeal-in-13bn-apple-tax-case-1.4305044 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2018, Apple repatriated $285 billion to the United States, resulting in a $38 billion tax payment spread over the following eight years.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Wakabayashi \|first1Daisuke \|last2Chen \|first2Brian X. \|dateJanuary 17, 2018 \|titleApple, Capitalizing on New Tax Law, Plans to Bring Billions in Cash Back to U.S. \|newspaperThe New York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/17/technology/apple-tax-bill-repatriate-cash.html}}</ref> {\| class="wikitable" \|+Apple's effective tax rate in %<ref name"investor-relations" /><ref name"sec-fillings" /> !2000 !2001 !2002 !2003 !2004 !2005 !2006 !2007 !2008 !2009 !2010 !2011 !2012 !2013 !2014 !2015 !2016 !2017 !2018 !2019 \|- \|28 \|30 \|25 \|26 \|28 \|26 \|29 \|30 \|30 \|31.8 \|24.4 \|24.2 \|25.2 \|26.2 \|26.1 \|26.4 \|25.6 \|24.6 \|18.3 \|15.9 \|- !2020 !2021 !2022 !2023 \| colspan"16" rowspan"2" \| \|- \|14.4 \|13.3 \|16.2 \|14.7 \|} Charity Apple is a partner of Product Red, a fundraising campaign for AIDS charity. In November 2014, Apple arranged for all App Store revenue in a two-week period to go to the fundraiser,<ref>{{Cite web \|lastD'Orazio \|firstDante \|dateNovember 23, 2014 \|titleApple partners with app developers for major Product RED fundraising effort \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2014/11/23/7272673/app-developers-partner-with-apple-for-major-red-charity-fundraising \|access-dateApril 18, 2017 \|websiteThe Verge}}</ref> generating more than US$20&nbsp;million,<ref>{{Cite web \|lastChmielewski \|firstDawn \|dateDecember 17, 2014 \|titleApple's Holiday Product Red Campaign Raises $20 Million for AIDS Research \|urlhttps://www.recode.net/2014/12/17/11633904/apples-holiday-product-red-campaign-raises-20-million-for-aids \|access-dateApril 18, 2017 \|websiteRecode}}; {{Cite web \|lastClover \|firstJuli \|dateDecember 17, 2014 \|titleApple's (Product) RED Holiday Campaign Raised $20 Million to Fight AIDS \|urlhttps://www.macrumors.com/2014/12/17/apple-product-red-20-million \|access-dateApril 18, 2017 \|websiteMacRumors}}</ref> and in March 2017, it released an iPhone 7 with a red color finish.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMiller \|firstChance \|dateMarch 21, 2017 \|titleApple officially announces (RED) iPhone 7 & 7 Plus, updated iPhone SE with double the storage \|urlhttps://9to5mac.com/2017/03/21/apple-officially-announces-red-iphone-7-7-plus-updated-iphone-se-with-double-the-storage \|access-dateApril 18, 2017 \|website9to5Mac}}; {{Cite web \|lastWarren \|firstTom \|dateMarch 21, 2017 \|titleApple launches red iPhone 7 \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2017/3/21/14998164/apple-iphone-7-red-color-option \|access-dateApril 18, 2017 \|website=The Verge}}</ref> Apple contributes financially to fundraisers in times of natural disasters. In November 2012, it donated $2.5&nbsp;million to the American Red Cross to aid relief efforts after Hurricane Sandy,<ref>{{Cite web \|lastWeintraub \|firstSeth \|dateNovember 9, 2011 \|titleApple donates $2.5M to Hurricane Sandy relief \|urlhttp://9to5mac.com/2012/11/09/apple-donates-2-5-million-to-hurricane-sandy-relief \|access-dateNovember 18, 2012 \|website9to5Mac}}</ref> and in 2017 it donated $5&nbsp;million to relief efforts for both Hurricane Irma and Hurricane Harvey,<ref>{{Cite web \|dateSeptember 8, 2017 \|titleApple donates $5M to Hand in Hand Hurricane Irma/Harvey relief, sets up iTunes donations \|urlhttps://9to5mac.com/2017/09/08/apple-hand-in-hand \|access-dateDecember 13, 2017 \|website9to5Mac}}</ref> and for the 2017 Central Mexico earthquake.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMiller \|firstChance \|dateSeptember 21, 2017 \|titleTim Cook says Apple is donating $1 million to earthquake recovery efforts in Mexico \|urlhttps://9to5mac.com/2017/09/21/tim-cook-mexico-earthquake \|access-dateDecember 13, 2017 \|website9to5Mac}}</ref> The company has used its iTunes platform to encourage donations in the wake of environmental disasters and humanitarian crises, such as the 2010 Haiti earthquake,<ref>{{Cite web \|lastWeintraub \|firstSeth \|dateJanuary 14, 2010 \|titleApple sets up Haiti donation page in iTunes \|urlhttps://9to5mac.com/2010/01/14/apple-sets-up-haiti-donation-page-in-itunes \|access-dateDecember 13, 2017 \|website9to5Mac}}</ref> the 2011 Japan earthquake,<ref>{{Cite web \|lastGurman \|firstMark \|author-linkMark Gurman (journalist) \|dateMarch 12, 2011 \|titleApple now taking Red Cross donations through iTunes for Japan relief fund \|urlhttps://9to5mac.com/2011/03/12/apple-now-taking-red-cross-donations-through-itunes-for-japan-relief-fund \|access-dateDecember 13, 2017 \|website9to5Mac}}</ref> Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines in November 2013,<ref>{{Cite web \|lastLovejoy \|firstBen \|dateNovember 12, 2013 \|titleApple invites donations to American Red Cross to support Philippine typhoon relief \|urlhttps://9to5mac.com/2013/11/12/apple-invites-donations-to-american-red-cross-to-support-philippine-typhoon-relief \|access-dateDecember 13, 2017 \|website9to5Mac}}</ref> and the 2015 European migrant crisis.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastLovejoy \|firstBen \|dateSeptember 18, 2015 \|titleApple invites Red Cross donations through iTunes to help the Mediterranean refugee crisis [Updated] \|urlhttps://9to5mac.com/2015/09/18/itunes-refugee-appeal-red-cross \|access-dateDecember 13, 2017 \|website9to5Mac}}</ref> Apple emphasizes that it does not incur any processing or other fees for iTunes donations, sending 100% of the payments directly to relief efforts, though it also acknowledges that the Red Cross does not receive any personal information on the users donating and that the payments may not be tax deductible.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMiller \|firstChance \|dateAugust 27, 2017 \|titleApple now accepting donations via iTunes for Hurricane Harvey relief efforts \|urlhttps://9to5mac.com/2017/08/27/apple-hurricane-harvey-itunes-relief \|access-dateDecember 13, 2017 \|website=9to5Mac}}</ref> On April 14, 2016, Apple and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) announced that they have engaged in a partnership to, "help protect life on our planet". Apple released a special page in the iTunes App Store, Apps for Earth. In the arrangement, Apple has committed that through April 24, WWF will receive 100% of the proceeds from the applications participating in the App Store via both the purchases of any paid apps and the In-App Purchases. Apple and WWF's Apps for Earth campaign raised more than $8&nbsp;million in total proceeds to support WWF's conservation work. WWF announced the results at WWDC 2016 in San Francisco.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHelp the planet. One app at a time \|urlhttps://www.worldwildlife.org/pages/help-the-planet-one-app-at-a-time \|access-dateApril 14, 2016 \|publisherWorld Wildlife Fund}}; {{Cite web \|titleEnvironment \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/environment \|access-dateApril 14, 2016 \|publisherApple Inc.}}; {{Cite press release \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/newsroom/2016/06/global-apps-for-earth-campaign-with-wwf-raises-more-than--8m.html \|titleGlobal Apps for Earth campaign with WWF raises more than $8M \|publisherApple Inc. \|access-dateJune 18, 2016}}</ref> During the COVID-19 pandemic, Apple's CEO Cook announced that the company will be donating "millions" of masks to health workers in the United States and Europe.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleTech billionaires including Tim Cook, Elon Musk, and Mark Zuckerberg promised 18 million masks to fight COVID-19 \|urlhttps://www.businessinsider.com/tech-billionaires-promise-to-donate-18-million-masks-2020-3#apple-minimum-2-million-masks-1 \|access-dateMarch 23, 2020 \|publisherBusiness Insider}}</ref> On January 13, 2021, Apple announced a $100 million Racial Equity and Justice Initiative to help combat institutional racism worldwide after the 2020 murder of George Floyd.<ref name"Doubles" /><ref>{{Cite web \|titleApple launches major new Racial Equity and Justice Initiative projects to challenge systemic racism, advance racial equity nationwide \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/newsroom/2021/01/apple-launches-major-new-racial-equity-and-justice-initiative-projects-to-challenge-systemic-racism-advance-racial-equity-nationwide \|access-dateJanuary 13, 2021 \|websiteApple Newsroom \|languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|dateJune 11, 2020 \|titleApple commits $100M to its new Racial Equity and Justice Initiative \|urlhttps://techcrunch.com/2020/06/11/apple-commits-100m-to-its-new-racial-equity-and-justice-initiative/ \|access-dateAugust 20, 2021 \|websiteTechCrunch \|languageen-US}}; {{Cite web \|dateJanuary 13, 2021 \|titleApple announces new projects related to its $100 million pledge for racial equity and justice \|urlhttps://techcrunch.com/2021/01/13/apple-announces-new-projects-related-to-its-100-million-pledge-for-racial-equity-and-justice/ \|access-dateAugust 20, 2021 \|websiteTechCrunch \|languageen-US}}</ref> In June 2023, Apple announced doubling this and then distributed more than $200 million to support organizations focused on education, economic growth, and criminal justice. Half is philanthropic grants and half is centered on equity.<ref name"Doubles">{{Cite web \|languageen \|urlhttps://www.philanthropy.com/article/apple-doubles-to-200-million-its-support-for-racial-equity \|titleApple Doubles to $200 Million Its Support for Racial Equity \|websitePhilanthropy\|dateJune 16, 2023 \|access-dateJanuary 29, 2024\|archive-dateJune 21, 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230621021546/https://www.philanthropy.com/article/apple-doubles-to-200-million-its-support-for-racial-equity}}</ref> Environment {{Main\|Environmental impact of Apple Inc.}} Apple Energy Apple Energy, LLC is a wholly-owned subsidiary of Apple Inc. that sells solar energy. {{As of\|2016\|June\|6\|dfUS}}, Apple's solar farms in California and Nevada have been declared to provide 217.9 megawatts of solar generation capacity.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastWeaver \|firstJohn Fitzgerald \|dateJune 10, 2016 \|titleApple Energy deeper dive: Is this Apple running its own microgrids or more? \|urlhttp://electrek.co/2016/06/10/apple-energy-deeper-dive-is-this-apple-running-its-own-microgrids-or-more\|access-dateJune 12, 2016 \|websiteElectrek}}; {{Cite news \|lastWeintraub \|firstSeth \|dateJune 9, 2016 \|titleApple has just become an energy company, looks to sell excess electricity into the grid and maybe more \|website9to5Mac \|urlhttp://9to5mac.com/2016/06/09/apple-energy-company \|access-dateJune 12, 2016}}</ref> Apple has received regulatory approval to construct a landfill gas energy plant in North Carolina to use the methane emissions to generate electricity.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleCatawba County approves lease for Apple's renewable energy center \|urlhttp://www.hickoryrecord.com/news/catawba-county-approves-lease-for-apple-s-renewable-energy-center/article_cf451340-2e81-11e6-8ea5-17ea0e23e19c.html\|access-dateJune 12, 2016 \|websiteHDR {{!}} Hickory Daily Record\|dateJune 9, 2016 }}</ref> Apple's North Carolina data center is already powered entirely by renewable sources.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastLovejoy \|firstBen \|dateJune 10, 2016 \|titleAs Apple moves into the energy business, it gets approval to turn landfill gas into power \|urlhttp://9to5mac.com/2016/06/10/apple-energy-landfill-gas-electricity\|access-dateJune 14, 2016 \|website9to5Mac}}</ref> Energy and resources In 2010, Climate Counts, a nonprofit organization dedicated to directing consumers toward the greenest companies, gave Apple a score of 52 points out of a possible 100, which puts Apple in their top category "Striding".<ref>{{Cite web \|titleClimate Counts scorecard \|urlhttp://www.climatecounts.org/scorecard_score.php?co7\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090104212545/http://climatecounts.org/scorecard_score.php?co7\|archive-dateJanuary 4, 2009\|access-dateOctober 7, 2011 \|publisherClimatecounts.org}}</ref> This was an increase from May 2008, when Climate Counts only gave Apple 11 points out of 100, which placed the company last among electronics companies, at which time Climate Counts also labeled Apple with a "stuck icon", adding that Apple at the time was "a choice to avoid for the climate-conscious consumer".<ref name"iwclimate">{{Cite news \|titleEnvironmental Group Hits Apple \|workInformation Week \|urlhttp://www.informationweek.com/news/hardware/mac/showArticle.jhtml?articleID207601672}}</ref> Following a Greenpeace protest, Apple released a statement on April 17, 2012, committing to ending its use of coal and shifting to 100% renewable clean energy.<ref name"After Greenpeace Protests, Apple Promises to Dump Coal Power">{{Cite magazine \|lastMcMillan \|firstRobert \|dateMay 17, 2012 \|titleAfter Greenpeace Protests, Apple Promises to Dump Coal Power \|urlhttps://www.wired.com/wiredenterprise/2012/05/apple_coal \|magazineWired \|access-dateAugust 22, 2013}}</ref><ref name"Powering Our Facilities with Clean, Renewable Energy">{{Cite web \|titlePowering Our Facilities with Clean, Renewable Energy \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/environment/renewable-energy\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140422023008/https://www.apple.com/environment/renewable-energy\|archive-dateApril 22, 2014\|access-dateAugust 22, 2013 \|websiteWired Magazine}}{{Verify source\|dateNovember 2017}}</ref> By 2013, Apple was using 100% renewable energy to power their data centers. Overall, 75% of the company's power came from clean renewable sources.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastBurrows \|firstPeter \|dateMarch 21, 2013 \|titleApple Says Data Centers Now Use 100% Renewable Energy \|workBusiness Week \|urlhttp://www.businessweek.com/news/2013-03-21/apple-says-data-centers-now-use-100-percent-renewable-energy \|url-statusdead \|access-dateAugust 30, 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131202223855/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2013-03-21/apple-says-data-centers-now-use-100-percent-renewable-energy \|archive-date=December 2, 2013}}</ref> In May 2015, Greenpeace evaluated the state of the Green Internet and commended Apple on their environmental practices saying, "Apple's commitment to renewable energy has helped set a new bar for the industry, illustrating in very concrete terms that a 100% renewable Internet is within its reach, and providing several models of intervention for other companies that want to build a sustainable Internet."<ref>{{Cite web \|titleClickClean \|urlhttp://www.greenpeace.org/usa/global-warming/click-clean/#report\|access-dateApril 28, 2016 \|websiteClick Clean \|publisher=Greenpeace}}</ref> {{As of\|2016}}, Apple states that 100% of its U.S. operations run on renewable energy, 100% of Apple's data centers run on renewable energy and 93% of Apple's global operations run on renewable energy.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleEnvironment \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/environment\|access-dateMay 26, 2016 \|publisherApple}}</ref> However, the facilities are connected to the local grid which usually contains a mix of fossil and renewable sources, so Apple carbon offsets its electricity use.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastCardwell \|firstDiane \|dateAugust 23, 2016 \|titleApple Becomes a Green Energy Supplier, With Itself as Customer \|workThe New York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/24/business/energy-environment/as-energy-use-rises-corporations-turn-to-their-own-green-utility-sources.html \|url-statuslive \|access-dateDecember 30, 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161129164413/http://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/24/business/energy-environment/as-energy-use-rises-corporations-turn-to-their-own-green-utility-sources.html \|archive-dateNovember 29, 2016 \|quoteclean power often does not flow directly to their facilities. They typically buy the renewable energy in amounts to match what they draw from the grid. They're actually getting power from their local utility, which may be coal}}; {{Cite web \|lastCole \|firstNicki Lisa \|dateAugust 5, 2015 \|titleWhy Is Apple Lying About Powering Its Data Centers With Renewable Energy? \|urlhttp://www.truth-out.org/news/item/32208-why-is-apple-lying-about-powering-its-data-centers-with-renewable-energy\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160630060630/http://www.truth-out.org/news/item/32208-why-is-apple-lying-about-powering-its-data-centers-with-renewable-energy\|archive-dateJune 30, 2016\|access-dateDecember 30, 2016 \|websiteTruthout \|quoteApple buys renewable energy certificates to offset its reliance on Duke's dirty energy. ..purchasing offsets is not the same as actually powering something with renewable energy}}</ref> The Electronic Product Environmental Assessment Tool (EPEAT) allows consumers to see the effect a product has on the environment. Each product receives a Gold, Silver, or Bronze rank depending on its efficiency and sustainability. Every Apple tablet, notebook, desktop computer, and display that EPEAT ranks achieves a Gold rating, the highest possible. Although Apple's data centers recycle water 35 times,<ref>{{Cite web \|dateMarch 2016 \|titleEnvironment – Climate Change \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/environment/climate-change\|access-dateMarch 27, 2016 \|websiteWhy we measure our carbon footprint so rigorously. \|publisherApple Inc.}}</ref> the increased activity in retail, corporate and data centers also increase the amount of water use to {{convert\|573\|e6usgal\|e6m3\|abbrunit\|sigfig2}} in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateJune 15, 2016 \|titleHow Much Water Do Apple Data Centers Use? \|urlhttp://www.datacenterknowledge.com/archives/2016/06/15/how-much-water-do-apple-data-centers-use\|access-dateNovember 5, 2016 \|website=Data Center Knowledge}}</ref> During an event on March 21, 2016, Apple provided a status update on its environmental initiative to be 100% renewable in all of its worldwide operations. Lisa P. Jackson, Apple's vice president of Environment, Policy and Social Initiatives who reports directly to CEO, Tim Cook, announced that {{As of\|2016\|March\|lcy}}, 93% of Apple's worldwide operations are powered with renewable energy. Also featured was the company's efforts to use sustainable paper in their product packaging; 99% of all paper used by Apple in the product packaging comes from post-consumer recycled paper or sustainably managed forests, as the company continues its move to all paper packaging for all of its products.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleApple Environmental Responsibility Report (2015) \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/environment/pdf/Apple_Environmental_Responsibility_Report_2015.pdf\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.apple.com/environment/pdf/Apple_Environmental_Responsibility_Report_2015.pdf\|archive-dateOctober 9, 2022\|access-dateMarch 30, 2016 \|publisherApple Inc.}}; {{Cite web \|titleApple Environmental Responsibility Report 2016 Progress Report, Covering Fiscal Year 2015 \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/environment/pdf/Apple_Environmental_Responsibility_Report_2016.pdf\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.apple.com/environment/pdf/Apple_Environmental_Responsibility_Report_2016.pdf\|archive-dateOctober 9, 2022 \|publisherApple Inc.}}</ref> Apple announced on August 16, 2016, that Lens Technology, one of its major suppliers in China, has committed to power all its glass production for Apple with 100 percent renewable energy by 2018. The commitment is a large step in Apple's efforts to help manufacturers lower their carbon footprint in China.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastSumra \|firstHusain \|titleSupplier Lens Technology Commits to 100 Percent Renewable Energy for Apple Manufacturing \|urlhttp://www.macrumors.com/2016/08/17/lens-technology-renewable-energy-apple\|access-dateAugust 17, 2016 \|websiteMacRumors \|dateAugust 16, 2016}}</ref> Apple also announced that all 14 of its final assembly sites in China are now compliant with UL's Zero Waste to Landfill validation. The standard, which started in January 2015, certifies that all manufacturing waste is reused, recycled, composted, or converted into energy (when necessary). Since the program began, nearly 140,000 metric tons of waste have been diverted from landfills.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastOchs \|firstSusie \|dateAugust 17, 2016 \|titleApple steps up environmental efforts in China \|urlhttps://www.macworld.com/article/228597/apple-steps-up-environmental-efforts-in-china.html\|access-dateSeptember 20, 2022 \|websiteMacworld \|language=en}}</ref> On July 21, 2020, Apple announced its plan to become carbon neutral across its entire business, manufacturing supply chain, and product life cycle by 2030. In the next 10 years, Apple will try to lower emissions with a series of innovative actions, including: low carbon product design, expanding energy efficiency, renewable energy, process and material innovations, and carbon removal.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleApple commits to be 100 percent carbon neutral for its supply chain and products by 2030 \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/newsroom/2020/07/apple-commits-to-be-100-percent-carbon-neutral-for-its-supply-chain-and-products-by-2030\|access-dateOctober 16, 2020 \|websiteApple Newsroom \|language=en-US}}</ref> In June 2024, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published a report about an electronic computer manufacturing facility leased by Apple in 2015 in Santa Clara, California, code named Aria.<ref name"Roscoe20240625">{{Cite web \|lastRoscoe \|firstJules \|dateJune 25, 2024 \|titleCalifornia Apple Manufacturing Facility Has 19 'Potential Violations' of EPA Regulations \|urlhttps://www.404media.co/california-apple-manufacturing-facility-has-19-potential-violations-of-epa-regulations/ \|access-dateJune 27, 2024 \|website404 Media \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastDonato-Weinstein \|firstNathan \|dateApril 11, 2016 \|titleZeus, Medusa, Pegasus, Athena: Inside Apple's mysterious Silicon Valley industrial projects \|urlhttps://www.bizjournals.com/sanjose/news/2016/04/11/zeus-medusa-pegasus-athena-inside-apples.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230316202956/https://www.bizjournals.com/sanjose/news/2016/04/11/zeus-medusa-pegasus-athena-inside-apples.html \|archive-dateMarch 16, 2023 \|access-dateJune 26, 2024 \|websiteBusiness Journals}}</ref> The EPA report stated that Apple was potentially in violation of federal regulations under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA).<ref name"Roscoe20240625" /> According to a report from Bloomberg in 2018, the facility is used to develop microLED screens under the code name T159.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastGurman \|firstMark \|dateMarch 19, 2018 \|titleApple Is Said to Develop Gadget Displays in Secret Facility \|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-03-19/apple-is-said-to-develop-displays-to-replace-samsung-screens \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180430083412/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-03-19/apple-is-said-to-develop-displays-to-replace-samsung-screens \|archive-dateApril 30, 2018 \|access-dateJune 26, 2024 \|workBloomberg}}</ref><ref name"Roscoe20240625" /><ref>{{Cite news \|lastMa \|firstWayne \|dateMarch 6, 2023 \|titleHow Apple's Need for Cutting Edge Screens Kept Tech's Unhappiest Marriage Alive \|urlhttps://www.theinformation.com/articles/how-apples-need-for-cutting-edge-screens-kept-techs-unhappiest-marriage-alive \|url-accesssubscription \|access-dateJuly 4, 2024 \|workThe information}}</ref> The inspection found that Apple was potentially mistreating waste as only subject to California regulations and that they had potentially miscalculated the effectiveness of Apple's activated carbon filters, which filter volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from the air. The EPA inspected the facility in August 2023 due to a tip from a former Apple employee who posted the report on X.<ref name"Roscoe20240625" /> Toxins Following further campaigns by Greenpeace,<ref>{{Cite web \|dateNovember 28, 2008 \|titleGreenpeace {{!}} iPoison + iWaste \|urlhttp://www.greenpeace.org/apple/itox.html \|access-dateJuly 11, 2023 \|archive-dateNovember 28, 2008 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081128211816/http://www.greenpeace.org/apple/itox.html \|url-statusdead }}</ref> in 2008, Apple became the first electronics manufacturer to eliminate all polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and brominated flame retardants (BFRs) in its complete product line.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleApple – Environment – Update \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/environment/reports/update.html\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101115215221/https://www.apple.com/environment/reports/update.html\|archive-dateNovember 15, 2010\|access-dateNovember 22, 2010 \|publisherApple Inc.}}; {{Cite web \|titleWhich companies are phasing out PVC and BFRs \|urlhttp://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/toxics/electronics/Guide-to-Greener-Electronics/which-companies-really-sell-gr\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101110055341/http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/toxics/electronics/Guide-to-Greener-Electronics/which-companies-really-sell-gr\|archive-dateNovember 10, 2010\|access-dateJanuary 13, 2011 \|publisherGreenpeace International}}</ref> In June 2007, Apple began replacing the cold cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL) backlit LCD displays in its computers with mercury-free LED-backlit LCD displays and arsenic-free glass, starting with the upgraded MacBook Pro.<ref name"Apple-environmental-news">{{Cite web \|titleApple – Environment – Environmental Progress \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/environment/progress\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101124181606/http://www.apple.com/environment/progress\|archive-dateNovember 24, 2010\|access-dateNovember 22, 2010}}</ref><ref name"agreenapple">{{Cite web \|titleApple&nbsp;– A Greener Apple \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/hotnews/agreenerapple\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080725082132/http://www.apple.com/hotnews/agreenerapple\|archive-dateJuly 25, 2008\|access-dateAugust 12, 2008}}</ref><ref name"green_notebooks">{{Cite web \|year2008 \|titleApple – Mac – Green Notebooks \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/mac/green-notebooks\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081222083708/http://www.apple.com/mac/green-notebooks\|archive-dateDecember 22, 2008\|access-dateDecember 24, 2008 \|publisherApple Inc.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleApple: MacBook Pro Graphics \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/macbookpro/graphics.html\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070602180903/http://www.apple.com/macbookpro/graphics.html\|archive-dateJune 2, 2007\|access-dateJune 8, 2007}}; {{Cite web \|dateMay 4, 2007 \|titleFirst Look: LED-Backlit displays: What you need to know \|urlhttps://www.macworld.com/article/1057740/ledbacklight.html\|access-dateFebruary 16, 2021 \|websiteMacworld \|languageen}}</ref> Apple offers comprehensive and transparent information about the CO<sub>2</sub>e, emissions, materials, and electrical usage concerning every product they currently produce or have sold in the past (and which they have enough data needed to produce the report), in their portfolio on their homepage. Allowing consumers to make informed purchasing decisions on the products they offer for sale.<ref name"Apple-environment-reports"/> In June 2009, Apple's iPhone 3GS was free of PVC, arsenic, and BFRs.<ref name"Apple-environmental-news" /><ref>{{Cite web \|titleiMac and the Environment \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/imac/environment.html\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101129205242/http://www.apple.com/imac/environment.html\|archive-dateNovember 29, 2010\|access-dateNovember 29, 2010 \|publisherApple Inc.}}; {{Cite web \|last1Michaels \|first1Philip \|last2Snell \|first2Jason \|last3Macworld {{!}}\|dateJune 8, 2009\|titleiPhone 3G S offers speed boost, video capture\|urlhttps://www.macworld.com/article/1141031/iphone3gs.html\|access-dateFebruary 16, 2021\|websiteMacworld\|languageen}}</ref> Since 2009, all Apple products have mercury-free LED-backlit LCD displays, arsenic-free glass, and non-PVC cables.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2016-04-18 \|titleSix of the worst toxins Apple says it has phased out of its products \|urlhttps://qz.com/663763/six-of-the-worst-toxins-apple-says-it-has-phased-out-of-its-products \|access-date2024-10-01 \|websiteQuartz \|languageen}}</ref> All Apple products have EPEAT Gold status and beat the latest Energy Star guidelines in each product's respective regulatory category.<ref name"Apple-environmental-news" /><ref>{{Cite web \|dateMarch 2016 \|titleEnergy Star Computers Final Program Requirements \|urlhttps://www.energystar.gov/sites/default/files/specs//Version%206%201%20Computers%20Final%20Program%20Requirements.pdf\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.energystar.gov/sites/default/files/specs//Version%206%201%20Computers%20Final%20Program%20Requirements.pdf\|archive-dateOctober 9, 2022\|access-dateMarch 30, 2016 \|websiteEnergy Star \|publisher=EPA}}</ref> In November 2011, Apple was featured in Greenpeace's Guide to Greener Electronics, which ranks electronics manufacturers on sustainability, climate and energy policy, and how "green" their products are. The company ranked fourth of fifteen electronics companies (moving up five places from the previous year) with a score of 4.6/10.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastSlivka \|firstEric \|dateNovember 9, 2011 \|titleApple Jumps to Fourth in Greenpeace's Environmental Rankings of Electronics Companies \|urlhttps://www.macrumors.com/2011/11/09/apple-jumps-to-fourth-in-greenpeaces-environmental-rankings-of-electronics-companies\|access-dateApril 18, 2017 \|websiteMacRumors}}; {{Cite web \|dateNovember 9, 2011 \|titleApple ranks fourth on Greenpeace's 'Guide to Greener Electronics' \|urlhttp://appleinsider.com/articles/11/11/09/apple_ranks_fourth_on_greenpeaces_guide_to_greener_electronics\|access-dateApril 18, 2017 \|websiteAppleInsider}}</ref> Greenpeace praised Apple's sustainability, noting that the company exceeded its 70% global recycling goal in 2010. Apple continues to score well on product ratings, with all of their products now being free of PVC plastic and BFRs. However, the guide criticized Apple on the Energy criteria for not seeking external verification of its greenhouse gas emissions data, and for not setting any targets to reduce emissions.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleApple, 4th position, 4.6/10 \|urlhttp://www.greenpeace.org:80/international/Global/international/publications/climate/2011/Cool%20IT/greener-guide-nov-2011/apple.pdf\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.greenpeace.org:80/international/Global/international/publications/climate/2011/Cool%20IT/greener-guide-nov-2011/apple.pdf\|archive-dateOctober 9, 2022\|access-dateApril 18, 2017 \|publisherGreenpeace}}</ref> In January 2012, Apple requested that its cable maker, Volex, begin producing halogen-free USB and power cables.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastAnderson \|firstAsh \|titleApple Power Cables to Become Even More Environmentally Friendly \|urlhttp://www.keynoodle.com/apple-power-cables-to-become-even-more-environmentally-friendly\|access-dateJanuary 14, 2012 \|publisherKeyNoodle\|archive-dateJanuary 17, 2012\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120117004318/http://www.keynoodle.com/apple-power-cables-to-become-even-more-environmentally-friendly/\|url-statusdead}}; {{Cite web \|dateMarch 20, 2018 \|titleFire Resistant yet Environment Friendly Power Cables From Apple \|urlhttps://appletoolbox.com/fire-resistant-yet-environment-friendly-power-cables-from-apple\|access-dateFebruary 16, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221014102514/https://appletoolbox.com/fire-resistant-yet-environment-friendly-power-cables-from-apple/\|archive-dateOctober 14, 2022 \|websiteAppleToolBox \|languageen-US}}</ref> Green bonds In February 2016, Apple issued a {{US$\|1.5}}{{nbsp}}billion green bond (climate bond), the first ever of its kind by a U.S. tech company. The green bond proceeds are dedicated to the financing of environmental projects.<ref name"Apple-environment-reports">{{Cite web \|titleEnvironment – Reports \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/environment/reports\|access-dateMay 28, 2016 \|publisherApple Inc.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|dateFebruary 17, 2016 \|titleApple launches $1.5bn green bond \|urlhttps://www.climatechangenews.com/2016/02/17/apple-launches-1-5bn-green-bond\|access-dateFebruary 16, 2021 \|websiteClimate Home News \|languageen}}</ref> Supply chain {{Main\|Apple supply chain}} Apple products were made in the United States in Apple-owned factories until the late 1990s; however, as a result of outsourcing initiatives in the 2000s, almost all of its manufacturing is now handled abroad. According to a report by The New York Times, Apple insiders "believe the vast scale of overseas factories, as well as the flexibility, diligence and industrial skills of foreign workers, have so outpaced their American counterparts that 'Made in the U.S.A.' is no longer a viable option for most Apple products".<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Duhigg \|first1Charles \|last2Bradsher \|first2Keith \|dateJanuary 21, 2012 \|titleApple, America and a Squeezed Middle Class \|workThe New York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/22/business/apple-america-and-a-squeezed-middle-class.html \|url-accesslimited \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/22/business/apple-america-and-a-squeezed-middle-class.html \|archive-date=January 1, 2022}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The company's manufacturing, procurement, and logistics enable it to execute massive product launches without having to maintain large, profit-sapping inventories. In 2011, Apple's profit margins were 40 percent, compared with between 10 and 20 percent for most other hardware companies. Cook's catchphrase to describe his focus on the company's operational arm is: "Nobody wants to buy sour milk."<ref name"supply">{{Cite news \|titleApple's Supply-Chain Secret? Hoard Lasers \|workBusinessWeek \|publisherBloomberg L.P. \|urlhttp://www.businessweek.com/magazine/apples-supplychain-secret-hoard-lasers-11032011.html \|url-statusdead \|access-dateNovember 4, 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20201210190525/https://www.webcitation.org/62xFMYuc3?urlhttp://www.businessweek.com/printer/magazine/apples-supplychain-secret-hoard-lasers-11032011.html \|archive-dateDecember 10, 2020 \|quoteThe iPhone maker spends lavishly on all stages of the manufacturing process, giving it a huge operations advantage}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|dateNovember 9, 2011 \|titleRuthlessness and lasers: Apple's supply chain revealed \|workFinancial Post \|publisherBusiness.financialpost.com \|urlhttp://business.financialpost.com/2011/11/09/ruthlessness-and-lasers-apples-supply-chain-revealed \|access-date=December 24, 2011}}</ref> In May 2017, the company announced a $1 billion funding project for "advanced manufacturing" in the United States,<ref>{{Cite web \|lastStatt \|firstNick \|dateMay 3, 2017 \|titleTim Cook says Apple is investing $1 billion in US manufacturing \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2017/5/3/15537742/apple-ceo-tim-cook-1-billion-us-manufacturing-investment\|access-dateDecember 14, 2017 \|websiteThe Verge \|publisherVox Media}}; {{Cite web \|lastOchs \|firstSusie \|dateMay 3, 2017 \|titleApple joins 'Made in America' trend with $1 billion fund to promote U.S. manufacturing \|urlhttps://www.macworld.com/article/3194332/hardware/apple-to-invest-1-billion-in-an-advanced-manufacturing-fund.html\|access-dateDecember 14, 2017 \|websiteMacworld \|publisherInternational Data Group}}</ref> and subsequently invested $200&nbsp;million in Corning Inc., a manufacturer of toughened Gorilla Glass technology used in Apple's iPhones.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastGartenberg \|firstChaim \|dateMay 12, 2017 \|titleApple's first target for its $1 billion US manufacturing fund is glass supplier Corning \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2017/5/12/15629568/apple-us-advanced-manufacturing-fund-corning-gorilla-glass-investment\|access-dateDecember 14, 2017 \|websiteThe Verge \|publisherVox Media}}; {{Cite web \|lastHeater \|firstBrian \|dateMay 12, 2017 \|titleGorilla Glass maker Corning gets $200 million from Apple's US manufacturing investment fund \|urlhttps://techcrunch.com/2017/05/12/gorilla-glass-maker-corning-gets-200-million-from-apples-us-manufacturing-investment-fund\|access-dateDecember 14, 2017 \|websiteTechCrunch \|publisherOath Inc.}}</ref> The following December, Apple's chief operating officer, Jeff Williams, told CNBC that the "$1 billion" amount was "absolutely not" the final limit on its spending, elaborating that "We're not thinking in terms of a fund limit... We're thinking about, where are the opportunities across the U.S. to help nurture companies that are making the advanced technology — and the advanced manufacturing that goes with that — that quite frankly is essential to our innovation."<ref>{{Cite web \|lastSalinas \|firstSara \|dateDecember 13, 2017 \|titleApple has a $1 billion fund for US manufacturers, but it's ready to spend more, says COO Jeff Williams \|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2017/12/13/apple-coo-jeff-williams-we-could-invest-more-than-1-billion-in-us.html\|access-dateDecember 14, 2017 \|websiteCNBC \|publisherNBCUniversal News Group}}; {{Cite web \|lastMiller \|firstChance \|dateDecember 13, 2017 \|titleJeff Williams says Apple is prepared to invest more than $1B in US manufacturers \|urlhttps://9to5mac.com/2017/12/13/apple-invest-in-us-manufacturing\|access-dateDecember 14, 2017 \|website=9to5Mac}}</ref> During the Mac's early history, Apple generally refused to adopt prevailing industry standards for hardware, instead creating their own.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateMarch 17, 2001 \|titleMac Ports \|urlhttp://lawlor.cs.uaf.edu/~olawlor/ref/mac_ports/index.html\|access-dateOctober 7, 2011 \|publisherLawlor.cs.uaf.edu}}</ref> This trend was largely reversed in the late 1990s, beginning with Apple's adoption of the PCI bus in the 7500/8500/9500 Power Macs. Apple has since joined the industry standards groups to influence the future direction of technology standards such as USB, AGP, HyperTransport, Wi-Fi, NVMe, PCIe and others in its products. FireWire is an Apple-originated standard that was widely adopted across the industry after it was standardized as IEEE 1394 and is a legally mandated port in all cable TV boxes in the United States.<ref>{{Cite web \|title1394 Trade Association: What is 1394? \|urlhttp://www.1394ta.org/consumers/WhatIsFireWire.html\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140404152533/http://www.1394ta.org/consumers/WhatIsFireWire.html\|archive-dateApril 4, 2014}}</ref> Apple has gradually expanded its efforts in getting its products into the Indian market. In July 2012, during a conference call with investors, CEO Tim Cook said that he "[loves] India", but that Apple saw larger opportunities outside the region.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastLunden \|firstIngrid \|dateJuly 24, 2012 \|titleApple's Feeling Europe's Economic Crisis: 'Essentially Flat' Sales And A 'Slowdown' In Business, Says Cook \|urlhttps://techcrunch.com/2012/07/24/apples-feeling-europes-economic-crisis-essentially-flat-revenues\|access-dateMay 24, 2017 \|websiteTechCrunch \|publisherAOL}}</ref> India's requirement that 30% of products sold be manufactured in the country was described as "really adds cost to getting product to market".<ref>{{Cite web \|dateJuly 25, 2012 \|titleApple CEO Tim Cook: 'I love India, but...' \|urlhttp://gadgets.ndtv.com/mobiles/news/apple-ceo-tim-cook-i-love-india-but-247307\|access-dateMay 24, 2017 \|websiteGadgets360 \|publisherNDTV}}</ref> In May 2016, Apple opened an iOS app development center in Bangalore and a maps development office for 4,000 staff in Hyderabad.<ref>{{Cite press release \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/in/newsroom/2016/05/19Apple-Opens-Development-Office-in-Hyderabad \|titleApple Opens Development Office in Hyderabad \|publisherApple Inc. \|access-dateOctober 18, 2017}}; {{Cite web \|lastRai \|firstSaritha \|dateMay 17, 2016 \|titleApple CEO Makes First India Trip With Billion Phone Sales at Stake \|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-05-17/apple-ceo-tim-cook-visiting-india-an-important-growth-market\|access-dateMay 24, 2017 \|websiteBloomberg Technology \|publisherBloomberg L.P.}}; {{Cite web \|lastByford \|firstSam \|dateMay 18, 2016 \|titleApple announces app development accelerator in Bangalore, India \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2016/5/18/11699060/apple-india-app-accelerator-bengaluru\|access-dateMay 24, 2017 \|websiteThe Verge}}; {{Cite web \|lastRussell \|firstJon \|dateMay 17, 2016 \|titleApple is opening an app design and development accelerator in India \|urlhttps://techcrunch.com/2016/05/17/apple-is-opening-an-app-design-and-development-accelerator-in-india\|access-dateMay 24, 2017 \|websiteTechCrunch \|publisherAOL}}</ref> In March, The Wall Street Journal reported that Apple would begin manufacturing iPhone models in India "over the next two months",<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Roy \|first1Rajesh \|last2Purnell \|first2Newley \|dateMarch 23, 2017 \|titleApple to Start Making iPhones in India Over Next Two Months \|workThe Wall Street Journal \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/apple-likely-to-start-making-iphones-in-india-over-next-two-months-1490269258 \|url-accesssubscription \|access-dateMay 24, 2017}}; {{Cite web \|lastGartenberg \|firstChaim \|dateMarch 23, 2017 \|titleApple reportedly to start manufacturing iPhones in India \|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/2017/3/23/15041572/apple-manufacturing-iphones-india-wistron-corp\|access-dateMay 24, 2017 \|websiteThe Verge}}</ref> and in May, the Journal wrote that an Apple manufacturer had begun production of the iPhone SE in the country,<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Roy \|first1Rajesh \|last2Purnell \|first2Newley \|last3Mickle \|first3Tripp \|dateMay 17, 2017 \|titleApple Assembles First iPhones in India \|workThe Wall Street Journal \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/apple-assembles-first-iphones-in-india-1495016276 \|url-accesssubscription \|access-dateMay 24, 2017}}; {{Cite web \|lastMayo \|firstBenjamin \|dateMay 17, 2017 \|titleApple has started production of iPhone SE in India, shipping to customers later in May \|urlhttps://9to5mac.com/2017/05/17/iphone-made-in-india-2\|access-dateMay 24, 2017 \|website9to5Mac}}</ref> while Apple told CNBC that the manufacturing was for a "small number" of units.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastHaselton \|firstTodd \|dateMay 17, 2017 \|titleApple begins manufacturing iPhone SE in India \|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2017/05/17/apple-begins-manufacturing-iphone-se-in-india.html\|access-dateMay 24, 2017 \|websiteCNBC \|publisherNBCUniversal News Group}}</ref> In April 2019, Apple initiated manufacturing of the iPhone 7 at its Bengaluru facility, keeping in mind demand from local customers even as they seek more incentives from the government of India.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateApril 2, 2019 \|titleApple starts iPhone 7 production in Bengaluru \|urlhttps://www.livemint.com/technology/gadgets/apple-starts-iphone-7-production-in-bengaluru-1554184978055.html\|access-dateApril 2, 2019 \|websitelivemint.com \|languageen}}</ref> At the beginning of 2020, Tim Cook announced that Apple schedules the opening of its first physical outlet in India for 2021, while an online store is to be launched by the end of the year.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateFebruary 27, 2020 \|titleApple to open first Indian store in 2021 \|languageen-GB \|workBBC News \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/technology-51654274 \|access-dateFebruary 27, 2020}}</ref> The opening of the Apple Store was postponed, and finally took place in April 2023,<ref>{{Cite web \|last1Travelli \|first1Alex \|last2Raj \|first2Suhasini \|date2023-04-18 \|titleApple Opens First Store in India, a Promising Frontier for the Tech Giant \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2023/04/18/business/apple-stores-india-tim-cook.html \|access-date2024-10-06 \|websiteThe New York Times}}</ref> while the online store was launched in September 2020.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastWarwick \|firstStephen \|date2020-09-23 \|titleApple's online store opens in India \|urlhttps://www.imore.com/apples-online-store-opens-india \|access-date2024-10-06 \|websiteiMore \|languageen}}</ref> Worker organizations {{Main\|Apple and unions}} Apple directly employs 147,000 workers including 25,000 corporate employees in Apple Park and across Silicon Valley.<ref name":6">{{Cite web\|lastDowney\|firstRosellen "Rosie"\|dateJuly 9, 2021\|titleTwo Big Tech rivals compete for top spot on largest employers list\|urlhttps://www.bizjournals.com/sanjose/news/2021/07/09/two-big-tech-rivals-top-of-the-list-employers.html\|access-dateDecember 7, 2021\|websiteBizJournals\|archive-dateJuly 9, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210709130426/https://www.bizjournals.com/sanjose/news/2021/07/09/two-big-tech-rivals-top-of-the-list-employers.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name":10">{{Cite web\|lastLeswing\|firstKif\|dateApril 26, 2021\|titleApple will spend $1 billion to open 3,000-employee campus in North Carolina\|urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/business/business-news/apple-will-spend-1-billion-open-3-000-employee-campus-n1265401\|access-dateDecember 7, 2021\|websiteNBC News\|languageen\|archive-dateDecember 7, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211207113752/https://www.nbcnews.com/business/business-news/apple-will-spend-1-billion-open-3-000-employee-campus-n1265401\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The vast majority of its employees work at the over 500 retail Apple Stores globally.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleApple Retail Store - Store List \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/retail/storelist/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110215221937/http://www.apple.com/retail/storelist/ \|archive-dateFebruary 15, 2011 \|access-dateSeptember 9, 2021 \|websiteApple Inc. \|languageen-US}}</ref> Apple relies on a larger, outsourced workforce for manufacturing, particularly in China where Apple directly employs 10,000 workers across its retail and corporate divisions. In addition, one further million workers are contracted by Apple's suppliers to assemble Apple products, including Foxconn and Pegatron.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastWu \|firstDebby \|dateFebruary 4, 2020 \|titleApple suppliers aim to resume full China production Monday \|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/business/story/2020-02-04/apple-china-suppliers \|access-dateOctober 30, 2022 \|websiteLos Angeles Times \|languageen-US}}</ref> Zhengzhou Technology Park alone employs 350,000 Chinese workers in Zhengzhou to exclusively work on the iPhone.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastJacobs \|firstHarrison \|dateMay 7, 2018 \|titleInside 'iPhone City,' the massive Chinese factory town where half of the world's iPhones are produced \|urlhttps://www.businessinsider.com/apple-iphone-factory-foxconn-china-photos-tour-2018-5 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210829002300/https://www.businessinsider.com/apple-iphone-factory-foxconn-china-photos-tour-2018-5 \|archive-dateAugust 29, 2021 \|access-dateAugust 28, 2021 \|websiteBusiness Insider \|languageen-US}}</ref> {{As of\|2021}}, Apple uses hardware components from 43 different countries.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastPetrova \|firstMagdalena \|dateDecember 14, 2018 \|titleWe traced what it takes to make an iPhone, from its initial design to the components and raw materials needed to make it a reality \|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2018/12/13/inside-apple-iphone-where-parts-and-materials-come-from.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210715232444/https://www.cnbc.com/2018/12/13/inside-apple-iphone-where-parts-and-materials-come-from.html \|archive-dateJuly 15, 2021 \|access-dateJuly 15, 2021 \|websiteCNBC \|languageen}}</ref> The majority of assembling is done by Taiwanese original design manufacturer firms Foxconn, Pegatron, Wistron and Compal Electronics in factories primarily located inside China,<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMoorhead \|firstPatrick \|dateApril 13, 2019 \|titleWho Are Apple's iPhone Contract Manufacturers? \|urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/patrickmoorhead/2019/04/13/who-are-apples-iphone-contract-manufacturers/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210715232455/https://www.forbes.com/sites/patrickmoorhead/2019/04/13/who-are-apples-iphone-contract-manufacturers/ \|archive-dateJuly 15, 2021 \|access-dateJuly 15, 2021 \|websiteForbes \|languageen}}</ref> and, to a lesser extent, Foxconn plants in Brazil,<ref>{{Cite web \|dateAugust 29, 2019 \|titleApple's India and Brazil iPhone plants haven't reduced its dependence on China: Report \|urlhttps://www.firstpost.com/tech/news-analysis/apples-india-and-brazil-iphone-plants-havent-reduced-dependence-on-china-report-7246191.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210715232457/https://www.firstpost.com/tech/news-analysis/apples-india-and-brazil-iphone-plants-havent-reduced-dependence-on-china-report-7246191.html \|archive-dateJuly 15, 2021 \|access-dateJuly 15, 2021 \|websiteTech2 Firstpost}}</ref> and India.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Phartiyal \|first1Sankalp \|last2Ahmed \|first2Aftab \|last3Blanchard \|first3Ben \|dateFebruary 9, 2021 \|titleApple supplier Wistron to restart India factory, still on probation \|languageen \|workReuters \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-apple-india-wistron-idUSKBN2A90PU \|url-statuslive \|access-dateJuly 15, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210715232457/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-apple-india-wistron-idUSKBN2A90PU \|archive-date=July 15, 2021}}</ref> Apple workers around the globe have been involved in organizing since the 1990s.<ref name":13">{{Cite journal \|lastHyde \|firstAlan \|date2002 \|titleEmployee Organization in Silicon Valley: Networks, Ethnic Organization, and New Unions \|urlhttps://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/jbl/vol4/iss3/2/ \|journalUniversity of Pennsylvania Journal of Labor and Employment Law \|volume4 \|issue3 \|pages493}}</ref> Apple unions are made up of retail, corporate, and outsourced workers. Apple employees have joined trade unions or formed works councils in Australia,<ref name":16">{{Cite news \|lastZhuang \|firstYan \|dateOctober 18, 2022 \|titleNew Crack in Apple's Armor as Dozens Strike at Its Stores in Australia \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/17/business/apple-store-strike-australia.html \|access-dateNovember 15, 2022 \|workNew York Times \|languageen-US \|issn0362-4331}}</ref> France,<ref>{{Cite news \|lastDe Clercq \|firstGeert \|dateSeptember 20, 2023 \|titleApple France workers call strike ahead of iPhone 15 launch \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/technology/apple-france-workers-call-strike-ahead-iphone-15-launch-2023-09-20/ \|access-dateSeptember 21, 2023 \|workReuters \|languageen}}</ref> Germany,<ref name":12">{{Cite web \|lastLoehne \|firstNiedrige \|dateNovember 11, 2012 \|titleAlle deutschen Apple Stores bekommen Betriebsrat \|trans-titleAll German Apple stores have a works council \|urlhttps://www.golem.de/sonstiges/zustimmung/auswahl.html?fromhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.golem.de%2Fnews%2Fniedrige-loehne-alle-deutschen-apple-stores-bekommen-betriebsrat-1211-95639.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210829002259/https://www.golem.de/sonstiges/zustimmung/auswahl.html?fromhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.golem.de%2Fnews%2Fniedrige-loehne-alle-deutschen-apple-stores-bekommen-betriebsrat-1211-95639.html \|archive-dateAugust 29, 2021 \|access-dateAugust 28, 2021 \|websiteGolem.de}}</ref> Italy,<ref>{{Cite web \|dateNovember 6, 2013 \|titleItaly: first company agreement for Apple Stores {{!}} EWCDB \|urlhttps://ewcdb.eu/node/241049 \|access-dateJanuary 7, 2023 \|websiteEuropean Works Council Database}}</ref> Japan,<ref name":17">{{Cite web \|last1Corrales \|first1Roberto \|last2Aguiar \|first2Alberto R. \|dateNovember 3, 2022 \|titleLos sindicatos de Apple crean una red de solidaridad mundial, de Maryland a Tokio pasando por Barcelona: qué demandan en España \|urlhttps://www.businessinsider.es/sindicatos-apple-eeuu-japon-espana-crean-red-apoyo-1137943 \|access-dateNovember 15, 2022 \|websiteBusiness Insider España \|languagees}}</ref> the United Kingdom<ref>{{Cite web \|lastHilliard \|firstWesley \|dateDecember 15, 2022 \|titleLondon Apple Store at White City unionizing with UTAW \|urlhttps://appleinsider.com/articles/22/12/15/london-apple-store-at-white-city-unionizing-with-utaw \|access-dateJanuary 6, 2023 \|websiteApple Insider \|languageen}}</ref> and the United States.<ref name":8">{{Cite news \|lastAlbergotti \|firstReed \|dateFebruary 18, 2022 \|titleSome U.S. Apple Store employees are working to unionize, part of a growing worker backlash \|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2022/02/18/apple-retail-stores-union-labor \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220218195820/https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2022/02/18/apple-retail-stores-union-labor/ \|archive-dateFebruary 18, 2022 \|access-dateFebruary 18, 2022 \|newspaperThe Washington Post}}</ref> In 2021, Apple Together, a solidarity union, sought to bring together the company's global worker organizations.<ref name":11">{{Cite magazine \|lastHarrington \|firstCaitlin \|dateMay 13, 2022 \|titleApple Together Brings Corporate Workers Into the Union Effort \|urlhttps://www.wired.com/story/apple-together-solidarity-union-organizing/ \|access-dateMay 13, 2022 \|magazineWired \|languageen-US \|issn1059-1028}}</ref> The majority of industrial labor disputes (including union recognition) involving Apple occur indirectly through its suppliers and contractors, notably Foxconn plants in China<ref name":22">{{Cite journal \|lastChan \|firstJenny \|date2013 \|titleA Suicide Survivor: The Life of a Chinese Worker \|urlhttps://osf.io/dzsa2/ \|journalNew Technology, Work and Employment \|volume28 \|issue2 \|pages84–99 \|doi10.1111/NTWE.12007 \|s2cid154463838}}</ref> and, to a lesser extent, in Brazil<ref>{{Cite web \|lastChen \|firstMichelle \|dateApril 17, 2012 \|titleApple's Two Faces: Power Gaps Between Brazil and China Foxconn Workers \|urlhttps://inthesetimes.com/article/apples-two-faces-power-gaps-between-brazil-and-china-foxconn-workers \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210829002257/https://inthesetimes.com/article/apples-two-faces-power-gaps-between-brazil-and-china-foxconn-workers \|archive-dateAugust 29, 2021 \|access-dateAugust 29, 2021 \|websiteIn These Times \|languageen}}</ref> and India.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateDecember 20, 2021 \|titleIndia: arrests made after Foxconn food poisoning protest in Chennai \|urlhttps://www.scmp.com/news/asia/south-asia/article/3160425/india-arrests-made-after-protest-over-food-poisoning-apple \|access-dateDecember 20, 2022 \|websiteSouth China Morning Post \|languageen}}</ref> Democratic Republic of the Congo In 2019, Apple was named as a defendant in a forced labour and child slavery lawsuit by Congolese families of children injured and killed in cobalt mines owned by Glencore and Zhejiang Huayou Cobalt, which supply battery materials to Apple and other companies.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastKelly \|firstAnnie \|date2019-12-16 \|titleApple and Google named in US lawsuit over Congolese child cobalt mining deaths \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2019/dec/16/apple-and-google-named-in-us-lawsuit-over-congolese-child-cobalt-mining-deaths \|access-date2024-12-17 \|workThe Guardian \|languageen-GB \|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> In April 2024, lawyers representing the Democratic Republic of the Congo notified Apple of evidence that Apple may be sourcing minerals from conflict areas of eastern Congo.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastRolley \|firstSonia \|dateMay 22, 2024 \|titleCongo lawyers say they have new evidence on Apple's minerals supply chain \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/world/africa/congo-lawyers-say-received-new-evidence-apples-minerals-supply-chain-2024-05-22/ \|archive-urlhttp://web.archive.org/web/20240525181607/https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/congo-lawyers-say-received-new-evidence-apples-minerals-supply-chain-2024-05-22/ \|archive-date2024-05-25 \|access-date2024-12-17 \|workReuters \|languageen-US}}</ref> Apple policies and documentation describe mitigation efforts against conflict minerals, however the lawyers identify discrepancies in supplier reporting as well as a Global Witness report describing a lack of "meaningful mitigation" on Apple's part.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastImray \|firstGerald \|date2024-04-25 \|titleCongo questions Apple over knowledge of conflict minerals in its supply chain \|urlhttps://apnews.com/article/apple-iphones-congo-blood-minerals-b1f20aa7bd3a3f4f8cf7fcde19c6f053 \|access-date2024-12-17 \|websiteAP News \|languageen}}</ref> In December 2024, DRC filed a lawsuit against Apple's European subsidiaries.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Pilling \|first1David \|last2Hancock \|first2Alice \|last3Acton \|first3Michael \|last4Dubois \|first4Laura \|date2025-01-20 \|titleApple hit by Belgian probe over 'blood minerals' from Congo \|urlhttps://www.ft.com/content/bf4dafef-a61f-442b-9c4d-d87abdea86e3 \|access-date2025-01-22 \|workFinancial Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastAFP \|date2024-12-17 \|titleDR Congo sues Apple over alleged illegal mineral exploitation \|urlhttps://www.justiceinfo.net/en/139576-dr-congo-sues-apple-over-alleged-illegal-mineral-exploitation.html \|access-date2024-12-17 \|websiteJusticeInfo.net \|languageen-US}}</ref> See also * List of Apple Inc. media events * Outline of Apple Inc. Notes {{Notelist}} References {{Reflist}} Bibliography {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book \|lastPrice \|firstRob \|titleSo Far: The First Ten Years of a Vision \|publisherApple Computer \|year1987 \|isbn978-1-55693-974-7}} * {{Cite web \|lastPolsson \|firstKen \|titleChronology of Events in the History of Microcomputers \|urlhttp://www.microprocessor.sscc.ru/comphist \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080602225734/http://www.microprocessor.sscc.ru/comphist \|archive-dateJune 2, 2008 \|access-date=August 18, 2008}} {{Refend}} Further reading {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book \|last1Amelio \|first1Gil \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/onfiringlinemy5000gila \|titleOn the Firing Line: My 500 Days at Apple \|last2Simon \|first2William L. \|publisherHarper Business \|year1999 \|isbn978-0-88730-919-9 \|locationNew York \|oclc41424094 \|author-linkGil Amelio}} * {{Cite book \|lastCarlton \|firstJim \|titleApple: The Inside Story of Intrigue, Egomania and Business Blunders \|publisherRandom House Business Books \|year1998 \|isbn978-0-88730-965-6 \|editionRevised \|oclc1068545200}} * {{Cite book \|lastDeutschman \|firstAlan \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/secondcomingofst00deut \|titleThe Second Coming of Steve Jobs \|publisherBroadway Books \|year2000 \|isbn978-0-7679-0432-2 \|oclc59470055}} * {{Cite book \|lastHertzfeld \|firstAndy \|titleRevolution in the Valley: The Insanely Great Story of How the Mac Was Made \|title-linkRevolution in the Valley \|publisherO'Reilly Books \|year2004 \|isbn978-0-596-00719-5 \|oclc774133318 \|author-link=Andy Hertzfeld}} * {{Cite book \|lastKunkel \|firstPaul \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/DTCA3DOC-230_industrial_design \|titleAppleDesign: The Work of the Apple Industrial Design Group \|year1997 \|publisherGraphis Incorporated \|isbn978-1-888001-25-9 \|oclc450559301 \|url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book \|lastLashinsky \|firstAdam \|titleInside Apple: How America's Most Admired—and Secretive—Company Really Works \|title-linkInside Apple \|year2013 \|publisherGrand Central \|isbn978-1-4555-1216-4 \|oclc984131988}} * {{Cite book \|lastO'Grady \|firstJason D. \|titleApple Inc. \|publisherABC-CLIO \|year2009 \|isbn978-0-313-36244-6}} * {{Cite book \|lastLevy \|firstSteven \|titleInsanely Great: The Life and Times of Macintosh, the Computer That Changed Everything \|publisherPenguin Books \|year2000 \|isbn978-0-14-029177-3 \|locationNew York \|oclc474924791 \|author-linkSteven Levy \|orig-year1994}} * {{Cite book \|lastLinzmayer \|firstOwen \|titleApple Confidential 2.0 \|publisherNo Starch Press \|year2004 \|isbn978-1-59327-010-0 \|oclc=921280642}} * {{Cite book \|lastRose \|firstFrank \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/westofedenendofi00rose \|titleWest of Eden: The End of Innocence at Apple Computer \|publisherPenguin Books \|year1990 \|isbn978-0-14-009372-8 \|oclc924684399}} * {{Cite book \|last1Sculley \|first1John \|titleOdyssey: Pepsi to Apple ... A Journey of Adventure, Ideas and the Future \|last2Byrne \|first2John A. \|publisherDiane Pub Co \|year1990 \|isbn978-0-7881-6949-6 \|oclc947796756 \|author-linkJohn Sculley \|orig-year=October 1, 1987}} * {{Cite book \|last1Wozniak \|first1Steve \|titleiWoz: From Computer Geek to Cult Icon: How I Invented the Personal Computer, Co-Founded Apple, and Had Fun Doing It \|title-linkiWoz: From Computer Geek to Cult Icon: How I Invented the Personal Computer, Co-Founded Apple, and Had Fun Doing It \|last2Smith \|first2Gina \|publisherW. W. Norton & Company \|year2006 \|isbn978-0-393-06143-7 \|oclc502898652 \|author-linkSteve Wozniak \|author-link2Gina Smith (author)}} * {{Cite book \|lastYoung \|firstJeffrey S. \|titleSteve Jobs: The Journey Is the Reward \|publisherLynx Books \|year1988 \|isbn978-1-55802-378-9 \|oclc=502695173}} * {{Cite book \|last1Young \|first1Jeffrey S. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/iconstevejobsgre00jeff \|titleiCon Steve Jobs: The Greatest Second Act in the History of Business \|last2Simon \|first2William L. \|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons \|year2005 \|isbn978-0-471-72083-6 \|oclc487439489}} {{Refend}} External links * {{Official website\|https://www.apple.com\|Apple Inc.}} – official site {{Finance links \| name = Apple Inc. \| symbol = AAPL \| reuters = AAPL.O \| bloomberg = AAPL:US \| sec_cik = 320193 \| google = AAPL:NASDAQ \| yahoo = AAPL }} * {{OpenCorp\|Apple}} * {{OpenSecrets}} {{Apple}} {{Navboxes \| title = Apple-related navigation boxes \| list = {{Apple celeb}} {{Steve Jobs}} {{NASDAQ-100}} {{Dow Jones Industrial Average companies}} {{Electronics industry in the United States}} {{Major computer hardware companies}} {{Major financial technology companies}} {{Major imaging companies}} {{Major Internet companies}} {{Major information storage companies}} {{Major mobile device companies}} {{Major semiconductor companies}} {{Major software companies}} {{Major retail companies}} {{Mobile payments}} {{Payment service providers}} {{Pay-TV USA}} {{Video digital distribution platforms}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Sister bar\|voyCupertino\|auto1}} {{Portal bar\|California\|Companies\|San Francisco Bay Area\|United States}} <!-- Please only add categories that apply to this specific article --> Category:1976 establishments in California Category:1980s initial public offerings Category:American brands Category:Companies based in Cupertino, California Category:Companies in the Dow Jones Industrial Average Category:Companies in the PRISM network Category:Companies listed on the Nasdaq Category:Computer companies established in 1976 Category:Computer companies of the United States Category:Computer hardware companies Category:Computer systems companies Category:Display technology companies Category:Electronics companies of the United States Category:Home computer hardware companies Category:Mobile phone manufacturers Category:Multinational companies headquartered in the United States Category:Networking hardware companies Category:Portable audio player manufacturers Category:Retail companies of the United States Category:Software companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area Category:Software companies established in 1976 Category:Steve Jobs Category:Technology companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area Category:Technology companies established in 1976 Category:Technology companies of the United States Category:Companies in the Dow Jones Global Titans 50	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc.	2025-04-05T18:25:24.666404
857	Aberdeenshire	{{Short description\|Council area of Scotland}} {{Other uses}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=August 2024}} {{Use British English\|date=August 2024}} {{Infobox settlement \| name = Aberdeenshire \| native_name = {{Unbulleted list \|{{native name\|gd\|Siorrachd Obar Dheathain}} \|{{native name\|sco\|Aiberdeenshire}} }} \| settlement_type = Council area \| image_skyline \| imagesize \| image_alt \| image_caption \| image_flag \| flag_alt \| image_shield \| shield_alt \| shield_link \| image_blank_emblem \| blank_emblem_size \| blank_emblem_type \| blank_emblem_link \| etymology \| nickname \| motto \| image_map = Aberdeenshire UK location map.svg \| map_alt \| map_caption Aberdeenshire shown within Scotland \| coordinates {{coord\|57\|9\|3.6\|N\|2\|7\|22.8\|W\|region:GB_type:adm2nd\|displayinline,title}} \| subdivision_type = Sovereign state \| subdivision_name = United Kingdom \| subdivision_type1 = Country \| subdivision_name1 = Scotland \| subdivision_type2 \| subdivision_name2 \| subdivision_type3 = Lieutenancy area \| subdivision_name3 = Aberdeenshire, Banffshire{{nbsp}}(part), Kincardineshire \| subdivision_type4 \| subdivision_name4 \| established_title = Incorporated \| established_date = 1 April 1996 \| established_title1 \| established_date1 \| named_for = Aberdeenshire \| seat_type = Administrative{{nbsp}}HQ \| seat = Aberdeen \| parts_type \| parts <!-- Government --> \| government_footnotes <ref name"Council leadership">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.aberdeenshire.gov.uk/council-and-democracy \|titleCouncil and democracy \|websiteAberdeenshire Council \|access-date24 August 2024}}</ref> \| government_type = Council \| governing_body = Aberdeenshire Council \| leader_title = Control \| leader_name {{UK council control\|GSSS12000034}} \| leader_title1 \| leader_name1 \| leader_title2 \| leader_name2 \| leader_title3 = MPs \| leader_name3 {{Collapsible list \|title3 MPs \|Andrew Bowie (C) \|Harriet Cross (C) \|Seamus Logan (SNP) }} \| leader_title4 = MSPs \| leader_name4 {{Collapsible list \|title7 MSPs \|Alexander Burnett (C) \|Mairi Gougeon (SNP) \|Gillian Martin (SNP) \|Karen Adam (SNP) \|Audrey Nicoll (SNP) \|Maurice Golden (C) \|Liam Kerr (C) }} <!-- Area --> <!-- ALL fields with measurements have automatic unit conversion --> \| area_footnotes <ref name"popstats">{{UK subdivision statistics citation}}</ref> \| area_total_km2 {{UK subdivision area\|GSSS12000034}} \| area_land_km2 \| area_water_km2 \| area_rank {{Scottish council area rank\|GSSS12000034}} <!-- Population --> \| population_footnotes <ref name"popstats" /> \| population_as_of = {{UK subdivision statistics year}} \| population_total {{UK subdivision population\|GSSS12000034}} \| population_rank {{Scottish council population rank\|GSSS12000034}} \| population_density_km2 {{UK subdivision density\|GSSS12000034}} \| population_demonym = <!-- demographics (section 1) --> \| demographics_type1 \| demographics1_footnotes \| demographics1_title1 \| demographics1_info1 <!-- demographics (section 2) --> \| demographics_type2 \| demographics2_footnotes \| demographics2_title1 \| demographics2_info1 \| timezone1 = GMT \| utc_offset1 = +0 \| timezone1_DST = BST \| utc_offset1_DST = +1 <!-- Codes --> \| postal_code_type = Postcode areas \| postal_code \| area_code_type Dialling codes \| area_code \| iso_code GB-ABD \| blank1_name = GSS code \| blank1_info = S12000034 \| website = {{URL\|aberdeenshire.gov.uk}} }} Aberdeenshire ({{langx\|sco\|Aiberdeenshire}}; {{langx\|gd\|Siorrachd Obar Dheathain}}) is one of the 32 council areas of Scotland. It takes its name from the historic county of Aberdeenshire, which had substantially different boundaries. The Aberdeenshire Council area includes all of the areas of the historic counties of Aberdeenshire and Kincardineshire except the area making up Aberdeen City Council area, as well as part of Banffshire. The historic county boundaries are still officially used for a few purposes, namely land registration and lieutenancy.<ref>[http://www.ros.gov.uk/pdfs/map.pdf Land Register Counties & Operational Dates<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130928060517/http://www.ros.gov.uk/pdfs/map.pdf \|date28 September 2013 }}</ref> Aberdeenshire Council is headquartered at Woodhill House in Aberdeen, making it the only Scottish council whose headquarters are located outside its jurisdiction. Aberdeen itself forms a different council area (Aberdeen City). Aberdeenshire borders onto Angus and Perth and Kinross to the south, Highland and Moray to the west and Aberdeen City to the east. Traditionally, it has depended economically on the primary sector (agriculture, fishing, and forestry) and related processing industries. Over the last 40 years, the development of the oil and gas industry and associated service sector has broadened Aberdeenshire's economic base, and contributed to a rapid population growth of some 50% since 1975.<ref name"Aberdeenshire Profile 2012">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.aberdeenshire.gov.uk/statistics/area/AberdeenshireProfile2012.pdf \|titleAberdeenshire Council – Profile 2012 \|access-date11 July 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140221223911/http://www.aberdeenshire.gov.uk/statistics/area/AberdeenshireProfile2012.pdf \|archive-date21 February 2014 \|url-statusdead \|dfdmy-all }}</ref> Its land represents 8% of Scotland's overall territory. It covers an area of {{convert\|6313\|sqkm}}.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAberdeenshire profile \|urlhttp://www.aberdeenshire.gov.uk/statistics/area/AberdeenshireProfile201320813.pdf \|publisherAberdeenshire Council \|access-date9 October 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140307210958/http://www.aberdeenshire.gov.uk/statistics/area/AberdeenshireProfile201320813.pdf \|archive-date7 March 2014 \|url-statusdead \|dfdmy-all }}</ref><ref nameTurner>{{cite encyclopedia\|pages 1301\|encyclopediaThe Statesman's Yearbook 2014\| editor-first Barry\|editor-lastTurner\|year 2013 \| publisher Macmillan Publishers Ltd.\|isbn 978-0-230-37769-1\|title Scotland}}</ref>History )]] Aberdeenshire has a rich prehistoric and historical heritage. It is the locus of a large number of Neolithic and Bronze Age archaeological sites, including Longman Hill, Kempstone Hill, Catto Long Barrow and Cairn Lee. The area was settled in the Bronze Age by the Beaker culture, who arrived from the south around 2000–1800 BC.<ref nameEB/> Stone circles and cairns were constructed predominantly in this era. In the Iron Age, hill forts were built.<ref nameEB/> Around the 1st century AD, the Taexali people, who left little history, were believed to have resided along the coast.<ref nameEB/> The Picts were the next documented inhabitants of the area and were no later than 800–900 AD. The Romans also were in the area during this period, as they left signs at Kintore.<ref nameEB/> Christianity influenced the inhabitants early on, and there were Celtic monasteries at Old Deer and Monymusk.<ref name=EB/> Since medieval times, there have been many traditional paths that crossed the Mounth (a spur of mountainous land that extends from the higher inland range to the North Sea slightly north of Stonehaven) through present-day Aberdeenshire from the Scottish Lowlands to the Highlands. Some of the most well known and historically important trackways are the Causey Mounth and Elsick Mounth.<ref>W. Douglas Simpson, "The Early Castles of Mar", Proceedings of the Society, 102, 10 December 1928</ref><ref>{{cite web\|authorThe Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map \|urlhttp://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid18037 \|titleC.Michael Hogan, Elsick Mounth, Megalithic Portal, ed. Andy Burnham \|publisherMegalithic.co.uk \|access-date6 July 2011\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110610071947/http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid18037\| archive-date10 June 2011 \| url-status live}}</ref> Aberdeenshire played an important role in the fighting between the Scottish dynasties. Macbeth fell at Lumphanan in 1057.<ref nameEB/> During the Anglo-Norman penetration, other families arrive, such as House of Balliol, Clan Bruce, and Clan Cumming (Comyn).<ref nameEB/> During the Scottish Wars of Independence, the King of England Edward I travelled across the area twice with his invading army, in 1296 and 1303. In 1307, Robert the Bruce was victorious near Inverurie. These new families set the stage for the upcoming rivalries during the 14th and 15th centuries.<ref name=EB/> This rivalry grew worse during and after the Protestant Reformation when religion was another reason for conflict between the clans. The Gordon family adhered to Catholicism and the Forbeses to Protestantism. Aberdeenshire was the historic seat of the clan Dempster.<ref>[https://www.geni.com/people/William-Leslie-Ninth-Baron-of-Balquhain/6000000007193751531 Geni - William Leslie]</ref><ref>[https://www.electricscotland.com/history/statistical/turriff.htm The New Statistical Account of Scotland]</ref> Three universities were founded in the area prior to the 17th century, King's College in Old Aberdeen (1494), Marischal College in Aberdeen (1593), and the University of Fraserburgh (1592). During the 17th century, Aberdeenshire was the location of more fighting, centred on the Marquess of Montrose and the Wars of the Three Kingdoms.<ref nameEB/> This period also saw increased wealth due to the increase in trade with Germany, Poland, and the Low Countries.<ref nameEB/> After the end of the Revolution of 1688, an extended peaceful period was interrupted only by fleeting events such as the Rising of 1715 and the Rising of 1745. The latter resulted in the end of the ascendancy of Episcopalianism and the feudal power of landowners. An era began of increased agricultural and industrial progress.<ref name=EB/> The present council area is named after the historic county of Aberdeenshire, which has different boundaries and ceased to be used for local government purposes in 1975 under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973. The pre-1975 territory of Aberdeenshire was then split between four of the five new districts in the Grampian region: Banff and Buchan (which also included eastern parts of Banffshire, including its county town of Banff), Gordon, Kincardine and Deeside (which also included most of Kincardineshire), and Aberdeen City. Local government functions were shared between the two levels.<ref>{{cite legislation UK\|typeact\|actLocal Government (Scotland) Act 1973\|year1973\|chapter65\|accessdate=17 April 2023}}</ref> The modern council area was created in 1996 under the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994. It covers the combined area of the Banff and Buchan, Gordon, and Kincardine and Deeside districts that had been created in 1975. The present Aberdeenshire Council area therefore consists of all of the historic counties of Aberdeenshire and Kincardineshire (except the area of those two counties making up Aberdeen City), as well as the north-east portions of Banffshire.<ref nameEB>{{cite encyclopedia \|editor-firstDale H. \|editor-lastHoiberg \|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica \|titleAberdeenshire \|edition15th \|year2010 \|publisherEncyclopædia Britannica Inc. \|volumeI: A-ak Bayes \|locationChicago, IL \|isbn978-1-59339-837-8 \|pages[https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency/page/28 28–29] \|url-accessregistration \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency/page/28 }}</ref> Demographics The population of the council area has risen over 50% since 1971 to approximately {{UK subdivision population\|GSSS12000034}} in {{UK subdivision statistics year}},<ref name"popstats" /> representing 4.7% of Scotland's total. Aberdeenshire's population has increased by 9.1% since 2001, while Scotland's total population grew by 3.8%. The census lists a relatively high proportion of under 16s and slightly fewer working-age people compared with the Scottish average.<ref name="Aberdeenshire Profile 2012" /> Aberdeenshire is one of the most homogeneous/indigenous regions of the UK. In 2011, 82.2% of residents identified as 'White Scottish', followed by 12.3% who are 'White British', whilst ethnic minorities constitute only 0.9% of the population. The largest ethnic minority group is Asian Scottish/British at 0.8%.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.aberdeenshire.gov.uk/media/11870/identityreportcensus2011.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.aberdeenshire.gov.uk/media/11870/identityreportcensus2011.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|titleAberdeenshire Council Identity in 2011 Census}}</ref> In addition to the English language, 48.8% of residents reported being able to speak and understand the Scots language.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.aberdeenshire.gov.uk/media/24618/inverurietownprofile.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.aberdeenshire.gov.uk/media/24618/inverurietownprofile.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|titleWhat's happening in... Aberdeenshire's Towns Inverurie & Port Elphinstone\|date=August 2019}}</ref> {\| class"wikitable sortable" width"100%" \|+ ! rowspan="2" \|Ethnic Group ! colspan"2" \|2001<ref name":1">{{Cite web \|lastCensus Dissemination Unit \|firstMimas \|date5 May 2011 \|titleInFuse \|urlhttps://infuse2011gf.ukdataservice.ac.uk/ \|access-date24 June 2022 \|websiteinfuse2011gf.ukdataservice.ac.uk \|languageEnglish}}</ref> ! colspan"2" \|2011<ref name":1" /><ref>{{cite web \|titleScotland's Census 2011&nbsp;– Table KS201SC \|urlhttp://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/ods-web/standard-outputs.html \|publisherscotlandscensus.gov.uk \|access-date3 November 2015 \|archive-date7 January 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190107044126/https://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/ods-web/standard-outputs.html%20 \|url-status=live }}</ref> ! colspan"2" \|2022<ref name"2022census_Scot">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/media/trbdxzme/scotland-s-census-2022-ethnic-group-national-identity-language-and-religion-chart-data.xlsx \|titleScotland's Census 2022 - Ethnic group, national identity, language and religion - Chart data \|author<!--Not stated--> \|date21 May 2024 \|websiteScotland's Census \|publisherNational Records of Scotland \|access-date=21 May 2024 }} [https://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/search-the-census#/search-by Alternative URL] 'Search data by location' > 'Local Authority (CA2019)' > 'Aberdeenshire' > 'Ethnic group, national identity, language and religion' > 'Ethnic Group'</ref> \|- !Number !% !Number !% !Number !% \|- \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- !White: Total !225,243 !99.28% !249,112 !98.47% !256,017 !97.08% \|- \|White: Scottish \| 194,169 \| 85.59% \| 207,936 \| 82.20% \| 210,537 \| 79.83% \|- \|White: Other British \| 26,945 \| 11.88% \| 31,158 \| 12.32% \| 32,508 \| 12.33% \|- \|White: Irish \| 976 \| 0.43% \| 1,162 \| 0.46% \| 1,493 \| 0.57% \|- \|White: Gypsy/Traveller{{efn\|name="auto"\|New category created for the 2011 census}} \| – \| – \| 175 \| 0.07% \| 169 \| 0.06% \|- \|White: Polish{{efn\|name="auto"}} \| – \| – \| 3,020 \| 1.19% \| 3,998 \| 1.52% \|- \|White: Other \| 3,153 \| 1.39% \| 5,661 \| 2.24% \| 7,312 \| 2.77% \|- !Asian, Asian Scottish or Asian British: Total !645 !0.28% !2,037 !0.81% !2,939 !1.11% \|- \|Asian, Asian Scottish or Asian British: Indian \| 166 \| 0.07% \| 473 \| 0.19% \| 783 \| 0.30% \|- \|Asian, Asian Scottish or Asian British: Pakistani \| 69 \| – \| 253 \| 0.10% \| 343 \| 0.13% \|- \|Asian, Asian Scottish or Asian British: Bangladeshi \| 29 \| – \| 138 \| 0.05% \| 106 \| – \|- \|Asian, Asian Scottish or Asian British: Chinese \| 277 \| 0.12% \| 424 \| 0.17% \| 575 \| 0.22% \|- \|Asian, Asian Scottish or Asian British: Asian Other \| 104 \| 0.05% \| 749 \| 0.30% \| 1,135 \| 0.43% \|- !Black, Black Scottish or Black British{{efn\|Category restructured for the 2011 census}} !14 ! – ! – ! – ! – ! – \|- !African: Total !85 !– !490 !0.19% !1,313 !0.50% \|- \|African: African, African Scottish or African British \| – \| – \| 487 \| 0.19% \| 88 \| – \|- \|African: Other African \| – \| – \| 3 \| – \| 1,224 \| 0.46% \|- !Caribbean or Black: Total !– !– !269 !0.11% !255 !0.10% \|- \|Caribbean \| 82 \| – \| 159 \| 0.06% \| 100 \| 0.04% \|- \|Black \| – \| – \| 76 \| – \| 16 \| – \|- \|Caribbean or Black: Other \| – \| – \| 34 \| – \| 137 \| 0.05% \|- !Mixed or multiple ethnic groups: Total !463 !0.20% !294 !0.12% !2,074 !0.79% \|- !Other: Total !339 !0.15% !294 !0.12% !1,122 !0.43% \|- \|Other: Arab{{efn\|name="auto"}} \| – \| – \| 131 \| 0.05% \| 436 \| 0.17% \|- \|Other: Any other ethnic group \| – \| – \| 163 \| 0.06% \| 682 \| 0.26% \|- \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- !Total: !226,871 !100.00% !252,973 !100.00% !263,723 !100.00% \|} Settlements {{Location map+\|Scotland Aberdeenshire \|caption={{left\|The largest settlements in Aberdeenshire.}} \|float=right \|width=500 \|places {{Location map~\|Scotland Aberdeenshire\|coordinates {{coord\|57.502\|-1.801}}\|positionbottom\|label{{nowrap\|Peterhead{{pad\|1.1em}}}}\|label_size=}} {{Location map~\|Scotland Aberdeenshire\|coordinates {{coord\|57.28\|-2.38}}\|positionleft\|labelInverurie\|label_size}} {{Location map~\|Scotland Aberdeenshire\|coordinates {{coord\|57.693\|-2.005}}\|positiontop\|label{{nowrap\|Fraserburgh}}\|label_size}} {{Location map~\|Scotland Aberdeenshire\|coordinates {{coord\|57.154\|-2.284}}\|positionleft\|labelWesthill\|label_size}} {{Location map~\|Scotland Aberdeenshire\|coordinates {{coord\|56.964\|-2.211}}\|positionright\|labelStonehaven\|label_size}} {{Location map~\|Scotland Aberdeenshire\|coordinates {{coord\|57.366\|-02.086}}\|positiontop\|labelEllon\|label_size}} {{Location map~\|Scotland Aberdeenshire\|coordinates {{coord\|57.061\|-2.130}}\|positionright\|labelPortlethen\|label_size}} {{Location map~\|Scotland Aberdeenshire\|coordinates {{coord\|57.055\|-2.49}}\|positionbottom\|labelBanchory\|label_size}} {{Location map~\|Scotland Aberdeenshire\|coordinates {{coord\|57.2332\|-2.3461}}\|positiontop\|label{{pad\|2.7em}}{{nowrap\|Kintore}}\|label_size}} {{Location map~\|Scotland Aberdeenshire\|coordinates {{coord\|57.539031\|-2.461141}}\|positionright\|labelTurriff\|label_size}} {{Location map~\|Scotland Aberdeenshire\|coordinates {{coord\|57.446\|-2.788}}\|positionright\|labelHuntly\|label_size}} {{Location map~\|Scotland Aberdeenshire\|coordinates {{coord\|57.667\|-2.524}}\|positionbottom\|labelBanff{{pad\|2.7em}}\|label_size}} {{Location map~\|Scotland Aberdeenshire\|coordinates {{coord\|57.23392\|-2.44890}}\|positionleft\|labelKemnay\|label_size}} {{Location map~\|Scotland Aberdeenshire\|coordinates {{coord\|57.671\|-2.497}}\|positiontop\|label{{pad\|2.5em}}{{nowrap\|Macduff}}\|label_size}} {{Location map~\|Scotland Aberdeenshire\|coordinates {{coord\|56.83\|-02.46}}\|positionright\|labelLaurencekirk\|label_size}} {{Location map~\|Scotland Aberdeenshire\|coordinates {{coord\|57.335\|-2.320}}\|positiontop\|label{{nowrap\|Oldmeldrum}}\|label_size}} {{Location map~\|Scotland Aberdeenshire\|coordinates {{coord\|57.205283\|-2.288903}}\|positionleft\|labelBlackburn\|label_size}} {{Location map~\|Scotland Aberdeenshire\|coordinates {{coord\|57.032\|-2.150}}\|positionright\|labelNewtonhill\|label_size}} {{Location map~\|Scotland Aberdeenshire\|coordinates {{coord\|57.075\|-2.781}}\|positiontop\|labelAboyne\|label_size}} {{Location map~\|Scotland Aberdeenshire\|coordinates {{coord\|57.525\|-2.001}}\|positionleft\|labelMintlaw\|label_size}} <!-- Bordering council areas --> {{Location map~\|Scotland Aberdeenshire\|coordinates {{coord\|57.185\|-1.8}}\|positionleft\|label{{nowrap\|Aberdeen City}} council area\|marksize0\|label_size=120}} {{Location map~\|Scotland Aberdeenshire\|coordinates {{coord\|56.8\|-2.9}}\|positionleft\|labelAngus\|marksize0\|label_size=120}} {{Location map~\|Scotland Aberdeenshire\|coordinates {{coord\|56.83\|-3.48}}\|positionleft\|labelPerth and Kinross\|marksize0\|label_size=120}} {{Location map~\|Scotland Aberdeenshire\|coordinates {{coord\|57.22\|-3.48}}\|positionleft\|labelHighland\|marksize0\|label_size=120}} {{Location map~\|Scotland Aberdeenshire\|coordinates {{coord\|57.4\|-3.05}}\|positionleft\|labelMoray\|marksize0\|label_size=120}} }} The largest settlements in Aberdeenshire are: {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+ !rowspan=2 \| Settlement !colspan2 style"background:#eaecf0ff; text-align: center;" \| Population \|- ! style"background:#eaecf0ff;" \| Mid-2010<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://webarchive.nrscotland.gov.uk/20210313211724/https://www.nrscotland.gov.uk/statistics-and-data/statistics/statistics-by-theme/population/population-estimates/special-area-population-estimates/settlements-and-localities/mid-2010/list-of-tables \|titleNational Records of Scotland, Statistics and Data, Statistics, Statistics by Theme, Population, Population Estimates, Settlements and Localities, Archive, Mid-2010, List of Tables\|access-date19 July 2023}}</ref> ! style="background:#eaecf0ff;" \|({{Scotland settlement population citation\|year}})<ref>{{Scotland settlement population citation}}</ref> \|- \|Peterhead \|17,790 \|{{Scottish locality populations\|name\|POP=Peterhead}} \|- \|Inverurie \|11,590 \|{{Scottish locality populations\|name\|POP=Inverurie}} \|- \|Fraserburgh \|12,540 \|{{Scottish locality populations\|name\|POP=Fraserburgh}} \|- \|Westhill \|11,220 \|{{Scottish locality populations\|name\|POP=Westhill (Aberdeenshire)}} \|- \|Stonehaven \|10,820 \|{{Scottish locality populations\|name\|POP=Stonehaven}} \|- \|Ellon \|9,910 \|{{Scottish locality populations\|name\|POP=Ellon}} \|- \|Portlethen \|7,130 \|{{Scottish locality populations\|name\|POP=Portlethen}} \|- \|Banchory \|7,030 \|{{Scottish locality populations\|name\|POP=Banchory}} \|- \|Kintore \|4,180 \|{{Scottish locality populations\|name\|POP=Kintore}} \|- \|Turriff \|5,020 \|{{Scottish locality populations\|name\|POP=Turriff}} \|- \|Huntly \|4,570 \|{{Scottish locality populations\|name\|POP=Huntly}} \|- \|Banff \|3,720 \|{{Scottish locality populations\|name\|POP=Banff}} \|- \|Kemnay \|3,710 \|{{Scottish locality populations\|name\|POP=Kemnay}} \|- \|Macduff \|3,910 \|{{Scottish locality populations\|name\|POP=Macduff}} \|- \|Laurencekirk \|2,650 \|{{Scottish locality populations\|name\|POP=Laurencekirk}} \|- \|Oldmeldrum \|2,990 \|{{Scottish locality populations\|name\|POP=Oldmeldrum}} \|- \|Blackburn \|2,720 \|{{Scottish locality populations\|name\|POP=Blackburn (Aberdeenshire)}} \|- \|Newtonhill \|3,080 \|{{Scottish locality populations\|name\|POP=Newtonhill}} \|- \|Aboyne \|2,440 \|{{Scottish locality populations\|name\|POP=Aboyne}} \|- \|Mintlaw \|2,610 \|{{Scottish locality populations\|name\|POP=Mintlaw}} \|- \|} Economy Aberdeenshire's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is estimated at £3,496M (2011), representing 5.2% of the Scottish total. Aberdeenshire's economy is closely linked to Aberdeen City's (GDP £7,906M), and in 2011, the region as a whole was calculated to contribute 16.8% of Scotland's GDP. Between 2012 and 2014, the combined Aberdeenshire and Aberdeen City economic forecast GDP growth rate is 8.6%, the highest growth rate of any local council area in the UK and above the Scottish rate of 4.8%.<ref name="Aberdeenshire Profile 2012" /> A significant proportion of Aberdeenshire's working residents commute to Aberdeen City for work, varying from 11.5% from Fraserburgh to 65% from Westhill. Average Gross Weekly Earnings (for full-time employees employed in workplaces in Aberdeenshire in 2011) are £572.60. This is lower than the Scottish average by £2.10 and a fall of 2.6% on the 2010 figure. The average gross weekly pay of people resident in Aberdeenshire is much higher, at £741.90, as many people commute out of Aberdeenshire, principally into Aberdeen City.<ref name="Aberdeenshire Profile 2012" /> Total employment (excluding farm data) in Aberdeenshire is estimated at 93,700 employees (Business Register and Employment Survey 2009). The majority of employees work within the service sector, predominantly in public administration, education and health. Almost 19% of employment is within the public sector. Aberdeenshire's economy remains closely linked to Aberdeen City's and the North Sea oil industry, with many employees in oil-related jobs. The average monthly unemployment (claimant count) rate for Aberdeenshire in 2011 was 1.5%. This is lower than the average rate of Aberdeen City (2.3%), Scotland (4.2%) and the UK (3.8%).<ref name"Aberdeenshire Profile 2012" />Major industries* Energy – There are significant energy-related infrastructure, presence, and expertise in Aberdeenshire.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastShepherd\|firstMike\|titleOil Strike North Sea: A first-hand history of North Sea oil.\|publisherLuath Press\|year2015}}</ref> Peterhead is an important centre for the energy industry. Peterhead Port includes an extensive new quay with an adjacent laydown area at Smith Quay, is a major support location for North Sea oil and gas exploration and production and the fast-growing global sub-sea sector. The Gas Terminal at St Fergus handles around 15% of the UK's natural gas requirements, and the Peterhead power station is looking to host Britain's first carbon capture and storage power generation project.<ref name="Aberdeenshire Profile 2012" /> There are numerous offshore wind turbines near the coast. * Fishing – Aberdeenshire is Scotland's foremost fishing area. In 2010, catches landed at Aberdeenshire's ports accounted for over half the total fish landings in Scotland and almost 45% in the UK. Along with Aberdeen City, Peterhead and Fraserburgh ports provide much employment in these sectors. The River Dee<ref name=EB/> is also rich in salmon. * Agriculture – Aberdeenshire is rich in arable land, with an estimated 9,000 people employed in the sector, and is best known for rearing livestock, mainly cattle. Sheep are important in the higher ground.<ref name=EB/> * Tourism – this sector continues to grow, with a range of sights to be seen in the area. From the lively Cairngorm Mountain range to the bustling fishing ports on the northeast coast, Aberdeenshire samples a bit of everything. Aberdeenshire also has a rugged coastline and many sandy beaches and is a hot spot for tourist activity throughout the year. Almost 1.3 million tourists visited the region in 2011 – up 3% on the previous year.<ref name"AberdeenshireProfile2012">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.aberdeenshire.gov.uk/statistics/area/AberdeenshireProfile2012.pdf \|titleAberdeenshire Council – Profile 2012 \|access-date2 January 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140221223911/http://www.aberdeenshire.gov.uk/statistics/area/AberdeenshireProfile2012.pdf \|archive-date21 February 2014 \|url-statusdead \|dfdmy-all }}</ref> * Whisky distilling is still a practised art in the area.<ref nameEB/>Governance{{main\|Aberdeenshire Council}}Notable features nature reserve, with tern colonies and dunes in background.]] at Badenyon]] The following significant structures or places are within Aberdeenshire: {{Main\|Scheduled monuments in Aberdeenshire\|List of Category A listed buildings in Aberdeenshire}} Balmoral Castle, Scottish Highland residence of the British royal family.<ref name=EB/> Bennachie Burn O'Vat Cairness House Cairngorms National Park Corgarff Castle Crathes Castle Causey Mounth, an ancient road Drum Castle Dunnottar Castle Fetteresso Castle Fowlsheugh Nature Reserve Haddo House Herscha Hill Huntly Castle Kildrummy Castle Loch of Strathbeg Lochnagar Monboddo House Muchalls Castle Pitfour estate Portlethen Moss Raedykes Roman Camp River Dee River Don Sands of Forvie Nature Reserve Slains Castles, Old and New Stonehaven Tolbooth Ythan Estuary Nature Reserve Hydrology and climate There are numerous rivers and burns in Aberdeenshire, including Cowie Water, Carron Water, Burn of Muchalls, River Dee, River Don, River Ury, River Ythan, Water of Feugh, Burn of Myrehouse, Laeca Burn and Luther Water. Numerous bays and estuaries are found along the seacoast of Aberdeenshire, including Banff Bay, Ythan Estuary, Stonehaven Bay and Thornyhive Bay. Aberdeenshire has a marine west coast climate on the Köppen climate classification. Aberdeenshire is in the rain shadow of the Grampians, therefore it has a generally dry climate for a maritime region, with portions of the coast receiving {{convert\|25\|in\|cm}} of moisture annually.<ref nameEB/> Summers are mild, and winters are typically cold in Aberdeenshire; Coastal temperatures are moderated by the North Sea such that coastal areas are typically cooler in the summer and warmer in the winter than inland locations. Coastal areas are also subject to haar, or coastal fog.Notable residents {{See also\|List of Aberdonians}} John Skinner, (1721–1807) author, poet and ecclesiastic. Hugh Mercer, (1726–1777), born in the manse of Pitsligo Kirk, near Rosehearty, brigadier general of the Continental Army.<ref name="Marquis 1607-1896"/> Alexander Garden, (1730–1791), born in Birse, was a naturalist and physician who moved to North America in 1754. The gardenia flower is named in his honour.<ref name"Marquis 1607-1896">{{cite book \| title Who Was Who in America, Historical Volume, 1607–1896 \| publisher Marquis Who's Who \| location Chicago \| year = 1963}}</ref> John Kemp, (1763–1812), born in Auchlossan, was a noted educator at Columbia University who is said to have influenced DeWitt Clinton's opinions and policies.<ref name="Marquis 1607-1896"/> George MacDonald (1824–1905), author, poet, and theologian born and raised in Huntly. Dame Evelyn Glennie, born and raised in Ellon on 19 July 1965, musician. Evan Duthie, (born 2000), DJ and producer. Peter Nicol, born in Inverurie on 5 April 1973, is a former professional squash player who represented first Scotland and then England in international squash. Peter Shepherd, (1841–1879), Surgeon Major, Royal Army Medical Corps Johanna Basford (born 1983), illustrator and textile designer<ref name"HeraldScotland">{{cite web\|titleFollow The Paper Trail\|urlhttp://www.heraldscotland.com/news/12432352.Follow_the_paper_trail_Wallpaper_designer_Johanna_Basford_has_been_on_a_roll_since_setting_up_her_business_at_the_start_of_the_year__Cate_Devine_visits_her_remote_studio/\|websitewww.heraldscotland.com\|dateJuly 2006 \|publisherHerald & Times Group\|access-date16 February 2016}}</ref><ref name"nationalgalleriesscotland">{{cite web\|titleRough Cut Nation (Exhibition Notes)\|urlhttps://www.nationalgalleries.org/whatson/exhibitions/rough-cut-nation/the-artists\|websiteNational Galleries Scotland\|access-date27 February 2016}}</ref> Iona Fyfe (born 1998), singer and musician. Notes {{notelist}} References {{Reflist}} {{Commons category}} External links {{Wikivoyage\|Aberdeenshire}} *[http://www.aberdeenshire.gov.uk/ Aberdeenshire Council] {{Navboxes \|title = Aberdeenshire \|list {{Aberdeenshire places\|statecollapsed}} {{Banff and Buchan, Aberdeenshire places\|state=collapsed}} {{Buchan, Aberdeenshire places\|state=collapsed}} {{Formartine, Aberdeenshire places\|state=collapsed}} {{Garioch, Aberdeenshire places\|state=collapsed}} {{Kincardine and Mearns, Aberdeenshire places\|state=collapsed}} {{Marr, Aberdeenshire places\|state=collapsed}} {{Schools in Aberdeenshire}} {{Rugby union in Aberdeenshire}} {{Aberdeenshire elections}} {{Wards of Aberdeenshire}} }} {{Scotland subdivisions}} {{Authority control}} Category:Council areas of Scotland	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeenshire	2025-04-05T18:25:24.740011
859	Aztlan Underground	{{short description\|American rapper}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=April 2024}} {{Infobox musical artist \| name = Aztlan Underground \| image \| caption \| origin = Los Angeles, California, United States \| genre = {{flatlist\| * Alternative rock * hip hop * electronica * experimental }} \| years_active = 1989&ndash;present \| label = Xican@ Records and Film-XRF \| current_members = * Yaotl * Joe "Peps" Galarza * Caxo * Bulldog \| past_members = * Chenek "DJ Bean" * Alonzo Beas * Ace Campos * Bobby Ramirez * Claudio Rodarte "MC Serpiente" * Nahui Ollin }} Aztlan Underground is a band from Los Angeles, California that combines Hip-Hop, Punk Rock, Jazz, and electronic music with Chicano and Native American themes, and indigenous instrumentation. They are often cited as progenitors of Chicano rap.<ref name"SCPR">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.nativeamericanmusicawards.com/nama-12\|titleNAMA 12\|websitewww.nativeamericanmusicawards.com\|access-dateMarch 21, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://www.scpr.org/news/2010/11/12/20947/aztlan-underground/\|titleLos Angeles Band Aztlan Underground Gets 4 Native American Music Awards Nominations\|publisherSouthern California Public Radio\|dateNovember 12, 2010\|workSouthern California Public Radio\|access-dateMarch 22, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|last1Wright-McLeod\|first1Brian\|titleThe Encyclopedia of Native Music: More Than a Century of Recordings from Wax Cylinder to the Internet\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/trent_0116405745989\|url-accessregistration\|date2005\|publisherThe University of Arizona Press\|page[https://archive.org/details/trent_0116405745989/page/49 49]}}</ref> Background The band traces its roots to the late-1980s hardcore scene in the Eastside of Los Angeles.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastViesca\|firstHugo\|dateSeptember 2004\|titleThe Battle of Los Angeles: The Cultural Politics of Chicana/o Music in the Greater Eastside\|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/236762026\|journalAmerican Quarterly\|volume56\|issue3\|pages719–739\|doi10.1353/aq.2004.0045 \|s2cid143471138 \|viaResearchGate}}</ref> They have played rapcore, with elements of punk, hip hop, rock, funk, jazz, indigenous music, and spoken word. Indigenous drums, flutes, and rattles are also commonly used in their music.<ref name"Spotlight">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://rpm.fm/news/spotlight-aztlan-underground/\|titleSPOTLIGHT: Aztlan Underground - RPM.fm\|websiterpm.fm\|access-dateMarch 22, 2018}}</ref> Their lyrics often address the family and economic issues faced by the Chicano community,<ref>{{cite book\|last1Rodríguez\|first1Richard T.\|titleNext of Kin: The Family in Chicano/a Cultural Politics\|date2009\|publisherDuke University Press\|page109}}</ref> and they have been noted as activists for that community.<ref>{{cite book\|last1Gasper De Alba (ed.)\|first1Alicia\|titleVelvet Barrios: Popular Culture and Chicana/o Sexualities\|date2003\|publisherPalgrave MacMillan\|page111}}</ref> As an example of the politically active and culturally important artists in Los Angeles in the 1990s, Aztlan Underground appeared on Culture Clash on Fox in 1993; and was part of Breaking Out, a concert on pay per view in 1998, The band was featured in the independent films Algun Dia and Frontierland in the 1990s,<ref>{{Citation\|last1Lerner\|first1Jesse\|titleFrontierland\|dateSeptember 16, 1995\|urlhttps://www.imdb.com/title/tt0472787/\|last2Ortiz\|first2Ruben\|othersEmiliano Alvarez, Alfredo Figueroa, Guillermo Gómez-Peña\|access-dateMarch 22, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.chicano.ucla.edu/publications/dvd/frontierlandfronterilandia-1995\|titleFrontierland/Fronterilandia (1995)\|dateJune 25, 2012\|websiteUCLA Chicano Studies Research Center\|access-dateMarch 22, 2018}}</ref> and on the upcoming Studio 49.<ref>{{Citation\|lastHarris\|firstNick\|titleAztlan Underground\|urlhttps://www.imdb.com/title/tt8040706/\|othersAztlan Underground\|access-dateMarch 22, 2018}}</ref> The band has been mentioned or featured in various newspapers and magazines: the Vancouver Sun, New Times, BLU Magazine (an underground hip hop magazine), BAM Magazine, La Banda Elastica Magazine, and the Los Angeles Times calendar section. The band is also the subject of a chapter in the book ''It's Not About a Salary'', by Brian Cross.<ref>{{Cite book\|titleIt's not about a salary: rap, race, and resistance in Los Angeles\|lastCross\|firstBrian\|publisherVerso\|year1994\|isbn978-0860914457\|locationNew York\|pages[https://archive.org/details/itsnotaboutsalar00cros/page/263 263]\|url-accessregistration\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/itsnotaboutsalar00cros/page/263}}</ref> Aztlan Underground remains active in the community, lending their voice to annual events such as The Farce of July,<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.teenvogue.com/story/farce-of-july-celebration-in-los-angeles-honors-native-people\|titleWhy This Group Honored Native People on the 4th of July\|lastCruz\|firstAraceli\|workTeen Vogue\|access-dateMarch 22, 2018}}</ref> and the recent movement to recognize Indigenous People's Day in Los Angeles and beyond.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.expressnews.com/news/local/article/Mayor-few-city-councilors-will-declare-Thursday-12272779.php\|titleS.A. mayor, city councilors will declare Thursday Indigenous People's Day\|workSan Antonio Express-News\|access-dateMarch 22, 2018}}</ref> In addition to forming their own label, Xicano Records and Film, Aztlan Underground were signed to the Basque record label Esan Ozenki in 1999 which enabled them to tour Spain extensively and perform in France and Portugal. Aztlan Underground have also performed in Canada, Australia, and Venezuela. The band has been recognized for their music with nominations in the New Times 1998 "Best Latin Influenced" category, the BAM Magazine 1999 "Best Rock en Español" category, and the LA Weekly 1999 "Best Hip Hop" category. The release of their eponymous third album on August 29, 2009, was met with positive reviews<ref name"Spotlight" /> and earned the band four Native American Music Award (NAMMY) nominations in 2010.<ref name"SCPR" /> Discography Decolonize Year:1995 # "Teteu Innan" # "Killing Season" # "Lost Souls" # "My Blood Is Red" # "Natural Enemy" # "Sacred Circle" # "Blood On Your Hands" # "Interlude" # "Aug 2 the 9" # "Indigena" # "Lyrical Drive By" Sub-Verses Year:1998 # "Permiso" # "They Move In Silence" # "No Soy Animal" # "Killing Season" # "Blood On Your Hands" # "Reality Check" # "Lemon Pledge" # "Revolution" # "Preachers of the Blind State" # "Lyrical Drive-By" # "Nahui Ollin" # "How to Catch a Bullet" # "Ik Otik" # "Obsolete Man" # "Decolonize" # "War Flowers" Aztlan Underground Year: 2009 # "Moztlitta" # "Be God" # "Light Shines" # "Prey" # "In the Field" # "9 10 11 12" # "Smell the Dead" # "Sprung" # "Medicine" # "Acabando" # "Crescent Moon" See also Chicano rap Native American hip hop Rapcore Chicano rock References {{reflist}} External links <!-- Please note that WP:EL allows for at most one major fan site. Before adding your additional link, please read WP:EL and WP:SPAM and be sure that your additional link is more significant than the current links included in this section. --> * [http://www.myspace.com/aztlanunderground Myspace link] * [https://www.facebook.com/Aztlanunderground/ Facebook page] {{DEFAULTSORT:Aztlan Underground}} Category:Native American rappers Category:American rappers of Mexican descent Category:Musical groups from Los Angeles Category:West Coast hip-hop musicians	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztlan_Underground	2025-04-05T18:25:24.791543
863	American Civil War	{{Short description\|1861–1865 conflict in the United States}} {{Pp-semi-indef}} {{Pp-move}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=March 2025}} {{Use American English\|date=March 2025}} {{Infobox military conflict \| image = {{Multiple image \| image1 = Battle of Gettysburg, by Currier and Ives.png \| image2 = Battle of Franklin, November 30, 1864.jpg \| image4 = Thure de Thulstrup - Battle of Antietam.jpg \| width = 180 \| perrow = 1/2/2/1 \| border = infobox \| total_width = 300 \| image3 = Tidball's Battery, near Fair Oaks, Va. - Lt. Robert Clarke, Capt. John C. Tidball, Lt. William N. Dennison, and Capt. Alexander C.M. Pennington.jpg \| image5 = Timothy H. O'Sullivan (American - A Harvest of Death - Google Art Project.jpg \| image6 = "Atlanta" (Confederate Ram) on James River after capture (4267033696) (cropped).jpg }} \| image_size = 300 \| caption = Clockwise from top: {{flatlist\| * Battle of Gettysburg * U.S. Horse Artillery Brigade officers under Captain John Tidball * A Harvest of Death * Ironclad {{USS\|Atlanta\|1861\|6}} * Battle of Antietam * Battle of Franklin }} \| date April 12, 1861{{snd}}May 26, 1865{{efn\|nameEnd1\|{{multiref2\|{{Cite web \|dateMay 29, 1865 \|titleEnd of the Rebellion; The Last Rebel Army Disbands \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1865/05/29/archives/end-of-the-rebellion-the-last-rebel-army-disbands-kirby-smith.html \|url-accesssubscription \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180915002358/https://www.nytimes.com/1865/05/29/archives/end-of-the-rebellion-the-last-rebel-army-disbands-kirby-smith.html \|archive-dateSeptember 15, 2018 \|access-dateJuly 29, 2022 \|websiteThe New York Times \|agencyUnited States Department of War}} \| {{harvnb\|Robertson\|1963\|p31}}. "Lee's surrender left Johnston with no place to go. On April 26, near Durham, N.C., the Army of Tennessee laid down its arms before Sherman's forces. With the surrender of isolated forces in the Trans-Mississippi West on May 4, 11, and 26, the most costly war in American history came to an end." \| {{harvnb\|Catton\|1965\|p445}}. "<!-- ... -->[A]nd on May 26 he [E. Kirby Smith] surrendered and the war was over." \| {{harvnb\|Gallagher \|Engle \|Krick \|Glatthaar\|2003\|p308}}. "By 26 May, General Edward Kirby Smith had surrendered the Rebel forces in the trans-Mississippi west. The war was over." \| {{harvnb\|Blair\|2015\|p9}}. "The sheer weight of scholarship has leaned toward portraying the surrenders of the Confederate armies as the end of the war."}}}}{{efn\|nameEnd2\|Among the many other contemporary sources and later historians citing May 26, 1865, as the end date for the American Civil War hostilities are George Templeton Strong, who was a prominent New York lawyer; a founder, treasurer, and member of the Executive Committee of United States Sanitary Commission throughout the war; and a diarist. A diary excerpt is published in Gienapp, William E. (ed.). The Civil War and Reconstruction: A Documentary Collection. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2001, pp. 313–314 {{ISBN\|978-0-393-97555-0}}. A footnote in Gienapp shows the excerpt was taken from an edited version of the diaries by Allan Nevins and Milton Halsey Thomas, eds., The Diary of George Templeton Strong, vol. 2 (New York: The Macmillan Company), pp. 600–601, which differs from the volume and page numbers of the original diaries; the page in Strong's original handwriting is shown at {{Cite web \|titleVolume 4, pages 124–125: diary entries for May 23 (continued)–June 7, 1865. \|urlhttps://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/nyhs%3A55249 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221116151714/https://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/object/nyhs%3A55249 \|archive-dateNovember 16, 2022 \|viaNew-York Historical Society Museum & Library}}}} {{nwr\|({{Age in years, months, weeks and days\|month104\|day112\|year11861\|month205\|day226\|year21865}})}} \| place = United States, Atlantic Ocean \| result = Union victory \| territory = Dissolution of the Confederate States of America \| combatant1 = {{flagicon\|United States\|1861}} United States \| combatant2 = {{flagcountry\|Confederate States of America\|1861}} \| commander1 = {{plainlist\| * {{flagicon\|United States\|1861}} Abraham Lincoln{{Assassinated\|Assassination of Abraham Lincoln}} * {{flagicon\|United States\|1861}} Ulysses S. Grant * and others... }} \| commander2 = {{plainlist\| * {{flagicon\|Confederate States of America\|1861}} Jefferson Davis{{Surrender}} * {{flagicon\|Confederate States of America\|1861}} Robert E. Lee{{Surrender}} * and others... }} \| strength1 = {{indented plainlist\| * 698,000 at peak<ref>{{Cite web \|titleSize of the Union Army in the American Civil War \|urlhttp://www.oocities.org/littlegreenmen.geo/UASize.htm \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160130034407/http://www.oocities.org/littlegreenmen.geo/UASize.htm \|archive-dateJanuary 30, 2016 \|quoteOf which 131,000 were in the Navy and Marines, 140,000 were garrison troops and home defense militia, and 427,000 were in the field army}}</ref> * 2,200,000 total<ref name"NationalParkService">{{Cite web \|titleFacts \|urlhttp://www.nps.gov/civilwar/facts.htm \|publisherNational Park Service}}</ref> }} \| strength2 = {{indented plainlist\| * 360,000 at peak<ref name"NationalParkService" /><ref>{{Cite web \|year1900 \|titleThe war of the rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies; Series 4 – Volume 2 \|urlhttp://ebooks.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?cmoawar;ccmoawar;q1abstract;rgnfull%20text;idnowaro0128;didnowaro0128;viewimage;seq0542 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170725221244/http://ebooks.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?cmoawar;ccmoawar;q1abstract;rgnfull%20text;idnowaro0128;didnowaro0128;viewimage;seq0542 \|archive-dateJuly 25, 2017 \|publisher=United States War Dept.}}</ref> * 750,000–1,000,000 total{{sfn\|Long\|1971\|p=705}} }} \| casualties1 = {{indented plainlist\| * 110,000+ {{abbr\|KIA\|killed in action}} or {{abbr\|DOW\|died of wounds}} * 230,000+ died from accidents or disease<ref name"Fox1889">{{Cite book \|lastFox \|firstWilliam F. \|urlhttp://www.civilwarhome.com/foxspref.html \|titleRegimental losses in the American Civil War \|year1889 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170525214736/http://www.civilwarhome.com/foxspref.html \|archive-dateMay 25, 2017 \|url-statususurped}}</ref><ref name"DCAS">{{Cite web \|titleU.S. Military Casualties: Principal Wars 1775–1991 \|urlhttps://dcas.dmdc.osd.mil/dcas/app/summaryData/casualties/principalWars \|website=Defence Casuality Analysis System (DCAS)}}</ref> * 25,000–30,000 died in Confederate prisons<ref name"NationalParkService" /><ref name"Fox1889" /> * 365,000+ total dead{{sfn\|Chambers\|Anderson\|1999\|p=849}} }} ---- {{indented plainlist\| * 282,000+ wounded<ref name="DCAS" /> * 181,193 captured<ref name"Rhodes1893">{{Cite book \|lastRhodes \|firstJames Ford \|urlhttp://archive.org/details/historyunitedst20unkngoog \|titleHistory of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 \|year1893 \|publisherHarper & Bros. \|locationNew York \|pages=507–508}}</ref>{{Efn\|211,411 Union soldiers were captured, and 30,218 died in prison. The ones who died have been excluded to prevent double-counting of casualties.}} * 828,000+ total casualties }} \| casualties2 = {{indented plainlist\| * 94,000+ {{abbr\|KIA\|killed in action}} or {{abbr\|DOW\|died of wounds}}<ref name="Fox1889" /> * 164,000+ died from accidents or disease <ref name="NationalParkService" /> * 26,000–31,000 died in Union prisons<ref name="DCAS" /> * 290,000+ total dead }} ---- {{indented plainlist\| * 137,000+ wounded * 436,658 captured<ref name="Rhodes1893" />{{Efn\|462,634 Confederate soldiers were captured and 25,976 died in prison. The ones who died have been excluded to prevent double-counting of casualties.}} * 864,000+ total casualties }} \| casualties3 = {{plainlist\| * 50,000 free civilians died<ref name="Nofi2001" /> * 60,000 documented slaves, "tens of thousands" of undocumented slaves died from disease<ref>{{harvnb\|Downs\|2012}}. "The rough 19th century estimate was that 60,000 former slaves died from the epidemic, but doctors treating black patients often claimed that they were unable to keep accurate records due to demands on their time and the lack of manpower and resources. The surviving records only include the number of black patients whom doctors encountered; tens of thousands of other slaves had no contact with army doctors, leaving no records of their deaths."</ref> * 616,222<ref>Toward a Social History of the American Civil War Exploratory Essays, Cambridge University Press, 1990, p. 4.</ref>–1,000,000+ total dead<ref name="Hacker2011" /><ref>{{harvnb\|Downs\|2012}}. "An 2 April 2012 New York Times article, 'New Estimate Raises Civil War Death Toll', reports that a new study ratchets up the death toll from an estimated 650,000 to a staggering 850,000 people. As horrific as this new number is, it fails to reflect the mortality of former slaves during the war. If former slaves were included in this figure, the Civil War death toll would likely be over a million casualties&nbsp;...".</ref>}} \| conflict = American Civil War }} {{Campaignbox American Civil War}} {{Periods in US history}} The American Civil War (April 12, 1861{{snd}}May 26, 1865; also known by other names) was a civil war in the United States between the Union{{Efn\|The Union was the U.S. government and included the states that remained loyal to it, both the non-slave states and the border states (Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware) where slavery was legal. Missouri and Kentucky were also claimed by the Confederacy and given full state delegations in the Confederate Congress for the duration of the war.}} ("the North") and the Confederacy ("the South"), which was formed in 1861 by states that had seceded from the Union. The central conflict leading to war was a dispute over whether slavery should be permitted to expand into the western territories, leading to more slave states, or be prohibited from doing so, which many believed would place slavery on a course of ultimate extinction.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleThe Declaration of Causes of Seceding States. Primary Sources \|urlhttps://www.battlefields.org/learn/primary-sources/declaration-causes-seceding-states \|access-dateDecember 30, 2023 \|publisherAmerican Battlefield Trust}}</ref><ref name"Woods2012">{{Cite journal \|lastWoods \|firstMichael E. \|dateAugust 20, 2012 \|titleWhat Twenty-First-Century Historians Have Said about the Causes of Disunion: A Civil War Sesquicentennial Review of the Recent Literature \|journalJournal of American History \|volume99 \|issue2 \|pages415–439 \|doi10.1093/jahist/jas272 \|issn=0021-8723}}</ref> Decades of controversy over slavery came to a head when Abraham Lincoln, who opposed slavery's expansion, won the 1860 presidential election. Seven Southern slave states responded to Lincoln's victory by seceding from the United States and forming the Confederacy. The Confederacy seized U.S. forts and other federal assets within their borders. The war began on April 12, 1861, when the Confederacy bombarded Fort Sumter in South Carolina. A wave of enthusiasm for war swept over the North and South, as military recruitment soared. Four more Southern states seceded after the war began and, led by its president, Jefferson Davis, the Confederacy asserted control over a third of the U.S. population in eleven states. Four years of intense combat, mostly in the South, ensued. During 1861–1862 in the Western theater, the Union made permanent gains—though in the Eastern theater the conflict was inconclusive. The abolition of slavery became a Union war goal on January 1, 1863, when Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which declared all slaves in rebel states to be free, applying to more than 3.5&nbsp;million of the 4&nbsp;million enslaved people in the country. To the west, the Union first destroyed the Confederacy's river navy by the summer of 1862, then much of its western armies, and seized New Orleans. The successful 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River, while Confederate general Robert E. Lee's incursion north failed at the Battle of Gettysburg. Western successes led to General Ulysses S. Grant's command of all Union armies in 1864. Inflicting an ever-tightening naval blockade of Confederate ports, the Union marshaled resources and manpower to attack the Confederacy from all directions. This led to the fall of Atlanta in 1864 to Union general William Tecumseh Sherman, followed by his March to the Sea. The last significant battles raged around the ten-month Siege of Petersburg, gateway to the Confederate capital of Richmond. The Confederates abandoned Richmond, and on April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered to Grant following the Battle of Appomattox Court House, setting in motion the end of the war.{{Efn\|Appomattox is referred to symbolically as the end of the war, although arguably there are different dates for the war's conclusion. Lee's surrender to Grant set off a wave of Confederate surrenders. The last military department of the Confederacy, the Trans-Mississippi Department disbanded on May 26.}} Lincoln lived to see this victory but was shot by an assassin on April 14, dying the next day. By the end of the war, much of the South's infrastructure was destroyed. The Confederacy collapsed, slavery was abolished, and four million enslaved black people were freed. The war-torn nation then entered the Reconstruction era in an attempt to rebuild the country, bring the former Confederate states back into the United States, and grant civil rights to freed slaves. The war is one of the most extensively studied and written about episodes in the history of the United States. It remains the subject of cultural and historiographical debate. Of continuing interest is the myth of the Lost Cause of the Confederacy. The war was among the first to use industrial warfare. Railroads, the electrical telegraph, steamships, the ironclad warship, and mass-produced weapons were widely used. The war left an estimated 698,000 soldiers dead, along with an undetermined number of civilian casualties, making the Civil War the deadliest military conflict in American history.{{Efn\|This assumes that Union and Confederate casualties are counted together; more Americans were killed in World War&nbsp;II than in either the Union or Confederate Armies if their casualty totals are counted separately.}} The technology and brutality of the Civil War foreshadowed the coming world wars. Origins {{Main\|Origins of the American Civil War}} {{Further\|Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War\|Slave states and free states\|Slavery in the United States\|Abolitionism in the United States}} The origins of the war were rooted in the desire of the Southern states to preserve the institution of slavery.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastWoods \|firstM. E. \|dateAugust 20, 2012 \|titleWhat Twenty-First-Century Historians Have Said about the Causes of Disunion: A Civil War Sesquicentennial Review of the Recent Literature \|urlhttps://doi.org/10.1093/jahist/jas272 \|journalJournal of American History \|volume99 \|issue2 \|pages415–439 \|doi10.1093/jahist/jas272 \|issn0021-8723}}</ref> Historians in the 21st century overwhelmingly agree on the centrality of slavery in the conflict—at least for the Southern states. They disagree on which aspects (ideological, economic, political, or social) were most important, and on the North's reasons for refusing to allow the Southern states to secede.<ref>Aaron Sheehan-Dean, "A Book for Every Perspective: Current Civil War and Reconstruction Textbooks", Civil War History (2005) 51#3 pp. 317–324</ref> The pseudo-historical Lost Cause ideology denies that slavery was the principal cause of the secession, a view disproven by historical evidence, notably some of the seceding states' own secession documents.<ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastLoewen \|firstJames W. \|date2011 \|titleUsing Confederate Documents to Teach About Secession, Slavery, and the Origins of the Civil War \|magazineOAH Magazine of History \|volume25 \|issue2 \|pages35–44 \|doi10.1093/oahmag/oar002 \|jstor23210244 \|issn0882-228X \|quoteConfederate leaders themselves made it plain that slavery was the key issue sparking secession.}}</ref> After leaving the Union, Mississippi issued a declaration stating, "Our position is thoroughly identified with the institution of slavery—the greatest material interest of the world."<ref name"Coates-2015">{{cite news \|last1Coates \|first1Ta-Nehisi \|titleWhat This Cruel War Was Over \|urlhttps://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/06/what-this-cruel-war-was-over/396482/ \|workThe Atlantic \|dateJune 23, 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20171031234944/https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/06/what-this-cruel-war-was-over/396482/ \|archive-dateOctober 31, 2017 \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleA Declaration of the Immediate Causes which Induce and Justify the Secession of the State of Mississippi from the Federal Union. \|workThe Declaration of Causes of Seceding States \|urlhttps://www.battlefields.org/learn/primary-sources/declaration-causes-seceding-states#South_Carolina \|viaAmerican Battlefield Trust \|access-dateSeptember 12, 2024 \|year=1861}}</ref> The principal political battle leading to Southern secession was over whether slavery would expand into the Western territories destined to become states. Initially Congress had admitted new states into the Union in pairs, one slave and one free. This had kept a sectional balance in the Senate but not in the House of Representatives, as free states outstripped slave states in numbers of eligible voters.<ref name"O'Brien2002qs">{{cite book \|authorPatrick Karl O'Brien \|titleAtlas of World History \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idffZy5tDjaUkC&pgPA184 \|year2002 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-19-521921-0 \|page184 \|access-dateOctober 25, 2015 \|archive-dateSeptember 5, 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150905202421/https://books.google.com/books?idffZy5tDjaUkC&pgPA184 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Thus, at mid-19th century, the free-versus-slave status of the new territories was a critical issue, both for the North, where anti-slavery sentiment had grown, and for the South, where the fear of slavery's abolition had grown. Another factor leading to secession and the formation of the Confederacy was the development of white Southern nationalism in the preceding decades.<ref>John McCardell, The Idea of a Southern Nation: Southern Nationalists and Southern Nationalism, 1830–1860 (1981)</ref> The primary reason for the North to reject secession was to preserve the Union, a cause based on American nationalism.<ref>Susan-Mary Grant, North Over South: Northern Nationalism and American Identity in the Antebellum Era (2000)</ref> Background factors in the run up to the Civil War were partisan politics, abolitionism, nullification versus secession, Southern and Northern nationalism, expansionism, economics, and modernization in the antebellum period. As a panel of historians emphasized in 2011, "while slavery and its various and multifaceted discontents were the primary cause of disunion, it was disunion itself that sparked the war."<ref>Elizabeth R. Varon, Bruce Levine, Marc Egnal, and Michael Holt at a plenary session of the organization of American Historians, March 17, 2011, reported by David A. Walsh "Highlights from the 2011 Annual Meeting of the Organization of American Historians in Houston, Texas" [http://www.hnn.us/articles/137673.html HNN online] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111204081355/http://hnn.us/articles/137673.html \|dateDecember 4, 2011 }}</ref> Lincoln's election {{Main\|1860 United States presidential election}} by Mathew Brady\|alt=Portrait of the middle-aged Abraham Lincoln the year of 1860 by Mathew Brady]] Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 presidential election.{{sfn\|Potter\|Fehrenbacher\|1976\|p485}} Southern leaders feared Lincoln would stop slavery's expansion and put it on a course toward extinction.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp254–255}} His victory triggered declarations of secession by seven slave states of the Deep South, all of whose riverfront or coastal economies were based on cotton that was cultivated by slave labor. Lincoln was not inaugurated until March 4, 1861, four months after his 1860 election, which afforded the South time to prepare for war.<ref name"NegativesPrints">{{Cite web \|title1861 Time Line \|urlhttps://www.loc.gov/collections/civil-war-glass-negatives/articles-and-essays/time-line-of-the-civil-war/1861 \|access-dateJanuary 22, 2022 \|websiteCivil War Glass Negatives and Related Prints \|publisherLibrary of Congress}}</ref> Nationalists in the North and "Unionists" in the South refused to accept the declarations of secession, and no foreign government ever recognized the Confederacy. The U.S. government, under President James Buchanan, refused to relinquish the nation's forts, which the Confederacy claimed were located in their territory. According to Lincoln, the American people had demonstrated, beginning with their victory in the American Revolution and Revolutionary War and subsequent establishment of a sovereign nation, that they could successfully establish and administer a republic. Yet, Lincoln believed, a third unanswered question that faced the nation remained unanswered: Could the nation be maintained as a republic, where its government was selected based on the people's vote, given ongoing internal attempts to destroy or separate from such a system.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastJaffa \|firstHarry V. \|titleA New Birth of Freedom: Abraham Lincoln and the Coming of the Civil War \|year2004 \|publisherRowman & Littlefield \|isbn978-0-8476-9953-7 \|page1}}</ref> Outbreak of the war Secession crisis {{Main\|Ordinance of Secession}} Lincoln's election provoked South Carolina's legislature to call a state convention to consider secession. South Carolina had done more than any other state to advance the notion that a state had the right to nullify federal laws and even secede. On December 20, 1860, the convention unanimously voted to secede and adopted a secession declaration. It argued for states' rights for slave owners but complained about states' rights in the North in the form of resistance to the federal Fugitive Slave Act, claiming that Northern states were not fulfilling their obligations to assist in the return of fugitive slaves. The "cotton states" of Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed suit, seceding in January and February 1861.<ref name="NegativesPrints" /> Among the ordinances of secession, those of Texas, Alabama, and Virginia mentioned the plight of the "slaveholding states" at the hands of Northern abolitionists. The rest made no mention of slavery but were brief announcements by the legislatures of the dissolution of ties to the Union.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleOrdinances of Secession of the 13 Confederate States of America \|urlhttp://www.civil-war.net/pages/ordinances_secession.asp \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20040611023102/http://civil-war.net/pages/ordinances_secession.asp \|archive-dateJune 11, 2004 \|access-dateNovember 28, 2012}}</ref> However, at least four—South Carolina,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleConfederate States of America – Declaration of the Immediate Causes which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union \|urlhttp://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_scarsec.asp \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190220121942/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_scarsec.asp \|archive-dateFebruary 20, 2019 \|access-dateNovember 28, 2012 \|websiteThe Avalon Project}}</ref> Mississippi,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleA Declaration of the Immediate Causes which Induce and Justify the Secession of the State of Mississippi from the Federal Union \|urlhttp://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_missec.asp \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141010225636/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_missec.asp \|archive-dateOctober 10, 2014 \|access-dateNovember 28, 2012 \|websiteThe Avalon Project}}</ref> Georgia,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleConfederate States of America – Georgia Secession \|urlhttp://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_geosec.asp \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110714154731/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_geosec.asp \|archive-dateJuly 14, 2011 \|access-dateNovember 28, 2012 \|websiteThe Avalon Project}}</ref> and Texas<ref>{{Cite web \|titleConfederate States of America – A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union \|urlhttp://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_texsec.asp \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110811013053/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_texsec.asp \|archive-dateAugust 11, 2011 \|access-dateNovember 28, 2012 \|websiteThe Avalon Project}}</ref>—provided detailed reasons for their secession, all blaming the movement to abolish slavery and its influence over the North. Southern states believed that the Fugitive Slave Clause made slaveholding a constitutional right. These states agreed to form a new federal government, the Confederate States of America, on February 4, 1861.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|p24}} They took control of federal forts and other properties within their boundaries, with little resistance from outgoing president James Buchanan, whose term ended on March 4. Buchanan said the Dred Scott decision was proof the Southern states had no reason to secede and that the Union "was intended to be perpetual". He added, however, that "The power by force of arms to compel a State to remain in the Union" was not among the "enumerated powers granted to Congress".<ref name"Buchanan1860" /> A quarter of the U.S. army—the Texas garrison—was surrendered in February to state forces by its general, David E. Twiggs, who joined the Confederacy.{{sfn\|Winters\|1963\|p28}} As Southerners resigned their Senate and House seats, Republicans could pass projects that had been blocked. These included the Morrill Tariff, land grant colleges, a Homestead Act, a transcontinental railroad,<ref>{{Cite web \|year1865 \|titleProfile Showing the Grades upon the Different Routes Surveyed for the Union Pacific Rail Road Between the Missouri River and the Valley of the Platte River \|urlhttp://www.wdl.org/en/item/4608/ \|access-dateJuly 16, 2013 \|publisherWorld Digital Library}}</ref> the National Bank Act, authorization of United States Notes by the Legal Tender Act of 1862, and the end of slavery in the District of Columbia. The Revenue Act of 1861 introduced income tax to help finance the war.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAbraham Lincoln imposes first federal income tax \|urlhttps://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/lincoln-imposes-first-federal-income-tax \|access-dateJune 12, 2021 \|website=History.com}}</ref> , President of the Confederate States of America (1861–1865)\|alt=Middle-aged man in a goatee posed standing in a suit, vest and bowtie]] In December 1860, the Crittenden Compromise was proposed to re-establish the Missouri Compromise line, by constitutionally banning slavery in territories to the north of it, while permitting it to the south. The Compromise would likely have prevented secession, but Lincoln and the Republicans rejected it.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp252–254}} Lincoln stated that any compromise that would extend slavery would bring down the Union.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|p253}} A February peace conference met in Washington, proposing a solution similar to the Compromise; it was rejected by Congress. The Republicans proposed the Corwin Amendment, an alternative, not to interfere with slavery where it existed, but the South regarded it as insufficient. The remaining eight slave states rejected pleas to join the Confederacy, following a no-vote in Virginia's First Secessionist Convention on April 4.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp=234–266}} On March 4, Lincoln was sworn in as president. In his inaugural address, he argued that the Constitution was a more perfect union than the earlier Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, was a binding contract, and called secession "legally void".<ref name"Lincoln1861" /> He did not intend to invade Southern states, nor to end slavery where it existed, but he said he would use force to maintain possession of federal property,<ref name"Lincoln1861" /> including forts, arsenals, mints, and customhouses that had been seized.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|p262}} The government would not try to recover post offices, and if resisted, mail delivery would end at state lines. Where conditions did not allow peaceful enforcement of federal law, U.S. marshals and judges would be withdrawn. No mention was made of bullion lost from mints. He stated that it would be U.S. policy "to collect the duties and imposts"; "there will be no invasion, no using of force against or among the people anywhere" that would justify an armed revolution. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union, famously calling on "the mystic chords of memory" binding the two regions.<ref name"Lincoln1861" /> The Davis government of the new Confederacy sent delegates to Washington to negotiate a peace treaty. Lincoln rejected negotiations, because he claimed that the Confederacy was not a legitimate government and to make a treaty with it would recognize it as such.{{sfn\|Potter\|Fehrenbacher\|1976\|pp572–573}} Lincoln instead attempted to negotiate directly with the governors of seceded states, whose administrations he continued to recognize.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastHarris \|firstWilliam C. \|dateWinter 2000 \|titleThe Hampton Roads Peace Conference: A Final Test of Lincoln's Presidential Leadership \|urlhttp://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.2629860.0021.104 \|journalJournal of the Abraham Lincoln Association \|volume21 \|issue1 \|pages30–61 \|doi10.5406/19457987.21.1.04 \|issn1945-7987 \|hdl=2027/spo.2629860.0021.104}}</ref> Complicating Lincoln's attempts to defuse the crisis was Secretary of State William H. Seward, who had been Lincoln's rival for the Republican nomination. Embittered by his defeat, Seward agreed to support Lincoln's candidacy only after he was guaranteed the executive office then considered the second most powerful. In the early stages of Lincoln's presidency Seward held little regard for him, due to his perceived inexperience. Seward viewed himself as the de facto head of government, the "prime minister" behind the throne. Seward attempted to engage in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed.{{sfn\|Potter\|Fehrenbacher\|1976\|pp572–573}} Lincoln was determined to hold all remaining Union-occupied forts in the Confederacy: Fort Monroe in Virginia, Fort Pickens, Fort Jefferson, and Fort Taylor in Florida, and Fort Sumter in South Carolina.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastHardyman \|firstRobyn \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idD11iDwAAQBAJ \|titleWhat Caused the Civil War? \|year2016 \|publisherGareth Stevens \|isbn978-1-4824-5180-1 \|page27}}</ref> Battle of Fort Sumter {{Main\|Battle of Fort Sumter}} {{See also\|President Lincoln's 75,000 volunteers}} ]] The American Civil War began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces opened fire on the Union-held Fort Sumter. Fort Sumter is located in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina.{{Sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|p264}} Its status had been contentious for months. Outgoing president Buchanan had dithered in reinforcing its garrison, commanded by Major Robert Anderson. Anderson took matters into his own hands and on December 26, 1860, under the cover of darkness, sailed the garrison from the poorly placed Fort Moultrie to the stalwart island Fort Sumter.{{Sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|p265}} Anderson's actions catapulted him to hero status in the North. An attempt to resupply the fort on January 9, 1861, failed and nearly started the war then, but an informal truce held.{{Sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|p266}} On March 5, Lincoln was informed the fort was low on supplies.{{Sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|p267}} Fort Sumter proved a key challenge to Lincoln's administration.{{Sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|p267}} Back-channel dealing by Seward with the Confederates undermined Lincoln's decision-making; Seward wanted to pull out.{{Sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|p268}} But a firm hand by Lincoln tamed Seward, who was a staunch Lincoln ally. Lincoln decided holding the fort, which would require reinforcing it, was the only workable option. On April 6, Lincoln informed the Governor of South Carolina that a ship with food but no ammunition would attempt to supply the fort. Historian McPherson describes this win-win approach as "the first sign of the mastery that would mark Lincoln's presidency"; the Union would win if it could resupply and hold the fort, and the South would be the aggressor if it opened fire on an unarmed ship supplying starving men.{{Sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|p272}} An April 9 Confederate cabinet meeting resulted in Davis ordering General P. G. T. Beauregard to take the fort before supplies reached it.{{Sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|p273}} At 4:30&nbsp;a.m. on April 12, Confederate forces fired the first of 4,000 shells at the fort; it fell the next day. The loss of Fort Sumter lit a patriotic fire under the North.{{Sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp273–274}} On April 15, Lincoln called on the states to field 75,000 volunteer troops for 90&nbsp;days; impassioned Union states met the quotas quickly.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|p274}} On May 3, 1861, Lincoln called for an additional 42,000 volunteers for three years.<ref name"Presidency.ucsb.edu" />{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|p278}} Shortly after this, Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and North Carolina seceded and joined the Confederacy. To reward Virginia, the Confederate capital was moved to Richmond.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp276–307}} Attitude of the border states {{Main\|Border states (American Civil War)}} and the Confederacy {{legend\|#1A3E7A\| Union states}} {{legend\|#00cdff\| Union territories not permitting slavery}} {{legend\|#ffff00\| Southern Border Union states, permitting slavery}} (One of these states, West Virginia, was created in 1863, while KY, WV and MO had dual competing Confederate and Unionist governments) {{legend\|#C95200\| Confederate states}} {{legend\|#EDB360\| Union territories that permitted slavery (claimed by Confederacy) at the start of the war, but where slavery was outlawed by the U.S. in 1862}}]] Maryland, Delaware, Missouri, West Virginia and Kentucky were slave states whose people had divided loyalties to Northern and Southern businesses and family members. Some men enlisted in the Union Army and others in the Confederate Army.{{sfn\|Jones\|2011\|pp203–204}} West Virginia separated from Virginia and was admitted to the Union on June 20, 1863, though half its counties were secessionist.{{sfn\|Jones\|2011\|p21}} Maryland's territory surrounded Washington, D.C., and could cut it off from the North.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleCivil War and the Maryland General Assembly \|urlhttp://msa.maryland.gov/msa/stagser/s1259/121/7590/html/0000.html \|access-dateMay 28, 2017 \|websiteMaryland State Archives}}</ref> It had anti-Lincoln officials who tolerated anti-army rioting in Baltimore and the burning of bridges, both aimed at hindering the passage of troops to the South. Maryland's legislature voted overwhelmingly to stay in the Union, but rejected hostilities with its southern neighbors, voting to close Maryland's rail lines to prevent their use for war.<ref name"MarylandArchives2005">{{Cite web \|year2005 \|titleTeaching American History in Maryland – Documents for the Classroom: Arrest of the Maryland Legislature, 1861 \|urlhttp://teachingamericanhistorymd.net/000001/000000/000017/html/t17.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080111110628/http://teachingamericanhistorymd.net/000001/000000/000017/html/t17.html \|archive-dateJanuary 11, 2008 \|access-dateFebruary 6, 2008 \|publisherMaryland State Archives}}</ref> Lincoln responded by establishing martial law and unilaterally suspending habeas corpus in Maryland, along with sending in militia units.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp284–287}} Lincoln took control of Maryland and the District of Columbia by seizing prominent figures, including arresting one-third of the members of the Maryland General Assembly on the day it reconvened.<ref name"MarylandArchives2005" /><ref>{{Cite book \|lastHarris \|firstWilliam C. \|titleLincoln and the Border States: Preserving the Union \|year2011 \|publisherUniversity Press of Kansas \|page71}}</ref> All were held without trial, with Lincoln ignoring a ruling on June 1, 1861, by Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger Taney, not speaking for the Court,{{efn\|Historians disagree as to whether Roger Taney heard Ex parte Merryman as a U.S. circuit judge or as a Supreme Court justice in chambers.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastWhite \|firstJonathan W. \|titleAbraham Lincoln and Treason in the Civil War: The Trials of John Merryman \|year2011 \|publisherLouisiana State University Press \|locationBaton Rouge \|pages38–39}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastVladeck \|firstStephen I. \|author-linkSteve Vladeck \|dateSummer 2007 \|titleThe Field Theory: Martial Law, The Suspension Power, and The Insurrection Act \|urlhttps://www.templelawreview.org/article/80-2_vladeck/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220927142538/https://www.templelawreview.org/article/80-2_vladeck/ \|archive-dateSeptember 27, 2022 \|magazineTemple Law Review \|page391, n. 2 \|volume80 \|issue2}}</ref>}} that only Congress could suspend habeas corpus (Ex parte Merryman). Federal troops imprisoned a Baltimore newspaper editor, Frank Key Howard, after he criticized Lincoln in an editorial for ignoring Taney's ruling.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastHoward \|firstF. K. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/fourteenmonthsin00inhowa \|titleFourteen Months in American Bastiles \|year1863 \|publisherH. F. Mackintosh \|locationLondon \|access-dateAugust 18, 2014}}</ref> In Missouri, an elected convention on secession voted to remain in the Union. When pro-Confederate Governor Claiborne Fox Jackson called out the state militia, it was attacked by federal forces under General Nathaniel Lyon, who chased the governor and rest of the State Guard to the southwestern corner of Missouri (see Missouri secession). Early in the war the Confederacy controlled southern Missouri through the Confederate government of Missouri but was driven out after 1862. In the resulting vacuum, the convention on secession reconvened and took power as the Unionist provisional government of Missouri.<ref name="Nevins1959 pp. 119–129" /> Kentucky did not secede, it declared itself neutral. When Confederate forces entered in September 1861, neutrality ended and the state reaffirmed its Union status while maintaining slavery. During an invasion by Confederate forces in 1861, Confederate sympathizers and delegates from 68 Kentucky counties organized the secession Russellville Convention, formed the shadow Confederate Government of Kentucky, inaugurated a governor, and Kentucky was admitted into the Confederacy on December 10, 1861. Its jurisdiction extended only as far as Confederate battle lines in the Commonwealth, which at its greatest extent was over half the state, and it went into exile after October 1862.<ref name="Nevins1959 pp. 129–136" /> After Virginia's secession, a Unionist government in Wheeling asked 48 counties to vote on an ordinance to create a new state in October 1861. A voter turnout of 34% approved the statehood bill (96% approving).<ref>{{Cite web \|titleA State of Convenience, The Creation of West Virginia \|urlhttp://www.wvculture.org/History/statehood/statehood10.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120518153656/http://www.wvculture.org/History/statehood/statehood10.html \|archive-dateMay 18, 2012 \|access-dateApril 20, 2012 \|publisherWest Virginia Archives & History}}</ref> Twenty-four secessionist counties were included in the new state,<ref name"Curry1964" /> and the ensuing guerrilla war engaged about 40,000 federal troops for much of the war.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|p303}}{{sfn\|Weigley\|2004\|p55}} Congress admitted West Virginia to the Union on June 20, 1863. West Virginians provided about 20,000 soldiers to each side in the war.<ref name"Snell2011" /> A Unionist secession attempt occurred in East Tennessee, but was suppressed by the Confederacy, which arrested over 3,000 men suspected of loyalty to the Union; they were held without trial.{{sfn\|Neely\|1993\|pp10–11}} War {{See also\|List of American Civil War battles\|Military leadership in the American Civil War}} The Civil War was marked by intense and frequent battles. Over four years, 237 named battles were fought, along with many smaller actions, often characterized by their bitter intensity and high casualties. Historian John Keegan described it as "one of the most ferocious wars ever fought", where in many cases the only target was the enemy's soldiers.<ref>{{harvnb\|Keegan\|2009\|p73}} "Over 10,000 military engagements took place during the war, 40 percent of them in Virginia and Tennessee."</ref><ref>Gabor Boritt (ed.). War Comes Again (1995), p.&nbsp;247.</ref> Mobilization {{See also\|Economic history of the American Civil War}} of 1863\|alt=Building on fire as rioters look on, one holds a sign that says "no draft"]] As the Confederate states organized, the U.S. Army numbered 16,000, while Northern governors began mobilizing their militias.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleAmerican Military History \|pages199–221 \|chapterThe Civil War, 1861 \|quoteWith an actual strength of 1,080 officers and 14,926 enlisted men on June 30, 1860, the Regular Army... \|chapter-urlhttp://www.history.army.mil/html/bookshelves/resmat/civil_war/extracts/the_civil_war_1861_(pg_199-221).pdf \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121017195124/http://www.history.army.mil/html/bookshelves/resmat/civil_war/extracts/the_civil_war_1861_(pg_199-221).pdf \|archive-dateOctober 17, 2012 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The Confederate Congress authorized up to 100,000 troops in February. By May, Jefferson Davis was pushing for another 100,000 soldiers for one year or the duration, and the U.S. Congress responded in kind.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Nicolay \|first1John George \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|id9lAfAQAAIAAJ \|page264}} \|titleAbraham Lincoln: A History \|last2Hay \|first2John \|year1890 \|publisherCentury \|page264}}</ref>{{sfn\|Coulter\|1950\|p=308}} In the first year of the war, both sides had more volunteers than they could effectively train and equip. After the initial enthusiasm faded, relying on young men who came of age each year was not enough. Both sides enacted draft laws (conscription) to encourage or force volunteering, though relatively few were drafted. The Confederacy passed a draft law in April 1862 for men aged 18–35, with exemptions for overseers, government officials, and clergymen. The U.S. Congress followed in July, authorizing a militia draft within states that could not meet their quota with volunteers. European immigrants joined the Union Army in large numbers, including 177,000 born in Germany and 144,000 in Ireland.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastFaust \|firstAlbert Bernhardt \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|id4xgOAAAAIAAJ \|page523}} \|titleThe German Element in the United States: With Special Reference to Its Political, Moral, Social, and Educational Influence \|year1909 \|publisherHoughton Mifflin}}</ref> About 50,000 Canadians served, around 2,500 of whom were black.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastReid \|firstRichard M. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbi9nAwAAQBAJ \|titleAfrican Canadians in Union Blue: Volunteering for the Cause in the Civil War \|publisherUniversity of British Columbia Press \|year2014 \|isbn978-0-7748-2745-4 \|locationVancouver \|pages=4–5, 40}}</ref> When the Emancipation Proclamation went into effect in January 1863, ex-slaves were energetically recruited to meet state quotas. States and local communities offered higher cash bonuses for white volunteers. Congress tightened the draft law in March 1863. Men selected in the draft could provide substitutes or, until mid-1864, pay commutation money. Many eligibles pooled their money to cover the cost of anyone drafted. Families used the substitute provision to select which man should go into the army and which should stay home. There was much evasion and resistance to the draft, especially in Catholic areas. The New York City draft riots in July 1863 involved Irish immigrants who had been signed up as citizens to swell the vote of the city's Democratic political machine, not realizing it made them liable for the draft.{{sfn\|Schecter\|2007\|p{{page needed\|dateSeptember 2024}}}} Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes, leaving only 50,663 who were conscripted.<ref name="Murdock1971" /> In the North and South, draft laws were highly unpopular. In the North, some 120,000 men evaded conscription, many fleeing to Canada, and another 280,000 soldiers deserted during the war.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastHallock \|firstJudith Lee \|year1983 \|titleThe Role of the Community in Civil War Desertion \|urlhttp://mtw160-198.ippl.jhu.edu/journals/civil_war_history/v029/29.2.hallock.pdf \|journalCivil War History \|volume29 \|issue2 \|pages123–134 \|doi10.1353/cwh.1983.0013}}</ref> At least 100,000 Southerners deserted, about 10 percent of the total. Southern desertion was high because many soldiers were more concerned about the fate of their local area than the Southern cause.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastBearman \|firstPeter S. \|year1991 \|titleDesertion as Localism: Army Unit Solidarity and Group Norms in the U.S. Civil War \|journalSocial Forces \|volume70 \|issue2 \|pages321–342 \|doi10.1093/sf/70.2.321 \|jstor2580242}}</ref> In the North, "bounty jumpers" enlisted to collect the generous bonus, deserted, then re-enlisted under a different name for a second bonus; 141 were caught and executed.<ref name="Fantina2006" /> From a tiny frontier force in 1860, the Union and Confederate armies grew into the "largest and most efficient armies in the world" within a few years. Some European observers at the time dismissed them as amateur and unprofessional,<ref>{{Cite web \|lastNadeau \|firstRyan \|dateJanuary 5, 2015 \|titleA Prussian Observes the American Civil War \|urlhttps://gettysburgcompiler.org/2015/01/05/a-prussian-observes-the-american-civil-war/ \|access-dateJanuary 6, 2022 \|websiteThe Gettysburg Compiler}}</ref> but historian John Keegan concluded that each outmatched the French, Prussian, and Russian armies, and without the Atlantic, could have threatened any of them with defeat.{{sfn\|Keegan\|2009\|p57}} Southern Unionists {{Main\|Southern Unionist}} (Mississippi), leader of the Knight Company and one of the founders of the Free State of Jones.]] Unionism was strong in certain areas within the Confederacy. As many as 100,000 men living in states under Confederate control served in the Union Army or pro-Union guerrilla groups. Although they came from all classes, most Southern Unionists differed socially, culturally, and economically from their region's dominant prewar, slave-owning planter class.<ref>Scott, E. Carole. [https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/southerner-vs-southerner-union-supporters-below-the-mason-dixon-line/ Southerner vs. Southerner: Union Supporters Below the Mason-Dixon Line]. Warfare History Network. Retrieved November 11, 2024.</ref> Prisoners {{Main\|American Civil War prison camps}} At the war's start, a parole system operated, under which captives agreed not to fight until exchanged. They were held in camps run by their army, paid, but not allowed to perform any military duties.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastPickenpaugh \|firstRoger \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idpWOfsOceCNUC \|page57}} \|titleCaptives in Blue: The Civil War Prisons of the Confederacy \|publisherUniversity of Alabama Press \|year2013 \|isbn978-0-8173-1783-6 \|pages57–73}}</ref> The system of exchanges collapsed in 1863 when the Confederacy refused to exchange black prisoners. After that, about 56,000 of the 409,000 POWs died in prisons, accounting for 10 percent of the conflict's fatalities.{{sfn\|Tucker\|Pierpaoli\|White\|2010\|p1466}} Women {{See also\|Women in the military#United States\|Gender issues in the American Civil War}} Historian Elizabeth D. Leonard writes that between 500 and 1,000 women enlisted as soldiers on both sides, disguised as men.{{sfn\|Leonard\|1999\|pp165, 310–311}} Women also served as spies, resistance activists, nurses, and hospital personnel.{{sfn\|Leonard\|1999\|p240}} Women served on the Union hospital ship Red Rover and nursed Union and Confederate troops at field hospitals.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHighlights in the History of Military Women \|urlhttp://www.womensmemorial.org/Education/timeline.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130403045042/http://www.womensmemorial.org/Education/timeline.html \|archive-dateApril 3, 2013 \|access-dateJune 22, 2013 \|websiteWomen In Military Service For America Memorial}}</ref> Mary Edwards Walker, the only woman ever to receive the Medal of Honor, served in the Union Army and was given the medal for treating the wounded during the war.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastPennington \|firstReina \|titleAmazons to Fighter Pilots: A Biographical Dictionary of Military Women \|publisherGreenwood \|year2003 \|isbn0-313-32708-4 \|volume2 \|pages474–475}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|dateJune 4, 1977 \|titleThe Case of Dr. Walker, Only Woman to Win (and Lose) the Medal of Honor \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1977/06/04/archives/the-case-of-dr-walker-only-woman-to-win-and-lose-the-medal-of-honor.html \|access-dateJanuary 6, 2018 \|workThe New York Times}}</ref> One woman, Jennie Hodgers, fought for the Union under the name Albert D. J. Cashier. After she returned to civilian life, she continued to live as a man until she died in 1915 at the age of 71.<ref>Blanton, DeAnne, "A Life on His Own Terns: Albert D. J. Cashier, 95th Illinois Infantry", in Brian Matthew Jordan and Jonathan W. White, eds., Final Resting Places: Reflections on the Meaning of Civil War Graves. Athen, Georgia: The University of Georgia Press, 2023, pp. 47-53.</ref> Union Navy {{Further\|Union Navy}} The Union Navy in 1861 was relatively small but, by 1865, expanded rapidly to 6,000 officers, 45,000 sailors, and 671 vessels totaling 510,396 tons.<ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastWelles \|firstGideon \|author-linkGideon Welles \|dateJanuary 1865 \|titleSecretary of the Navy's Report \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idu4gfAAAAYAAJ}} \|magazineThe Sailors' Magazine and Seamen's Friend \|publisherAmerican Seamen's Friend Society \|page152 \|volume37 \|issue5}}</ref>{{sfn\|Tucker\|Pierpaoli\|White\|2010\|p462}} Its mission was to blockade Confederate ports, control the river system, defend against Confederate raiders on the high seas, and be ready for a possible war with the British Royal Navy.{{sfn\|Canney\|1998\|p{{page needed\|dateSeptember 2024}}}} The main riverine war was fought in the West, where major rivers gave access to the Confederate heartland. The U.S. Navy eventually controlled the Red, Tennessee, Cumberland, Mississippi, and Ohio rivers. In the East, the Navy shelled Confederate forts and supported coastal army operations.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia \|titleAmerican Civil War: The naval war \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/event/American-Civil-War/The-naval-war \|access-dateJanuary 24, 2022 \|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> The Civil War occurred during the early stages of the industrial revolution, leading to naval innovations, including the ironclad warship. The Confederacy, recognizing the need to counter the Union's naval superiority, built or converted over 130 vessels, including 26 ironclads.{{sfn\|Nelson\|2005\|p92}} Despite these efforts, Confederate ships were largely unsuccessful against Union ironclads.{{sfn\|Anderson\|1989\|p300}} The Union Navy used timberclads, tinclads, and armored gunboats. Shipyards in Cairo, Illinois, and St. Louis built or modified steamboats.<ref>Myron J. Smith, Tinclads in the Civil War: Union Light-Draught Gunboat Operations on Western Waters, 1862–1865 (2009).</ref> The Confederacy experimented with the submarine {{ship\|CSS\|Hunley}}, which proved unsuccessful, and with the ironclad {{ship\|CSS\|Virginia}}, rebuilt from the sunken Union ship {{USS\|Merrimack\|1855\|2}}.<ref>Gerald F. Teaster and Linda and James Treaster Ambrose, The Confederate Submarine H. L. Hunley (1989).</ref> On March 8, 1862, Virginia inflicted significant damage on the Union's wooden fleet, but the next day, the first Union ironclad, {{USS\|Monitor}}, arrived to challenge it in the Chesapeake Bay. The resulting three-hour Battle of Hampton Roads was a draw, proving ironclads were effective warships.{{sfn\|Nelson\|2005\|p345}} The Confederacy scuttled the Virginia to prevent its capture, while the Union built many copies of the Monitor. The Confederacy's efforts to obtain warships from Great Britain failed, as Britain had no interest in selling warships to a nation at war with a stronger enemy and feared souring relations with the U.S.{{sfn\|Fuller\|2008\|p36}} Union blockade {{Main\|Union blockade}} , featuring a tightening naval blockade, forcing rebels out of Missouri along the Mississippi River, Kentucky Unionists sit on the fence, idled cotton industry illustrated in Georgia.\|alt=A cartoon map of the South surrounded by a snake.]] By early 1861, General Winfield Scott had devised the Anaconda Plan to win the war with minimal bloodshed, calling for a blockade of the Confederacy to suffocate the South into surrender.{{sfn\|Richter\|2009\|p49}} Lincoln adopted parts of the plan but opted for a more active war strategy.{{sfn\|Johnson\|1998\|p228}} In April 1861, Lincoln announced a blockade of all Southern ports; commercial ships could not get insurance, ending regular traffic. The South blundered by embargoing cotton exports before the blockade was fully effective; by the time they reversed this decision, it was too late. "King Cotton" was dead, as the South could export less than 10% of its cotton. The blockade shut down the ten Confederate seaports with railheads that moved almost all the cotton. By June 1861, warships were stationed off the principal Southern ports, and a year later nearly 300 ships were in service.{{sfn\|Anderson\|1989\|pp288–289, 296–298}} Blockade runners {{Main\|Blockade runners of the American Civil War}} off Charleston. Continuous blockade of all major ports was sustained by North's overwhelming war production. \|alt=Panoramic view of ships in harbor during battle]] The Confederates began the war short on military supplies, which the agrarian South could not produce. Northern arms manufacturers were restricted by an embargo, ending existing and future contracts with the South. The Confederacy turned to foreign sources, connecting with financiers and companies like S. Isaac, Campbell & Company and the London Armoury Company in Britain, becoming the Confederacy's main source of arms.{{sfn\|Wise\|1991\|p49}}{{sfn\|Mendelsohn\|2012\|pp43–44}} To transport arms safely to the Confederacy, British investors built small, fast, steam-driven blockade runners that traded arms and supplies from Britain, through Bermuda, Cuba, and the Bahamas in exchange for high-priced cotton. Many were lightweight and designed for speed, only carrying small amounts of cotton back to England.{{sfn\|Stern\|1962\|pp224–225}} When the Union Navy seized a blockade runner, the ship and cargo were condemned as a prize of war and sold, with proceeds given to the Navy sailors; the captured crewmen, mostly British, were released.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastNeely \|firstMark E. \|dateJune 1986 \|titleThe Perils of Running the Blockade: The Influence of International Law in an Era of Total War \|journalCivil War History \|volume32 \|issue2 \|pages101–118 \|doi10.1353/cwh.1986.0012}}</ref> Economic impact The Southern economy nearly collapsed during the war due to multiple factors, the most notable being severe food shortages, failing railroads, loss of control over key rivers, foraging by Northern armies, and the seizure of animals and crops by Confederate forces.{{sfn\|Wise\|1991\|p{{page needed\|dateAugust 2024}}}} Historians agree the blockade was a major factor in ruining the Confederate economy; however, Wise argues blockade runners provided enough of a lifeline to allow Robert E. Lee, a Confederate general, to continue fighting for additional months, as a result of supplies that included 400,000 rifles, lead, blankets, and boots that Confederate economy could no longer supply.{{sfn\|Wise\|1991\|p{{page needed\|dateAugust 2024}}}} The Confederate cotton crop became nearly useless, which cut off the Confederacy's primary income source. Critical imports were scarce, and coastal trade also largely ended.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastSurdam \|firstDavid G. \|year1998 \|titleThe Union Navy's blockade reconsidered \|journalNaval War College Review \|volume51 \|issue4 \|pages85–107}}</ref> The blockade's success was not measured by the few ships, which slipped through, but by the thousands that never tried. European merchant ships could not obtain insurance for their ships and transport, and were too slow to evade the blockade, leading them to cease docking in Confederate ports.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastSurdam \|firstDavid G. \|titleNorthern Naval Superiority and the Economics of the American Civil War \|year2001 \|publisher=University of South Carolina Press}}</ref> To fight an offensive war, the Confederacy purchased arms in Britain and converted British-built ships into commerce raiders, which targeted United States Merchant Marine ships in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The Confederacy smuggled 600,000 arms, enabling it to continue fighting for two more years.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastKeys \|firstDavid \|dateJune 24, 2014 \|titleHistorians reveal secrets of UK gun-running which lengthened the American civil war by two years \|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/archaeology/historians-reveal-secrets-of-uk-gunrunning-which-lengthened-the-american-civil-war-by-two-years-9557937.html \|workThe Independent}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|lastKevin Dougherty \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2pMqE2E63XgC&pgPA87 \|titleWeapons of Mississippi \|publisherUniversity Press of Mississippi \|year2010 \|isbn978-1-60473-452-2 \|page87}}</ref> As insurance rates soared, American-flagged ships largely ceased traveling in international waters, though some were reflagged with European flags, which allowed them to continue operating.{{sfn\|Anderson\|1989\|p300}} After the conclusion of the Civil War, the U.S. government demanded Britain reimburse it for the damage caused by blockade runners and raiders outfitted in British ports. Britain paid the U.S. $15&nbsp;million in 1871, which covered costs associated with commerce raiding but nothing more.{{sfn\|Jones\|2002\|p225}} Diplomacy {{Main\|Diplomacy of the American Civil War}} {{further\|United Kingdom and the American Civil War\|France and the American Civil War}} . John Bull, at right, warns Uncle Sam, "You do what's right, my son, or I'll blow you out of the water."]] Although the Confederacy hoped Britain and France would join them against the Union, this was never likely, so they sought to bring them in as mediators.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp546–557}}{{sfn\|Herring\|2011\|p237}} The Union worked to block this and threatened war against any country that recognized the Confederacy. In 1861, Southerners voluntarily embargoed cotton shipments, hoping to start an economic depression in Europe that would force Britain to enter the war, but this failed. Worse, Europe turned to Egypt and India for cotton, which they found superior, hindering the South's postwar recovery.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|p386}}<ref name"Nevins1959 pp. 263–264" /> Cotton diplomacy proved a failure, because Europe had a surplus of cotton, while the 1860–62 crop failures in Europe made the North's grain exports critically important. It also helped turn European opinion against the Confederacy. It was said that "King Corn was more powerful than King Cotton," as U.S. grain increased from a quarter to almost half of British imports.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|p386}} Meanwhile, the war created jobs for arms makers, ironworkers, and ships to transport weapons.<ref name"Nevins1959 pp. 263–264" /> Lincoln's administration initially struggled to appeal to European public opinion. At first, diplomats explained that the U.S. was not committed to ending slavery and emphasized legal arguments about the unconstitutionality of secession. Confederate representatives, however, focused on their struggle for liberty, commitment to free trade, and the essential role of cotton in the European economy.{{sfn\|Doyle\|2015\|pp69–70}} The European aristocracy was "absolutely gleeful in pronouncing the American debacle as proof that the entire experiment in popular government had failed. European government leaders welcomed the fragmentation of the ascendant American Republic."{{sfn\|Doyle\|2015\|p8}} However, a European public with liberal sensibilities remained, which the U.S. sought to appeal to by building connections with the international press. By 1861, Union diplomats like Carl Schurz realized emphasizing the war against slavery was the Union's most effective moral asset in swaying European public opinion. Seward was concerned an overly radical case for reunification would distress European merchants with cotton interests; even so, he supported a widespread campaign of public diplomacy.{{sfn\|Doyle\|2015\|pp=70–74}} U.S. minister to Britain Charles Francis Adams proved adept and convinced Britain not to challenge the Union blockade. The Confederacy purchased warships from commercial shipbuilders in Britain, with the most famous being the {{ship\|CSS\|Alabama}}, which caused considerable damage and led to serious postwar disputes. However, public opinion against slavery in Britain created a political liability for politicians, where the anti-slavery movement was powerful.<ref>Richard Huzzeym, Freedom Burning: Anti-Slavery and Empire in Victorian Britain (2013).</ref> War loomed in late 1861 between the U.S. and Britain over the Trent Affair, which began when U.S. Navy personnel boarded the British ship {{RMS\|Trent\|\|2}} and seized two Confederate diplomats. However, London and Washington smoothed this over after Lincoln released the two men.<ref name"Oates" /> Prince Albert left his deathbed to issue diplomatic instructions to Lord Lyons during the Trent Affair. His request was honored, and, as a result, the British response to the U.S. was toned down, helping avert war.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateJanuary 5, 2022 \|titleThe Trent Affair: Diplomacy, Britain, and the American Civil War – National Museum of American Diplomacy \|urlhttps://diplomacy.state.gov/u-s-diplomacy-stories/the-trent-affair-diplomacy-britain-and-the-american-civil-war/ \|access-dateJanuary 18, 2022}}</ref> In 1862, the British government considered mediating between the Union and Confederacy, though such an offer would have risked war with the U.S. British prime minister Lord Palmerston reportedly read ''Uncle Tom's Cabin three times when deciding what his decision would be.<ref name"Oates" /> The Union victory at the Battle of Antietam caused the British to delay this decision. The Emancipation Proclamation increased the political liability of supporting the Confederacy. Realizing that Washington could not intervene in Mexico as long as the Confederacy controlled Texas, France invaded Mexico in 1861 and installed the Habsburg Austrian archduke Maximilian I as emperor.<ref>Shawcross, Edward (2021). The Last Emperor of Mexico: The Dramatic Story of the Habsburg Archduke Who Created a Kingdom in the New World. New York: Basic Books. {{ISBN\|978-1541-674196}}. Also titled The Last Emperor of Mexico: A Disaster in the New World''. London: Faber & Faber, 2022.</ref> Washington repeatedly protested France's violation of the Monroe Doctrine. Despite sympathy for the Confederacy, France's seizure of Mexico ultimately deterred it from war with the Union. Confederate offers late in the war to end slavery in return for diplomatic recognition were not seriously considered by London or Paris. After 1863, the Polish revolt against Russia further distracted the European powers and ensured they remained neutral.{{sfn\|Herring\|2011\|p=261}} Russia supported the Union, largely because it believed the U.S. served as a counterbalance to its geopolitical rival, the UK In 1863, the Imperial Russian Navy's Baltic and Pacific fleets wintered in the American ports of New York and San Francisco, respectively.<ref>Norman E. Saul, Richard D. McKinzie, eds. Russian-American Dialogue on Cultural Relations, 1776–1914. Columbia, Missouri, and London, UK: University of Missouri Press, p. 95. {{ISBN\|978-0826210975}}.</ref> Eastern theater {{Further\|Eastern theater of the American Civil War}} map of Civil War battles by theater and year\|alt=Map of the United States with counties colored]] The Eastern theater refers to the military operations east of the Appalachian Mountains, including Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, the District of Columbia, and the coastal fortifications and seaports of North Carolina.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleEastern Theater of the Civil War \|urlhttps://www.legendsofamerica.com/ah-easterntheater/ \|access-dateApril 22, 2024 \|websiteLegends of America}}</ref> Background Army of the Potomac Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan took command of the Union Army of the Potomac on July 26, 1861, and the war began in earnest in 1862. The 1862 Union strategy called for simultaneous advances along four axes:{{sfn\|Anderson\|1989\|p=91}} # McClellan would lead the main thrust in Virginia towards Richmond. # Ohio forces would advance through Kentucky into Tennessee. # The Missouri Department would drive south along the Mississippi River. # The westernmost attack would originate from Kansas. Army of Northern Virginia \|alt=Old man with gray beard and military uniform]] The primary Confederate force in the Eastern theater was the Army of Northern Virginia. The Army originated as the (Confederate) Army of the Potomac, which was organized on June 20, 1861, from all operational forces in Northern Virginia. On July 20 and 21, the Army of the Shenandoah and forces from the District of Harpers Ferry were added. Units from the Army of the Northwest were merged into the Army of the Potomac between March 14 and May 17, 1862. The Army of the Potomac was renamed Army of Northern Virginia on March 14. The Army of the Peninsula was merged into it on April 12, 1862. When Virginia declared its secession in April 1861, Robert E. Lee chose to follow his home state, despite his desire for the country to remain intact and an offer of a senior Union command. In his four-volume biography of Lee published in 1934 and 1935, historian Douglas S. Freeman wrote that the army received its final name from Lee when he issued orders assuming command on June 1, 1862.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastFreeman \|firstDouglas Southall \|urlhttps://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/People/Robert_E_Lee/FREREL/home.html \|titleR. E. Lee: A Biography \|publisherCharles Scribner's Sons \|year1934 \|volumeII \|locationNew York \|page=78 and footnote 6}}</ref> However, Freeman wrote, Lee corresponded with Brigadier General Joseph E. Johnston, his predecessor in army command, before that date and referred to Johnston's command as the Army of Northern Virginia. Part of the confusion results from the fact that Johnston commanded the Department of Northern Virginia as of October 22, 1861, and the name Army of Northern Virginia was seen as an informal consequence of its parent department's name. Jefferson Davis and Johnston did not adopt the name, but the organization of units as of March 14 was clearly the same organization that Lee received on June 1, and is generally referred to as the Army of Northern Virginia, even if that is correct only in retrospect. On July 4 at Harper's Ferry, Colonel Thomas J. Jackson assigned Jeb Stuart command of all cavalry companies of the Army of the Shenandoah, and Jackson eventually commanded the Army of Northern Virginia's cavalry. Battles , which resulted in over 22,000 fatalities, the Civil War's deadliest one-day battle\|alt=Painting of battlefield scene]] In July 1861, in the first in a series of prominent battles in the war, Union Army troops commanded by Maj. Gen. Irvin McDowell attacked Confederate forces, which were under the command of Beauregard near the national capital in Washington. The Confederacy successfully repelled the attack in the First Battle of Bull Run. In the beginning of the Civil War, the Union appeared to hold the upper hand. The Union Army routed Confederate forces, then holding defensive positions, but Confederate reinforcements under Joseph E. Johnston arrived from the Shenandoah Valley by railroad, and the battle's course quickly changed. A brigade of Virginians, commanded by Thomas J. Jackson, then a relatively unknown brigadier general from Virginia Military Institute, stood its ground, leading to Jackson earning the nickname "Stonewall". Lincoln urged the Union Army to commence offensive operations against Confederate forces, which led General George B. McClellan, in the spring of 1862, to attack Virginia by way of the peninsula between the York River and James River southeast of Richmond. McClellan's army reached the gates of Richmond in the Peninsula campaign.{{sfn\|Foote\|1974\|pp464–519}}<ref name"Catton" />{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp=424–427}} Also in the spring of 1862, in Shenandoah Valley, Jackson led his Valley Campaign, during which he employed rapid and unpredictable movements on interior lines. Jackson's 17,000 troops marched 646 miles (1,040&nbsp;km) in 48 days, during which they won minor battles as they successfully engaged three Union armies, comprising 52,000 men, including those of Nathaniel P. Banks and John C. Fremont, preventing them from reinforcing the Union offensive against Richmond. The swiftness of Jackson's troops earned them the nickname foot cavalry. Johnston halted McClellan's advance at the Battle of Seven Pines, but he was wounded in the battle, and Robert E. Lee assumed his position of command. Lee and his senior subordinates, James Longstreet and Stonewall Jackson, defeated McClellan in the Seven Days Battles, forcing McClellan's retreat.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp=538–544}} During the Northern Virginia Campaign, which included the Second Battle of Bull Run, Confederate forces registered another important military victory.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp528–533}} McClellan resisted General-in-Chief Halleck's orders to send reinforcements to John Pope's Union Army of Virginia, which enabled Lee's Confederate forces to defeat twice the number of combined enemy troops.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleOverview of the Battle \|urlhttps://history.army.mil/books/Staff-Rides/2Manassas/2mns-ov.htm \|access-dateSeptember 13, 2024 \|websitehistory.army.mil \|quoteOn 3 August, General Halleck directed General McClellan to begin his final withdrawal from the Peninsula and to return to Northern Virginia to support Pope. McClellan protested and did not begin his redeployment until 14 August. The situation created an opportunity for General Lee. The removal of the Army of the Potomac as a threat meant that there would be a short period when he could turn on Pope's force and actually outnumber it before the merger of the two Federal armies.}}</ref> Emboldened by Second Bull Run, Confederate forces launched their first invasion of the North in the Maryland Campaign during which Lee led 45,000 Army of Northern Virginia troops across the Potomac River into Maryland on September 5. Lincoln then restored Pope's troops to McClellan, and McClellan and Lee clashed in the Battle of Antietam near Sharpsburg, Maryland, on September 17, 1862, which proved the bloodiest single day in both the Civil War and U.S. military history.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp538–544}}{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp543–545}} Lee's army retreated to Virginia before McClellan could destroy it, leading the Battle of Antietam to be widely viewed as a Union victory since it halted Lee's invasion of the North and provided an opportunity for Lincoln to issue the Emancipation Proclamation, which he issued as an executive order on January 1, 1863.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp=557–558}} McClellan failed to respond in any measurable way to Lee's attempt to invade the North at Antietam led to his replacement by Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside. Burnside led Union Army troops in the Battle of Fredericksburg,{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp571–574}} where they were defeated on December 13, 1862. Over 12,000 Union soldiers were killed or wounded during futile attempts by Union troops to launch frontal assaults against Marye's Heights.<ref>Matteson, John, A Worse Place Than Hell: How the Civil War Battle of Fredericksburg Changed a Nation, New York: W. W.&nbsp;Norton, 2021.</ref> After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastJones \|firstWilmer L. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idneq3DAAAQBAJ&pgPA237 \|titleGenerals in Blue and Gray: Lincoln's Generals \|publisherStackpole \|year2006 \|isbn978-1-4617-5106-9 \|pages=237–238}}</ref> on July 3, 1863, the final day of the Battle of Gettysburg, which proved the Civil War's deadliest battle but also one of its most significant, altering the course of the war in the Union's favor\|alt=Cavalry charges on a battlefield]] Hooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee's army; despite having over twice the number of troops than Lee, Hooker's proved Chancellorsville Campaign ultimately prvoed ineffective, and he was soundly defeated in the Battle of Chancellorsville, which was fought between April 30 and May 6, 1863.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp639–645}} Chancellorsville is known as Lee's "perfect battle" because his risky decision to divide his army paid off, resulting in a significant Confederate victory. During the Battle of Chancellorsville, Stonewall Jackson was shot in his left arm and right hand by friendly fire, leading to a need to amputate his arm, and he died of pneumonia.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastNoyalas \|firstJonathan A. \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idEHRDCgAAQBAJ \|page93}} \|titleStonewall Jackson's 1862 Valley Campaign \|year2010 \|publisherArcadia \|isbn978-1-61423-040-3 \|page93}}</ref> Lee famously said: "He has lost his left arm, but I have lost my right arm."<ref>{{Cite book \|lastThomas \|firstEmory M. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2tJZ_TCHUjAC&pgPA287 \|titleRobert E. Lee: A Biography \|year1997 \|publisherW. W. Norton \|isbn978-0-393-31631-5 \|page287}}</ref> The fiercest fighting of the battle—and the second bloodiest day of the Civil War—occurred on May 3 as Lee launched multiple attacks against the Union position at Chancellorsville. That same day, John Sedgwick advanced across the Rappahannock River, defeated the small Confederate force at Marye's Heights in the Second Battle of Fredericksburg, and then moved to the west. Confederate forces succeeded in militarily delaying Union forces in the Battle of Salem Church.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateOctober 5, 2021 \|titleSalem Church \|urlhttps://www.nps.gov/frsp/learn/historyculture/sc.htm \|access-dateMarch 30, 2022 \|website=National Park Service}}</ref> Hooker was replaced by Maj. Gen. George Meade during Lee's second invasion of the North, in June. In the Battle of Gettysburg, which proved the war's bloodiest and one of its most strategically significant, Meade defeated Lee in a three-day battle between July 1 and 3, 1863.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp653–663}} The Battle of Gettysburg took over 50,000 Union and Confederate lives, but also proved the war's turning point, altering the course of the war in the Union's favor. Pickett's Charge, launched July 3, on the final day of the Battle of Gettysburg, is considered the high-water mark of the Confederacy, representing the collapse of any credible prospect that the Confederacy could prevail in the war. At Gettysburg, Lee's Army of Northern Virginia suffered 28,000 casualties versus Meade's 23,000, and Lee was repelled in a failed attempt to invade and occupy Union territory.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|p664}} Western theater {{Further\|Western theater of the American Civil War}} The Western theater refers to military operations between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River, including Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Mississippi, North Carolina, Kentucky, South Carolina, Tennessee, and parts of Louisiana.<ref name"Bowery2014">{{Cite book \|lastBowery \|firstCharles R. \|titleThe Civil War in the Western Theater, 1862 \|year2014 \|publisherCenter of Military History \|isbn978-0-16-092316-6 \|locationWashington, D.C. \|pages58–72}}</ref> Background Army of the Cumberland and Army of the Tennessee {{Main\|Army of the Cumberland\|Army of the Tennessee}} , a Union army general who was later elected the nation's 18th president]] The primary Union forces in this theater were the Army of the Tennessee and Army of the Cumberland, named for the two rivers, Tennessee River and Cumberland River. After Meade's inconclusive fall campaign, Lincoln turned to the Western theater for new leadership. At the same time, the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg surrendered, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River, permanently isolating the western Confederacy, and producing the new leader Lincoln needed, Ulysses S. Grant.<ref name"BattlefieldTrust">{{Cite web \|titleVicksburg \|urlhttps://www.battlefields.org/learn/civil-war/battles/vicksburg \|access-dateSeptember 27, 2022 \|publisher=American Battlefield Trust}}</ref> The Army of Tennessee, which served as the primary Confederate force in the Western theater, was formed on November 20, 1862, when General Braxton Bragg renamed the former Army of Mississippi. While Confederate forces had successes in the Eastern theater, they were defeated many times in the West.<ref name"Bowery2014" /> Battles The Union's key strategist and tactician in the West was Ulysses S. Grant, who led the Union to victories in battles at Fort Henry (February 6, 1862) and Fort Donelson (February 11 to 16, 1862), earning him the nickname of "Unconditional Surrender" Grant. With these victories, the Union gained control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp405–413}} Nathan Bedford Forrest rallied nearly 4,000 Confederate troops and led them to escape across the Cumberland River. Nashville and central Tennessee fell to the Union, leading to attrition of local food supplies and livestock and a breakdown in social organization.{{citation needed\|date=January 2022}} Confederate general Leonidas Polk's subsequently invaded Columbus, Kentucky, which ended Kentucky's policy of neutrality and turned it against the Confederacy. Grant used river transport and Andrew Hull Foote's gunboats of the Western Flotilla, threatening the Confederacy's "Gibraltar of the West" in Columbus, Kentucky. Although rebuffed at Belmont, Grant cut off Columbus. Confederate forces, lacking their gunboats, were forced to retreat and the Union took control of west Kentucky and opened Tennessee in March 1862.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastWhitsell \|firstRobert D. \|year1963 \|titleMilitary and Naval Activity between Cairo and Columbus \|journalRegister of the Kentucky Historical Society \|volume62 \|issue2 \|pages107–121}}</ref> At the Battle of Shiloh, in Shiloh, Tennessee, in April 1862, Confederates forces launched surprise attack on Union forces, pushing them back to river as night fell. Over that night, however, the Navy landed reinforcements, and Grant counterattacked. Grant and the Union ultimately won a decisive victory in the first battle with a high number of casualties in what proved to be the first in a series of such battles.{{sfn\|Frank\|Reaves\|2003\|p170}} Confederate forces lost Albert Sidney Johnston, considered their finest general, before Lee emerged to assume command.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleDeath of Albert Sidney Johnston – Tour Stop #17 \|urlhttps://www.nps.gov/places/death-of-albert-sidney-johnston-tour-stop-17.htm \|access-dateMarch 12, 2022 \|publisher=National Park Service}}</ref> , the war's highest two-day loss battle]] One of the early Union objectives was to capture the Mississippi River, which would permit it to cut the Confederacy in half. The Mississippi was opened to Union traffic to the southern border of Tennessee after it took Island No. 10, New Madrid, Missouri, and then Memphis, Tennessee.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp=418–420}} In April 1862, the Union Navy captured New Orleans.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp418–420}} "The key to the river was New Orleans, the South's largest port [and] greatest industrial center."<ref>Kennedy, p. 58.{{full citation needed\|dateAugust 2024}}</ref> U.S. naval forces under Farragut ran past Confederate defenses south of New Orleans. Confederate forces abandoned the city, giving the Union a critical anchor in the deep South,{{sfn\|Symonds\|Clipson\|2001\|p92}} which allowed Union forces to move up the Mississippi. Memphis fell to Union forces on June 6, 1862, allowing it to serve as a key base for further Union advances south along the Mississippi. On the Mississippi River, the Union took every fortress city with the exception of Vicksburg, Mississippi. But Confederate control of Vicksburg was sufficient in preventing the Union from controlling the entire river.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateJanuary 31, 2013 \|title10 Facts: The Vicksburg Campaign \|urlhttps://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/10-facts-vicksburg-campaign \|access-dateSeptember 13, 2022 \|publisherAmerican Battlefield Trust}}</ref> Bragg's second invasion of Kentucky in the Confederate Heartland Offensive included initial successes, including Kirby Smith's triumph in the Battle of Richmond and the capture of the Kentucky capital of Frankfort, Kentucky, on September 3, 1862.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastBrown \|firstKent Masterson \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/civilwarinkentuc0000unse/mode/2up \|titleThe Civil War in Kentucky: Battle for the Bluegrass State \|publisherSavas \|year2000 \|isbn978-1-882810-47-5 \|locationMason City, IA \|page95}}</ref> The campaign ended with a meaningless victory over Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell at the Battle of Perryville, and Bragg was forced to end his attempt to invade and control Kentucky. Lacking logistical support and infantry recruits, Bragg was instead forced to retreat,{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp419–420}} and ended up being narrowly defeated by Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans in the Battle of Stones River in Tennessee in what proved to be the culmination of the Stones River Campaign.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp=480–483}} U.S. naval forces assisted Grant in the long, complex Vicksburg Campaign, which resulted in Confederate forces surrendering in the Battle of Vicksburg in July 1863, which cemented Union control of the Mississippi River in one of the war's turning points.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastMangum \|firstRonald Scott \|year1991 \|titleThe Vicksburg Campaign: A Study In Joint Operations \|urlhttps://carlisle-www.army.mil/usawc/Parameters/Articles/1991/1991%20mangum.pdf \|journalParameters: U.S. Army War College \|volume21 \|issue3 \|pages74–86 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121127192600/https://carlisle-www.army.mil/usawc/Parameters/Articles/1991/1991%20mangum.pdf \|archive-dateNovember 27, 2012}}</ref><ref>Miller, Donald L. ''Vicksburg: Grant's Campaign that Broke the Confederacy''. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2019. {{ISBN\|978-1-4516-4137-0}}.</ref> The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the Battle of Chickamauga. After Rosecrans' successful Tullahoma Campaign, Bragg, reinforced by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet's corps, defeated Rosecrans, despite the defensive stand of Maj. Gen. George Henry Thomas.{{citation needed\|dateJanuary 2022}} Rosecrans retreated to Chattanooga, Tennessee, where Bragg was then besieged in the Chattanooga Campaign. Grant marched to the relief of Rosecrans, where he led the defeat of Bragg in the Third Battle of Chattanooga,{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp677–680}} eventually causing Longstreet to abandon his Knoxville Campaign and driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening a route to Atlanta and the heart of the Confederacy.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateSeptember 17, 2014 \|titleSherman's March to the Sea \|urlhttps://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/shermans-march-sea \|publisherAmerican Battlefield Trust}}</ref> Trans-Mississippi theater {{further\|Trans-Mississippi theater of the American Civil War}} Background The Trans-Mississippi theater refers to military operations west of the Mississippi, encompassing most of Missouri, Arkansas, most of Louisiana, and the Indian Territory in present-day Oklahoma. The Trans-Mississippi District was formed by the Confederate States Army to better coordinate Ben McCulloch's command of troops in Arkansas and Louisiana, Sterling Price's Missouri State Guard, as well as the portion of Earl Van Dorn's command that included the Indian Territory and excluded the Army of the West. The Union's command was the Trans-Mississippi Division, or the Military Division of West Mississippi.{{sfn\|Jones\|2011\|p1476}} Battles secured docks and arsenal in St. Louis, leading Union Army forces to expel the Missouri Confederate forces and government.{{sfn\|Keegan\|2009\|p=100}}]] The first battle of the Trans-Mississippi theater was the Battle of Wilson's Creek (August 1861). The Confederates were driven from Missouri early in the war as a result of the Battle of Pea Ridge.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp=404–405}} Extensive guerrilla warfare characterized the trans-Mississippi region, as the Confederacy lacked the troops and logistics to support regular armies that could challenge Union control.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastMartin \|firstJames B. \|titleThird War: Irregular Warfare on the Western Border 1861–1865 \|year2012 \|publisherCombat Studies Institute Press \|seriesLeavenworth papers \|volume23 \|locationFort Leavenworth, KS \|oclc1029877004}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|lastFellman \|firstMichael \|titleInside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri during the Civil War \|year1989 \|publisherOxford University Press \|locationNew York \|quoteMissouri alone was the scene of over 1,000 engagements between regular units, and uncounted numbers of guerrilla attacks and raids by informal pro-Confederate bands, especially in the recently settled western counties.}}</ref> Roving Confederate bands such as Quantrill's Raiders terrorized the countryside, striking military installations and civilian settlements.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastBohl \|firstSarah \|year2004 \|titleA War on Civilians: Order Number 11 and the Evacuation of Western Missouri \|journalPrologue \|volume36 \|issue1 \|pages44–51}}</ref> The "Sons of Liberty" and "Order of the American Knights" attacked pro-Union people, elected officeholders, and unarmed uniformed soldiers. These partisans could not be driven out of Missouri, until an entire regular Union infantry division was engaged. By 1864, these violent activities harmed the nationwide antiwar movement organizing against the re-election of Lincoln. Missouri not only stayed in the Union, but Lincoln took 70 percent of the vote to win re-election.{{sfn\|Keegan\|2009\|p=270}} Small-scale military actions south and west of Missouri sought to control Indian Territory and New Mexico Territory for the Union. The Battle of Glorieta Pass was the decisive battle of the New Mexico Campaign. The Union repulsed Confederate incursions into New Mexico in 1862, and the exiled Arizona government withdrew into Texas. In the Indian Territory, civil war broke out within tribes. About 12,000 Indian warriors fought for the Confederacy but fewer for the Union.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastGraves \|firstWilliam H. \|year1991 \|titleIndian Soldiers for the Gray Army: Confederate Recruitment in Indian Territory \|journalChronicles of Oklahoma \|volume69 \|issue2 \|pages134–145}}</ref> The most prominent Cherokee was Brigadier General Stand Watie, the last Confederate general to surrender.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastNeet \|firstJ. Frederick Jr. \|year1996 \|titleStand Watie: Confederate General in the Cherokee Nation \|journalGreat Plains Journal \|volume6 \|issue1 \|pages36–51}}</ref> After the fall of Vicksburg in July 1863, Jefferson Davis informed General Kirby Smith in Texas that he could expect no further help from east of the Mississippi. Although he lacked resources to beat Union armies, he built up a formidable arsenal at Tyler, along with his own Kirby Smithdom economy, a virtual "independent fiefdom" in Texas, including railroad construction and international smuggling. The Union, in turn, did not directly engage him.{{sfn\|Keegan\|2009\|pp220–221}} Its 1864 Red River Campaign to take Shreveport, Louisiana, failed and Texas remained in Confederate hands throughout the war.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia \|titleRed River Campaign \|encyclopediaEncyclopedia Britannica \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/event/Red-River-Campaign \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220327234657/https://www.britannica.com/event/Red-River-Campaign \|archive-dateMarch 27, 2022 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Lower seaboard theater {{further\|Lower seaboard theater of the American Civil War}} Background The lower seaboard theater refers to military and naval operations that occurred near the coastal areas of the Southeast as well as the southern part of the Mississippi. Union naval activities were dictated by the Anaconda Plan.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastSymonds \|firstCraig L. \|titleThe Civil War at Sea \|year2012 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-19-993168-2 \|locationNew York \|page110}}</ref> Battles ]] One of the earliest battles was fought in November 1861 at Port Royal Sound, south of Charleston. Much of the war along the South Carolina coast concentrated on capturing Charleston. In attempting to capture Charleston, the Union military tried two approaches: by land over James or Morris Islands or through the harbor. However, the Confederates were able to drive back each attack. A famous land attack was the Second Battle of Fort Wagner, in which the 54th Massachusetts Infantry took part. The Union suffered a serious defeat, losing 1,515 soldiers while the Confederates lost only 174. However, the 54th was hailed for its valor, which encouraged the general acceptance of the recruitment of African American soldiers into the Union Army, which reinforced the Union's numerical advantage.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia \|titleSecond Battle of Fort Wagner \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/Second-Battle-of-Fort-Wagner \|access-dateJanuary 25, 2022 \|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Fort Pulaski on the Georgia coast was an early target for the Union navy. Following the capture of Port Royal, an expedition was organized with engineer troops under the command of Captain Quincy Adams Gillmore, forcing a Confederate surrender. The Union army occupied the fort for the rest of the war after repairing it.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastLattimore \|firstRalston B. \|titleBattle for Fort Pulaski – Fort Pulaski National Monument \|urlhttps://www.nps.gov/fopu/learn/historyculture/battle-for-fort-pulaski.htm \|access-dateApril 20, 2022 \|websiteNational Park Service}}</ref> In April 1862, a Union naval task force commanded by Commander David Dixon Porter attacked Forts Jackson and St. Philip, which guarded the river approach to New Orleans from the south. While part of the fleet bombarded the forts, other vessels forced a break in the obstructions in the river and enabled the rest of the fleet to steam upriver to the city. A Union army force commanded by Maj. Gen. Benjamin Butler landed near the forts and forced their surrender. Butler's controversial command of New Orleans earned him the nickname "Beast".<ref>{{Cite book \|lastTrefousse \|firstHans L. \|author-linkHans L. Trefousse \|titleBen Butler: The South Called Him Beast! \|publisherTwayne \|year1957 \|locationNew York \|oclc371213}}</ref> The following year, the Union Army of the Gulf commanded by Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks laid siege to Port Hudson for nearly eight weeks, the longest siege in U.S. military history. The Confederates attempted to defend with the Bayou Teche Campaign but surrendered after Vicksburg. These surrenders gave the Union control over the Mississippi.<ref name="BattlefieldTrust" /> Several small skirmishes but no major battles were fought in Florida. The biggest was the Battle of Olustee in early 1864.{{citation needed\|dateJanuary 2022}} Pacific coast theater {{further\|Pacific coast theater of the American Civil War}} The Pacific coast theater refers to military operations on the Pacific Ocean and in the states and Territories west of the Continental Divide.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleWar in the West · Civil War · Digital Exhibits \|urlhttp://digitalexhibits.wsulibs.wsu.edu/exhibits/show/civilwar/war-in-the-west/war-in-the-west \|access-dateMarch 7, 2022 \|websitedigitalexhibits.wsulibs.wsu.edu}}</ref> Conquest of Virginia ]] At the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made Grant commander of all Union armies. Grant made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac and put Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in command of most of the western armies. Grant understood the concept of total war and believed, along with Lincoln and Sherman, that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would end the war.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastNeely \|firstMark E. \|dateDecember 2004 \|titleWas the Civil War a Total War? \|journalCivil War History \|volume50 \|issue4 \|pages434–458 \|doi10.1353/cwh.2004.0073}}</ref> This was total war not in killing civilians, but in taking provisions and forage and destroying homes, farms, and railroads, that Grant said "would otherwise have gone to the support of secession and rebellion. This policy I believe exercised a material influence in hastening the end."<ref>{{Cite book \|lastGrant \|firstUlysses S. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/memoirsselectedl00gran_0 \|titlePersonal Memoirs of U.S. Grant; Selected Letters \|publisherLibrary of America \|year1990 \|isbn978-0-940450-58-5 \|page=[https://archive.org/details/memoirsselectedl00gran_0/page/247 247]}}</ref> Grant devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the entire Confederacy from multiple directions. Generals Meade and Benjamin Butler were ordered to move against Lee near Richmond, General Franz Sigel was to attack the Shenandoah Valley, General Sherman was to capture Atlanta and march to the Atlantic Ocean, Generals George Crook and William W. Averell were to operate against railroad supply lines in West Virginia, and Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks was to capture Mobile, Alabama.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastField \|firstRon \|titlePetersburg 1864–65: The Longest Siege \|publisherOsprey \|year2013 \|isbn978-1-4728-0305-4 \|page6}}</ref> Grant's Overland Campaign Grant's army set out on the Overland Campaign intending to draw Lee into a defense of Richmond, where they would attempt to pin down and destroy the Confederate army. The Union army first attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought several battles, notably at the Wilderness, Spotsylvania, and Cold Harbor. These resulted in heavy losses on both sides and forced Lee's Confederates to fall back repeatedly.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp724–735}} At the Battle of Yellow Tavern, the Confederates lost Jeb Stuart.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|p=728}} An attempt to outflank Lee from the south failed under Butler, who was trapped inside the Bermuda Hundred river bend. Each battle resulted in setbacks for the Union that mirrored those they had suffered under prior generals, though unlike them, Grant chose to fight on rather than retreat. Grant was tenacious and kept pressing Lee's Army of Northern Virginia back to Richmond. While Lee was preparing for an attack on Richmond, Grant unexpectedly turned south to cross the James River and began the protracted Siege of Petersburg, where the two armies engaged in trench warfare for over nine months.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp724–742}} Sheridan's Valley Campaign ]] To deny the Confederacy continued use of the Shenandoah Valley as a base from which to launch invasions of Maryland and the Washington area, and to threaten Lee's supply lines for his forces, Grant launched the Valley campaigns in the spring of 1864. Initial efforts led by Gen. Sigel were repelled at the Battle of New Market by Confederate Gen. John C. Breckinridge. The Battle of New Market was the Confederacy's last major victory, and included a charge by teenage VMI cadets. After relieving Sigel, and following mixed performances by his successor, Grant finally found a commander, General Philip Sheridan, aggressive enough to prevail against the army of Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early. After a cautious start, Sheridan defeated Early in a series of battles in September and October 1864, including a decisive defeat at the Battle of Cedar Creek. Sheridan then proceeded through that winter to destroy the agricultural base of the Shenandoah Valley, a strategy similar to the tactics Sherman later employed in Georgia.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp778–779}} Sherman's March to the Sea Meanwhile, Sherman maneuvered from Chattanooga to Atlanta, defeating Confederate Generals Joseph E. Johnston and John Bell Hood. The fall of Atlanta on September 2, 1864, guaranteed the reelection of Lincoln.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp773–776}} Hood left the Atlanta area to swing around and menace Sherman's supply lines and invade Tennessee in the Franklin–Nashville Campaign. Union Maj. Gen. John Schofield defeated Hood at the Battle of Franklin, and George H. Thomas dealt Hood a massive defeat at the Battle of Nashville, effectively destroying Hood's army.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp=812–815}} Leaving Atlanta, and his base of supplies, Sherman's army marched, with no destination set, laying waste to about 20% of the farms in Georgia in his "March to the Sea". He reached the Atlantic at Savannah, Georgia, in December 1864. Sherman's army was followed by thousands of freed slaves; there were no major battles along the march. Sherman turned north through South Carolina and North Carolina, to approach the Confederate Virginia lines from the south, increasing the pressure on Lee's army.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp825–830}} The Waterloo of the Confederacy Lee's army, thinned by desertion and casualties, was now much smaller than Grant's. One last Confederate attempt to break the Union hold on Petersburg failed at the decisive Battle of Five Forks on April 1. The Union now controlled the entire perimeter surrounding Richmond–Petersburg, completely cutting it off from the Confederacy. Realizing the capital was now lost, Lee's army and the Confederate government were forced to evacuate. The Confederate capital fell on April 2–3, to the Union XXV Corps, composed of black troops. The remaining Confederate units fled west after a defeat at Sayler's Creek on April 6.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp846–847}} End of the war {{Main\|Conclusion of the American Civil War}} {{multiple image \| align = right \| direction = horizontal \| total_width =400 \| image1 = 18650410 Surrender of General Lee and His Whole Army - The New York Times.png \| alt1 \| width1 \| caption1 This New York Times front page celebrated Lee's surrender, headlining how Grant let Confederate officers retain their sidearms and "paroled" the Confederate officers and men.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateApril 10, 1865 \|titleUnion / Victory! / Peace! / Surrender of General Lee and His Whole Army \|urlhttps://newspaperarchive.com/new-york-times-apr-10-1865-p-1/ \|workThe New York Times \|page1}}</ref> \| image2 = 18650416 Lee Has Surrendered to Grant - Savannah Daily Herald.png \| caption2 News of Lee's April 9 surrender reached this southern newspaper (Savannah, Georgia) on April 15—after the April 14 shooting of President Lincoln. The article quotes Grant's terms of surrender.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateApril 16, 1865 \|titleMost Glorious News of the War / Lee Has Surrendered to Grant ! / All Lee's Officers and Men Are Paroled \|urlhttps://newspaperarchive.com/savannah-daily-herald-apr-16-1865-p-1/ \|url-accesssubscription \|workSavannah Daily Herald \|locationSavannah, GA \|pages1, 4}}</ref> }} Lee did not intend to surrender, but planned to regroup at Appomattox Station, where supplies were to be waiting, and then continue the war. Grant chased Lee and got in front of him, so that when Lee's army reached the village of Appomattox Court House, they were surrounded. After an initial battle, Lee decided the fight was hopeless, and surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia to Grant on April 9, 1865, during a conference at the McLean House.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastSimpson \|firstBrooks D. \|titleLet Us Have Peace: Ulysses S. Grant and the Politics of War and Reconstruction, 1861–1868 \|publisherThe University of North Carolina Press \|year1991 \|locationChapel Hill \|page84}}</ref><ref>William Marvel (2002) ''Lee's Last Retreat: The Flight to Appomattox'', pp. 158–181.</ref> In an untraditional gesture and as a sign of Grant's respect and anticipation of peacefully restoring Confederate states to the Union, Lee was permitted to keep his sword and horse, Traveller. His men were paroled, and a chain of Confederate surrenders began.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastWinik \|firstJay \|titleApril 1865: the month that saved America \|year2001 \|publisherHarperCollins \|isbn0-06-018723-9 \|locationNew York \|pages=188–189}}</ref> On April 14, 1865, Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Lincoln died early the next morning. Lincoln's vice president, Andrew Johnson, was unharmed, because his would-be assassin, George Atzerodt, lost his nerve, so Johnson was immediately sworn in as president. Meanwhile, Confederate forces across the South surrendered, as news of Lee's surrender reached them.<ref group"lower-alpha">Unaware of the surrender of Lee, on April 16 the last major battles of the war were fought at the Battle of Columbus, Georgia, and the Battle of West Point.</ref> On April 26, the same day Sergeant Boston Corbett killed Booth at a tobacco barn, Johnston surrendered nearly 90,000 troops of the Army of Tennessee to Sherman at Bennett Place, near present-day Durham, North Carolina. It proved to be the largest surrender of Confederate forces. On May 4, all remaining Confederate forces in Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana east of the Mississippi, under the command of Lt. General Richard Taylor, surrendered.{{sfn\|Long\|1971\|p685}} Confederate president Davis was captured in retreat at Irwinville, Georgia on May 10.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Arnold \|first1James R. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id35LvCgAAQBAJ \|titleUnderstanding U.S. Military Conflicts through Primary Sources [4 volumes] \|last2Wiener \|first2Roberta \|publisherABC-CLIO \|year2016 \|isbn978-1-61069-934-1 \|page=15}}</ref> The final land battle was fought on May 13, 1865, at the Battle of Palmito Ranch in Texas.{{sfn\|Long\|1971\|p688}}{{sfn\|Bradley\|2015\|p68}}{{sfn\|Hunt\|2015\|p5}} On May 26, 1865, Confederate Lt. Gen. Simon B. Buckner, acting for Edmund Smith, signed a military convention surrendering Confederate forces in the Trans-Mississippi Department.{{sfn\|Long\|1971\|p690}}{{sfn\|Dunkerly\|2015\|p117}} This date is often cited by contemporaries and historians as the effective end date of the war.{{efn\|nameEnd1}}{{efn\|nameEnd2}} On June 2, with most of his troops having already gone home, a reluctant Kirby Smith had little choice but to sign the official surrender document.{{sfn\|Long\|1971\|p692}}<ref>{{Cite web \|dateApril 17, 2009 \|titleUlysses S. Grant: The Myth of 'Unconditional Surrender' Begins at Fort Donelson \|urlhttps://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/ulysses-s-grant-myth-unconditional-surrender-begins-fort-donelson \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160207004144/http://www.civilwar.org/education/history/end-of-war/smith-surrenders.html \|archive-dateFebruary 7, 2016 \|publisherAmerican Battlefield Trust}}</ref> On June 23, Cherokee leader and Brig. General Stand Watie became the last Confederate general to surrender his forces.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastMorris \|firstJohn Wesley \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idfSqmnpHFEF0C \|page68}} \|titleGhost Towns of Oklahoma \|year1977 \|publisherUniversity of Oklahoma Press \|isbn978-0-8061-1420-0 \|page68}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb\|Bradley\|2015\|p69}}. "The 58-year-old Cherokee chieftain was the last Confederate general to lay down his arms. The last Confederate-affiliated tribe to surrender was the Chickasaw nation, which capitulated on 14 July."</ref> On June 19, 1865, Union Maj. Gen. Gordon Granger announced General Order No. 3, bringing the Emancipation Proclamation into effect in Texas and freeing the last slaves of the Confederacy.<ref>Conner, Robert C. General Gordon Granger: The Savior of Chickamauga and the Man Behind "Juneteenth". Havertown, PA: Casemate Publishers, 2013. {{ISBN\|978-1-61200-186-9}}. p. 177.</ref> The anniversary of this date is now celebrated as Juneteenth.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastGates \|firstHenry Louis Jr. \|author-linkHenry Louis Gates Jr. \|dateJanuary 16, 2013 \|titleWhat Is Juneteenth? \|urlhttps://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/what-is-juneteenth/ \|access-dateJune 12, 2020 \|publisherPBS}}</ref> The naval part of the war ended more slowly. It had begun on April 11, two days after Lee's surrender, when Lincoln proclaimed that foreign nations had no further "claim or pretense" to deny equality of maritime rights and hospitalities to U.S. warships and, in effect, that rights extended to Confederate ships to use neutral ports as safe havens from U.S. warships should end.{{sfn\|Neff\|2010\|p205}}<ref name"PresidencyProject1865a" /> Having no response to Lincoln's proclamation, President Johnson issued a similar proclamation dated May 10, more directly stating that the war was almost at an end and insurgent cruisers still at sea, and prepared to attack U.S. ships, should not have rights to do so through use of safe foreign ports or waters.<ref name"PresidencyProject1865b" /> Britain finally responded on June 6, by transmitting a letter from Foreign Secretary John Russell, 1st Earl Russell, to the Lords of the Admiralty withdrawing rights to Confederate warships to enter British ports and waters.<ref>{{Cite journal \|dateJune 24, 1865 \|titleWithdrawal of Belligerent Rights by Great Britain \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/sim_armed-forces-journal_1865-06-24_2_44 \|journalArmy and Navy Journal \|locationNew York \|publisherAmerican News Company \|volume2 \|issue44 \|page695 \|access-dateJuly 25, 2022}}</ref> U.S. Secretary of State Seward welcomed the withdrawal of concessions to the Confederates.<ref>{{Cite journal \|dateJuly 22, 1865 \|titleEngland and the Termination of the Rebellion \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/sim_armed-forces-journal_1865-07-22_2_48 \|journalArmy and Navy Journal \|locationNew York \|publisherAmerican News Company \|volume2 \|issue48 \|page763 \|access-dateJuly 25, 2022}}</ref> Finally, on October 18, Russell advised the Admiralty that the time specified in his June message had elapsed and "all measures of a restrictive nature on vessels of war of the United States in British ports, harbors, and waters, are now to be considered as at an end".<ref>{{Cite journal \|dateNovember 4, 1865 \|titleWithdrawal of British Restrictions Upon American Naval Vessels \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/sim_armed-forces-journal_1865-11-04_3_11 \|journalArmy and Navy Journal \|locationNew York \|publisherAmerican News Company \|volume3 \|issue11 \|page172 \|access-dateJuly 25, 2022}}</ref> Nonetheless, the final Confederate surrender was in Liverpool, England where James Iredell Waddell, the captain of CSS Shenandoah, surrendered the cruiser to British authorities on November 6.{{sfn\|Heidler\|Heidler\|Coles\|2002\|pp703–706}} Legally, the war did not end until August 20, 1866, when President Johnson issued a proclamation that declared "that the said insurrection is at an end and that peace, order, tranquillity, and civil authority now exist in and throughout the whole of the United States of America".{{efn\|{{multiref2\|{{harvnb\|Murray\|1967\|p[https://archive.org/details/northcarolinahis1967nort/page/336/mode/1up 336]}} \| {{harvnb\|Neff\|2010\|p207}} \| {{harvnb\|Trudeau\|1994\|p396}}. In United States v. Anderson, 76 U.S. 56 (1869), "The U.S. attorneys argued that the Rebellion had been suppressed following the surrender of the Trans-Mississippi Department, as established in the surrender document negotiated on May 26, 1865." \| {{harvnb\|Trudeau\|1994\|p397}}. The Supreme Court decided that the "legal end of the American Civil War had been decided by Congress to be August 20, 1866—the date of Andrew Johnson's final proclamation on the conclusion of the Rebellion."}}}} Union victory The causes of the war, reasons for its outcome, and even its name are subjects of lingering contention. The North and West grew wealthy while the once-rich South became poor for a century. The national political power of the slaveowners and rich Southerners ended. Historians are less sure about the results of postwar Reconstruction, especially regarding the second-class citizenship of the freedmen and their poverty.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|p=851}} Historians have debated whether the Confederacy could have won the war. Most scholars, including James M. McPherson, argue Confederate victory was possible.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|p855}} McPherson argues that the North's advantage in population and resources made Northern victory likely, but not guaranteed. He argues that if the Confederacy had fought using unconventional tactics, it would have more easily been able to hold out long enough to exhaust the Union.<ref name"Boritt" /> Confederates did not need to invade and hold enemy territory to win, but only to fight a defensive war to convince the North the cost of winning was too high. The North needed to conquer and hold vast stretches of enemy territory and defeat Confederate armies to win.<ref name"Boritt" /> Lincoln was not a military dictator and could fight only as long as the American public supported the war. The Confederacy sought to win independence by outlasting Lincoln; however, after Atlanta fell and Lincoln defeated McClellan in the election of 1864, hope for a political victory for the South ended. Lincoln had secured the support of the Republicans, War Democrats, border states, emancipated slaves, and the neutrality of Britain and France. By defeating the Democrats and McClellan, he defeated the Copperheads, who had wanted a negotiated peace with the Confederacy.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp771–772}} {\| class"wikitable floatright" style"border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; padding: 10px; border: 1px solid #ccc;" \|+ Comparison of Union and Confederacy, 1860–1864<ref name"Manufactures1860" /><ref name"Carter2006" /> ! ! scope="col" \| Year ! scope="col" \| Union ! scope="col" \| Confederacy \|- \|rowspan="2"\|Population \|1860 \| 22,100,000 (71%) \| 9,100,000 (29%) \|- \|1864 \| 28,800,000 (90%){{refn\|nameUnionPop\|grouplower-alpha\|"Union population 1864" aggregates 1860 population, average annual immigration 1855–1864, and population governed formerly by CSA per Kenneth Martis source. Contrabands and after the Emancipation Proclamation freedmen, migrating into Union control on the coasts and to the advancing armies, and natural increase are excluded.}} \| 3,000,000 (10%)<ref>{{Cite book \|lastMartis \|firstKenneth C. \|titleThe Historical Atlas of the Congresses of the Confederate States of America: 1861–1865 \|publisherSimon & Schuster \|year1994 \|isbn978-0-13-389115-7 \|page=27}} At the beginning of 1865, the Confederacy controlled one third of its congressional districts, which were apportioned by population. The major slave populations found in Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, and Alabama were effectively under Union control by the end of 1864.</ref> \|- \| Free \|1860 \| 21,700,000 (98%) \| 5,600,000 (62%) \|- \|rowspan="2"\| Slave \|1860 \| 490,000 (2%) \| 3,550,000 (38%) \|- \|1864 \| negligible \| 1,900,000{{refn\|nameCSASlaves\|grouplower-alpha\|"Slave 1864, CSA" aggregates 1860 slave census of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Texas. It omits losses from contraband and after the Emancipation Proclamation, freedmen migrating to the Union controlled coastal ports and those joining advancing Union armies, especially in the Mississippi Valley.}} \|- \| Soldiers \| 1860–64 \| 2,100,000 (67%) \| 1,064,000 (33%) \|- \|rowspan"2"\| Railroad miles<ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/17951895onehundr0001unse/page/111/mode/2up \|titleOne Hundred Years of American Commerce 1795–1895 \|year1968 \|publisherGreenwood \|editor-lastDepew \|editor-firstChauncey \|editor-linkChauncey Depew \|locationNew York \|page111}}</ref> \|1860 \| 21,800 (71%) \| 8,800 (29%) \|- \|1864 \| 29,100 (98%){{efn\|"Total Union railroad miles" aggregates existing track reported 1860 @ 21800 plus new construction 1860–1864 @ 5000, plus southern railroads administered by USMRR @ 2300.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleU.S. Railroad Construction, 1860–1880 \|urlhttp://www.dhr.history.vt.edu/modules/us/mod05_industry/images/railroad_construction.jpg \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160611102443/http://www.dhr.history.vt.edu/modules/us/mod05_industry/images/railroad_construction.jpg \|archive-dateJune 11, 2016 \|access-dateAugust 21, 2012 \|websiteDigital History Reader \|publisherVirginia Tech}}</ref>}} \| negligible \|- \|rowspan="2"\| Manufactures \|1860 \| 90% \| 10% \|- \|1864 \| 98% \| 2% \|- \|rowspan="2"\| Arms production \|1860 \| 97% \| 3% \|- \|1864 \| 98% \| 2% \|- \|rowspan="2"\| Cotton bales \|1860 \| negligible \| 4,500,000 \|- \|1864 \| 300,000 \| negligible \|- \|rowspan="2"\| Exports \|1860 \| 30% \| 70% \|- \|1864 \| 98% \| 2% \|} Some scholars argue the Union held an insurmountable long-term advantage over the Confederacy in industrial strength and population. Confederate actions, they argue, only delayed defeat.{{sfn\|Murray\|Bernstein\|Knox\|1996\|p235}}{{sfn\|Heidler\|Heidler\|Coles\|2002\|pp1207–1210}} Historian Shelby Foote expressed this view succinctly: {{blockquote\|I think that the North fought that war with one hand behind its back&nbsp;.... If there had been more Southern victories, and a lot more, the North simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its back. I don't think the South ever had a chance to win that War.{{sfn\|Ward\|1990\|p=272}}}} A minority view among historians is that the Confederacy lost because, as E. Merton Coulter put it, "people did not will hard enough and long enough to win".{{sfn\|Coulter\|1950\|p566}}<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Beringer \|first1Richard E. \|titleWhy the South Lost the Civil War \|last2Hattaway \|first2Herman \|last3Jones \|first3Archer \|last4Still \|first4William N. Jr. \|year1991 \|atch. 1}}</ref> However, most historians reject the argument.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastFarmer \|firstAlan \|year2005 \|titleWhy was the Confederacy Defeated? \|urlhttp://www.historytoday.com/alan-farmer/why-was-confederacy-defeated \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140323165319/http://www.historytoday.com/alan-farmer/why-was-confederacy-defeated \|archive-dateMarch 23, 2014 \|websiteHistory Review \|pages15–20 \|viaHistory Today \|issue52}}</ref> McPherson, after reading thousands of letters written by Confederate soldiers, found strong patriotism that continued to the end; they truly believed they were fighting for freedom and liberty. Even as the Confederacy was visibly collapsing in 1864–65, most Confederate soldiers were fighting hard.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1997\|pp169–172}} Historian Gary Gallagher cites General Sherman, who in early 1864 commented, "The devils seem to have a determination that cannot but be admired." Despite their loss of slaves and wealth, with starvation looming, Sherman continued, "yet I see no sign of let-up—some few deserters—plenty tired of war, but the masses determined to fight it out".<ref>{{Cite book \|lastGallagher \|firstGary W. \|author-linkGary W. Gallagher \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idQHNEtpvEB30C \|page57}} \|titleThe Confederate War \|publisherHarvard University Press \|year1999 \|isbn978-0-674-16056-9 \|locationCambridge, MA \|page=57}}</ref> Also important were Lincoln's eloquence in articulating the national purpose and his skill in keeping the border states committed to the Union cause. The Emancipation Proclamation was an effective use of the president's war powers.<ref name"Fehrenbacher2004" /> The Confederate government failed to get Europe involved militarily. Southern leaders needed to get European powers to help break the blockade the Union had created around Southern ports. Lincoln's naval blockade was 95 percent effective at stopping trade goods; as a result, imports and exports to the South declined significantly. The abundance of European cotton and Britain's hostility to slavery, along with Lincoln's naval blockades, severely decreased any chance that Britain or France would enter the war.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp382–388}} Historian Don H. Doyle has argued that the Union victory had a major impact on world history.{{sfn\|Doyle\|2015}} The Union victory energized popular democratic forces. A Confederate victory, on the other hand, would have meant a new birth of slavery, not of freedom. Historian Fergus Bordewich, following Doyle, argues: {{blockquote\|The North's victory decisively proved the durability of democratic government. Confederate independence, on the other hand, would have established an American model for reactionary politics and race-based repression that would likely have cast an international shadow into the 20th century and perhaps beyond.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastBordewich \|firstFergus M. \|dateFebruary 6, 2015 \|titleThe World Was Watching: America's Civil War slowly came to be seen as part of a global struggle against oppressive privilege \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/book-review-the-cause-of-all-nations-by-don-h-doyle-1423260658 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170221081620/https://www.wsj.com/articles/book-review-the-cause-of-all-nations-by-don-h-doyle-1423260658 \|archive-dateFebruary 21, 2017 \|websiteThe Wall Street Journal}}</ref>}} Scholars have debated what the effects of the war were on political and economic power in the South.<ref name"Dupont2018">{{Cite journal \|last1Dupont \|first1Brandon \|last2Rosenbloom \|first2Joshua L. \|year2018 \|titleThe Economic Origins of the Postwar Southern Elite \|urlhttps://lib.dr.iastate.edu/econ_las_pubs/644 \|journalExplorations in Economic History \|volume68 \|pages119–131 \|doi10.1016/j.eeh.2017.09.002}}</ref> The prevailing view is that the southern planter elite retained its powerful position in the South.<ref name"Dupont2018" /> However, a 2017 study challenges this, noting that while some Southern elites retained their economic status, the turmoil of the 1860s created greater opportunities for economic mobility in the South, than in the North.<ref name"Dupont2018" /> Casualties {{multiple image \| total_width = 550 \| align = right \| image1 = Alfred A. Stratton.jpg \| alt1 \| caption1 One in thirteen veterans were amputees. \| image2 = Cold Harbor, Va. African Americans collecting bones.jpg \| alt2 \| caption2 Remains of both sides were reinterred. \| image3 = Andersonville National Cemetery.jpg \| alt3 \| caption3 Andersonville National Cemetery, Georgia \| footer = }} {\| class"wikitable floatright" style"border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;" \|+ Casualties according to the US National Park Service<ref name="NationalParkService" /> ! scope="col" \| Category ! scope="col" \| Union ! scope="col" \| Confederate \|- ! scope="row" \| Killed in action \| 110,100 \| 94,000 \|- ! scope="row" \| Disease \| 224,580 \| 164,000 \|- ! scope="row" \| Wounded in action \| 275,154 \| 194,026 \|- ! scope="row" \| Captured <br />(inc those who died as POWs) \| 211,411 <br />(30,192) \| 462,634 <br />(31,000) \|- ! scope="row" \| Total \| 821,245 \| 914,660 \|} {{Further\|Environmental history of the United States#Civil War}} Exact casualty figures were collected for the Union, but Confederate records were poorly kept, or lost in the chaos of defeat. Thus, the casualty figures are imprecise and based on statistical extrapolation. Neither side kept a tally of civilian deaths due to the war. In the 19th century, the death toll had been estimated at a lower 620,000.<ref name"Nofi2001" /> In 2011, the death toll was recalculated based on a 1% sample of census data, yielding approximately 750,000 soldier deaths, 20 percent higher than traditionally estimated, and possibly as high as 850,000.<ref name"Hacker2011" /><ref>{{Cite web \|dateSeptember 22, 2011 \|titleU.S. Civil War Took Bigger Toll Than Previously Estimated, New Analysis Suggests \|urlhttps://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/09/110921120124.htm \|access-dateSeptember 22, 2011 \|websiteScience Daily}}</ref> The figure was recalculated to 698,000 soldier deaths in 2024 after examining newly available full census records. Mortality rates among men were as high as 19 percent in Louisiana, and 16.6–16.7 percent in Georgia and South Carolina respectively.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateNovember 19, 2024 \|titleCivil War Toll Much Worse in Confederate States, New Estimates Show\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/11/19/health/civil-war-death-toll.html#selection-835.50-835.66 \|access-dateNovember 27, 2024 \|websitearchive.ph \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20241119193351/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/11/19/health/civil-war-death-toll.html#selection-835.50-835.66 \|archive-date2024-11-19}}</ref><ref name"auto">{{Cite journal \|last1Barceló \|first1Joan \|last2Jensen \|first2Jeffrey L. \|last3Peisakhin \|first3Leonid \|last4Zhai \|first4Haoyu \|dateNovember 26, 2024 \|titleNew Estimates of US Civil War mortality from full-census records \|journalProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences \|volume121 \|issue48 \|pagese2414919121 \|doi10.1073/pnas.2414919121 \|pmid39556740 \|doi-accessfree \|pmc11621511 \|bibcode2024PNAS..12114919B}}</ref> The war resulted in at least 1,030,000 casualties (3 percent of the population), including an estimated 698,000 soldier deaths—two-thirds by disease.<ref name"auto" /><ref name"Nofi2001" /> Based on 1860 census figures, 8 percent of all white men aged 13–43 died in the war, including 6 percent in the North and 18 percent in the South.{{sfn\|Vinovskis\|1990\|p7}}<ref name"Fox2008" /> About 56,000 soldiers died in prison camps during the War.<ref name"NationalGeographic2003" /> An estimated 60,000 soldiers lost limbs.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastRiordan \|firstTeresa \|dateMarch 8, 2004 \|titleWhen Necessity Meets Ingenuity: Art of Restoring What's Missing \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/08/business/technology-when-necessity-meets-ingenuity-art-of-restoring-what-s-missing.html \|access-dateDecember 23, 2013 \|websiteThe New York Times \|agencyAssociated Press}}</ref> As McPherson notes, the war's "cost in American lives was as great as in all of the nation's other wars combined through Vietnam".{{Sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|p854}} Of the 359,528 Union Army dead, amounting to 15 percent of the over two million who served:<ref name="Fox1889" /> * 110,070 were killed in action (67,000) or died of wounds (43,000). * 199,790 died of disease (75 percent was due to the war, the remainder would have occurred in civilian life anyway) * 24,866 died in Confederate prison camps * 9,058 were killed by accidents or drowning * 15,741 other/unknown deaths In addition, there were 4,523 deaths in the Navy (2,112 in battle) and 460 in the Marines (148 in battle).<ref name="DCAS" /> After the Emancipation Proclamation authorized freed slaves to "be received into the armed service of the United States", former slaves who escaped from plantations or were liberated by the Union Army were recruited into the United States Colored Troops regiments of the Union Army, as were black men who had not been slaves. The U.S. Colored Troops made up 10 percent of the Union death toll—15 percent of Union deaths from disease and less than 3 percent of those killed in battle.<ref name"Fox1889" /> Losses among African Americans were high. In the last year and a half and from all reported casualties, approximately 20 percent of all African Americans enrolled in the military died during the war. Their mortality rate was significantly higher than white soldiers. While 15 percent of U.S. Volunteers and just 9 percent of white Regular Army troops died, 21 percent of U.S. Colored Troops died.<ref>{{cite journal \|firstHerbert \|lastAptheker \|author-linkHerbert Aptheker \|titleNegro Casualties in the Civil War \|journalThe Journal of Negro History \|volume32 \|issue1 \|dateJanuary 1947 \|pages10–80 \|jstor2715291 \|publisherUniversity of Chicago Press \|doi10.2307/2715291 \|issn0022-2992}}</ref>{{Rp\|16}} battlefield in 1862]] While the figures of 360,000 army deaths for the Union and 260,000 for the Confederacy remained commonly cited, they are incomplete. In addition to many Confederate records being missing, partly as a result of Confederate widows not reporting deaths due to being ineligible for benefits, both armies only counted troops who died during their service and not the tens of thousands who died of wounds or diseases after being discharged. This often happened only days or weeks later. Francis Amasa Walker, superintendent of the 1870 census, used census and surgeon general data to estimate a minimum of 500,000 Union military deaths and 350,000 Confederate military deaths, a total of 850,000 soldiers. While Walker's estimates were originally dismissed because of the 1870 census's undercounting, it was later found that the census was only off by 6.5 percent and that the data Walker used would be roughly accurate.<ref name="Hacker2011" /> Losses were far higher than during the war with Mexico, which saw roughly 13,000 American deaths, including fewer than two thousand killed in battle, between 1846 and 1848. One reason for the high number of battle deaths in the civil war was the continued use of tactics similar to those of the Napoleonic Wars, such as charging. With the advent of more accurate rifled barrels, Minié balls, and (near the end of the war for the Union) repeating firearms such as the Spencer repeating rifle and the Henry repeating rifle, soldiers were mowed down when standing in lines in the open. This led to the adoption of trench warfare, a style of fighting that defined much of World War I.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmerican Civil War Fortifications \|urlhttps://ospreypublishing.com/american-civil-war-fortifications-2 \|website=Osprey}}</ref> Deaths among former slaves has proven hard to estimate, due to the lack of reliable census data, though they were known to be considerable, as former slaves were set free or escaped in massive numbers in areas where the Union army did not have sufficient shelter, doctors, or food for them. Professor Jim Downs states that tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of slaves died during the war from disease, starvation, or exposure, and that if these deaths are counted in the war's total, the death toll would exceed 1&nbsp;million.<ref>Jim Downs, Sick from Freedom: African-American Illness and Suffering during the Civil War and Reconstruction, Oxford University Press, 2012.</ref> It is estimated that during the war, of the equines killed, including horses, mules, donkeys and even confiscated children's ponies, over 32,600 of them belonged to the Union and 45,800 the Confederacy. However, other estimates place the total at 1,000,000.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateJune 25, 2013 \|titleThe Battle of Gettysburg & the History of the Civil War Horse \|urlhttps://thehorsemenscorral.com/2013/06/25/the-battle-of-gettysburg-the-history-of-the-cival-war-horse/ \|access-dateJanuary 2, 2024}}</ref> It is estimated that 544 Confederate flags were captured during the war by the Union. The flags were sent to the War Department in Washington.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleSouthern Historical Society Papers \|editor-lastJones \|editor-firstJ. William \|volume32 \|chapter1.37: Confederate States' flags \|access-dateJanuary 9, 2024 \|chapter-urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:2001.05.0290:chapter1.37 \|viaPerseus Digital Library}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleReturned Flags Booklet, 1905 \|urlhttps://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/ket-history-civilwar58/returned-flags-booklet/ \|access-dateJanuary 9, 2024 \|viaPBS LearningMedia}}</ref> The Union flags captured by the Confederates were sent to Richmond.{{citation needed\|dateSeptember 2024}} Emancipation thumb\|upright2\|Abolition of slavery in the various states over time:{{Legend\|#84c6c9\|Abolition of slavery during or shortly after the American Revolution}} {{Legend\|#7be3de\|The Northwest Ordinance, 1787}} {{Legend\|#64e5c5\|Gradual emancipation in New York (starting 1799, completed 1827) and New Jersey (starting 1804, completed by Thirteenth Amendment, 1865)}} {{Legend\|#7ab377\|The Missouri Compromise, 1821}} {{Legend\|#5f9b4a\|Effective abolition of slavery by Mexican or joint U.S./British authority}} {{Legend\|#97cf2d\|Abolition of slavery by Congressional action, 1861}} {{Legend\|#c7dd47\|Abolition of slavery by Congressional action, 1862}} {{Legend\|#ffe86d\|Emancipation Proclamation as originally issued, January 1, 1863}} {{Legend\|#f1c84e\|Subsequent operation of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863}} {{Legend\|#d39c59\|Abolition of slavery by state action during the Civil War}} {{Legend\|#f7b360\|Operation of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1864}} {{Legend\|#f6a89a\|Operation of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1865}} {{Legend\|#d3595f\|Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. constitution, December 18, 1865}} {{Legend\|#bca4b1\|Territory incorporated into the U.S. after the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment}} Abolishing slavery was not a Union war goal from the outset, but quickly became one.{{Sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|ppvii–viii}} Lincoln's initial claims were that preserving the Union was the central goal.{{sfn\|Foner\|2010\|p74}} In contrast, the South fought to preserve slavery.{{Sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|ppvii–viii}} While not all Southerners saw themselves as fighting for slavery, most officers and over a third of the rank and file in Lee's army had close family ties to slavery. To Northerners, the motivation was primarily to preserve the Union, not to abolish slavery.{{sfn\|Foner\|1981\|p{{page needed\|dateSeptember 2024}}}} However, as the war dragged on, and it became clear slavery was central to the conflict, and that emancipation was (to quote the Emancipation Proclamation) "a fit and necessary war measure for suppressing [the] rebellion," Lincoln and his cabinet made ending slavery a war goal, culminating in the Emancipation Proclamation.{{Sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|ppvii–viii}}{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp506–508}} Lincoln's decision to issue the Proclamation angered Peace Democrats ("Copperheads") and War Democrats, but energized most Republicans.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp506–508}} By warning that free blacks would flood the North, Democrats made gains in the 1862 elections, but they did not gain control of Congress. The Republicans' counterargument that slavery was the mainstay of the enemy steadily gained support, with the Democrats losing decisively in the 1863 elections in the Northern state of Ohio, when they tried to resurrect anti-black sentiment.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|p686}} Emancipation Proclamation {{Main\|Emancipation Proclamation}} The Emancipation Proclamation legally freed the slaves in states "in rebellion," but, as a practical matter, slavery for the 3.5&nbsp;million black people in the South effectively ended in each area when Union armies arrived. The last Confederate slaves were freed on June 19, 1865, celebrated as the modern holiday of Juneteenth. Slaves in the border states and those in some former Confederate territory occupied before the Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or (on December 6, 1865) by the Thirteenth Amendment.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastCathey \|firstLibby \|dateJune 17, 2021 \|titleBiden signs bill making Juneteenth, marking the end of slavery, a federal holiday \|urlhttps://abcnews.go.com/Politics/biden-sign-bill-making-juneteenth-federal-holiday-commemorating/story?id78335485 \|access-dateJune 17, 2021 \|workABC News}}</ref><ref>Claudia Goldin, "The economics of emancipation." The Journal of Economic History 33#1 (1973): 66–85.</ref> The Emancipation Proclamation enabled African Americans, both free blacks and escaped slaves, to join the Union Army. About 190,000 volunteered, further enhancing the numerical advantage the Union armies enjoyed over the Confederates, who did not dare emulate the equivalent manpower source for fear of undermining the legitimacy of slavery.{{efn\|In spite of the South's shortage of soldiers, most Southern leaders—until 1865—opposed enlisting slaves. They used them as laborers to support the war effort. As Howell Cobb said, "If slaves will make good soldiers our whole theory of slavery is wrong." Confederate generals Patrick Cleburne and Robert E. Lee argued in favor of arming blacks late in the war, and Jefferson Davis was eventually persuaded to support plans for arming slaves to avoid military defeat. The Confederacy surrendered at Appomattox before this plan could be implemented.{{sfn\|McPherson\|1988\|pp=831–837}}}} During the war, sentiment concerning slaves, enslavement, and emancipation in the United States was divided. Lincoln's fears of making slavery a war issue were based on a harsh reality: abolition did not enjoy wide support in the west, the territories, and the border states.{{Sfn\|Donald\|1995\|pp417–419}}<ref name":4" group"lower-alpha" /> In 1861, Lincoln worried that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states, and that "to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game".<ref name":4" group"lower-alpha">{{multiref2 \|Lincoln's letter to O. H. Browning, September 22, 1861. \| {{harvnb\|Wittke\|1952\|p{{page needed\|dateSeptember 2024}}}}. "Sentiment among German Americans was largely antislavery especially among Forty-Eighters, resulting in hundreds of thousands of German Americans volunteering to fight for the Union." \| {{harvnb\|Keller\|2009}}. \| for primary sources, see Walter D. Kamphoefner and Wolfgang Helbich, eds., Germans in the Civil War: The Letters They Wrote Home (2006). "On the other hand, many of the recent immigrants in the North viewed freed slaves as competition for scarce jobs, and as the reason why the Civil War was being fought." \| {{harvnb\|Baker\|2003}}. "Due in large part to this fierce competition with free blacks for labor opportunities, the poor and working class Irish Catholics generally opposed emancipation. When the draft began in the summer of 1863, they launched a major riot in New York City that was suppressed by the military, as well as much smaller protests in other cities." \| {{harvnb\|Schecter\|2007\|locch. 6}}. "Many Catholics in the North had volunteered to fight in 1861, sending thousands of soldiers to the front and suffering high casualties, especially at Fredericksburg; their volunteering fell off after 1862."}}</ref> Copperheads and some War Democrats opposed emancipation, although the latter eventually accepted it as part of the total war needed to save the Union.{{sfn\|Baker\|2003}} At first, Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War Simon Cameron and Generals John C. Frémont and David Hunter, to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats. Lincoln warned the border states that a more radical type of emancipation would happen if his plan of gradual compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization was rejected.<ref>McPherson, James M., "Lincoln and the Strategy of Unconditional Surrender", in Boritt, Gabor S. (ed.). Lincoln, the War President, pp. 52–54; also in McPherson, James M., Abraham Lincoln and the Second American Revolution, pp. 83–85.</ref> But compensated emancipation occurred only in the District of Columbia, where Congress had the power to enact it. When Lincoln told his cabinet about his proposed emancipation proclamation, which would apply to the states still in rebellion on January 1, 1863, Seward advised Lincoln to wait for a Union military victory before issuing it, as to do otherwise would seem like "our last shriek on the retreat".<ref>Oates, Stephen B., Abraham Lincoln: The Man Behind the Myths, p.&nbsp;106.</ref> Walter Stahr, however, writes, "There are contemporary sources, however, that suggest others were involved in the decision to delay", and Stahr quotes them.<ref>Stahr, Walter, ''Stanton: Lincoln's War Secretary'', New York: Simon & Schuster, 2017, p. 226.</ref> {{multiple image \| align = right \| total_width = 500 \| image1 = Contrabands at Headquarters of General Lafayette by Mathew Brady.jpg \| alt1 \| caption1 Contrabands, who were fugitive slaves, including cooks, laundresses, laborers, teamsters, railroad repair crews, fled to the Union Army, but were not legally freed until the Emancipation Proclamation, which Lincoln signed on January 1, 1863, more than two years before the end of the Civil War. \| image2 = Soldiers White Black 1861.jpg \| alt2 \| caption2 In 1863, the Union Army accepted Freedmen; seen here are black and white teenaged soldiers who volunteered to fight for the Union. }} Lincoln laid the groundwork for public support in an open letter published in response to Horace Greeley's "The Prayer of Twenty Millions"; the letter stated that Lincoln's goal was to save the Union, and that, if he freed the slaves, it would be as a means to that end.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateJune 14, 2022 \|titleHorace Greeley (1811–1872). "The Prayer of Twenty Millions". Stedman and Hutchinson, eds. 1891. A Library of American Literature: An Anthology in 11 Volumes \|urlhttps://www.bartleby.com/400/prose/1279.html \|websitewww.bartleby.com}}</ref><ref>Lincoln's letter was published first in the Washington National Intelligencer on August 23, 1862. Holzer, Harold, Lincoln and the Power of the Press: The War for Public Opinion, New York: Simon & Schuster, 2014, p. 401.</ref><ref><!-- Lincoln (1862-08-23) A LETTER FROM PRESIDENT LINCOLN.; Reply to Horace Greeley. Slavery and the Union The Restoration of the Union the Paramount Object.-->{{cite Q\|Q116965145}}</ref> He also had a meeting at the White House with five African American representatives on August 14, 1862. Arranging for a reporter to be present, he urged his visitors to agree to the voluntary colonization of black people. Lincoln's motive for both his letter to Greeley and his statement to the black visitors was apparently to make his forthcoming Emancipation Proclamation more palatable to racist white people.<ref>White, Jonathan W., A House Built by Slaves: African American Visitors to the Lincoln White House, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2022, ch. 3.</ref> A Union victory in the Battle of Antietam on September 17, 1862, provided Lincoln with an opportunity to issue the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, and the War Governors' Conference added support for the proclamation.<ref>Pulling, Sr. Anne Frances, Altoona: Images of America, Arcadia Publishing, 2001, 10.</ref> Lincoln issued his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862. It stated that slaves in all states in rebellion on January 1, 1863, would be free. He issued his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863, keeping his promise. In his letter to Albert G. Hodges, Lincoln explained his belief that "If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong&nbsp;.... And yet I have never understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling&nbsp;... I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me."<ref>Lincoln's Letter to A. G. Hodges, April 4, 1864.</ref>{{efn\|In late March 1864 Lincoln met with Governor Bramlette, Archibald Dixon, and Albert G. Hodges, to discuss recruitment of African American soldiers in the state of Kentucky. In a letter dated April 4, 1864, Lincoln summarized his stance on slavery, at Hodges' request.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleLincoln Lore – Albert G. Hodges \|urlhttps://apps.legislature.ky.gov/LegislativeMoments/moments08RS/49_web_leg_moments.htm \|access-dateJanuary 20, 2022 \|websiteKentucky Legislature}}</ref>}} Lincoln's moderate approach succeeded in inducing the border states to remain in the Union and War Democrats to support the Union. The border states, which included Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, Delaware, and Union-controlled regions around New Orleans, Norfolk, Virginia, and elsewhere, were not covered by the Emancipation Proclamation. Nor was Tennessee, which had come under Union control.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAndrew Johnson and Emancipation in Tennessee – Andrew Johnson National Historic Site \|urlhttps://www.nps.gov/anjo/learn/historyculture/johnson-and-tn-emancipation.htm \|websiteNational Park Service}}</ref> Missouri and Maryland abolished slavery on their own; Kentucky and Delaware did not.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastHarper \|firstDouglas \|year2003 \|titleSlavery in Delaware \|urlhttp://www.slavenorth.com/delaware.htm \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071016062740/http://slavenorth.com/delaware.htm \|archive-dateOctober 16, 2007 \|access-dateOctober 16, 2007}}</ref> Still, the proclamation did not enjoy universal support. It caused much unrest in what were then considered western states, where racist sentiments led to a great fear of abolition. There was some concern that the proclamation would lead to the secession of western states, and its issuance prompted the stationing of Union troops in Illinois in case of rebellion.{{Sfn\|Donald\|1995\|pp=417–419}} Since the Emancipation Proclamation was based on the president's war powers, it applied only in territory held by Confederates at the time it was issued. However, the Proclamation became a symbol of the Union's growing commitment to add emancipation to the Union's definition of liberty.<ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastMcPherson \|firstJames \|author-linkJames M. McPherson \|dateMarch 1990 \|titleA War that Never Goes Away \|urlhttps://www.americanheritage.com/war-never-goes-away \|magazineAmerican Heritage Magazine \|volume41 \|issue2}}</ref> The Emancipation Proclamation greatly reduced the Confederacy's hope of being recognized or otherwise aided by Britain or France.{{sfn\|Asante\|Mazama\|2004\|p82}} By late 1864, Lincoln was playing a leading role in getting the House of Representatives to vote for the Thirteenth Amendment, which mandated the ending of chattel slavery.{{sfn\|Holzer\|Gabbard\|2007\|pp172–174}} Reconstruction {{Main\|Reconstruction era}} , Northern teachers traveled into the South to provide education and training for the newly freed population.]] The war devastated the South and posed serious questions of how it would be reintegrated into the Union. The war destroyed much of the South's wealth, in part because wealth held in enslaved people (at least $1,000 each for a healthy adult prior to the war) was wiped off the books.<ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastRhodes-Pitts \|firstSharifa \|dateOctober 9, 2014 \|titleThe Worth of Black Men, From Slavery to Ferguson \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/12/magazine/the-worth-of-black-men-from-slavery-to-ferguson.html \|access-dateDecember 25, 2023 \|magazineThe New York Times Magazine \|issn0362-4331}}</ref> All accumulated investment in Confederate bonds was forfeited; most banks and railroads were bankrupt. The income per person dropped to less than 40 percent of that of the North, and that lasted into the 20th century. Southern influence in the federal government, previously considerable, was greatly diminished until the second half of the 20th century.<ref name="Economist2011" /> Reconstruction began during the war, with the Emancipation Proclamation of January 1863, and it continued until 1877.<ref>Hans L. Trefousse, Historical Dictionary of Reconstruction (Greenwood, 1991) covers all the main events and leaders.</ref> It comprised multiple complex methods to resolve the outstanding issues of the aftermath, the most important of which were the three "Reconstruction Amendments" to the Constitution: the 13th outlawing slavery (1865), the 14th guaranteeing citizenship to former slaves (1868), and the 15th prohibiting the denial of voting rights "on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude" (1870). From the Union perspective, the goals of Reconstruction were to consolidate victory by reuniting the Union, to guarantee a "republican form of government" for the ex-Confederate states, and to permanently end slavery—and prevent semi-slavery status.<ref>Eric Foner's A Short History of Reconstruction (1990) is a brief survey—an abridgement of his ''Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877'' (1988).</ref> President Johnson, who took office in April 1865, took a lenient approach and saw the achievement of the main war goals as realized in 1865, when each ex-rebel state repudiated secession and ratified the Thirteenth Amendment. Radical Republicans demanded proof that Confederate nationalism was dead and that the slaves were truly free. They overrode Johnson's vetoes of civil rights legislation, and the House impeached him, although the Senate did not convict him. In 1868 and 1872, the Republican candidate Grant won the presidency. In 1872, the "Liberal Republicans" argued that the war goals had been achieved and Reconstruction should end. They chose Horace Greeley to head a presidential ticket in 1872 but were decisively defeated. In 1874, Democrats, primarily Southern, took control of Congress and opposed further reconstruction. The Compromise of 1877 closed with a national consensus, except on the part of former slaves, that the war had finally ended.<ref>C. Vann Woodward, Reunion and Reaction: The Compromise of 1877 and the End of Reconstruction (2nd ed. 1991).</ref> With the withdrawal of federal troops, however, whites retook control of every Southern legislature, and the Jim Crow era of disenfranchisement and legal segregation was ushered in.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Williams \|first1Susan Millar \|titleUpheaval in Charleston: Earthquake and Murder on the Eve of Jim Crow \|last2Hoffius \|first2Stephen G. \|year2011 \|publisherUniversity of Georgia Press \|isbn978-0-8203-3715-9 \|jstor=j.ctt46nc9q}}</ref> The war had a demonstrable impact on American politics. Many veterans on both sides were elected to political office, including five U.S. Presidents: Ulysses Grant, Rutherford B. Hayes, James A. Garfield, Benjamin Harrison, and William McKinley.<ref>{{Cite web \|titlePresidents Who Were Civil War Veterans \|urlhttps://www.essentialcivilwarcurriculum.com/presidents-who-were-civil-war-veterans.html \|websiteEssential Civil War Curriculum}}</ref> Memory and historiography {{multiple image \| align = right \| total_width = 470 \| image1 = Grand Army of the Republic by Swatjester.jpg \| alt1 \| caption1 Monument to the Grand Army of the Republic, a Union veteran organization \| image2 = Cherokee Confederates Reunion.gif \| alt2 \| caption2 Cherokee Confederates reunion in New Orleans in 1903 \| footer = }} The war is a central event in American collective memory. There are innumerable statues, commemorations, books, and archival collections. The memory includes the home front, military affairs, the treatment of soldiers, both living and dead, in the war's aftermath, depictions of the war in literature and art, evaluations of heroes and villains, and considerations of the moral and political lessons of the war.<ref name"Joan Waugh and Gary W" /> The last theme includes moral evaluations of racism and slavery, heroism in combat and behind the lines, and issues of democracy and minority rights, as well as the notion of an "Empire of Liberty" influencing the world.<ref name"Blight2001" /> Historians have paid more attention to the causes of the war than to the war itself. Military history has largely developed outside academia, leading to a proliferation of studies by non-scholars who nevertheless are familiar with the primary sources and pay close attention to battles and campaigns and who write for the general public.{{sfn\|Woodworth\|1996\|p208}}<ref>{{Cite book \|lastCushman \|firstStephen \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|id95l6BAAAQBAJ \|page5}} \|titleBelligerent Muse: Five Northern Writers and How They Shaped Our Understanding of the Civil War \|publisherUniversity of North Carolina Press \|year2014 \|isbn978-1-4696-1878-4 \|pages5–6}}</ref> Practically every major figure in the war, both North and South, has had a serious biographical study.{{citation needed\|dateSeptember 2024\|reasonPrevious source "Provides short biographies and historiographical summaries."}} Even the name used for the conflict has been controversial, with many names used for it. During and immediately after the war, Northern historians often used a term like "War of the Rebellion". Writers in rebel states often referred to the "War for Southern Independence". Some Southerners have described it as the "War of Northern Aggression".<ref><!-- Harvard Guide to American History-->{{cite Q\|Q118746838 \|pages385–398}}</ref> Lost Cause {{Main\|Lost Cause of the Confederacy}} The memory of the war in the white South crystallized in the myth of the "Lost Cause": that the Confederate cause was just and heroic. The myth shaped regional identity and race relations for generations.<ref name"Foster1988" /> Alan T. Nolan notes that the Lost Cause was expressly a rationalization, a cover-up to vindicate the name and fame of those in rebellion. Some claims revolve around the insignificance of slavery as a cause; some appeals highlight cultural differences between North and South; the military conflict by Confederate actors is idealized; in any case, secession was said to be lawful.{{sfn\|Nolan\|2000\|pp14–19}} Nolan argues that the adoption of the Lost Cause perspective facilitated the reunification of the North and the South while excusing the "virulent racism" of the 19th century, sacrificing black American progress to white man's reunification. He also deems the Lost Cause "a caricature of the truth. This caricature wholly misrepresents and distorts the facts of the matter" in every instance.{{sfn\|Nolan\|2000\|pp28–29}} The Lost Cause myth was formalized by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard, whose The Rise of American Civilization (1927) spawned "Beardian historiography". The Beards downplayed slavery, abolitionism, and issues of morality. Though this interpretation was abandoned by the Beards in the 1940s, and by historians generally by the 1950s, Beardian themes still echo among Lost Cause writers.<ref>Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard, The Rise of American Civilization (1927), 2:54.</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|lastHofstadter \|firstRichard \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idiLdMzbv2IDQC \|page459}} \|titleProgressive Historians \|publisherKnopf Doubleday \|year2012 \|isbn978-0-307-80960-5 \|page304 \|orig-year1968}}</ref>{{additional citation needed\|reasonPinning the "formalization" of the Lost Cause myth on the Beards is a very bold claim; at best, other sources state that their orthogonal economic perspective served as an element for others to synthesize.\|date=July 2023}} The United Daughters of the Confederacy The United Daughters of the Confederacy (UDC) is a Southern heritage organization founded in 1894 in Nashville, Tennessee, by a group of women whose stated mission was to honor Confederate veterans and preserve their memory. The organization quickly grew in influence during the late 19th and early 20th centuries and ended up playing a pivotal role in shaping the collective memory of the American Civil War. The UDC focused on erecting Confederate monuments, funding the education of Confederate descendants, and promoting Confederate history through textbooks and public ceremonies. The group emphasized the valor of Confederate soldiers and the righteousness of the Southern cause, often omitting or downplaying the central role of slavery in the conflict. The UDC became a major proponent of the Lost Cause ideology, a narrative that romanticized the Confederacy as a noble, states'-rights-driven effort rather than a rebellion to preserve slavery. Through speeches, publications, and curriculum influence, the UDC worked to recast the Confederacy in a sympathetic light, framing the Civil War as a struggle against Northern aggression. This effort contributed to the widespread proliferation of Confederate symbols and a sanitized portrayal of Southern history in public spaces and schools. Critics argue that the UDC's activities perpetuated racist ideologies by fostering nostalgia for the antebellum South and minimizing the horrors of slavery. In recent years, the role of the UDC and the Lost Cause myth has come under scrutiny amid debates over Confederate monuments and systemic racism in the United States. Many of the monuments and historical markers the UDC sponsored have been reevaluated and removed, sparking ongoing discussions about memory, heritage, and justice. Battlefield preservation {{Main\|American Civil War battlefield preservation}} released commemorative stamps for five famous battles, each issued on the 100th anniversary of the respective battle.]] The first efforts at Civil War battlefield preservation and memorialization came during the war, with the establishment of National Cemeteries at Gettysburg, Mill Springs and Chattanooga. Soldiers began erecting markers on battlefields beginning with the First Battle of Bull Run in 1861. The oldest surviving monument is the Hazen Brigade Monument near Murfreesboro in Central Tennessee, built in the summer of 1863 by soldiers in Union Col. William B. Hazen's brigade to mark the spot where they buried their dead, following the Battle of Stones River.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastWest \|firstMike \|dateApril 27, 2007 \|titleHazen's Monument a rare, historic treasure \|urlhttps://www.murfreesboropost.com/community/hazen-s-monument-a-rare-historic-treasure/article_0498c498-c95b-5569-8d8a-ce0830be17d7.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181118185935/https://www.murfreesboropost.com/community/hazen-s-monument-a-rare-historic-treasure/article_0498c498-c95b-5569-8d8a-ce0830be17d7.html \|archive-dateNovember 18, 2018 \|access-dateMay 30, 2018 \|work=Murfreesboro Post}}</ref> In the 1890s, the government established five Civil War battlefield parks under the jurisdiction of the War Department, beginning with the creation of the Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park at Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia, and the Antietam National Battlefield in Sharpsburg, Maryland, in 1890. The Shiloh National Military Park was established in 1894 in Shiloh, Tennessee, followed by the Gettysburg National Military Park in 1895, and Vicksburg National Military Park in 1899. In 1933, these five parks and other national monuments were transferred to the National Park Service.<ref>Timothy B. Smith, "The Golden Age of Battlefield Preservation" (2008; The University of Tennessee Press).</ref> Chief among modern efforts to preserve Civil War sites has been the American Battlefield Trust, with more than 130 battlefields in 24 states.<ref>Bob Zeller, "Fighting the Second Civil War: A History of Battlefield Preservation and the Emergence of the Civil War Trust", (2017: Knox Press)</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleSaved Land \|urlhttps://www.battlefields.org/preserve/saved-land \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190812162007/https://www.battlefields.org/preserve/saved-land \|archive-dateAugust 12, 2019 \|access-dateMay 30, 2018 \|publisherAmerican Battlefield Trust}}</ref> The five major battlefield parks operated by the National Park Service had a combined 3&nbsp;million visitors in 2018, down 70% from 10&nbsp;million in 1970.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastMcWhirter \|firstCameron \|dateMay 25, 2019 \|titleCivil War Battlefields Lose Ground as Tourist Draws \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/civil-war-battlefields-lose-ground-as-tourist-draws-11558776600?modsearchresults&page1&pos2 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191010233320/https://www.wsj.com/articles/civil-war-battlefields-lose-ground-as-tourist-draws-11558776600?modsearchresults&page1&pos2 \|archive-dateOctober 10, 2019 \|workThe Wall Street Journal}}</ref> Commemoration {{Further\|Commemoration of the American Civil War\|Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps}} {{multiple image \| align = right \| total_width = 230 \| direction = vertical \| image1 = Grand Army of the Republic issue 1948 3c.JPG \| alt1 \| caption1 Grand Army of the Republic (Union) \| image2 = United Confederate Veterans 1951 3c.JPG \| alt2 \| caption2 United Confederate Veterans \| caption_align = center \| footer = }} The Civil War has been commemorated in many capacities, ranging from the reenactment of battles to statues and memorial halls erected, films, stamps and coins with Civil War themes being issued, all of which helped to shape public memory. These commemorations occurred in greater numbers on the 100th and 150th anniversaries of the war.<ref name="Gallagher2008" /> Hollywood's take on the war has been especially influential in shaping public memory, as in such film classics as The Birth of a Nation (1915), Gone with the Wind (1939), and Lincoln (2012). Ken Burns's PBS television series The Civil War (1990) is well-remembered, though criticized for its historical inaccuracy.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleDebate over Ken Burns Civil War doc continues over decades \|urlhttps://www.spokesman.com/stories/2017/nov/04/debate-over-ken-burns-civil-war-doc-continues-over/ \|access-dateMay 4, 2020 \|websiteThe Spokesman-Review}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastMerritt \|firstKeri Leigh \|titleWhy We Need a New Civil War Documentary \|urlhttps://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/why-we-need-new-civil-war-documentary-180971996/ \|access-dateMay 4, 2020 \|magazineSmithsonian Magazine}}</ref> Technological significance Technological innovations during the war had a great impact on 19th-century science. The war was an early example of an "industrial war", in which technological might is used to achieve military supremacy.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Bailey \|first1Thomas \|titleThe American Pageant \|last2Kennedy \|first2David \|year1987 \|page434}}{{full citation needed\|dateAugust 2024 \|reasonSeveral volumes, several editions, none with this date.}}</ref> New inventions, such as the train and telegraph, delivered soldiers, supplies and messages at a time when horses had been the fastest way to travel.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastDome \|firstSteam \|year1974 \|titleA Civil War Iron Clad Car \|journalRailroad History \|publisherThe Railway & Locomotive Historical Society \|volume130 \|issueSpring 1974 \|pages51–53}}</ref><ref>William Rattle Plum, The Military Telegraph During the Civil War in the United States, Christopher H. Sterling (ed.) (New York: Arno Press, 1974) vol. 1 p. 63.</ref> It was also in this war that aerial warfare, in the form of reconnaissance balloons, was first used.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastBuckley \|firstJohn \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idYSSPAgAAQBAJ \|page6}} \|titleAir Power in the Age of Total War \|publisherRoutledge \|year2006 \|isbn978-1-135-36275-1 \|pages6, 24}}</ref> It saw the first action involving steam-powered ironclad warships in naval warfare history.<ref>Sondhaus, Naval Warfare 1815–1914 p. 77.</ref> Repeating firearms such as the Henry rifle, Spencer rifle, Colt revolving rifle, Triplett & Scott carbine and others, first appeared during the Civil War; they were a revolutionary invention that would soon replace muzzle-loading and single-shot firearms. The war saw the first appearances of rapid-firing weapons and machine guns such as the Agar gun and Gatling gun.{{sfn\|Keegan\|2009\|p75}} In works of culture and art by George Peter Alexander Healy portrays, from left to right, Sherman, Grant, Lincoln, and Porter discussing plans for the last weeks of the Civil War aboard the steamer River Queen'' in March 1865. It currently hangs in the Oval Office dining room.\|alt=Painting of four men conferring in a ship's cabin, entitled "The Peacemakers".]] The Civil War is one of the most studied events in American history, and the collection of cultural works around it is enormous.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastHutchison \|firstColeman \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idovYTCwAAQBAJ \|page278}} \|titleA History of American Civil War Literature \|publisherCambridge University Press \|year2015 \|isbn978-1-316-43241-9}}</ref> This section gives an abbreviated overview of the most notable works. Literature * ''When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd and O Captain! My Captain! (1865) by Walt Whitman, famous eulogies to Lincoln * Battle-Pieces and Aspects of the War (1866) poetry by Herman Melville * The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government (1881) by Jefferson Davis * The Private History of a Campaign That Failed (1885) by Mark Twain * Texar's Revenge, or, North Against South (1887) by Jules Verne * An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge (1890) by Ambrose Bierce * The Red Badge of Courage (1895) by Stephen Crane * The Challenge to Sirius (1917) by Sheila Kaye-Smith * Gone with the Wind (1936) by Margaret Mitchell * North and South (1982) by John Jakes * The March: A Novel'' (2005) by E. L. Doctorow, fictionalized account of Sherman's March to the Sea Film {{colbegin\|colwidth=25em}} * The Birth of a Nation (1915, U.S.) * The General (1926, U.S.) * Operator 13 (1934, U.S.) * Gone with the Wind (1939, U.S.) * The Red Badge of Courage (1951, U.S.) * The Horse Soldiers (1959, U.S.) * Shenandoah (1965, U.S.) * The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966, Italy-Spain-FRG) * The Beguiled (1971, U.S.) * The Outlaw Josey Wales (1976, U.S.) * North and South (miniseries; 1985–1994, U.S.) * Glory (1989, U.S.) * The Civil War (1990, U.S.) * Gettysburg (1993, U.S.) * The Last Outlaw (1993, U.S.) * Cold Mountain (2003, U.S.) * Gods and Generals (2003, U.S.) * Lincoln (2012, U.S.) * Free State of Jones (2016, U.S.) {{colend}} Music {{See also\|Music of the American Civil War}} {{colbegin\|colwidth=28em}} * "Dixie" * "Battle Cry of Freedom" * "Battle Hymn of the Republic" * "The Bonnie Blue Flag" * "John Brown's Body" * "When Johnny Comes Marching Home" * "Marching Through Georgia" * "The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down" {{colend}} Video games {{colbegin}} * North & South (1989, France) * ''Sid Meier's Gettysburg! (1997, U.S.) * Sid Meier's Antietam! (1999, U.S.) * American Conquest: Divided Nation (2006, U.S.) * Forge of Freedom: The American Civil War (2006, U.S.) * The History Channel: Civil War – A Nation Divided (2006, U.S.) * AGEOD's American Civil War (2007, U.S./France) * History Civil War: Secret Missions (2008, U.S.) * Call of Juarez: Bound in Blood (2009, U.S.) * Darkest of Days (2009, U.S.) * Victoria II: A House Divided (2011, U.S.) * AGEOD's American Civil War II (2013, U.S./France) * Ultimate General: Gettysburg (2014, Ukraine) * Ultimate General: Civil War (2016, Ukraine) * War of Rights'' (TBD, U.S.) {{colend}} See also {{stack\|{{portal\|American Civil War}}}} * American Civil War by state * Foreign enlistment in the American Civil War African Americans in the American Civil War German Americans in the American Civil War Hispanics in the American Civil War Irish Americans in the American Civil War Italian Americans in the Civil War Native Americans in the American Civil War Cherokee Choctaw * Outline of the American Civil War * Removal of Confederate monuments and memorials Notes {{reflist\|30em\|grouplower-alpha}} References {{reflist\|24em\|refs <ref name"Presidency.ucsb.edu">{{Cite web \|titleAbraham Lincoln: Proclamation 83 – Increasing the Size of the Army and Navy \|urlhttp://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid70123 \|access-dateNovember 3, 2011 \|publisherPresidency.ucsb.edu}}</ref> <ref name"Nofi2001">{{Cite web \|lastNofi \|firstAl \|author-linkAlbert Nofi \|dateJune 13, 2001 \|titleStatistics on the War's Costs \|urlhttp://www.cwc.lsu.edu/other/stats/warcost.htm \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070711050249/http://www.cwc.lsu.edu/other/stats/warcost.htm \|archive-dateJuly 11, 2007 \|access-dateOctober 14, 2007 \|publisher=Louisiana State University}}</ref> <ref name"Fehrenbacher2004">{{Cite journal \|lastFehrenbacher \|firstDon \|year2004 \|titleLincoln's Wartime Leadership: The First Hundred Days \|urlhttp://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?cjala;viewtext;rgnmain;idno2629860.0009.103 \|journalJournal of the Abraham Lincoln Association \|publisherUniversity of Illinois \|volume9 \|issue1 \|access-date=October 16, 2007}}</ref> <ref name="Blight2001">David W. Blight (2001) Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory.</ref> <ref name="Oates">Stephen B. Oates, The Approaching Fury: Voices of the Storm 1820–1861, p.&nbsp;125.</ref> <ref name"Manufactures1860">{{Cite web \|titleManufactures of the United States in 1860; Compiled from the original returns of the Eight Census \|urlhttp://www2.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1860c-01.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170817153653/https://www2.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1860c-01.pdf \|archive-date=August 17, 2017}}</ref> <ref name="Carter2006">Carter, Susan B. (ed.). The Historical Statistics of the United States: Millennial Edition (5 vols), 2006.</ref> <ref name="Snell2011">Snell, Mark A. (2011), West Virginia and the Civil War, History Press, Charleston, SC, p. 28.</ref> <ref name="Boritt">Gabor S. Boritt (ed.). Why the Confederacy Lost.</ref> <ref name="Foster1988">Gaines M. Foster (1988), Ghosts of the Confederacy: Defeat, the Lost Cause and the Emergence of the New South, 1865–1913.</ref> <!--ref name="confederate36">Mark A. Weitz (2005), More Damning than Slaughter: Desertion in the Confederate Army.</ref--> <ref name="Joan Waugh and Gary W">Joan Waugh and Gary W. Gallagher, eds. (2009), Wars within a War: Controversy and Conflict over the American Civil War (University of North Carolina Press).</ref> <ref name="Curry1964">Curry, Richard Orr (1964), A House Divided: A Study of the Statehood Politics and the Copperhead Movement in West Virginia, University of Pittsburgh Press, map on p. 49.</ref> <!--<ref name="counterpoint">C. Vann Woodward (1971), American Counterpoint: Slavery and Racism in the North-South Dialogue, p. 281.</ref>--> <!--ref name="desertion">Ella Lonn, Desertion During the Civil War (1928), pp.&nbsp;205–06.</ref--> <ref name="Fantina2006">Robert Fantina, Desertion and the American Soldier, 1776–2006 (2006), p.&nbsp;74.</ref> <ref name"Economist2011">{{Cite news \|dateMarch 31, 2011 \|titleFinally Passing \|urlhttp://www.economist.com/node/18486035?story_id18486035 \|url-accessregistration \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110420045142/http://www.economist.com/node/18486035?story_id18486035 \|archive-dateApril 20, 2011 \|newspaperThe Economist \|pages=23–25}}</ref> <ref name="Gallagher2008">Gary Gallagher, Causes Won, Lost, and Forgotten: How Hollywood and Popular Art Shape What We Know about the Civil War (Univ of North Carolina Press, 2008).</ref> <ref name="Lincoln1861">Abraham Lincoln, First Inaugural Address, Monday, March 4, 1861.</ref> <ref name="Murdock1971">Eugene Murdock, One Million Men: the Civil War draft in the North (1971).</ref> <ref name"NationalGeographic2003">{{Cite web \|lastYancey Hall \|dateJuly 1, 2003 \|titleU.S. Civil War Prison Camps Claimed Thousands \|urlhttp://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/07/0701_030701_civilwarprisons.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20030707041320/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/07/0701_030701_civilwarprisons.html \|archive-dateJuly 7, 2003 \|websiteNational Geographic News}}</ref> <ref name="Nevins1959 pp. 119–129">Nevins, The War for the Union (1959), 1:119–129.</ref> <ref name="Nevins1959 pp. 129–136">Nevins, The War for the Union (1959), 1:129–136.</ref> <ref name="Nevins1959 pp. 263–264">Allan Nevins, War for the Union 1862–1863, pp. 263–264.</ref> <ref name"Hacker2011">{{Cite news \|lastHacker \|firstJ. David \|dateSeptember 20, 2011 \|titleRecounting the Dead \|urlhttp://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/09/20/recounting-the-dead/ \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110925090025/http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/09/20/recounting-the-dead/ \|archive-dateSeptember 25, 2011 \|access-dateSeptember 22, 2011 \|workThe New York Times \|agency=Associated Press}}</ref> <ref name"Fox2008">Richard Wightman Fox (2008). "[https://web.archive.org/web/20110716083839/http://www.slate.com/toolbar.aspx?actionread&id=2180856 National Life After Death]". Slate.</ref> <ref name="Catton">Bruce Catton, Terrible Swift Sword, pp. 263–296.</ref> <ref name"Buchanan1860">{{Cite web \|lastBuchanan \|firstJames \|dateDecember 3, 1860 \|titleFourth Annual Message \|urlhttp://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid29501 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081220011320/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid29501 \|archive-dateDecember 20, 2008 \|access-dateNovember 28, 2012 \|via=The American Presidency Project}}</ref> <ref name"PresidencyProject1865a">{{Cite web \|lastLincoln \|firstAbraham \|dateApril 11, 1865 \|othersOnline by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley \|titleProclamation 128—Claiming Equality of Rights with All Maritime Nations \|urlhttps://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/202896 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221116151716/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/proclamation-128-claiming-equality-rights-with-all-maritime-nations \|archive-dateNovember 16, 2022 \|access-dateJuly 25, 2022 \|websiteThe American Presidency Project \|publisher=University of California, Santa Barbara}} The proclamation did not use the term "belligerent rights".</ref> <ref name"PresidencyProject1865b">{{Cite web \|lastJohnson \|firstAndrew \|dateMay 10, 1865 \|othersOnline by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley \|titleProclamation 132—Ordering the Arrest of Insurgent Cruisers \|urlhttps://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/203414 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221116151715/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/proclamation-132-ordering-the-arrest-insurgent-cruisers \|archive-dateNovember 16, 2022 \|access-dateJuly 25, 2022 \|websiteThe American Presidency Project \|publisher=University of California, Santa Barbara}} The proclamation did not use the term "belligerent rights".</ref> <!-- The following references appeared in the reflist but were not used in the prior text. Please return them to the reflist once they have been correctly cited in the main article. <ref name"United States Volunteers – Indian Troops">{{Cite web \|dateJanuary 28, 2008 \|titleUnited States Volunteers – Indian Troops \|urlhttp://www.civilwararchive.com/Unreghst/unindtr.htm \|access-dateAugust 10, 2008 \|websitecivilwararchive.com}}</ref> <ref name="Forrest McDonald 2002">Forrest McDonald (2002) ''States' Rights and the Union: Imperium in Imperio, 1776–1876''.</ref> <ref name"Lincoln's Call for Troops">{{Cite web \|titleLincoln's Call for Troops \|url=http://www.civilwarhome.com/lincolntroops.htm}}</ref> <ref name"Lincoln's Call to Arms">{{Cite web \|lastBornstein \|firstDavid \|dateApril 14, 2011 \|titleLincoln's Call to Arms \|urlhttp://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/04/14/lincoln-declares-war/ \|access-dateAugust 11, 2011 \|websiteThe New York Times}}</ref> <ref name="progressive">Kenneth M. Stampp, The Imperiled Union: Essays on the Background of the Civil War (1981), p. 198; Richard Hofstadter, The Progressive Historians: Turner, Beard, Parrington (1969).</ref> <ref name="republican18">"Republican Platform of 1860", in Kirk H. Porter, and Donald Bruce Johnson, eds. National Party Platforms, 1840–1956, (University of Illinois Press, 1956). p. 32.</ref> <ref name="sectionalism">Charles S. Sydnor, The Development of Southern Sectionalism 1819–1848 (1948).</ref> <ref name="sectionalism17">Robert Royal Russel, Economic Aspects of Southern Sectionalism, 1840–1861 (1973).</ref> <ref name="southern">Bertram Wyatt-Brown, The Shaping of Southern Culture: Honor, Grace, and War, 1760s–1880s (2000).</ref> <ref name="taussig">Frank Taussig, The Tariff History of the United States (1931), pp.&nbsp;115–61</ref> <ref name="nationalism">Avery Craven, The Growth of Southern Nationalism, 1848–1861 (1953).</ref> <ref name="nationalism19">Susan-Mary Grant, North over South: Northern Nationalism and American Identity in the Antebellum Era (2000); Melinda Lawson, Patriot Fires: Forging a New American Nationalism in the Civil War North (2005).</ref> <ref name="infantry">Mark Johnson, That Body of Brave Men: the U.S. regular infantry and the Civil War in the West (2003), p. 575.</ref> <ref name="proclamation">Frank J. Williams, "'Doing Less' and 'Doing More': The President and the Proclamation – Legally, Militarily and Politically", in Harold Holzer, Edna Greene Medford, and Frank J. Williams, The Emancipation Proclamation: Three Views (2006), pp. 74–75.</ref> <ref name="teachinghistory">Hamner, Christopher. "[http://teachinghistory.org/history-content/ask-a-historian/24413 Great Expectations for the Civil War]." [http://www.teachinghistory.org/ Teachinghistory.org]. Retrieved July 11, 2011.</ref> <ref name="abolitionists">David Brion Davis, Inhuman Bondage (2006). p.&nbsp;197, 409; Stanley Harrold, The Abolitionists and the South, 1831–1861 (1995) p. 62; Jane H. and William H. Pease, "Confrontation and Abolition in the 1850s" Journal of American History (1972) 58(4): 923–37.</ref> <ref name="civil-war">[http://www.civil-war.net/pages/1860_census.html 1860 Census Results], The Civil War Home Page.</ref> <ref name="abraham">Abraham Lincoln, Speech at New Haven, Conn., March 6, 1860.</ref> <ref name="butterfield">Fox Butterfield; ''All God's Children, p. 17.</ref> <ref name="trager">The People's Chronology, 1994 by James Trager.</ref> <ref name="secessionists">William W. Freehling, The Road to Disunion: Secessionists Triumphant, 1854–1861, pp. 9–24.</ref> <ref name="Freehling">William W. Freehling, The Road to Disunion: Secessionists Triumphant, 1854–1861, pp. 269–462, p. 274. (The quote about slave states "encircled by fire" is from the New Orleans Delta, May 13, 1860.)</ref> <ref name="representatives">Most of her slave owners are "decent, honorable people, themselves victims" of that institution. Much of her description was based on personal observation, and the descriptions of Southerners; she herself calls them and Legree representatives of different types of masters.;Gerson, Harriet Beecher Stowe, p. 68; Stowe, Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin (1953), p. 39.</ref> <ref name="american">Quoted in Eric Foner, The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery'' (2010), p. 100.</ref> <ref name"Voices from the Gathering Storm: The Coming of the American Civil War">{{Cite book \|lastLinden \|firstGlenn M. \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idF20ZsA5ZeeEC \|page184}} \|titleVoices from the Gathering Storm: The Coming of the American Civil War \|publisherRowman & Littlefield \|year2001 \|isbn978-0-8420-2999-5 \|locationUnited States \|page236 \|quotePrevent, as far as possible, any of our friends from demoralizing themselves, and our cause, by entertaining propositions for compromise of any sort, on slavery extension. There is no possible compromise upon it, but which puts us under again, and leaves all our work to do over again. Whether it be a Mo. Line, or Eli Thayer's Pop. Sov. It is all the same. Let either be done, & immediately filibustering and extending slavery recommences. On that point hold firm, as with a chain of steel. – Abraham Lincoln to Elihu B. Washburne, December 13, 1860}}</ref> <ref name="AvalonProject">Winkler, E. [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_texsec.asp "A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union"]. Journal of the Secession Convention of Texas. Retrieved October 16, 2007.</ref> <ref name="william">William C. Davis, Look Away, pp. 130–40.</ref> <ref name="townsend">John Townsend, The Doom of Slavery in the Union, its Safety out of it, October 29, 1860.</ref> <ref name="secessionist">Lipset looked at the secessionist vote in each Southern state in 1860–61. In each state he divided the counties into high, medium or low proportion of slaves. He found that in the 181 high-slavery counties, the vote was 72% for secession. In the 205 low-slavery counties. the vote was only 37% for secession. (And in the 153 middle counties, the vote for secession was in the middle at 60%). Seymour Martin Lipset, Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics (Doubleday, 1960), p. 349.</ref> <ref name="schlesinger">Schlesinger Age of Jackson, p. 190.</ref> <ref name="sandford">Roger B. Taney: Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857).</ref> <ref name="reconstruction">James G. Randall and David Donald, Civil War and Reconstruction (1961), p. 68.</ref> <ref name="republican">Eric Foner. Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party Before the Civil War (1970), p. 9.</ref> <ref name="randall">Randall and Donald, p. 67.</ref> <ref name="Texas12">A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union, February 2, 1861 – [http://www2.tsl.state.tx.us/ref/abouttx/secession/2feb1861.html A declaration of the causes which impel the State of Texas to secede from the Federal Union.]</ref> <ref name="photography">Kathleen Collins, "The Scourged Back", History of Photography 9 (January 1985): 43–45.</ref> <ref name="secession">Maury Klein, Days of Defiance: Sumter, Secession, and the Coming of the Civil War (1999).</ref> <ref name="profession">Allan Peskin, Winfield Scott and the profession of arms (2003), pp. 249–52.</ref> <ref name="international">Dean B. Mahin, One war at a time: the international dimensions of the American Civil War(2000) ch 6</ref> <ref name"MissFacts">{{Cite web \|year1998 \|titleCivil War in Missouri Facts \|urlhttp://home.usmo.com/~momollus/MOFACTS.HTM \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071016074650/http://home.usmo.com/~momollus/MOFACTS.HTM \|archive-dateOctober 16, 2007 \|access-dateOctober 16, 2007}}</ref> --> }} Bibliography {{Main\|Bibliography of the American Civil War\|Bibliography of early American naval history#American Civil War\|label2Bibliography of American Civil War naval history}} Sources referenced {{refbegin\|30em}} * {{Cite book \|lastAnderson \|firstBern \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|id41-3swEACAAJ}} \|titleBy Sea and By River: The naval history of the Civil War \|publisherHachette \|year1989 \|isbn=978-0-306-80367-3}} * {{Cite book \|last1Asante \|first1Molefi Kete \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idRcBkDlJ7qjwC \|page82}} \|titleEncyclopedia of Black Studies \|last2Mazama \|first2Ama \|publisherSAGE \|year2004 \|isbn978-0-7619-2762-4 \|location=Thousand Oaks, CA}} * {{Cite magazine \|lastBaker \|firstKevin \|dateFebruary–March 2003 \|titleViolent City \|urlhttp://americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/2003/1/2003_1_17.shtml \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101019000238/http://americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/2003/1/2003_1_17.shtml \|archive-dateOctober 19, 2010 \|access-dateJuly 29, 2010 \|magazineAmerican Heritage Magazine \|volume54 \|issue=1}} * {{Cite journal \|lastBlair \|firstWilliam A. \|year2015 \|titleFinding the Ending of America's Civil War \|journalThe American Historical Review \|publisherOxford University Press \|volume120 \|issue5 \|pages1753–1766 \|doi10.1093/ahr/120.5.1753 \|issn0002-8762 \|jstor43697075}} * {{Cite book \|lastBradley \|firstMark L. \|urlhttps://history.army.mil/html/books/075/75-17/cmhPub_75-17.pdf \|titleThe Civil War Ends \|year2015 \|publisherUS Army, Center of Military History \|access-dateMay 26, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220526083556/https://history.army.mil/html/books/075/75-17/cmhPub_75-17.pdf \|archive-dateMay 26, 2022 \|url-statuslive}} * {{Cite book \|lastCanney \|firstDonald L. \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|ido_fB_SD5QhIC}} \|titleLincoln's Navy: The Ships, Men and Organization, 1861–65 \|publisherNaval Institute Press \|year1998 \|isbn978-1-55750-519-4 \|locationAnnapolis, MD}} * {{Cite book \|last1Chambers \|first1John W. \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|id_Rzy_yNMKbcC}} \|titleThe Oxford Companion to American Military History \|last2Anderson \|first2Fred \|publisherOxford University Press \|year1999 \|isbn=978-0-19-507198-6}} * {{Cite book \|lastCatton \|firstBruce \|author-linkBruce Catton \|titleThe Centennial History of the Civil War \|volume3: Never Call Retreat \|year1965 \|publisherDoubleday \|locationGarden City, NY}} * {{Cite book \|lastCoulter \|firstE. Merton \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idZ2_ZM0dWVrsC \|page308}} \|titleThe Confederate States of America, 1861–1865: A History of the South \|publisherLouisiana State University Press \|year1950 \|isbn978-0-8071-0007-3}} * {{Cite book \|lastDavis \|firstJefferson \|author-linkJefferson Davis \|titleThe Rise And Fall Of The Confederate Government \|date1881 \|publisherD. Appleton & Co. \|volumeII \|locationNew York \|oclc=1249017603}} * {{Cite book \|lastDinçaslan \|firstM. Bahadırhan \|titleAmerikan İç Savaşı El Kitabı \|publisherAltınordu Yayınları Press \|year2022 \|isbn978-6-257-61066-7 \|locationAnkara \|languagetr \|trans-title=American Civil War Handbook}} * {{Cite book \|lastDonald \|firstDavid Herbert \|author-linkDavid Herbert Donald \|titleLincoln \|publisherSimon & Schuster \|year1995 \|isbn978-0-684-80846-8 \|locationNew York}} * {{Cite book \|lastDoyle \|firstDon H. \|titleThe Cause of All Nations: An International History of the American Civil War \|year2015 \|publisherBasic \|locationNew York}} * {{Cite book \|lastDraper \|firstJohn William \|author-linkJohn William Draper \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.278844 \|titleHistory of the American Civil War \|year1870 \|publisherHarper & Brothers \|volume3 \|locationNew York \|oclc830251756 \|access-date=July 28, 2022}} * {{Cite book \|lastDunkerly \|firstRobert M. \|titleTo the Bitter End: Appomattox, Bennett Place and the Surrenders of the Confederacy \|publisherSavas Beatie \|year2015 \|isbn978-1-61121-252-5 \|location=El Dorado Hills, CA}} * {{Cite book \|lastDyer \|firstFrederick H. \|author-linkFrederick H. Dyer \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/08697590.3359.emory.edu \|titleA compendium of the War of the Rebellion \|year1908 \|publisherDyer \|locationDes Moines, IA \|oclc=8697590}} * {{Cite book \|lastFoner \|firstEric \|author-linkEric Foner \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idrQSYk-LWTxcC}} \|titlePolitics and Ideology in the Age of the Civil War \|publisherOxford University Press \|year1981 \|isbn978-0-19-502926-0 \|access-date=April 20, 2012}} * {{Cite book \|lastFoner \|firstEric \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idearytjxi6pEC}} \|titleThe Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery \|publisherW. W. Norton \|year2010 \|isbn978-0-393-34066-2 \|locationNew York}} * {{Cite book \|lastFoote \|firstShelby \|titleThe Civil War: A Narrative \|volume1: Fort Sumter to Perryville \|title-linkThe Civil War: A Narrative \|publisherVintage \|year1974 \|isbn978-0-394-74623-4 \|location=New York}} * {{Cite book \|last1Frank \|first1Joseph Allan \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idJ_GlcVOb374C \|page170}} \|titleSeeing the Elephant: Raw Recruits at the Battle of Shiloh \|last2Reaves \|first2George A. \|publisherUniversity of Illinois Press \|year2003 \|isbn978-0-252-07126-3 \|location=Urbana}} * {{Cite book \|lastFuller \|firstHoward J. \|titleClad in Iron: The American Civil War and the Challenge of British Naval Power \|publisherNaval Institute Press \|year2008 \|isbn978-1-59114-297-3 \|location=Annapolis, MD}} * {{Cite book \|last1Gallagher \|first1Gary W. \|titleThe American Civil War: This Mighty Scourge of War \|last2Engle \|first2Stephen D. \|last3Krick \|first3Robert K. \|last4Glatthaar \|first4Joseph T. \|publisherOsprey \|year2003 \|isbn978-1-84176-736-9 \|location=New York}} * {{Cite book \|lastGrant \|firstUlysses S. \|author-linkUlysses S. Grant \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.160835 \|titlePersonal Memoirs of U.S. Grant \|year1886 \|publisherCharles L. Webster & Co. \|volume2 \|locationNew York \|oclc255136538}} * {{Cite book \|lastGreeley \|firstHorace \|author-linkHorace Greeley \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/americanconflic00greegoog \|titleThe American Conflict: A History of the Great Rebellion in the United States, 1860–'65 \|date1866 \|publisherO. D. Case & Co. \|volumeII \|locationHartford \|oclc936872302}} * {{Cite book \|last1Heidler \|first1David S. \|titleEncyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History \|last2Heidler \|first2Jeanne T. \|last3Coles \|first3David J. \|publisherABC-CLIO \|year2002 \|isbn978-1-57607-382-7 \|location=Santa Barbara, CA}} * {{Cite book \|lastHerring \|firstGeorge C. \|titleFrom Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776 \|publisherOxford University Press \|year2011 \|isbn978-0-19-976553-9}} * {{Cite book \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idxLbkXsn6xHAC \|page174}} \|titleLincoln and Freedom: Slavery, Emancipation, and the Thirteenth Amendment \|publisherSouthern Illinois University Press \|year2007 \|isbn978-0-8093-2764-5 \|editor-lastHolzer \|editor-firstHarold \|editor-linkHarold Holzer \|locationCarbondale \|editor-last2Gabbard \|editor-first2Sara Vaughn}} * {{Cite book \|lastHunt \|firstJeffrey William \|titleThe Last Battle of the Civil War: Palmetto Ranch \|year2015 \|publisherUniversity of Texas Press \|isbn978-0-292-73461-6 \|location=Austin}} * {{Cite book \|lastJohnson \|firstTimothy D. \|titleWinfield Scott: The Quest for Military Glory \|publisherUniversity Press of Kansas \|year1998 \|isbn978-0-7006-0914-7 \|location=Lawrence}} * {{Cite book \|lastJones \|firstHoward \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idTFyLOUrdGFwC \|page225}} \|titleCrucible of Power: A History of American Foreign Relations to 1913 \|publisherRowman & Littlefield \|year2002 \|isbn978-0-8420-2916-2 \|location=Wilmington, DE}} * {{Cite book \|lastJones \|firstTerry L. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idET6CDfczq9gC&pgPA203 \|titleHistorical Dictionary of the Civil War \|publisherScarecrow Press \|year2011 \|isbn=978-0-8108-7953-9}} * {{Cite book \|lastKeegan \|firstJohn \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/americancivilwar00keeg \|titleThe American Civil War: A Military History \|publisherAlfred A. Knopf \|year2009 \|isbn978-0-307-26343-8 \|locationNew York}} * {{Cite journal \|lastKeller \|firstChristian B. \|dateJanuary 2009 \|titleFlying Dutchmen and Drunken Irishmen: The Myths and Realities of Ethnic Civil War Soldiers \|journalJournal of Military History \|volume73 \|issue1 \|pages117–145 \|doi=10.1353/jmh.0.0194}} * {{Cite book \|lastLeonard \|firstElizabeth D. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/alldaringofsoldi00leon/page/165/mode/1up \|titleAll the Daring of the Soldier: Women of the Civil War Armies \|date1999 \|publisherW.W. Norton & Co. \|isbn0-393-04712-1 \|url-accessregistration}} * {{Cite book \|lastLong \|firstE. B. \|titleThe Civil War Day by Day: An Almanac, 1861–1865 \|year1971 \|publisherDoubleday \|locationGarden City, NY \|oclc=68283123}} * {{Cite book \|lastMcPherson \|firstJames M. \|titleBattle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era \|title-linkBattle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era \|publisherOxford University Press \|year1988 \|isbn=978-0-19-503863-7}} * {{Cite book \|lastMcPherson \|firstJames M. \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|id1qhEHVki8tEC}} \|titleFor Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War \|publisherOxford University Press \|year1997 \|isbn978-0-19-974105-2 \|locationOxford; New York}} * {{Cite journal \|lastMendelsohn \|firstAdam \|year2012 \|titleSamuel and Saul Isaac: International Jewish Arms Dealers, Blockade Runners, and Civil War Profiteers \|urlhttps://www.jewishsouth.org/sites/default/files/sjh_v._15_2012_mendelsohn.pdf \|url-statuslive \|journalJournal of the Southern Jewish Historical Society \|publisherSouthern Jewish Historical Society \|volume15 \|pages41–79 \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.jewishsouth.org/sites/default/files/sjh_v._15_2012_mendelsohn.pdf \|archive-dateOctober 9, 2022}} * {{Cite book \|lastMurray \|firstRobert B. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/northcarolinahis1967nort \|titleThe End of the Rebellion \|dateAutumn 1967 \|publisherThe North Carolina Historical Review}} * {{Cite book \|last1Murray \|first1Williamson \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idld8NPYqqUnMC \|page235}} \|titleThe Making of Strategy: Rulers, States, and War \|last2Bernstein \|first2Alvin \|last3Knox \|first3MacGregor \|publisherCambridge University Press \|year1996 \|isbn978-0-521-56627-8}} * {{Cite book \|lastNeely \|firstMark E. \|author-linkMark E. Neely Jr. \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idzPV2AAAAMAAJ}} \|titleConfederate Bastille: Jefferson Davis and Civil Liberties \|publisherMarquette University Press \|year1993 \|isbn978-0-87462-325-3 \|location=Milwaukee, WI}} * {{Cite book \|lastNeff \|firstStephen C. \|titleJustice in Blue and Gray: A Legal History of the Civil War \|publisherHarvard University Press \|year2010 \|isbn978-1-61121-252-5 \|location=Cambridge, MA}} * {{Cite book \|lastNelson \|firstJames L. \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idd8XD-j--EVsC \|page149}} \|titleReign of Iron: The Story of the First Battling Ironclads, the Monitor and the Merrimack \|publisherHarperCollins \|year2005 \|isbn978-0-06-052404-3 \|location=New York}} * {{Cite book \|lastNolan \|firstAlan T. \|titleThe Myth of the Lost Cause and Civil War History \|year2000 \|editor-lastGallagher \|editor-firstGary W. \|editor-last2Nolan \|editor-first2Alan T.}} * {{Cite book \|last1Potter \|first1David M. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/impendingcrisis00pott \|titleThe Impending Crisis, 1848–1861 \|last2Fehrenbacher \|first2Don E. \|publisherHarper & Row \|year1976 \|isbn978-0-06-013403-7 \|locationNew York \|url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book \|lastRichter \|firstWilliam L. \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idobFt-MmS6ygC \|page49}} \|titleThe A to Z of the Civil War and Reconstruction \|publisherScarecrow \|year2009 \|isbn978-0-8108-6336-1 \|location=Lanham}} * {{Cite book \|lastRobertson \|firstJames I. Jr. \|author-linkJames I. Robertson Jr. \|urlhttps://www.gutenberg.org/files/58549/58549-h/58549-h.htm#c10 \|titleThe Civil War \|publisherCivil War Centennial Commission \|year1963 \|locationWashington, DC \|oclc=299955768}} * {{Cite book \|lastSchecter \|firstBarnet \|titleThe Devil's Own Work: The Civil War Draft Riots and the Fight to Reconstruct America \|year2007}} * {{Cite book \|lastStephenson \|firstNathaniel W. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/dayconfederacya01stepgoog/page/n220/mode/2up?refol&viewtheater \|titleThe Day of the Confederacy. Vol. 30, A Chronicle of the Embattled South \|year1919 \|publisherNew Haven: Yale University Press; Toronto: Glasgow, Brook & Co.; London: Oxford University Press \|series=The Chronicles Of America Series}} * {{Cite book \|lastStern \|firstPhillip Van Doren \|author-linkPhilip Van Doren Stern \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idGDeqAAAAIAAJ}} \|titleThe Confederate Navy \|publisherDoubleday \|year=1962}} * {{Cite book \|last1Symonds \|first1Craig L. \|author-link1Craig Symonds \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idq_HIcc8n3K4C}} \|titleThe Naval Institute Historical Atlas of the U.S. Navy \|last2Clipson \|first2William J. \|publisherNaval Institute Press \|year2001 \|isbn978-1-55750-984-0}} * {{Cite book \|lastTrudeau \|firstNoah Andre \|author-linkNoah Andre Trudeau \|titleOut of the Storm: The End of the Civil War, April–June 1865 \|publisherLittle, Brown & Co. \|year1994 \|isbn978-0-316-85328-6 \|locationBoston}} * {{Cite book \|last1Tucker \|first1Spencer C. \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idq4mwAtj2r3UC \|page462}} \|titleThe Civil War Naval Encyclopedia \|last2Pierpaoli \|first2Paul G. \|last3White \|first3William E. \|publisherABC-CLIO \|year2010 \|isbn978-1-59884-338-5 \|location=Santa Barbara, CA}} * {{Cite book \|lastVinovskis \|firstMaris \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|id9D4TAwc93VoC}} \|titleToward a Social History of the American Civil War: Exploratory Essays \|publisherCambridge University Press \|year1990 \|isbn=978-0-521-39559-5}} * {{Cite book \|lastWard \|firstGeoffrey R. \|titleThe Civil War: An Illustrated History \|publisherAlfred A. Knopf \|year1990 \|isbn978-0-394-56285-8 \|location=New York}} * {{Cite book \|lastWeigley \|firstFrank Russell \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/greatcivilwarmil00russ \|titleA Great Civil War: A Military and Political History, 1861–1865 \|publisherIndiana University Press \|year2004 \|isbn978-0-253-33738-2 \|locationBloomington}} * {{Cite book \|lastWinters \|firstJohn D. \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idPjicJWUQhPYC&pgPR3}} \|titleThe Civil War in Louisiana \|publisherLouisiana State University Press \|year1963 \|isbn978-0-8071-0834-5 \|location=Baton Rouge}} * {{Cite book \|lastWise \|firstStephen R. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0i-KzgEACAAJ \|titleLifeline of the Confederacy: Blockade Running During the Civil War \|publisherUniversity of South Carolina Press \|year1991 \|isbn978-0-87249-799-3}} * {{Cite book \|lastWittke \|firstCarl \|titleRefugees of Revolution \|publisherUniversity of Pennsylvania Press \|year1952 \|isbn978-1-5128-0874-2 \|location=Philadelphia}} * {{Cite book \|lastWoodworth \|firstSteven E. \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idrb3ANWoZt1YC}} \|titleThe American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research \|publisherGreenwood \|year1996 \|isbn978-0-313-29019-0 \|locationWesport, CT}} {{refend}} Web sources {{refbegin}} * {{Cite web \|lastDowns \|firstJames \|dateApril 13, 2012 \|titleColorblindness in the demographic death toll of the Civil War \|urlhttps://blog.oup.com/2012/04/black-white-demographic-death-toll-civil-war/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180119065611/https://blog.oup.com/2012/04/black-white-demographic-death-toll-civil-war/ \|archive-dateJanuary 19, 2018 \|website=Oxford University Press blog}} {{refend}} Further reading {{refbegin\|30em}} * {{Cite book \|lastAhlstrom \|firstSydney E. \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|id5kFF6a1viGcC}} \|titleA Religious History of the American People \|publisherYale University Press \|year1972 \|isbn978-0-300-01762-5 \|locationNew Haven, CT}} * {{Cite book \|last1Beringer \|first1Richard E. \|titleWhy the South Lost the Civil War \|last2Hattaway \|first2Herman \|last3Jones \|first3Archer \|last4Still \|first4William N. Jr. \|publisherUniversity of Georgia Press \|year1986 \|isbn978-0-8203-0815-9 \|locationAthens}} Influential analysis of factors; an abridged version is {{Cite book \|lastBeringer \|firstRichard E. \|titleThe Elements of Confederate Defeat: Nationalism, War Aims, and Religion \|publisherUniversity of Georgia Press \|year1988 \|isbn978-0-8203-1077-0 \|locationAthens}} * {{Cite journal \|lastBestor \|firstArthur \|year1964 \|titleThe American Civil War as a Constitutional Crisis \|journalAmerican Historical Review \|volume69 \|issue2 \|pages327–352 \|doi10.2307/1844986 \|jstor1844986}} * {{Cite book \|lastGallagher \|firstGary W. \|titleThe Union War \|publisherHarvard University Press \|year2011 \|isbn978-0-674-06608-3 \|location=Cambridge, MA}} * {{Cite book \|titleNew Perspectives on the Union War \|publisherFordham University Press \|year2019 \|isbn978-0-8232-8456-6 \|editor-lastGallagher \|editor-firstGary W. \|editor-linkGary W. Gallagher \|locationNew York \|doi10.2307/j.ctvh1dnpx \|jstorj.ctvh1dnpx \|editor-last2Varon \|editor-first2Elizabeth R. \|editor-link2=Elizabeth R. Varon}} * {{Cite book \|lastGara \|firstLarry \|titleEssays on the Civil War and Reconstruction \|publisherHolt, Rinehart and Winston \|year1964 \|isbn978-0-03-079640-1 \|editor-lastUnger \|editor-firstIrwin \|editor-linkIrwin Unger \|locationNew York \|publication-date1970 \|chapterThe Fugitive Slave Law: A Double Paradox}} (originally published in Civil War History, Vol. 10, No. 3, September 1964, pp.&nbsp;229–240). * {{Cite journal \|lastHofstadter \|firstRichard \|author-linkRichard Hofstadter \|year1938 \|titleThe Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War \|journalAmerican Historical Review \|volume44 \|issue1 \|pages50–55 \|doi10.2307/1840850 \|jstor=1840850}} * {{Cite book \|lastJohannsen \|firstRobert W. \|titleStephen A. Douglas \|publisherOxford University Press \|year1973 \|isbn978-0-19-501620-8 \|location=New York}} * {{Cite book \|lastKrannawitter \|firstThomas L. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/vindicatinglinco00kran \|titleVindicating Lincoln: defending the politics of our greatest president \|publisherRowman & Littlefield \|year2008 \|isbn978-0-7425-5972-1 \|locationLanham, MD}} * {{Cite book \|lastMcPherson \|firstJames M. \|author-linkJames M. McPherson \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195313666 \|titleThis Mighty Scourge: Perspectives on the Civil War \|publisherOxford University Press \|year2007 \|isbn978-0-19-539242-5 \|url-access=registration}} * Nevins, Allan. Ordeal of the Union, an 8-volume set (1947–1971). the most detailed political, economic and military narrative; by Pulitzer Prize-winner. # Ordeal of the Union: Fruits of Manifest Destiny, 1847–1852; [https://archive.org/details/ordealofunion00nevi online]; # Ordeal of the Union: A House Dividing, 1852–1857; # The Emergence of Lincoln: Douglas, Buchanan, and Party Chaos, 1857–1859; # The Emergence of Lincoln: Prologue to Civil War, 1859–1861; # War for the Union: The Improvised War, 1861–1862; # War for the Union: War Becomes Revolution, 1862–1863; [https://archive.org/details/warforunionvol202nevi online]; # War for the Union: The Organized War, 1863–1864; # War for the Union: The Organized War to Victory, 1864–1865 * {{Cite book \|lastOlsen \|firstChristopher J. \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idRrBb2ThDuCkC \|page237}} \|titlePolitical Culture and Secession in Mississippi: Masculinity, Honor, and the Antiparty Tradition, 1830–1860 \|publisherOxford University Press \|year2002 \|isbn978-0-19-516097-0}} * {{Cite journal \|lastPotter \|firstDavid M. \|year1962 \|titleThe Historian's Use of Nationalism and Vice Versa \|journalAmerican Historical Review \|volume67 \|issue4 \|pages924–950 \|doi10.2307/1845246 \|jstor1845246}} * {{Cite book \|titleLeaders of the American Civil War: A Biographical and Historiographical Dictionary \|date1998 \|editor-lastRitter \|editor-firstCharles F. \|editor-last2Wakelyn \|editor-first2Jon L.}} Provides short biographies and historiographical summaries. * {{Cite journal \|lastRussell \|firstRobert R. \|year1966 \|titleConstitutional Doctrines with Regard to Slavery in Territories \|journalJournal of Southern History \|volume32 \|issue4 \|pages466–486 \|doi10.2307/2204926 \|jstor2204926}} * {{Cite book \|lastSheehan-Dean \|firstAaron \|urlhttps://www.wiley.com/en-us/A+Companion+to+the+U+S+Civil+War%2C+2+Volume+Set-p-9781444351316 \|titleA Companion to the U.S. Civil War \|dateApril 2014 \|publisherWiley-Blackwell \|isbn978-1-4443-5131-6 \|series2-Volume Set \|location=New York}} 1232 pp; 64 Topical chapters by scholars and experts; emphasis on historiography. * {{Cite book \|lastStampp \|firstKenneth M. \|author-linkKenneth M. Stampp \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/americain185700kenn \|titleAmerica in 1857: A Nation on the Brink \|publisherOxford University Press \|year1990 \|isbn978-0-19-503902-3 \|url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book \|last1Thornton \|first1Mark \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTv_ZLOx8_ywC \|titleTariffs, Blockades, and Inflation: The Economics of the Civil War \|last2Ekelund \|first2Robert Burton \|publisherSR \|year2004 \|isbn978-0-8420-2961-2 \|location=Wilmington, DE}} * {{Cite book \|lastVaron \|firstElizabeth R. \|author-linkElizabeth R. Varon \|titleDisunion!: The Coming of the American Civil War, 1789–1859 \|publisherUniversity of North Carolina Press \|year2008 \|isbn978-0-8078-3232-5 \|locationChapel Hill}} * {{Cite book \|lastWeeks \|firstWilliam E. \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|ide3thBAAAQBAJ}} \|titleThe New Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations \|publisherCambridge University Press \|year2013 \|isbn978-1-107-00590-7 \|volume1}} {{refend}} Soldier life: North and South {{refbegin\|30em}} * {{Cite book \|lastCarmichael \|firstPeter S. \|author-linkPeter S. Carmichael \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLfp1DwAAQBAJ \|titleThe War for the Common Soldier: How Men Thought, Fought, and Survived in Civil War Armies \|date2018 \|publisherThe University of North Carolina Press \|isbn978-1-4696-4309-0 \|seriesThe Littlefield history of the Civil War era \|location=Chapel Hill}} * {{Cite book \|last1Frank \|first1Joseph Allan \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idb67lCQAAQBAJ \|title'Seeing the Elephant': Raw Recruits at the Battle of Shiloh \|last2Reaves \|first2George A. \|date2003 \|publisherUniversity of Illinois Press \|isbn978-0-252-07126-3 \|locationUrbana \|orig-year1989 \|ref=none}} * {{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNZK6KP4zVqIC \|titleCivil War Prisons \|date1972 \|publisherKent State University Press \|isbn978-0-87338-131-4 \|editor-lastHesseltine \|editor-firstWilliam B. \|location=Kent, Ohio}} * {{Cite book \|lastLinderman \|firstGerald \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idGSbGEEjmcKUC \|titleEmbattled Courage: The Experience of Combat in the American Civil War \|date1989 \|publisherFree Press \|isbn978-1-4391-1857-3 \|location=New York}} * {{Cite book \|lastLivermore \|firstThomas L. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/numberlossesinci00live \|titleNumbers and Losses in the Civil War in America, 1861–65 \|date1901 \|publisherHoughton, Mifflin and Company \|location=Boston and New York}} * {{Cite book \|lastMcPherson \|firstJames M. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1qhEHVki8tEC \|titleFor Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War \|date1997 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-19-509023-9 \|locationNew York ; Oxford \|refnone}} * {{Cite book \|lastManning \|firstChandra \|author-linkChandra Manning \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idcOuDP5fwkTgC \|titleWhat This Cruel War Was Over: Soldiers, Slavery, and the Civil War \|date2007 \|publisherAlfred A. Knopf \|isbn978-0-307-26482-4 \|locationNew York \|oclc=ocm72989064}} Uses letters, diaries, and regimental newspapers to probe the world view of soldiers—black and white, Yankee and Rebel. ** [https://repository.lsu.edu/cwbr/vol9/iss3/2 Interview with author] * {{Cite book \|lastMitchell \|firstReid \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/civilwarsoldiers00mitc_0 \|titleCivil War Soldiers: Their Expectations and Their Experiences \|date1988 \|publisherViking \|isbn978-0-670-81742-9 \|locationNew York, N.Y., U.S.A \|url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book \|lastRobertson \|firstJames I. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/soldiersbluegray0000robe_y2i7 \|titleSoldiers Blue and Gray \|date1988 \|publisherUniversity of South Carolina Press \|isbn978-0-87249-572-2 \|seriesAmerican military history \|locationColumbia, S.C \|url-accessregistration}} * {{Cite book \|lastMeier \|firstKathryn \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRRuRAAAAQBAJ \|titleNature's Civil War: Common Soldiers and the Environment in 1862 Virginia \|date2013 \|publisherThe University of North Carolina Press \|isbn978-1-4696-1076-4 \|seriesCivil War America \|locationChapel Hill}} * {{Cite book \|lastWiley \|firstBell I. \|author-linkBell I. Wiley \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/lifeofjohnnyrebt0000bell/ \|titleThe Life of Johnny Reb and The Life of Billy Yank \|date1994 \|publisherBook-of-the-Month Club \|locationNew York \|url-access=registration}} Two standard scholarly histories combined, originals: {{Cite book \|lastWiley \|firstBell I. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/lifeofjohhnyreb0000unse \|titleThe Life of Johnny Reb: The Common Soldier of the Confederacy \|publisherBobbs-Merrill Company \|year1943 \|locationIndianopolis ; New York \|author-mask2 \|url-access=registration}} {{Cite book \|lastWiley \|firstBell I. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/lifeofbillyyank0000unse \|titleThe Life of Billy Yank: The Common Soldier of the Union \|publisherBobbs-Merrill Company \|year1952 \|locationIndianopolis ; New York \|author-mask2 \|url-access=registration}} {{refend}} External links {{sister project links\|auto1\|wikty \|commonsy \|ny \|qy \|sy \|by \|voyy \|v=y}} * [https://westpoint.edu/academics/academic-departments/history/american-civil-war West Point Atlas of Civil War Battles] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160818205335/http://www.archives.gov/research/civil-war/photos/index.html Civil War photos] at the National Archives * [https://www.loc.gov/pictures/search?stgrid&c100&co=cwp View images] from the [https://www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/cwp/ Civil War Photographs Collection] at the Library of Congress * {{Internet Archive short film\|idgov.archives.arc.54756\|nameA House Divided (1960)}} * [https://persuasivemaps.library.cornell.edu/browse-subject "American Civil World" maps at the Persuasive Cartography, The PJ Mode Collection], Cornell University Library * [https://www.battlefields.org/learn/primary-sources/declaration-causes-seceding-states Statements of each state as to why they were seceding], battlefields.org * [https://www.nps.gov/civilwar/places.htm National Park Service Civil War Places] * [https://www.nps.gov/subjects/battlefields/civil-war.htm Civil War Battlefield Places] from the National Park Service * [http://www.battlefields.org/ American Battlefield Trust] – A non-profit land preservation and educational organization with two divisions, the Civil War Trust and the Revolutionary War Trust, dedicated to preserving America's battlefields through land acquisitions. * [https://gettysburg.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p4016coll2 Civil War Era Digital Collection at Gettysburg College] – This collection contains digital images of political cartoons, personal papers, pamphlets, maps, paintings and photographs from the Civil War Era held in Special Collections at Gettysburg College. * [http://www.sonofthesouth.net/ The Civil War] – site with 7,000 pages, including the complete run of Harper's Weekly newspapers from the Civil War {{American Civil War}} {{Foreign countries in the American Civil War}} {{American conflicts}} {{Authority control}} <!--please leave the empty space as standard--> Category:Abraham Lincoln Category:Jefferson Davis Category:Ulysses S. Grant Category:Robert E. Lee Category:Civil wars in the United States Category:Conflicts in 1861 Category:Conflicts in 1862 Category:Conflicts in 1863 Category:Conflicts in 1864 Category:Conflicts in 1865 Category:1860s in the United States Category:1860s conflicts Category:Presidency of Abraham Lincoln Category:Rebellions against the United States Category:Separatist rebellion-based civil wars Civil War Category:Wars of independence	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War	2025-04-05T18:25:24.964196
864	Andy Warhol	{{Short description\|American artist, film director, and producer (1928–1987)}} {{Redirect\|Warhol\|\|Warhol (disambiguation)\|and\|Andy Warhol (disambiguation)}} {{pp-vandalism\|expiryindef\|smallyes}} {{pp-move}} {{Use American English\|date=July 2022}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=February 2025}} {{Infobox artist \| image = Andy Warhol at the Jewish Museum (by Bernard Gotfryd) – LOC.jpg \| alt \| caption Warhol in 1980 \| birth_name = Andrew Warhola Jr. \| birth_date = {{Birth date\|1928\|8\|6}} \| birth_place = Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S. \| field = Printmaking, painting, cinema, photography \| training = Carnegie Institute of Technology \| movement = Pop art \| works = {{ubl\|Chelsea Girls (1966 film)\|Exploding Plastic Inevitable (1966 event)\|''Campbell's Soup Cans (1962 painting)\|Marilyn Diptych (1962 painting)}} \| death_date = {{Death date and age\|1987\|2\|22\|1928\|8\|6}} \| module {{Infobox person\|childyes \| signature = Andy Warhol Autograph.svg}} \| death_place = New York City, U.S.<!-- No boroughs/neighborhoods, just cities per format --> \| style = Pop art, contemporary art \| resting_place = St. John the Baptist Byzantine Catholic Cemetery, Bethel Park, Pennsylvania \| partner = Jed Johnson (1968–1980) }} Andy Warhol ({{IPAc-en\|ˈ\|w\|ɔːr\|h\|ɒ\|l}};<ref name":12">Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary'': [http://www.dictionary.com/browse/warhol "Warhol"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170705175141/http://www.dictionary.com/browse/warhol \|dateJuly 5, 2017 }}</ref> born Andrew Warhola Jr.; August 6, 1928 – February 22, 1987) was an American visual artist, film director and producer. A leading figure in the pop art movement, Warhol is considered the most important artist of the second half of the 20th century.<ref name":31">{{Cite news \|lastCotter \|firstHolland \|dateNovember 8, 2018 \|titleMeet Warhol, Again, in This Brilliant Whitney Show \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/08/arts/design/warhol-review-donna-de-salvo-whitney-museum-celebrity-portrait.html \|access-dateApril 1, 2024 \|workThe New York Times \|quoteHe's the most important American artist of the second half of the 20th century.}}</ref><ref name":13">{{Cite news \|lastMetcalf \|firstStephen \|dateDecember 6, 2018 \|titleAndy Warhol, Cold and Mute, Is the Perfect Artist for Our Times \|urlhttps://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2019/01/andy-warhol-pop-art-whitney/576412/ \|access-dateApril 1, 2024 \|workThe Atlantic \|languageen \|issn2151-9463 \|quoteHe's now widely regarded as the most important artist of the second half of the 20th century.}}</ref><ref name":14">{{Cite magazine \|lastAcocella \|firstJoan \|dateJune 1, 2020 \|titleUntangling Andy Warhol \|urlhttps://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2020/06/08/untangling-andy-warhol \|access-dateApril 1, 2024 \|magazineThe New Yorker \|languageen-US \|issn0028-792X \|quoteThere was no huger reputation than Warhol's in the art of the sixties, and in late-twentieth-century art there was no more important decade than the sixties. Much of the art that has followed, in the United States, is unthinkable without him (...)}}</ref> His works explore the relationship between artistic expression, advertising, and celebrity culture that flourished by the 1960s, and span a variety of media, including painting, sculpture, photography, and filmmaking. Some of his best-known works include the silkscreen paintings ''Campbell's Soup Cans (1962) and Marilyn Diptych (1962), the experimental film Chelsea Girls (1966), the multimedia events known as the Exploding Plastic Inevitable (1966–67), and the erotic film Blue Movie'' (1969) that started the "Golden Age of Porn".<ref name="Canby-1969" /> Born and raised in Pittsburgh in a family of Rusyn immigrants, Warhol initially pursued a successful career as a commercial illustrator in the 1950s. After exhibiting his work in art galleries, he began to receive recognition as an influential and controversial artist in the 1960s. His New York studio, The Factory, became a well-known gathering place that brought together distinguished intellectuals, drag queens, playwrights, bohemian street people, Hollywood celebrities and wealthy patrons.<ref name"Trebay-2018">{{cite news \|last1Trebay \|first1Guy \|last2La Ferla \|first2Ruth \|titleTales From the Warhol Factory – In each of three successive spaces called the Factory, Andy Warhol created movies, paintings, time capsules and psychosexual dramas with a half-life of many decades. Here his collaborators recall the places, the times and the man. \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/12/style/andy-warhol-factory-history.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/12/style/andy-warhol-factory-history.html \|archive-dateJanuary 1, 2022 \|url-accesslimited \|dateNovember 12, 2018 \|workThe New York Times \|access-dateNovember 13, 2018 }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name"Pescovitz-2018">{{cite web \|lastPescovitz \|firstDavid \|titleMemories from Warhol's Factory \|urlhttps://boingboing.net/2018/11/12/memories-from-warhols-factor.html \|dateNovember 12, 2018 \|workBoing Boing \|access-dateNovember 13, 2018 \|archive-dateNovember 13, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181113002703/https://boingboing.net/2018/11/12/memories-from-warhols-factor.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"Rosen-2018">{{cite web \|lastRosen \|firstMiss \|titleJuicy Stories About What Andy Warhol Was Really Like – "Andy seemed to be floating through space. He had this magical energy and looked like nobody else." \|urlhttps://www.vice.com/en_us/article/j5z8b7/juicy-stories-about-andy-warhol \|dateNovember 13, 2018 \|workVice \|access-dateNovember 13, 2018 \|archive-dateNovember 14, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181114070409/https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/j5z8b7/juicy-stories-about-andy-warhol \|url-statuslive }}</ref> He directed and produced several underground films starring a collection of personalities known as Warhol superstars, and is credited with inspiring the widely used expression "15 minutes of fame." Warhol managed and produced the experimental rock band the Velvet Underground. Warhol expressed his queer identity through many of his works at a time when homosexuality was actively suppressed in the United States.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastGopnik \|firstBlake \|dateJanuary 18, 2021 \|titleAndy Warhol's Defiant Hopes for Queer Art \|urlhttps://hyperallergic.com/613511/andy-warhol-queer-art-blake-gopnik/ \|access-dateDecember 25, 2024 \|websiteHyperallergic \|languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleLGBTQ+ \|urlhttps://www.warhol.org/lgbtq/ \|access-dateDecember 25, 2024 \|websiteThe Andy Warhol Museum \|languageen-US}}</ref> After surviving an assassination attempt by radical feminist Valerie Solanas in June 1968, Warhol focused on transforming The Factory into a business enterprise.<ref name="Warhol-1980" /> He founded Interview magazine and authored numerous books, including The Philosophy of Andy Warhol (1975) and Popism: The Warhol Sixties (1980). He also hosted the television series Fashion (1979–80), ''Andy Warhol's TV (1980–83), and Andy Warhol's Fifteen Minutes'' (1985–87). Warhol died of cardiac arrhythmia, aged 58, after gallbladder surgery in February 1987. Warhol has been described as the "bellwether of the art market", with several of his works ranking among the most expensive paintings ever sold.<ref name":162">{{cite news \|dateNovember 13, 2013 \|titleAndy Warhol painting sells for $105M \|urlhttp://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/music-arts/andy-warhol-painting-sells-105m-article-1.1516240 \|access-dateNovember 13, 2013 \|workDaily News \|locationNew York}}</ref><ref name":152">{{cite news \|dateNovember 28, 2009 \|titleThe Pop master's highs and lows \|urlhttps://www.economist.com/special-report/2009/11/28/the-pop-masters-highs-and-lows \|access-dateFebruary 3, 2021 \|newspaperThe Economist}}</ref> In 2013, Silver Car Crash (Double Disaster) (1963) sold for $105&nbsp;million, setting a record for the artist. In 2022, Shot Sage Blue Marilyn (1964) sold for $195&nbsp;million, which is the highest price paid at auction for a work by an American artist. Warhol has been the subject of numerous retrospective exhibitions, books, and documentary films. The Andy Warhol Museum in his native city of Pittsburgh, which holds an extensive permanent collection of art and archives, is the largest museum in the United States dedicated to a single artist.Early life and education neighborhood of Pittsburgh]] Warhol was born on August 6, 1928, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.{{Sfn\|Bockris\|1997\|p15}} He was the fourth child of Ondrej Warhola (Americanized as Andrew Warhola Sr.; 1889–1942){{Sfn\|Bockris\|1997\|p25}} and Julia Warhola ({{nee\|Zavacká}}, 1891–1972).<ref>{{Cite web \|lastO'Driscoll \|firstBill \|date2024-12-10 \|titleThe mother of Pittsburgh-born Andy Warhol gets a biography of her own \|urlhttps://www.wesa.fm/arts-culture/2024-12-10/julia-warhola-biography-andy-warhol-elaine-rusinko \|access-date2025-03-16 \|website90.5 WESA \|languageen}}</ref> His parents were working-class Rusyn emigrants from Mikó, Czechoslovakia (now Miková in northeast Slovakia).<ref name":18">{{cite book \|last1Magocsi \|first1Paul Robert \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idovCVDLYN_JgC \|titleEncyclopedia of Rusyn History and Culture \|dateNovember 30, 2002 \|publisherUniversity of Toronto Press \|isbn978-0-8020-3566-0 \|page539 \|languageen \|quoteWarhol's mother and father emigrated from the Rusyn-inhabited village of Mikova in northeastern Slovakia to the United States on the eve of World War I.}}</ref><ref name":40">{{Cite journal \|lastWeinraub \|firstBernard \|dateNovember 1966 \|titleMothers \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/sim_esquire_1966-11_66_5/page/100/mode/2up \|journalEsquire \|volume66 \|issue5 \|pages101, 158}}</ref> In 1912, Warhol's father emigrated to the United States and found work in a coal mine.<ref name":11">{{Cite web \|dateMarch 27, 2018 \|titleSorting Fact from Fiction in Andy Warhol's Family History \|urlhttps://deepgenes.com/blog/2017/02/sorting-fact-from-fiction-in-andy-warhols-family-history/ \|access-dateJuly 11, 2024 \|languageen-US}}</ref> His wife joined him nine years later in 1921.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateMay 19, 2014 \|titleAndy Warhol's childhood \|urlhttps://newsinteractive.post-gazette.com/thedigs/2014/05/19/andy-warhols-childhood/ \|access-dateJuly 11, 2024 \|websiteOld Pittsburgh photos and stories {{!}} The Digs \|languageen-US}}</ref> The family lived at 55 Beelen Street and later at 3252 Dawson Street in the Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh.<ref name"Bockris-1989">{{Cite book \|lastBockris \|firstVictor \|author-linkVictor Bockris \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/lifedeathofandyw00bock/page/4 \|titleThe Life and Death of Andy Warhol \|publisherBantam Books \|year1989 \|isbn978-0-553-05708-9 \|locationNew York \|pages[https://archive.org/details/lifedeathofandyw00bock/page/4 4–5] \|oclc19631216}}</ref> They were Ruthenian Catholic and attended St. John Chrysostom Byzantine Catholic Church. Warhol had two older brothers, Paul (1922–2014) and John (1925–2010),<ref>{{Cite news \|lastGrimes \|firstWilliam \|dateDecember 29, 2010 \|titleJohn Warhola, Brother of Andy Warhol, Dies at 85 \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/29/arts/design/29warhola.html \|access-dateJuly 11, 2024 \|workThe New York Times \|languageen-US \|issn0362-4331}}</ref> as well as an older sister, Maria (1912; died in infancy).<ref name":40"/><ref name":11" /> Warhol's nephew James Warhola, became a successful children's book illustrator.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastHogan \|firstLauren \|dateJune 18, 2009 \|titleChildren's Author James Warhola Tells About His Crazy Uncle Andy (as in Warhol) \|urlhttps://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/childrens-author-james-warhola-tells-about-his-crazy-uncle-andy-as-in-warhol-9516641/ \|access-date2025-03-15 \|websiteSmithsonian Magazine \|language=en}}</ref> At the age of eight, Warhol had a streptococcal infection that led to scarlet fever.{{Sfn\|Gopnik\|2020\|p23}} Because there were no antibiotics to treat the illness it progressed to rheumatic fever and ultimately the neurological condition Sydenham's chorea, sometimes referred to as St. Vitus' Dance.{{Sfn\|Gopnik\|2020\|p23}} At times he was confined to bed and made to remain home from school. He would spend these days drawing, creating scrapbooks from Hollywood magazines, and cutting out images from comic books that his mother bought him.{{Sfn\|Gopnik\|2020\|pp26-27}}<ref name":40" /> He also enjoyed using the family's Kodak Baby Brownie Special camera, and after noticing his passion for photography, his father and brothers built a darkroom in the basement for him.{{Sfn\|Gopnik\|2020\|p=26}} , and his brother, John, {{circa}} 1930]]When Warhol started art classes at Holmes School in 1937, his art teacher saw his potential and got him admitted to Saturday drawing lessons at the Carnegie Institute in Pittsburgh.{{Sfn\|Gopnik\|2020\|p28}} In 1942, his father died after drinking contaminated water from a coal mine in West Virginia.<ref name":40"/> Warhol excelled in school and won a Scholastic Art and Writing Award.<ref>{{Cite web \|workScholastic Corporation \|access-dateMay 22, 2022 \|titleInspiring Young Artists & Writers \|urlhttps://www.scholastic.com/90years/ourStory17.htm \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101027013905/https://www.scholastic.com/90years/ourStory17.htm \|archive-dateOctober 27, 2010}}</ref><ref name":40" /> After graduating from Schenley High School in 1945, he enrolled at the Carnegie Institute of Technology in Pittsburgh, where he studied commercial art. During his time there, Warhol joined the campus Modern Dance Club and Beaux Arts Society.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAndy Warhol: The College Years \|urlhttp://www.warhol.org/responsive/event.aspx?id2077 \|websiteThe Andy Warhol Museum \|access-dateFebruary 9, 2015 \|refwarholmuse \|archive-dateFebruary 9, 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150209191855/http://www.warhol.org/responsive/event.aspx?id2077 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|titleHistory\|urlhttps://www.artandwriting.org/awards/history/\|access-dateJanuary 16, 2021\|websiteartandwriting.org\|languageen}}</ref> He also served as art director of the student art magazine, Cano, illustrating a cover in 1948 and a full-page interior illustration in 1949.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.warhol.org/Warhol/Content/collection/art/earlywork/1998-1-1590 \|titleSprite Heads Playing Violins, 1948 \|websitethe warhol \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150209190850/http://www.warhol.org/Warhol/Content/collection/art/earlywork/1998-1-1590/\|archive-dateFebruary 9, 2015}}</ref><ref name"Gopnik">{{cite web\|last1Gopnik\|first1Blake\|titleFeb 9, 2015: The Daily Pic\|urlhttp://blakegopnik.com/post/110535434580\|websiteBlake Gopnik on Art\|access-dateFebruary 9, 2015\|refgopnik\|archive-dateFebruary 9, 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150209194924/http://blakegopnik.com/post/110535434580\|url-statuslive}}</ref> These are believed to be his first two published artworks.<ref name"Gopnik"/> Warhol earned a Bachelor of Fine Arts in pictorial design in 1949.{{sfn\|Colacello\|1990\|p19}} Career 1940s Warhol moved to New York City with $200 a week after graduating from the Carnegie Institute of Technology in June 1949.{{Sfn\|Bockris\|1997\|p78}} He was accompanied by his classmate Philip Pearlstein.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastPearlstein \|firstPhilip \|date2014-04-25 \|titleIn Philip Pearlstein's Autobiography, Warhol Is a Major Character \|urlhttps://www.artnews.com/art-news/news/philip-pearlstein-autobiography-features-warhol-as-major-character-2417/ \|access-date2025-03-16 \|websiteARTnews.com \|languageen-US}}</ref> They lived in a six-floor walk-up tenement apartment on St. Mark's Place near Tompkins Square Park.{{Sfn\|Bockris\|1997\|p78}} Warhol went to see Tina Fredericks, the art director of Glamour magazine, on his second day in New York.{{Sfn\|Bockris\|1997\|p80}} He had met Fredericks on his brief visit to New York the year prior. His career as a commercial artist began when she commissioned him to draw shoes for an advertisement after purchasing a small $10 drawing of an orchestra for herself.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastSmith \|firstRoberta \|dateApril 16, 1989 \|titleWarhol Before The Soup \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/16/arts/gallery-view-warhol-before-the-soup.html \|access-dateMay 5, 2024 \|workThe New York Times \|languageen-US \|issn0362-4331}}</ref><ref name"Benstock2">Benstock, Shari and Suzanne Ferriss (editors). Footnotes: On Shoes; Rutgers University Press; February 1, 2001; {{ISBN\|978-0-8135-2871-7}}; pp. 44–48.</ref>1950sIn 1952, Alexander Iolas is credited as discovering Warhol, and he organized his first solo show at the Hugo Gallery in New York.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastBaboulias \|firstYiannis \|dateAugust 9, 2017 \|titleThe Man Who Discovered Warhol \|urlhttps://www.frieze.com/article/man-who-discovered-warhol \|access-dateApril 11, 2024 \|websitefrieze \|language=en}}</ref> In 1955, Warhol began designing advertisements for shoe manufacturer Israel Miller.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastCurley \|firstJohn J. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idfXS0AAAAQBAJ&dqMiller+warhol+1955&pgPA67 \|titleA Conspiracy of Images: Andy Warhol, Gerhard Richter, and the Art of the Cold War \|dateDecember 3, 2013 \|publisherYale University Press \|isbn978-0-300-18843-1 \|pages67 \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastGray \|firstChristopher \|dateFebruary 10, 2008 \|titleA Little Jewel Box of a Shoe Store \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/10/realestate/10scap.html \|access-dateJanuary 19, 2025 \|workThe New York Times \|languageen-US \|issn0362-4331}}</ref> He developed his "blotted line" technique, applying ink to paper and then blotting the ink while still wet, which was akin to a printmaking process on the most rudimentary scale. His use of tracing paper and ink allowed him to repeat the basic image and also to create endless variations on the theme.<ref name"Benstock"> Benstock, Shari and Suzanne Ferriss (editors). Footnotes: On Shoes; Rutgers University Press; February 1, 2001; {{ISBN\|978-0-8135-2871-7}}; pp. 44–48.</ref> American photographer John Coplans recalled that "nobody drew shoes the way Andy did. He somehow gave each shoe a temperament of its own, a sort of sly, Toulouse-Lautrec kind of sophistication, but the shape and the style came through accurately and the buckle was always in the right place. The kids in the apartment [which Andy shared in New York – note by Coplans] noticed that the vamps on Andy's shoe drawings kept getting longer and longer but [Israel] Miller didn't mind. Miller loved them."{{Citation needed\|date=January 2025}} In 1956, Warhol was included in his first group exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art, New York.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleAndy Warhol – Artists – Mnuchin Gallery\|urlhttps://www.mnuchingallery.com/artists/andy-warhol\|access-dateSeptember 11, 2021\|websitemnuchingallery.com}}</ref> That year, he traveled around the world with his friend, production designer Charles Lisanby, studying art and culture in several countries.<ref name":3">{{Cite web \|lastColker \|firstDavid \|dateSeptember 11, 2013 \|titleWarhol's Marilyn: Charles Lisanby could have hit jackpot but declined \|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/entertainment/arts/la-xpm-2013-sep-11-la-cm-charles-lisanby-warhol-marilyn-20130911-story.html \|access-dateApril 8, 2024 \|websiteLos Angeles Times \|language=en-US}}</ref> In 1956, Warhol began to sketch ornate footwear as a hobby.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMugrabi \|firstColby \|dateMarch 13, 2019 \|titleThe Shoes of Andy Warhol \|urlhttps://www.minniemuse.com/articles/musings/the-shoes-of-andy-warhol \|access-dateJanuary 19, 2025 \|websiteMinnie Muse \|languageen}}</ref> He designed whimsical shoes that were embellished with gold leaf, and each represented a famous figure such as Truman Capote, Kate Smith, James Dean, Julie Andrews, Elvis Presley, and Zsa Zsa Gabor.<ref name":22">{{Cite magazine \|dateJanuary 21, 1957 \|titleCrazy Golden Slippers \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPFQEAAAAMBAJ&pgPA13 \|magazineLife (Magazine) \|pages12–13}}</ref> They sold for $50 to $225 apiece when they were exhibited at the Bodley Gallery in New York in 1957.<ref name=":22" /> To attract attention to himself as an artist, Warhol printed books of his illustrations such as 25 Cats Name Sam and One Blue Pussy (1957), which he would distribute to people, in an attempt to generate work.<ref name":39">{{Cite book \|lastSmith \|firstP. S. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/warholconversati00patr/mode/2up?qlisanby \|titleWarhol: Conversations About the Artist \|date1988 \|publisherUMI Research Press \|isbn978-0-8357-1932-2 \|locationAnn Arbor \|pages141}}</ref><ref name"auto">{{Cite news \|lastSheppard \|firstEugenia \|date1957-02-07 \|titleHigh Fashion Highlights \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/the-columbia-record-warhols-book-25-cat/166869578/ \|access-date2025-02-28 \|workThe Columbia Record \|pages6–B}}</ref> He would often use his mother Julia Warhol's calligraphy to accompany his illustrations.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastSimon \|firstEd \|date2025-01-26 \|titleJulia Warhola Was an Artist in Her Own Right \|urlhttps://hyperallergic.com/985368/julia-warhola-was-an-artist-in-her-own-right/ \|access-date2025-02-28 \|websiteHyperallergic \|languageen-US}}</ref> Warhol habitually used the expedient of tracing photographs projected with an epidiascope.<ref>{{Citation \| last1Warhol \|first1Andy \|last2Glozer \|first2Laslo \|last3Schellmann \|first3Jörg \|last4Edition Schellmann \| titleAndy Warhol, art from art \|year1994 \| publisherEdition Schellmann; München : Schirmer/Mosel \| isbn978-3-88814-725-8 }}</ref> Using prints by Edward Wallowitch, his "first boyfriend",<ref name"Koestenbaun, Wayne-2015">{{Citation \| author1Koestenbaun, Wayne \| titleAndy Warhol : a biography \|year2015 \| publisherNew York, NY Open Road Integrated Media, Inc \| isbn978-1-4976-9989-2 }}</ref> the photographs would undergo a subtle transformation during Warhol's often cursory tracing of contours and hatching of shadows. Warhol used Wallowitch's photograph Young Man Smoking a Cigarette ({{circa\|1956}})<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://flavorwire.com/573987/warhol-by-the-book-reveals-the-icons-fascinating-career-as-a-book-artist/8 \|titleEdward Wallowitch Young Man Smoking a Cigarette (c.1956 Gelatin silver print). The Andy Warhol Museum, Pittsburgh \|access-dateAugust 28, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180816061841/http://flavorwire.com/573987/warhol-by-the-book-reveals-the-icons-fascinating-career-as-a-book-artist/8 \|archive-dateAugust 16, 2018 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> for a 1958 design for a book cover he submitted to Simon and Schuster for the Walter Ross pulp novel The Immortal, and later used others for his series of paintings.<ref>Three one-dollar bills mounted on cardboard (1962). Photograph by Edward Wallowitch. The Andy Warhol Museum, Pittsburgh; Founding Collection, Contribution The Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts, Inc.</ref><ref>Printz, N. (2014). Making Money/Printing Painting: Warhol's Dollar Bill Paintings. Criticism, 56(3), 535–557.</ref> With the rapid expansion of the record industry, RCA Records hired Warhol, along with another freelance artist, Sid Maurer, to design album covers and promotional materials.<ref>{{Cite book \|first1Andrew \|last1Oldham \|author-linkAndrew Loog Oldham \|author2Simon Spence \|author3Christine Ohlman \|title2Stoned \|publisherSecker and Warburg \|locationLondon \|year2002 \|isbn978-0-436-28015-3 \|oclc50215773\|page137 }}</ref> As a commercial artist, Warhol was working with high-end advertising clients such as Tiffany & Co. by the late 1950's.<ref>{{Cite news \|date1959-07-21 \|titleDream Birthday Party \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/evening-star-table-setting-designed-by-a/166870505/ \|access-date2025-02-28 \|workEvening Star \|pagesB-7}}</ref> 1960s with Rod La Rod (left) and Paul Morrissey (background) aboard the SS France in New York, 1967.]]In 1960, Warhol purchased a townhouse at 1342 Lexington Avenue in the Carnegie Hill neighborhood of Manhattan, which he also used as his art studio.{{Sfn\|Bourdon\|1989\|p=67}} In April 1961, Warhol's pop paintings were exhibited for the first time in the window display of the Bonwit Teller department store on Fifth Avenue.{{Sfn\|Bourdon\|1989\|p79}} Five paintings based on comic strips and newspaper ads served as the backdrop for mannequins wearing spring dresses: ''Saturday's Popeye, Little King, Superman, Before and After, and Advertisement.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastRosenthal \|firstMark Lawrence \|urlhttps://www.google.com/books/edition/Regarding_Warhol/FTSLCLiRV84C?hlen&gbpv1&dqandy+warhol+bonwit+teller+superman&pgPA250&printsecfrontcover \|titleRegarding Warhol: Sixty Artists, Fifty Years \|last2Prather \|first2Marla \|last3Alteveer \|first3Ian \|last4Lowery \|first4Rebecca \|last5Apfelbaum \|first5Polly \|last6Baldessari \|first6John \|last7Celmins \|first7Vija \|last8Close \|first8Chuck \|last9Gober \|first9Robert \|date2012 \|publisherMetropolitan Museum of Art \|isbn978-1-58839-469-9 \|pages250 \|language=en}}</ref> In 1962, Warhol was taught silkscreen printmaking techniques by Max Arthur Cohn at his graphic arts business in Manhattan.<ref>{{Cite web\|dateApril 8, 2021\|titleA Guide to Andy Warhol Prints: The Birth of an Iconic Pop Artist\|urlhttps://www.invaluable.com/blog/andy-warhol-prints/\|access-dateSeptember 11, 2021\|websiteInvaluable\|languageen-US}}</ref><ref>[https://americanart.si.edu/artist/max-arthur-cohn-935 "Max Arthur Cohn"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171229052247/https://americanart.si.edu/artist/max-arthur-cohn-935\|dateDecember 29, 2017}} at SAAM.</ref> Warhol is often considered to be a pioneer in silkscreen printmaking and his techniques became more elaborate throughout his career.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleWarhol {{!}} Prints \|urlhttps://guyhepner.com/artists/31-andy-warhol \|access-dateFebruary 17, 2025 \|websiteGuy Hepner \|languageen}}</ref> In his book Popism: The Warhol Sixties, Warhol writes: "When you do something exactly wrong, you always turn up something".<ref name"David Dalton-2010">{{cite book\|authorTony Scherman\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSC0MCcfRsA8C&pgPA106\|titlePop: The Genius of Andy Warhol\|author2David Dalton\|date2010\|publisherHarperCollins\|isbn978-0-06-093663-1\|access-dateJanuary 5, 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160126195456/https://books.google.com/books?idSC0MCcfRsA8C&pgPA106\|archive-dateJanuary 26, 2016\|url-status=live}}</ref> In May 1962, Warhol was featured in an article in Time with his painting Big Campbell's Soup Can with Can Opener (Vegetable)'' (1962), which initiated his most sustained motif, the Campbell's soup can.<ref>{{Cite magazine\|dateMay 11, 1962\|titleThe Slice-of-Cake School\|urlhttps://time.com/vault/issue/1962-05-11/page/56/\|magazineTime\|pages52}}</ref> That painting became Warhol's first to be shown in a museum when it was exhibited at the Wadsworth Atheneum in Hartford in July 1962.<ref>{{Cite web\|dateMay 16, 2017\|titleAndy Warhol's Big Campbell's Soup Can with Can Opener (Vegetable)\|urlhttps://www.christies.com/features/Andy-Warhol-Big-Campbells-Soup-Can-with-Can-Opener-Vegetable-8209-3.aspx\|access-dateSeptember 11, 2021\|websiteChristie's\|languageen}}</ref> On July 9, 1962, Warhol's exhibition opened at the Ferus Gallery in Los Angeles with ''Campbell's Soup Cans'', marking his West Coast debut of pop art.<ref name"Livingstone-1992">{{Cite book \|firstMarco \|lastLivingstone \|titlePop art: an international perspective \|publisherRizzoli \|locationNew York City \|year1992 \|page32 \|isbn978-0-8478-1475-6 \|oclc25649248}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastSmith \|firstJack \|dateJuly 23, 1962 \|titleSoup Can Painter Uses His Noodle \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/the-los-angeles-times-andy-warhol-exhibi/157853533/ \|workLos Angeles Times \|pagesPart lV}}</ref> In November 1962, Warhol had an exhibition at Eleanor Ward's Stable Gallery in New York.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastSjostrom \|firstJan \|dateNovember 30, 2011 \|titleFour Arts exhibition reflects of illustrators from golden age, Warhol \|urlhttps://www.palmbeachdailynews.com/story/entertainment/arts/2011/12/01/four-arts-exhibition-reflects-illustrators/6643709007/ \|access-dateOctober 26, 2024 \|websitePalm Beach Daily News \|languageen-US}}</ref> The exhibit included the works Gold Marilyn, eight of the classic Marilyn series also named Flavor Marilyns, Marilyn Diptych, 100 Soup Cans, 100 Coke Bottles, and 100 Dollar Bills. Gold Marilyn was bought by the architect Philip Johnson and donated to the Museum of Modern Art. In December 1962, New York City's Museum of Modern Art hosted a symposium on pop art, during which artists such as Warhol were attacked for "capitulating" to consumerism. Critics were appalled by Warhol's open acceptance of market culture, which set the tone for his reception.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastLacey\|firstJoann\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idmscWEAAAQBAJ&pgPA624\|titleHistory of Art and Architecture: Volume Two\|dateJanuary 23, 2021\|publisherSugar Creek\|pages624\|languageen}}</ref> In 1963, Warhol formed The Druds, a short-lived avant-garde noise band that included notable figures from the New York minimal art and proto-conceptual art scenes, including Larry Poons, La Monte Young, Walter De Maria, Jasper Johns, Claes Oldenberg, and Lucas Samaras.<ref name=":15" /> In January 1963, Warhol rented his first studio—an old firehouse at 159 East 87th Street—where he created his Elvis series, which included Eight Elvises (1963) and Triple Elvis (1963).<ref>{{Cite web \|lastElbaor \|firstCaroline \|dateNovember 21, 2016 \|titleAndy Warhol's First New York Studio Sells for $9.98 Million \|urlhttps://news.artnet.com/art-world/andy-warhols-first-new-york-studio-sells-9-98-million-755330 \|access-dateMay 2, 2022 \|websiteArtnet News \|languageen-US}}</ref><ref name":16" /> These portraits, along with a series of Elizabeth Taylor portraits, were shown at his second exhibition at the Ferus Gallery in Los Angeles.<ref name"Christie's">{{Cite web \|titleDouble Elvis [Ferus Type] — Warhol's mirror to Sixties America \|urlhttps://www.christies.com/features/Andy-Warhol-Double-Elvis-Ferus-Type-1963-9115-3.aspx \|access-dateMay 2, 2022 \|websiteChristie's \|languageen}}</ref> Later that year, Warhol relocated his studio to East 47th Street, which would turn into The Factory.<ref name":16">{{Cite book \|lastWarhol \|firstAndy \|urlhttp://archive.org/details/popismwarholsixt0000warh_v8c2 \|titlePOPism: The Warhol Sixties \|date2006 \|publisherOrlando: Harcourt \|isbn978-0-15-603111-0 \|pages34, 78}}</ref> The Factory became a popular gathering spot for a wide range of artists, writers, musicians and underground celebrities.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastMcKenna \|firstKristina \|dateOctober 30, 1994 \|titleAndy Warhol's Dream Factory \|workLos Angeles Times \|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1994-10-30-ca-56531-story.html}}</ref> Warhol had his second exhibition at the Stable Gallery in the spring of 1964, which featured sculptures of commercial boxes stacked and scattered throughout the space to resemble a warehouse.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastHornaday \|firstKay \|dateMay 10, 1964 \|titleNew York Seen-ery \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/express-and-news-andy-warhol-at-the-stab/159398468/ \|workSan Antonio Express and News \|pages6–F}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|lastGopnik\|firstBlake\|dateMay 30, 2017\|titleThe First Book on Warhol's Sculptures Shows Him at His Best\|urlhttps://news.artnet.com/opinion/book-warhol-sculptor-974225\|access-dateAugust 23, 2021\|websiteArtnet News\|languageen-US}}</ref> For the exhibition, Warhol custom ordered wooden boxes and silkscreened graphics onto them. The sculptures—Brillo Box, Del Monte Peach Box, Heinz Tomato Ketchup Box, ''Kellogg's Cornflakes Box, Campbell's Tomato Juice Box and Mott's Apple Juice Box—sold for $200 to $400 depending on the size of the box.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1Salvo\|first1Donna M. De\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idpeyDDwAAQBAJ&pgPA196\|titleAndy Warhol: From A to B and Back Again\|last2Beck (Art Museum Curator)\|first2Jessica\|dateJanuary 1, 2018\|publisherYale University Press\|isbn978-0-300-23698-9\|pages196\|languageen}}</ref> A pivotal event was The American Supermarket'' exhibition at Paul Bianchini's Upper East Side gallery in late 1964.<ref name"The New York Times-1964">{{Cite news\|dateOctober 8, 1964\|titleSale: Lettuce a la Metal and Turkey au Canvas; Gallery Market Hawks Art on Rye; Store Display Is Set Up for Pop Food Creations\|languageen-US\|workThe New York Times\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1964/10/08/archives/sale-lettuce-a-la-metal-and-turkey-au-canvas-gallery-market-hawks-a.html\|access-dateJuly 13, 2021\|issn0362-4331}}</ref> The show was presented as a typical small supermarket environment, except that everything in it—from the produce, canned goods, meat, posters on the wall, etc.—was created by prominent pop artists of the time, among them sculptor Claes Oldenburg, Mary Inman and Bob Watts.<ref name"The New York Times-1964" /> Warhol designed a $12 paper shopping bag—plain white with a red Campbell's soup can.<ref name"The New York Times-1964" /> His painting of a can of a Campbell's soup cost $1,500 while each autographed can sold for three for $18, $6.50 each.<ref name"The New York Times-1964" /><ref>{{Cite web\|lastDean\|firstMartin\|dateMarch 13, 2018\|titleThe Story of Andy Warhol's 'Campbell's Soup Cans'\|urlhttps://www.sothebys.com/en/articles/the-story-of-andy-warhols-campbells-soup-cans\|website=Sotheby's}}</ref> The exhibit was one of the first mass events that directly confronted the general public with both pop art and the perennial question of what art is.<ref>Wendy Weitman, Pop Impressions Europe/USA: Prints and Multiples from the Museum of Modern Art (NY: Museum of Modern Art, 1999). {{ISBN\|978-0-87070-077-4}}</ref> Warhol used assistants to increase his productivity and these collaborations would remain a defining and controversial aspect of his working methods throughout his career. One of Warhol's most important collaborators during this period was Gerard Malanga who assisted him with the production of silkscreens and films at The Factory, Warhol's studio that was covered in aluminium foil and painted silver by Billy Name.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateJanuary 21, 2009 \|titleInterview with Gerard Malanga \|urlhttps://www.interviewmagazine.com/art/gerard-malanga-adam-kimmel \|access-dateJanuary 28, 2025 \|websiteInterview \|languageen-US}}</ref><ref name=":35" /> In November 1964, Warhol's first Flowers series exhibited at the Leo Castelli Gallery in New York.{{Sfn\|Gopnik\|2020\|p395}} In May 1965, his second Flowers series, which had more sizes and color variation that the previous, was shown at Galerie Ileana Sonnabend in Paris.{{Sfn\|Warhol\|Hackett\|1980\|p140}}{{Sfn\|Gopnik\|2020\|p432}} During this trip Warhol announced that he was retiring from painting to focus on film.{{Sfn\|Warhol\|Hackett\|1980\|p144}} in Stockholm, 1968]] From the mid-1960s to the early 1970s, Warhol also groomed a retinue of bohemian and counterculture eccentrics upon whom he bestowed the designation "superstars", including Baby Jane Holzer, Brigid Berlin, Ondine, Edie Sedgwick, Ingrid Superstar, Nico, International Velvet, Mary Woronov, Viva, Ultra Violet, Joe Dallesandro, Candy Darling, Holly Woodlawn, Jackie Curtis and Jane Forth.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastTrebay \|firstGuy \|dateNovember 1, 2013 \|titleThe Real-Life Stories Told in 'Walk on the Wild Side' \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/03/fashion/The-Real-Life-Stories-Told-by-Lou-Reed-in-Walk-on-the-Wild-Side.html \|access-dateJanuary 28, 2025 \|workThe New York Times \|languageen-US \|issn0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastPeoples \|firstLandon \|titleBeyond Edie Sedgwick: 15 Warhol Superstars You've Probably Never Heard Of \|urlhttps://www.refinery29.com/en-us/2018/08/206421/andy-warhol-superstars-history-photos \|access-dateJanuary 28, 2025 \|websiterefinery29.com \|languageen}}</ref> These people participated in the Factory films, and some—like Berlin—remained friends with Warhol until his death. Important figures in the New York underground art/cinema world, such as writer John Giorno and filmmaker Jack Smith, also appear in Warhol films of the 1960s, revealing Warhol's connections to a diverse range of artistic scenes during this time. Less well known was his support and collaboration with several teenagers during this era, who would achieve prominence later in life, including writer David Dalton,<ref>{{cite magazine\|last1Menand\|first1Louis\|titleTop of the Pops\|magazineThe New Yorker\|urlhttp://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2010/01/11/top-of-the-pops\|dateJanuary 11, 2010}}</ref> photographer Stephen Shore<ref>{{cite news\|last1Grow\|first1Krystal\|titleTime Lightbox\|urlhttp://lightbox.time.com/2014/09/23/stephen-shore-at-the-factory/#1\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140924093335/http://lightbox.time.com/2014/09/23/stephen-shore-at-the-factory/#1\|url-statusdead\|archive-dateSeptember 24, 2014\|dateSeptember 23, 2014}}</ref> and artist Bibbe Hansen (mother of pop musician Beck).<ref>{{cite book\|last1James\|first1Dagon\|titleBilly Name:The Silver Age Black and White Photographs of Andy Warhol's Factory\|date2014\|publisherReel Art Press\|isbn978-1-909526-17-4\|page=127}}</ref> The experimental rock group The Velvet Underground was taken on by Warhol around the end of 1965.{{Sfn\|Warhol\|Hackett\|1980\|p134}} In his capacity as their manager, he included them as a key component of his Exploding Plastic Inevitable multimedia performances in 1966 and 1967, and he funded their debut album, The Velvet Underground & Nico (1967).<ref>{{Cite news \|lastThomas \|firstKevin \|dateMay 5, 1966 \|titleA Far-Out Night With Andy Warhol \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/the-los-angeles-times-andy-warhols-expl/159150194/ \|workLos Angeles Times \|pages14 Part V}}</ref><ref name=":29" /> Warhol made a conscious decision to oppose conventional painting, stating that he no longer believed in painting.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateMarch 25, 1974 \|titleKXIE-TV Education Specials \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/willows-daily-journal-andy-warhol-and-ro/160700062/ \|workWillows Daily Journal}}</ref> In response to art dealer Ivan Karp's suggestion to paint cows, Warhol produced Cow Wallpaper, which covered the walls of the Leo Castelli Gallery during his April 1966 exhibition.{{Sfn\|Warhol\|Hackett\|1980\|pp=17-18}} In 1967, Warhol established Factory Additions for his printmaking and publishing enterprise.<ref name"South Dakota State University">{{cite web \|title2019: 50 Works for 50 Years \|urlhttps://www.sdstate.edu/south-dakota-art-museum/2019-50-works-50-years \|websiteSouth Dakota State University \|access-dateApril 11, 2023 \|languageen}}</ref> To duplicate prints for a wide audience, Factory Additions published multiple portfolios of ten images each in editions of 250. These were then printed using professional screen printers.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Weitman \|first1Wendy \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5ggm4z5PQgsC&dqFactory+Additions+warhol&pgPA13 \|titlePop Impressions Europe/USA: Prints and Multiples from the Museum of Modern Art \|date1999 \|publisherThe Museum of Modern Art \|isbn978-0-87070-077-4 \|pages13 \|languageen}}</ref> Warhol intended to present the film Chelsea Girls (1966) at the 1967 Cannes Film Festival, but it wasn't shown because "the festival authorities explained that the film was too long, there were technical problems."<ref name=":12" /> In February 1968, Warhol's first solo museum exhibition was mounted at the Moderna Museet in Stockholm.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastHickley \|firstCatherine \|dateSeptember 13, 2018 \|titleBrillo Boxes 'faked' by museum director included in new Andy Warhol show \|urlhttps://www.theartnewspaper.com/2018/09/13/brillo-boxes-faked-by-museum-director-included-in-new-andy-warhol-show \|access-dateNovember 16, 2024 \|website=The Art Newspaper}}</ref> 1968 assassination attempt {{Main\|Attempted assassination of Andy Warhol}} On June 3, 1968, radical feminist writer Valerie Solanas shot Warhol and Mario Amaya, art critic and curator, at The Factory.<ref name":19">{{Cite news \|last1Behrens \|first1David \|last2Mann \|first2Jack \|dateJune 4, 1968 \|titleAndy Warhol Is Shot by Actress \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/newsday-nassau-edition-andy-warhol-is/153582451/ \|access-dateAugust 19, 2024 \|workNewsday (Nassau Edition) \|pages3, 62}}</ref> Solanas had been a marginal figure in the Factory scene before the shooting. She authored the SCUM Manifesto,<ref name"Solanas-2004">{{Cite book\|firstValerie \|lastSolanas \|author-linkValerie Solanas \|titleSCUM Manifesto \|publisherVerso \|locationLondon \|orig-year1967 \|year2004 \|isbn978-1-85984-553-0 \|oclc53932627\|title-linkSCUM Manifesto }}</ref> a separatist feminist tract that advocated the elimination of men; and appeared in the Warhol film I, a Man (1967).<ref name"Jobey">Jobey, Liz, "Solanas and Son," The Guardian (Manchester, England), August 24, 1996, p, T10 and following.</ref> Amaya received only minor injuries and was released from the hospital later the same day.{{Sfn\|Gopnik\|2020\|p622}} Warhol was seriously wounded by the attack and barely survived: he remained in hospital for nearly two months.<ref name":6">{{Cite web \|lastSpencer \|firstSamuel \|dateMarch 10, 2022 \|titleWhen and Why Andy Warhol Was Shot \|urlhttps://www.newsweek.com/andy-warhol-diaries-when-why-shot-valerie-solanas-netflix-1686744 \|access-dateApril 29, 2024 \|websiteNewsweek \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|dateJuly 29, 1968 \|titleWarhol Out Of Hospital \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/daily-news-andy-warhol-released-from-hos/153582706/ \|access-dateAugust 19, 2024 \|workDaily News \|pages13}}</ref> Solanas turned herself in to the police a few hours after the attack and said that Warhol "had too much control over my life."<ref name":19" /><ref>{{Cite web \|dateOctober 30, 2021 \|titleDid the 1968 Shooting of Andy Warhol Lead to His Death 19 Years Later? \|urlhttps://www.insideedition.com/inside-the-many-tragedies-spawned-from-valerie-solanas-attempted-murder-of-andy-warhol-70636 \|access-dateAugust 19, 2024 \|websiteInside Edition \|languageen-US}}</ref> She was subsequently diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia and eventually sentenced to three years in prison.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastWertheim \|firstBonnie \|dateJune 26, 2020 \|titleOverlooked No More: Valerie Solanas, Radical Feminist Who Shot Andy Warhol \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/26/obituaries/valerie-solanas-overlooked.html \|access-dateAugust 19, 2024 \|workThe New York Times \|languageen-US \|issn0362-4331}}</ref> One of the assistants at the Factory, Jed Johnson, had witnessed the shooting.{{Sfn\|Gopnik\|2020\|p616}}<ref name":6" /> Johnson visited Warhol regularly during his hospitalization, and the two developed an intimate relationship.{{Sfn\|Gopnik\|2020\|p647}}<ref>{{Cite book \|last \|first\|urlhttp://archive.org/details/bwb_P8-ACZ-855 \|titleJed Johnson: Opulent Restraint, Interiors \|date2005 \|publisherRizzoli \|isbn978-0-8478-2714-5 \|editor-lastCallahan \|editor-firstTemo \|locationNew York \|editor-last2Cashin \|editor-first2Tom}}</ref> Johnson moved in with Warhol shortly after he was discharged from the hospital to help him recuperate and take care of his ailing mother, Julia Warhola.{{Sfn\|Gopnik\|2020\|p645}} The assassination attempt had a profound effect on Warhol's life and art.{{Sfn\|Warhol\|Hackett\|1980\|pp287–295}}<ref name"Harding-2001">{{cite journal \|lastHarding \|firstJames \|titleThe Simplest Surrealist Act: Valerie Solanas and the (Re)Assertion of Avantgarde Priorities \|journalTDR/The Drama Review \|volume45 \|issue4; Winter 2001 \|pages142–162 \|doi10.1162/105420401772990388 \|year2001\|s2cid57565380 \| issn 1054-2043}}</ref><ref name"Warhol-1980">{{cite book \|last1Warhol \|first1Andy \|titlePOPism: the Warhol '60s \|author2Pat Hackett \|publisherHarcourt Brace Jovanovich \|year1980 \|isbn978-0-15-173095-7 \|locationNew York \|pages287–295 \|oclc5673923}}</ref> He had physical effects for the rest of his life, including being required to wear a surgical corset.<ref name"warhol.org">{{cite web \|titlebiography \|urlhttp://www.warhol.org/collection/aboutandy/andyfaq/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130106165536/http://www.warhol.org/collection/aboutandy/andyfaq/ \|archive-dateJanuary 6, 2013 \|access-dateJanuary 13, 2013 \|publisherwarhol.org}}</ref> The Factory became more regulated, and Warhol focused on making it a business enterprise. He credited his collaborator Paul Morrissey with transforming the Factory into a "regular office."<ref name="Warhol-1980" /> Post-shooting In August 1968, Warhol made an appearance in court after Phillip "Fufu" Van Scoy Smith, an investor in a canceled film adaptation of the Charlotte Brontë novel Jane Eyre, sued him for $80,000.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateAugust 28, 1968 \|titleFufu's Wily Ancestor Never Faced a Warhol \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/newsday-suffolk-edition-andy-warhol-at/163948976/ \|access-dateJanuary 26, 2025 \|workNewsday (Suffolk Edition) \|pages12}}</ref> A legal battle ensued for 2 years, ending after the backer failed to show up in court.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastGreenberger \|firstAlex \|dateMay 12, 2020 \|titleThe 7 Biggest Reveals from a New Warhol Biography, from Potential Tax Dodges to Legal Battles \|urlhttps://www.artnews.com/art-news/artists/andy-warhol-biography-reveals-tax-dodge-1202686811/ \|access-dateJanuary 26, 2025 \|websiteARTnews \|languageen-US}}</ref> In September 1968, Warhol and Ultra Violet attended a party to celebrate the completion of the film Midnight Cowboy.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateSeptember 7, 1968 \|titleHale and Hardy \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/daily-news-andy-warhol-and-ultra-violet/163950162/ \|access-dateJanuary 26, 2025 \|workDaily News \|pages16}}</ref><ref name":34">{{Cite book \|lastUltra Violet \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/famousfor15minut00ultr_0/mode/2up?qjed \|titleFamous for 15 Minutes: My Years with Andy Warhol \|date1988 \|publisherHarcourt Brace Jovanovich \|isbn978-0-15-130201-7 \|pages114, 180}}</ref> In the film, there is a party scene featuring members of the Factory that was filmed during Warhol's hospitalization.<ref name":34" /> Warhol hosted a party at the Factory for Nico's album The Marble Index in September 1968.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateSeptember 20, 1968 \|titleAndy Warhol Is Back -- 'Even More Beautiful' \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/the-independent-record-warhol-hosts-part/153580954/ \|access-dateAugust 19, 2024 \|workThe Independent-Record \|pages16}}</ref> Warhol, Viva and Ultra Violet appeared on the cover of the November 10, 1968, issue of The New York Times Magazine.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastLeonard \|firstJohn \|dateNovember 10, 1968 \|titleThe Return Of Andy Warhol; The return of Andy Warhol \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1968/11/10/archives/the-return-of-andy-warhol-the-return-of-andy-warhol.html \|access-dateAugust 19, 2024 \|workThe New York Times \|languageen-US \|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In 1969, Warhol and his entourage traveled to Los Angeles to discuss a prospective movie deal with Columbia Pictures.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastPrelutsky \|firstBurt \|dateMarch 9, 1969 \|titlePop Goes the Warhol \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/the-los-angeles-times-andy-warhol-in-los/157148290/ \|workLos Angeles Times West Magazine \|pages4}}</ref> Warhol, who has always had an interest in photography, used a Polaroid camera to document his recuperation after the shooting.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastGopnik \|firstBlake \|dateAugust 6, 2015 \|titleFor Warhol's Birthday, a Selfie of his Resurrection \|urlhttps://news.artnet.com/art-world/andy-warhols-birthday-heres-selfie-escape-death-323092 \|access-dateOctober 24, 2024 \|websiteArtnet News \|languageen-US}}</ref> In 1969, some of his photographs were published in Esquire magazine.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastLyons \|firstLeonard \|dateApril 14, 1969 \|titleLyons Den \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/the-post-standard-warhol-polaroids-in-es/157765967/ \|workThe Post Standard \|pages14}}</ref> He would become well known for always carrying his Polaroid camera to chronicle his encounters.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastChalasani \|firstRadhika \|dateJuly 22, 2015 \|titleInstant Andy: if Andy Warhol had an Instagram account it might look like this \|urlhttps://www.cbsnews.com/pictures/instant-andy-before-there-was-instagram-there-was-warhol/15/ \|access-dateOctober 24, 2024 \|publisherCBS News \|languageen-US}}</ref> Eventually, he used instant photography as the basis for his silkscreen portraits when he resumed painting in the 1970s.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Jennings \|first1Emily \|last2Pickering \|first2David \|dateOctober 5, 1972 \|titleArt museum proudly opened -- \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/corpus-christi-caller-times-andy-warhol/157765196/ \|workCorpus Christi Caller \|pages=16}}</ref> Warhol and British journalist John Wilcock founded Interview magazine in the fall of 1969.<ref>{{Cite web\|dateOctober 30, 2019\|title"Interview" Celebrates 50 Years—and Toasts to 50 More\|urlhttps://www.interviewmagazine.com/culture/interview-magazine-50th-anniversary-assouline-nordstrom\|access-dateSeptember 22, 2021\|websiteInterview\|languageen-US}}</ref> The magazine was initially published as inter/VIEW: A Monthly Film Journal. It was revamped a few years later and came to represent Warhol's social life and fascination with celebrity.<ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastSchulman \|firstMichael \|dateMay 24, 2018 \|titleThe Legacy of Interview Magazine and a Trip to 1988 \|urlhttps://www.newyorker.com/culture/cultural-comment/the-legacy-of-interview-magazine-and-a-trip-to-1988 \|access-dateDecember 2, 2024 \|magazineThe New Yorker \|languageen-US \|issn=0028-792X}}</ref> In 1969, Warhol received an invitation to curate an exhibition using items from the permanent collection of the RISD Museum in Providence.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2014-01-10 \|titleRaid the Icebox \|urlhttps://risdmuseum.org/manual/115_raid_the_icebox \|access-date2025-02-24 \|websiteRISD Museum \|languageen}}</ref> In October 1969, the exhibition Raid the Icebox opened at Rice University's Institute for the Arts in Houston.<ref name":38">{{Cite news \|date1969-10-05 \|titleAndy Warhol 'Raid the Icebox' Art Exhibition To Begin Oct. 30 \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/austin-american-statesman-andy-warhol-r/166552840/ \|access-date2025-02-24 \|workAustin American-Statesman \|pagesE-14}}</ref> In 1970, the show traveled to the Isaac Delgado Museum in New Orleans before arriving at the RISD Museum.<ref name":38" /> 1970s with his dachshund Archie, 1973]]Compared to the success and scandal of Warhol's work in the 1960s, the early 1970s were much quieter years, as he became more entrepreneurial. He was generally regarded as quiet, shy and a meticulous observer. Art critic Robert Hughes called him "the white mole of Union Square".<ref>{{cite magazine \|firstRobert \|lastHughes \|author-linkRobert Hughes (critic) \|dateFebruary 18, 1982 \|titleThe Rise of Andy Warhol \|urlhttps://www.nybooks.com/articles/1982/02/18/the-rise-of-andy-warhol/ \|magazineThe New York Review of Books \|access-dateJanuary 16, 2021 \|archive-dateNovember 8, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201108125444/https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1982/02/18/the-rise-of-andy-warhol/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> His fashion evolved from what Warhol called his "leather look" to his "Brooks Brothers look," which included a Brooks Brothers shirt and tie, DeNoyer blazer, and Levi jeans.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateFebruary 9, 1980 \|titleIan Ball meets Andy Warhol \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-telegraph-ian-ball-meets-andy/153833590/ \|access-dateAugust 23, 2024 \|workThe Daily Telegraph \|pages20}}</ref>{{Sfn\|Bockris\|1997\|p371}} As Warhol continued to forge into filmmaking, he had established himself as "one of the most celebrated and well-known pop art figures to emerge from the sixties."<ref>{{Cite news \|lastCampbell \|firstGenie \|dateJuly 31, 1970 \|titleAndy Warhol Tops Pop Art Boom \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-herald-andy-warhol-retrospecti/145039817/ \|access-dateApril 9, 2024 \|workThe Daily Herald \|pagesSection 2–3}}</ref> The Pasadena Art Museum in Pasadena organized a major retrospective of his work in 1970.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastHaber \|firstJoyce \|dateMay 14, 1970 \|titleWarhol Will Film Liberation Film \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/the-los-angeles-times-warhol-retrospecti/145040016/ \|access-dateApril 9, 2024 \|workLos Angeles Times \|pagesPart lV 17}}</ref> The show traveled to the Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago; Stedelijk Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven, The Netherlands; Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris; Tate Gallery, London; and Whitney Museum of American Art, New York.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastParker \|firstJerry \|date1971-04-30 \|titleWarhol at the Whitney \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/newsday-nassau-edition-andy-warhol-at/153645913/ \|access-date2025-03-29 \|workNewsday \|locationNassau Edition \|pages123}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastCork \|firstRichard \|dateFebruary 19, 1971 \|titleAndy Warhol and the Superstars \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/evening-standard-andy-warhol-exhibition/144496302/ \|access-dateApril 7, 2024 \|workEvening Standard \|pages13}}</ref> The Whitney exhibition in 1971 distinctly featured Warhol's Cow Wallpaper (1966) as the backdrop for his paintings.<ref name":21">{{Cite news \|lastCanaday \|firstJoan \|dateMay 1, 1971 \|titleArt: Huge Andy Warhol Retrospective at Whitney \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1971/05/01/archives/art-huge-andy-warhol-retrospective-at-whitney-many-familiar-items.html \|access-dateSeptember 22, 2021 \|workThe New York Times \|languageen-US \|issn0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|last1Rose \|first1Barbara \|dateMay 31, 1971 \|titleIn Andy Warhol's Aluminum Foil, We Have All Been Reflected \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idij-_4jJ4oj8C&pgPA55 \|workNew York \|page55 \|languageen \|issn0028-7369}}</ref> In May 1971, Warhol's theater production, ''Andy Warhol's Pork'', opened at the La MaMa Experimental Theatre in New York.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastGlueck \|firstByGrace \|dateMay 23, 1971 \|title'Pork' Is Not The Kosher-est Show in Town \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1971/05/23/archives/-pork-is-not-the-kosherest-show-in-town-warhol-and-pork.html \|access-dateJanuary 19, 2025 \|workThe New York Times \|languageen-US \|issn0362-4331}}</ref> In August 1971, it was brought to the Roundhouse in London.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastJenkins \|firstValerie \|dateAugust 3, 1971 \|titleValerie Jenkins at the Round House \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/evening-standard-andy-warhol-pork-at-the/143582462/ \|access-dateJanuary 19, 2025 \|workEvening Standard \|pages=13}}</ref> In late 1971, Warhol and his business partner Paul Morrissey purchased Eothen, an oceanfront estate in Montauk, New York on Long Island.<ref>{{Cite web \|last1Jun 25 \|first1Jen CarlsonPublished \|last2Oct 19 \|first22015Modified \|last32015Share \|dateJune 25, 2015 \|titleWarhol's Sprawling "Eothen" Estate In Montauk Is On The Market \|urlhttps://gothamist.com/arts-entertainment/warhols-sprawling-eothen-estate-in-montauk-is-on-the-market \|access-dateAugust 13, 2024 \|websiteGothamist \|languageen}}</ref> They began renting the main house on the property in 1972.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleInside the Compound Where Andy Warhol, Elizabeth Taylor, and Mick Jagger Spent Their Summers \|urlhttps://www.culturedmag.com/article/2023/07/10/andy-warhol-elizabeth-taylor-mick-jagger-vincent-fremont \|access-dateAugust 13, 2024 \|websiteculturedmag.com \|languageen}}</ref> Lee Radziwill, Jackie Kennedy, The Rolling Stones, Elizabeth Taylor, Truman Capote, and Halston were among the estate's notable guests.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastFremont \|firstVincent \|dateJuly 8, 2023 \|titleAndy Warhol's Montauk House Drew Stars of All Stripes \|urlhttps://airmail.news/arts-intel/highlights/warhol-in-montauk \|access-dateDecember 2, 2024 \|websiteAir Mail \|languageen}}</ref> neighborhood of Manhattan. In 1998, the townhouse was designated a cultural landmark.]]Warhol is credited with both the cover concept and photography for The Rolling Stones' albums Sticky Fingers (1971).<ref name":33">{{cite web \|year2002 \|titleAndy Warhol: Biography \|urlhttp://warholfoundation.org/legacy/biography.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100724192941/http://www.warholfoundation.org/legacy/biography.html \|archive-dateJuly 24, 2010 \|access-dateJuly 22, 2010 \|publisherAndy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts}}</ref> He received a Grammy nomination for Best Album Cover at the 14th Annual Grammy Awards in 1972.<ref name":31" /> Although Warhol was considered to be apolitical, he participated in an exhibition with the poster Vote McGovern (1972) in effort to raise funds for George McGovern's 1972 presidential campaign.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastWeekes \|firstJulie Ann \|dateOctober 30, 2008 \|titleWarhol's Pop Politics \|urlhttps://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/warhols-pop-politics-89185734/ \|access-dateAugust 19, 2024 \|websiteSmithsonian Magazine \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastRichard \|firstPaul \|dateOctober 2, 1972 \|titleArt Works Aid McGovern \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/the-journal-news-andy-warhol-participate/153622306/ \|access-dateAugust 19, 2024 \|workThe Journal News \|pages27 \|via=The Washington Post}}</ref> Warhol and his longtime partner Jed Johnson got a dachshund puppy, Archie Warhol, in November 1972.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleBusiness envelope with dog license and veterinary invoice (for Andy Warhol's dachshund, Archie) 1972 \|urlhttps://warhol.netx.net/portals/warhol-exhibitions/#asset/102658 \|websiteThe Warhol}}</ref><ref name":152" /> Warhol doted on Archie and took him everywhere: to the studio, parties, restaurants, and on trips to Europe.<ref name":18" />{{Sfn\|Colacello\|1990\|p150}} He created portraits of Johnson, Archie, and Amos—a second dachshund they got a few years later.<ref name=":162" /> Warhol began traveling to Europe more frequently and developed a fondness for Paris.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastLandry \|firstCarole \|dateMarch 3, 2009 \|titleParis steps into Andy Warhol's Wide World \|urlhttps://timesofmalta.com/article/paris-steps-into-andy-warhol-s-wide-world.247254 \|access-dateJune 2, 2024 \|websiteThe Times \|locationMalta \|languageen-gb}}</ref> Warhol had an apartment that he shared with his business manager Fred Hughes on the Left Bank of Paris on Rue du Cherche-Midi.{{Sfn\|Gopnik\|2020\|p762}}<ref>{{Cite book \|lastFraser-Cavassoni \|firstNatasha \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXwWqDQAAQBAJ&dqRue+du+Cherche-Midi,+Paris+warhol&pgPA239 \|titleAfter Andy: Adventures in Warhol Land \|dateAugust 1, 2017 \|publisherPenguin \|isbn978-0-399-18355-3 \|pages239 \|languageen}}</ref> In October 1972, Warhol's work was included in the inaugural show at the Art Museum of South Texas in Corpus Christi, Texas.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastButterfield \|firstJan \|dateOctober 15, 1972 \|titleTwo Museum Openings Stress Regional Art Renaissance \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/fort-worth-star-telegram-johns-stella/145762003/ \|access-dateJune 2, 2024 \|workFort Worth Star-Telegram \|pages1–G}}</ref>Between 1972 and 1973, Warhol created a series of portraits of Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong with funding from two New York galleries, Knoedler & Co. and the Leo Castelli Gallery, as well as art collector Peter Brant.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastGarcia \|firstKaren \|dateMarch 25, 2024 \|titleAndy Warhol 'Mao' screen print stolen from Orange Coast College \|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/socal/daily-pilot/news/story/2024-03-25/andy-warhol-art-stolen-from-orange-coast-college \|access-dateApril 9, 2024 \|websiteLos Angeles Times \|languageen-US}}</ref><ref name":13" /> In February 1974, some of the Mao portraits were installed at the Musée Galliera in Paris.{{Sfn\|Gopnik\|2020\|p748}} In 1974, Warhol and Johnson moved from his home on Lexington Avenue to a townhouse at 57 East 66th Street in Manhattan's Lenox Hill neighborhood.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastAnOther \|dateJuly 9, 2018 \|titleWhy We're Fascinated by the Contents of Andy Warhol's Bathroom Cabinet \|urlhttps://www.anothermag.com/design-living/10983/why-were-fascinated-by-the-contents-of-andy-warhols-bathroom-cabinet \|access-dateApril 7, 2024 \|websiteAnOther \|languageen}}</ref> By this time, Warhol's public presence had increased significantly due to his attendance at parties. In 1974, he said, "I try to go around so often so much and try to go to every party so that they'll be bored with me and stop writing about me."<ref>{{Cite journal \|dateNovember 1989 \|titleAndy-isms: Highlights from a decade of interviews by Andy Warhol \|journalInterview \|volume19 \|issue11 \|pages=90}}</ref> in Ferrara, 1975]]Warhol designed the sets for the Broadway musical Man on the Moon by John Philips of the Mamas & the Papas, which opened in January 1975 at the Little Theatre in New York.<ref name":04">{{Cite news \|lastParker \|firstJerry \|date1975-01-26 \|titleSky-High Hopes For A Lunar Musical \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/newsday-nassau-edition-sky-high-hopes/168217876/ \|access-date2025-03-20 \|workNewsday \|locationNassau Edition \|pagesPart II / 5}}</ref> In May 1975, Warhol attended President Gerald Ford's state dinner in honor of the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, at the White House.{{Sfn\|Colacello\|1990\|p302}} In September 1975, he went on an eight-city U.S. book tour for his book The Philosophy of Andy Warhol (From A to B & Back Again), followed by stops in Italy, France, and England.<ref name":14" /><ref name":03">{{Cite news \|lastRaymond \|firstJohn \|dateAugust 31, 1975 \|titleBusiness Artist Gives the Business \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/the-atlanta-constitution-the-philosophy/148668672/ \|access-dateJune 4, 2024 \|workThe Atlanta Constitution \|pages=12–CC}}</ref> In 1976, Warhol and painter Jamie Wyeth were commissioned to paint each other's portraits by the Coe Kerr Gallery in Manhattan.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateJune 4, 1976 \|titleArt: Warhol Meets Wyeth \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1976/06/04/archives/art-warhol-meets-wyeth.html \|workThe New York Times}}</ref> In January 1977, Warhol traveled to Kuwait for the opening of his exhibition at the Dhaiat Abdulla Al Salem Gallery.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateAugust 9, 2022 \|titleWhen Andy Warhol Visited Kuwait \|urlhttps://www.gqmiddleeast.com/culture/andy-warhol-kuwait \|access-dateJune 25, 2024 \|workGQ Middle East \|languageen-US}}</ref> In June 1977, Warhol was invited to a special reception honoring the "Inaugural Artists" who had contributed prints to the Jimmy Carter presidential campaign.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastLewis \|firstJo Ann \|dateDecember 20, 2023 \|titlePrints To Profit The Party \|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1977/06/11/prints-to-profit-the-party/ca91f9c8-a9aa-4892-8de9-3d4fef9a16b3/ \|access-dateApril 9, 2024 \|newspaperThe Washington Post \|languageen-US \|issn0190-8286}}</ref> In 1977, Warhol was commissioned by art collector Richard Weisman to create Athletes, ten portraits consisting of the leading athletes of the day.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleWeisman, Warhol and the Athletes\|urlhttps://www.christies.com/features/Weisman-Warhol-and-the-Athletes-10127-7.aspx\|access-dateNovember 4, 2021\|websiteChristie's\|languageen}}</ref> The opening of Studio 54 in 1977 ushered in a new era in New York City nightlife. Warhol would often socialize at Studio 54 and take note of the drug-fueled activities that his friends engaged in at parties.<ref>{{Cite magazine \|dateMay 14, 2021 \|titleDrugs, Disco, and a Dead Body: Five Outrageous Studio 54 Stories \|urlhttps://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2021/05/halston-studio-54-real-life \|access-dateApril 7, 2024 \|magazineVanity Fair \|languageen-US}}</ref> In 1977, Warhol began taking nude photographs of men in various poses and performing sexual acts—referred to as "landscapes"—for what became known as the Torsos and Sex Parts series.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleDirty Art: Andy Warhol's Torsos and Sex Parts \|urlhttps://www.warhol.org/exhibition/dirty-art-andy-warhols-torsos-and-sex-parts/ \|access-dateApril 8, 2024 \|websiteThe Andy Warhol Museum \|languageen-US}}</ref>{{Sfn\|Warhol\|Hackett\|1989\|p32\|psEntry date: March 15, 1977}} Most of the men were street hustlers and male prostitutes brought to the Factory by Halston's lover Victor Hugo.{{Sfn\|Colacello\|1990\|p337}}{{Sfn\|Warhol\|Hackett\|1989\|p40\|psEntry date: April 6, 1977}} This caused tension in Warhol's relationship with Johnson who did not approve of his friendship with Hugo.{{Sfn\|Warhol\|Hackett\|1989\|p86\|psEntry date: November 7, 1977}}{{Sfn\|Gopnik\|2020\|p835}} "When Studio 54 opened things changed with Andy. That was New York when it was at the height of its most decadent period, and I didn't take part. I never liked that scene, I was never comfortable. ... Andy was just wasting his time, and it was really upsetting. ... He just spent his time with the most ridiculous people," said Johnson.{{Sfn\|Gopnik\|2020\|p833}} and Warhol at the White House, 1977]] In 1979, Warhol formed a publishing company, Andy Warhol Books, and released the book Exposures, which contained his photographs of famous friends and acquaintances.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastAdler \|firstJerry \|dateNovember 25, 1979 \|titleAndy Warhol Exposed \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/daily-news-andy-warhol-exposed/148567322/ \|access-dateJune 2, 2024 \|workSunday News Magazine \|pages2}}</ref> In November 1979, he embarked on a three-week book tour in the US.{{Sfn\|Warhol\|Hackett\|1989\|p=248}} According to former Interview editor Bob Colacello, Warhol devoted much of his time to rounding up new, rich patrons for portrait commissions—including Shah of Iran Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, his wife Empress Farah Pahlavi, his sister Princess Ashraf Pahlavi, Mick Jagger, Liza Minnelli, John Lennon, Diana Ross and Brigitte Bardot.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8179627.stm \|workBBC News \|titleWarhol's Jackson goes on display \|dateAugust 7, 2009 \|access-dateMarch 30, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.artexpertswebsite.com/pages/artists/warhol.php \|titleAndy Warhol Expert art authentication, certificates of authenticity and expert appraisers \|websiteartexpertswebsite.com \|access-dateFebruary 26, 2018 \|archive-dateFebruary 27, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180227094310/https://www.artexpertswebsite.com/pages/artists/warhol.php \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In November 1979, the Whitney Museum of American Art mounted the exhibition ''Andy Warhol: Portraits of the '70s'' to celebrate the "very commercial celebrity of the '70s, the decade of People magazine and designer jeans."<ref name":4">{{Cite news \|lastTucker \|firstPriscilla \|dateNovember 19, 1979 \|titleOff The Wall Exposures \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/daily-news-andy-warhol-portraits-of-the/146276253/ \|access-dateApril 29, 2024 \|workDaily News \|pages53}}</ref> Some critics disliked his exhibits of portraits of personalities and celebrities, calling them superficial, facile and commercial, with no depth or indication of the significance of the subjects.<ref name"Lando-2008">{{Cite news \|lastLando \|firstMichal \|dateApril 8, 2008 \|titleReexamining Warhol's Jews \|urlhttp://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid1207486218796&pagenameJPost/JPArticle/ShowFull \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110703204535/http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid1207486218796&pagenameJPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull \|archive-dateJuly 3, 2011 \|access-dateJanuary 5, 2009 \|workThe Jerusalem Post}}</ref> 1980s Warhol had a re-emergence of critical and financial success in the 1980s, partially due to his affiliation and friendships with a number of prolific younger artists, who were dominating the "bull market" of 1980s New York art: Jean-Michel Basquiat, Julian Schnabel, David Salle and other so-called Neo-Expressionists, as well as members of the Transavantgarde movement in Europe, including Francesco Clemente and Enzo Cucchi. Warhol also earned street credibility and graffiti artist Fab Five Freddy paid homage to him by painting an entire train with Campbell soup cans.<ref>{{Cite book\|titleHip Hop Family Tree\|lastPiskor\|firstEd\|publisherFantagraphics\|year2013\|isbn978-1-60699-690-4\|url-accessregistration\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/hiphopfamilytree0000pisk}}</ref>His 1980 exhibition Ten Portraits of Jews of the Twentieth Century at the Jewish Museum in Manhattan was panned by critics. Warhol—who was uninterested in Judaism and Jews—had described in his diary as "They're going to sell."<ref name="Lando-2008" /> The New York Academy of Art was founded in part by Warhol.<ref>{{cite magazine\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNOECAAAAMBAJ&pgPA24\|titleSchool for Scandal\|magazineNew York\|dateApril 8, 1996\|volume29\|number14\|page24\|access-dateDecember 4, 2013\|last1Connolly\|first1John\|archive-dateJanuary 26, 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160126195516/https://books.google.com/books?idNOECAAAAMBAJ&pgPA24\|url-statuslive}}</ref> First established in 1980, the institute's mission was to "revive traditional methods of training artists."<ref name":23">{{Cite web \|lastMuchnic \|firstSuzanne \|dateMay 8, 1988 \|titleWarhol: Pop Artist or Crusader for Tradition? \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/the-los-angeles-times-warhol-pop-artist/157304556/ \|access-dateOctober 17, 2024 \|websiteLos Angeles \|languageen-US}}</ref> According to Stuart Pivar, a fellow co-founder and art collector, "What happened was that Modernism got boring [for Warhol] ... But his overall game plan, what he really believed, was that the modern age was going away and that we were entering a neoclassical period."<ref name=":23" /> In 1981, Warhol worked on a project with Peter Sellars and Lewis Allen that would create a traveling stage show called, A No Man Show, with a life-sized animatronic robot in the exact image of Warhol.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastRidenour \|firstAl \|dateMay 16, 2002 \|titleThe Automated Andy Warhol Is Reprogrammed \|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2002-may-16-wk-town16-story.html \|access-dateAugust 4, 2023 \|websiteLos Angeles Times \|languageen-US}}</ref> The Andy Warhol Robot would then be able to read Warhol's diaries as a theatrical production.<ref>{{Cite web \|last1Magazine \|first1Smithsonian \|last2McGreevy \|first2Nora \|titleHear an A.I.-Generated Andy Warhol 'Read' His Diary to You in New Documentary \|urlhttps://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/an-ai-generated-andy-warhol-reads-his-diary-to-you-in-new-documentary-180979658/ \|access-dateAugust 4, 2023 \|websiteSmithsonian Magazine \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Citation \|lastCurley \|firstJohn J. \|titleAndy Warhol \|dateJanuary 30, 2014 \|urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1093/obo/9780199920105-0031 \|workArt History \|access-dateAugust 8, 2023 \|publisherOxford University Press \|doi10.1093/obo/9780199920105-0031 \|isbn978-0-19-992010-5}}</ref> Warhol was quoted as saying, "I'd like to be a machine, wouldn't you?"<ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastWatercutter \|firstAngela \|titleWhy 'The Andy Warhol Diaries' Recreated the Artist's Voice With AI \|languageen-US \|magazineWired \|urlhttps://www.wired.com/story/andy-warhol-diaries-artificial-intelligence-voice/ \|access-dateAugust 4, 2023 \|issn=1059-1028}}</ref> Warhol also had an appreciation for intense Hollywood glamour. He once said: "I love Los Angeles. I love Hollywood. They're so beautiful. Everything's plastic, but I love plastic. I want to be plastic."<ref>{{Cite book \|first1Victor \|last1Bockris \|author-linkVictor Bockris \|author2Gerard Malanga \|titleUp-tight: the Velvet Underground story \|publisherOmnibus Press \|locationLondon \|year2002 \|page66 \|isbn978-0-7119-9170-5 \|oclc49906101\|author2-linkGerard Malanga }}</ref> Warhol occasionally walked the fashion runways and did product endorsements, represented by Zoli Agency and later Ford Models.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1Bosch\|first1Lindsay J.\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idL5RxDwAAQBAJ&pgPA672\|titleIcons of Beauty: Art, Culture, and the Image of Women [2 volumes]\|last2Mancoff\|first2Debra N.\|dateDecember 22, 2009\|publisherABC-CLIO\|isbn978-0-313-08156-9\|pages672\|language=en}}</ref> In 1983, Warhol was commissioned to create a poster for the centennial of the Brooklyn Bridge.<ref name":36">{{Cite news \|lastFinston \|firstMark \|dateApril 6, 1983 \|titleAndy Warhol unveils tribute to the Brooklyn Bridge \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/the-star-ledger-andy-warhol-unveiling-br/165131335/ \|access-dateFebruary 10, 2025 \|workThe Star-Ledger \|pages49}}</ref> The poster was his contribution to the 1983 New York Art Expo.<ref name":36" /> Warhol created a series of endangered species silkscreen prints for his exhibition ''Warhol's Animals: Species at Risk'' at New York City's American Museum of Natural History in April 1983.<ref name":8">{{Cite news \|lastBruce \|firstMichael \|dateApril 15, 1983 \|titleFrom beautiful people to beautiful animals \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/daily-news-andy-warhol-endangered-specie/147417014/ \|access-dateJune 25, 2024 \|workDaily News \|pages5}}</ref> Warhol donated 10 of the 150 sets he made to wildlife organizations "so they could sell them to raise money."<ref name":8" /> Prior to the 1984 Sarajevo Winter Olympics, he teamed with 15 other artists, including David Hockney and Cy Twombly, and contributed a Speed Skater print to the Art and Sport collection. The Speed Skater was used for the official Sarajevo Winter Olympics poster.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.aanddgallery.com/store/images/uploads/WarholWinterolympics.jpg\|title"Speed Skater" official 1984 Sarajevo Winter Olympics poster by Andy Warhol\|access-dateJuly 30, 2017\|archive-dateJuly 30, 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170730202633/http://www.aanddgallery.com/store/images/uploads/WarholWinterolympics.jpg\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 1984, Vanity Fair commissioned Warhol to produce a portrait of Prince, to accompany an article that celebrated the success of Purple Rain and its accompanying movie.<ref>{{Cite magazine\|urlhttps://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2016/04/prince-at-the-height-of-his-powers\|titlePurple Fame: An Appreciation of Prince at the Height of His Powers. Vanity Fair 1984 article, with especially commissioned portrait commissioned from Andy Warhol\|lastVox\|firstTristan\|magazineVanity Fair\|access-dateMarch 12, 2018\|languageen}}</ref> Referencing the many celebrity portraits produced by Warhol across his career, Orange Prince (1984) was created using a similar composition to the Marilyn "Flavors" series from 1962, among some of Warhol's first celebrity portraits.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.pacermonitor.com/view/44T6MBA/The_Andy_Warhol_Foundation_For_v_Goldsmith_et_al__nysdce-17-02532__0032.3.pdf\|titleArt historian, Thomas E Crow, analysis of Warhol's portrait of Prince, May 2018\|websitepacermonitor.com\|access-dateJune 9, 2018\|archive-dateMay 17, 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180517223449/https://www.pacermonitor.com/view/44T6MBA/The_Andy_Warhol_Foundation_For_v_Goldsmith_et_al__nysdce-17-02532__0032.3.pdf\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Prince is depicted in a pop color palette commonly used by Warhol, in bright orange with highlights of bright green and blue. The facial features and hair are screen-printed in black over the orange background.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.christies.com/lotfinder/Lot/andy-warhol-1928-1987-orange-marilyn-4806391-details.aspx\|titleAndy Warhol's Orange Marilyn 1962. Essay on the Warhol portrait style across three decades\|websitechristies.com\|languageen\|access-dateMarch 11, 2018\|archive-dateFebruary 28, 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180228223737/https://www.christies.com/lotfinder/Lot/andy-warhol-1928-1987-orange-marilyn-4806391-details.aspx\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.artimage.org.uk/6072/andy-warhol/prince--c--1984\|titlePrince (1984) : Andy Warhol : Artimage\|websiteartimage.org.uk\|languageen\|access-dateMarch 11, 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180312022554/https://www.artimage.org.uk/6072/andy-warhol/prince--c--1984\|archive-dateMarch 12, 2018\|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.sothebys.com/en/news-video/blogs/all-blogs/21-days-of-andy-warhol/2013/11/andy-warhol-and-his-process.html\|titleAndy Warhol and His Process: Screenprinting: sothebys.com\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160413051307/http://www.sothebys.com/en/news-video/blogs/all-blogs/21-days-of-andy-warhol/2013/11/andy-warhol-and-his-process.html\|archive-dateApril 13, 2016\|url-status=dead}}</ref> In September 1985, Warhol's joint exhibition with Basquiat, Paintings, opened to negative reviews at the Tony Shafrazi Gallery.<ref>{{Cite news\|lastRaynor\|firstVivien\|dateSeptember 20, 1985\|titleART: BASQUIAT, WARHOL\|languageen-US\|workThe New York Times\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1985/09/20/arts/art-basquiat-warhol.html\|access-dateOctober 18, 2021\|issn0362-4331}}</ref> That month, despite apprehension from Warhol, his silkscreen series Reigning Queens was shown at the Leo Castelli Gallery.<ref>{{Cite web\|lastTate\|title'Reigning Queens', Andy Warhol\|urlhttps://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/warhol-reigning-queens-ar00396\|access-dateOctober 17, 2021\|websiteTate Etc.\|languageen-GB}}</ref> In the Andy Warhol Diaries, Warhol noted: "They were supposed to be only for Europe—nobody here cares about royalty and it'll be another bad review."{{Sfn\|Warhol\|Hackett\|1989\|p680}} In January 1987, Warhol traveled to Milan for the opening of his last exhibition, Last Supper, at the Palazzo delle Stelline.<ref>{{Cite web\|dateMarch 23, 2017\|titleThe must-see exhibition in Milan: "Sixty Last Suppers" by Andy Warhol\|urlhttps://www.vogue.fr/fashion-culture/fashion-exhibitions/diaporama/exhibition-andy-warhol-milan-italy-art-culture-museo-de-novecento-gagosian-gallery/41931\|access-dateOctober 18, 2021\|websiteVogue Paris\|languagefr-FR}}</ref> The next month, Warhol modeled with jazz musician Miles Davis for Koshin Satoh's fashion show at the Tunnel in New York City on February 17, 1987.<ref>{{Cite web\|lastKornbluth\|firstJesse\|dateMarch 9, 1987\|titleRemembering the World of Andy Warhol\|urlhttps://nymag.com/arts/art/features/47184/\|access-dateOctober 18, 2021\|websiteNew York\|languageen-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|titleLe jour où Warhol est devenu le serviteur de Miles Davis\|urlhttps://www.numero.com/fr/musique/miles-davis-andy-warhol-jazz-pop-art-tunnel-manhattan-night-club-defile-koshin-satoh\|access-dateOctober 18, 2021\|websiteNuméro Magazine\|languagefr\|archive-dateApril 14, 2024\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240414055355/https://www.numero.com/fr/musique/miles-davis-andy-warhol-jazz-pop-art-tunnel-manhattan-night-club-defile-koshin-satoh\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Death Warhol died at age 58 following gallbladder surgery at New York Hospital in Manhattan on February 22, 1987.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastMcGill \|firstDouglas C. \|dateFebruary 23, 1987 \|titleAndy Warhol; Pop Artist, Dies \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1987/02/23/obituaries/andy-warhol-pop-artist-dies.html \|workThe New York Times}}</ref> Reportedly, he had been making a good recovery from the surgery before dying in his sleep at 6:32&nbsp;a.m. from a sudden post-operative irregular heartbeat.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1987/04/13/nyregion/hospital-asserts-it-gave-warhol-adequate-care.html \|firstRobert O. \|lastBoorstin \|titleHospital Asserts it Gave Warhol Adequate Care \|dateApril 13, 1987 \|access-dateJanuary 2, 2009 \|workThe New York Times}}</ref> Prior to his diagnosis and operation, Warhol delayed having his recurring gallbladder problems checked, as he was afraid to enter hospitals and see doctors.<ref name"Alexander-1992">{{cite magazine \|last1Alexander \|first1Paul \|dateJanuary 27, 1992 \|titleWhat happened to Andy's Treasures \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgOMCAAAAMBAJ&pgPA28 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160126195516/https://books.google.com/books?idgOMCAAAAMBAJ&pgPA28 \|archive-dateJanuary 26, 2016 \|access-dateDecember 4, 2013 \|magazineNew York \|page28 \|volume25 \|number=4}}</ref> in Bethel Park, Pennsylvania]] Warhol's brothers took his body back to Pittsburgh, where an open-casket wake was held at the Thomas P. Kunsak Funeral Home. The solid bronze casket had gold-plated rails and white upholstery. Warhol was dressed in a black cashmere suit, a paisley tie, and a platinum wig.{{Sfn\|Bourdon\|1989\|p414}} He was laid out holding a small prayer book and a red rose. The funeral liturgy was held at the Holy Ghost Byzantine Catholic Church on Pittsburgh's North Side on February 26, 1987. Monsignor Peter Tay delivered the eulogy.{{Sfn\|Bockris\|1997\|p493}} After the liturgy, the casket, covered with white roses and asparagus ferns, was driven to St. John the Baptist Byzantine Catholic Cemetery in Bethel Park, a south suburb of Pittsburgh, where Warhol was buried near his parents.{{Sfn\|Bockris\|1997\|pp493-494}} The priest said a brief prayer at the graveside and sprinkled holy water on the casket. Before the casket was lowered, Warhol's close friend and associate publisher of Interview, Paige Powell, dropped a copy of the magazine and a bottle of Beautiful Eau de Parfum by Estée Lauder into the grave.<ref>{{Cite web \|titlePaige Powell on Andy Warhol, Fashion and America's Art Scene \|urlhttps://spearswms.com/paige-powell-on-andy-warhol-fashion-and-americas-art-scene/ \|access-dateMay 29, 2022 \|websitespearswms.com \|dateJanuary 9, 2013 \|languageen-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|dateAugust 6, 2014\|title7 Wonders: Wonderfully Weird Warhol {{!}} Wonderland Magazine\|urlhttps://www.wonderlandmagazine.com/2014/08/06/7-wonders-andy-warhol/\|access-dateOctober 18, 2021\|websiteWonderland\|language=en-GB}}</ref> A memorial service was held in Manhattan for Warhol at St. Patrick's Cathedral in New York on April 1, 1987.<ref>{{Cite news\|lastGlueck\|firstGrace\|dateApril 2, 1987\|titleWarhol Is Remembered By 2,000 At St. Patrick's\|languageen-US\|workThe New York Times\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1987/04/02/nyregion/warhol-is-remembered-by-2000-at-st-patrick-s.html\|access-dateOctober 18, 2021\|issn0362-4331}}</ref> It was attended by over 2,000 people, including Warhol collaborators and numerous celebrities such as Raquel Welch, Debbie Harry, Liza Minnelli, Claus von Bülow, and Calvin Klein, among others.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateDecember 7, 2011 \|titleThe Day the Factory Died: Andy Warhol's memorial service: in pictures \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/culturepicturegalleries/8938890/The-Day-the-Factory-Died-Andy-Warhols-memorial-service-in-pictures.html \|access-dateDecember 25, 2024 \|websiteThe Telegraph \|languageen}}</ref><ref name":17">{{Cite web \|lastWinship \|firstFrederick M. \|dateApril 1, 1987 \|titleCelebrities attend Warhol memorial at St. Patrick's Cathedral - UPI Archives \|urlhttps://www.upi.com/Archives/1987/04/01/Celebrities-attend-Warhol-memorial-at-St-Patricks-Cathedral/9987544251600/ \|access-dateDecember 25, 2024 \|websiteUnited Press International \|languageen}}</ref> Eulogies were given by John Richardson and Yoko Ono.<ref name":17" /> Following the memorial, there was a luncheon at the Diamond Horseshoe nightclub beneath the Paramount Hotel.<ref>{{Cite news \|date1987-04-02 \|titleSpecial Memorial For Andy Warhol \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/newsday-suffolk-edition-special-memori/169097869/ \|access-date2025-03-29 \|workNewsday \|locationSuffolk Edition \|pages2/Part II}}</ref> Wrongful death lawsuit In December 1991, Warhol's family sued the hospital in the New York Supreme Court for inadequate care, before judge Ira Gammerman, saying that the arrhythmia was caused by improper care and water intoxication.<ref>{{cite news\|lastSullivan \|firstRonald \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1991/12/05/nyregion/care-faulted-in-the-death-of-warhol.html \|titleCare faulted in the death of warhol \|workThe New York Times \|dateDecember 5, 1991 \|access-dateAugust 14, 2010}}</ref> The malpractice case was quickly settled out of court; Warhol's family received an undisclosed sum of money.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.orlandosentinel.com/1991/12/24/andy-warhol-heirs-settle-lawsuit-with-hospital-over-artists-death/ \|titleAndy Warhol Heirs Settle Lawsuit With Hospital Over Artist's Death \|workOrlando Sentinel \|dateDecember 24, 1991 \|access-dateDecember 4, 2013 \|archive-dateNovember 29, 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141129052112/http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/1991-12-24/news/9112240841_1_warhol-york-hospital-gallstones \|url-status=live }}</ref> Prior to his surgery, doctors expected Warhol to survive, though a re-evaluation of the case about thirty years after his death showed many indications that Warhol's surgery was in fact riskier than originally thought.<ref name"Gobnik-2017">{{cite news \|last1Gobnik\|first1Blake \|titleWarhol's Death: Not So Simple, After All \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/21/arts/design/andy-warhols-death-not-so-routine-after-all.html \|websiteThe New York Times \|dateFebruary 21, 2017 \|access-dateFebruary 22, 2017 \| url-status live \| archive-date February 22, 2017 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20170222054611/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/21/arts/design/andy-warhols-death-not-so-routine-after-all.html?actionclick&contentCollectionU.S.&moduleTrending&versionFull&regionMarginalia&pgtypearticle }}</ref> It was widely reported at the time that Warhol had died of a "routine" surgery, though when considering factors such as his age, a family history of gallbladder problems, his previous gunshot wound, and his medical state in the weeks leading up to the procedure, the potential risk of death following the surgery appeared to have been significant.<ref name"Gobnik-2017" /> Art works Paintings By the beginning of the 1960s, pop art was an experimental form that several artists were independently adopting; some of these pioneers, such as Roy Lichtenstein, would later become synonymous with the movement. Warhol, who would become famous as the "Pope of Pop", turned to this new style, where popular subjects could be part of the artist's palette. His early paintings show images taken from cartoons and advertisements, hand-painted with paint drips. Those drips emulated the style of successful abstract expressionists such as Willem de Kooning. From these beginnings, he developed his later style and subjects. Instead of working on a signature subject matter, as he started out to do, he worked more and more on a signature style, slowly eliminating the handmade from the artistic process. Warhol was an early adopter of the silkscreen printmaking process as a technique for making paintings. His later drawings were traced from slide projections. Warhol had several assistants through the years, including Gerard Malanga, Ronnie Cutrone, and George Condo, who produced his silkscreen multiples, following his directions to make different versions and variations.{{sfn\|Colacello\|1990\|p28}}<ref>{{Cite web \|lastAmadour \|dateFebruary 15, 2023 \|title15 Minutes with George Condo \|urlhttps://lamag.com/art/15-minutes-with-george-condo \|access-dateSeptember 9, 2023 \|websiteLAmag – Culture, Food, Fashion, News & Los Angeles \|languageen}}</ref> Warhol's first pop art paintings were displayed in April 1961, serving as the backdrop for New York Department Store Bonwit Teller's window display. This was the same stage his Pop Art contemporaries Jasper Johns, James Rosenquist and Robert Rauschenberg had also once graced.<ref>Smith, Patrick S (1986). ''Andy Warhol's Art and Films''; UMI Research Press; p.98; {{ISBN\|978-0-8357-1733-5}}</ref> It was the gallerist Muriel Latow who came up with the ideas for both the soup cans and Warhol's dollar paintings. On November 23, 1961, Warhol wrote Latow a check for $50 which, according to the 2009 Warhol biography, Pop, The Genius of Warhol, was payment for coming up with the idea of the soup cans as subject matter.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.warholstars.org/art/warhol/soup.html \|titleThe Soup Cans—Andy Warhol \|publisherWarholstars.org \|access-dateAugust 14, 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100801234441/http://www.warholstars.org/art/warhol/soup.html \|archive-dateAugust 1, 2010 \|url-status=live }}</ref> For his first major exhibition, Warhol painted his famous cans of Campbell's soup, which he claimed to have had for lunch for most of his life. It was during the 1960s that Warhol began to make paintings of iconic American objects such as dollar bills, mushroom clouds, electric chairs, Campbell's soup cans, Coca-Cola bottles, celebrities such as Marilyn Monroe, Elvis Presley and Elizabeth Taylor, as well as newspaper headlines or photographs of police dogs attacking African-American protesters during the Birmingham campaign in the civil rights movement. His work became popular and controversial. Warhol had this to say about Coca-Cola:{{Blockquote\|textWhat's great about this country is that America started the tradition where the richest consumers buy essentially the same things as the poorest. You can be watching TV and see Coca-Cola, and you know that the President drinks Coca-Cola, Liz Taylor drinks Coca-Cola, and just think, you can drink Coca-Cola, too. A Coke is a Coke and no amount of money can get you a better Coke than the one the bum on the corner is drinking. All the Cokes are the same and all the Cokes are good. Liz Taylor knows it, the President knows it, the bum knows it, and you know it.<ref>{{Cite book \|firstAndy \|lastWarhol \|titleThe philosophy of Andy Warhol: from A to B and back again \|publisherHarcourt Brace Jovanovich \|locationSan Diego}}</ref>}} In 1962, Warhol created his famous Marilyn series. The Flavor Marilyns were selected from a group of fourteen canvases in the sub-series, each measuring 20" x 16". Some of the canvases were named after various candy Life Savers flavors, including Cherry Marilyn, Lemon Marilyn and Licorice Marilyn. The others are identified by their background colors.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMarilyn \|urlhttps://richardpolskyart.com/rpaa-andy-warhol-catalogue-raisonne-addendum/catalogue-listings/marilyn-2/ \|access-dateNovember 16, 2021 \|websiteRichard Polsky Art Authentication \|language=en-US}}</ref> Warhol produced both comic and serious works; his subject could be a soup can or an electric chair. Warhol used the same techniques—silkscreens, reproduced serially, and often painted with bright colors—whether he painted celebrities, everyday objects, or images of suicide, car crashes and disasters, as in the 1962–63 Death and Disaster series.<ref name"Sotheby's-2013">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.sothebys.com/content/sothebys/en/news-video/blogs/all-blogs/contemporary/2013/11/record-warhol-leads-.html \|titleRecord Warhol Leads Contemporary Sale \|websiteSotheby's \|dateNovember 14, 2013 \|access-dateDecember 4, 2013 \|archive-dateJanuary 15, 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150115022939/http://www.sothebys.com/content/sothebys/en/news-video/blogs/all-blogs/contemporary/2013/11/record-warhol-leads-.html \|url-status=live }}</ref> In the 1970s, Warhol evolved into a commercial artist, painting mostly commissioned portraits of celebrities.<ref name":5">{{Cite news \|lastKazickas \|firstJurate \|dateSeptember 4, 1975 \|titleLove Celebrities: Andy Warhol Travels Along With In-Crowd \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-advertiser-love-celebrities-a/146245325/ \|access-dateApril 29, 2024 \|workThe Daily Advertiser \|pages24}}</ref><ref name":4" /> In 1979, Warhol was commissioned to paint a BMW M1 Group 4 racing version for the fourth installment of the BMW Art Car project.<ref name"Taylor-2001">{{Cite book\|lastTaylor\|firstJames\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idxMRT2oqlIkYC&pgPA28\|titleOriginal BMW M-Series\|date2001\|publisherMBI Publishing Company LLC\|isbn978-0-7603-0898-1\|pages28–29\|languageen}}</ref> He was initially asked to paint a BMW 320i in 1978, but the car model was changed and it didn't qualify for the race that year.{{Sfn\|Warhol\|Hackett\|1989\|p119\|psEntry date: Thursday, March 23, 1978}}{{Sfn\|Warhol\|Hackett\|1989\|p136\|psEntry date: Friday, May 19, 1978}}<ref>{{Cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlEMFAAAAMAAJ&qPoulain+andy+warhol+1978\|titleThe Art Gallery\|date1978\|publisherHollycroft Press\|pages75\|languageen}}</ref> Warhol was the first artist to paint directly onto the automobile himself instead of letting technicians transfer a scale-model design to the car.<ref name"Taylor-2001" /> Reportedly, it took him only 23 minutes to paint the entire car.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.carbodydesign.com/archive/2006/03/27-bmw-art-car-1979-andy-warhol-m1/bmw-art-car-1979-andy-warhol-m1.php \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100213000309/http://www.carbodydesign.com/archive/2006/03/27-bmw-art-car-1979-andy-warhol-m1/bmw-art-car-1979-andy-warhol-m1.php \|archive-dateFebruary 13, 2010 \|titleBmw Art Car 1979: M1 by Andy Warhol \|publishercarbodydesign.com \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Racecar drivers Hervé Poulain, Manfred Winkelhock and Marcel Mignot drove the car at the 1979 24 Hours of Le Mans.<ref name"Taylor-2001" /> Some of Warhol's work, as well as his own personality, has been described as being Keatonesque. Warhol has been described as playing dumb to the media. He sometimes refused to explain his work. He has suggested that all one needs to know about his work is "already there 'on the surface{{' "}}.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.artexpertswebsite.com/pages/artists/warhol.php \|titleAndy Warhol Biography (1928–1987) \|publisherArt Experts \|access-dateJanuary 15, 2014 \|archive-dateJanuary 16, 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140116085302/http://www.artexpertswebsite.com/pages/artists/warhol.php \|url-status=dead }}</ref> His Rorschach inkblots are intended as pop comments on art and what art could be. His cow wallpaper (literally, wallpaper with a cow motif) and his oxidation paintings (canvases prepared with copper paint that was then oxidized with urine) are also noteworthy in this context. Equally noteworthy is the way these works—and their means of production—mirrored the atmosphere at Andy's New York "Factory". Former Interview editor Bob Colacello provides some details on Andy's "piss paintings": {{blockquote\|Victor&nbsp;... was Andy's ghost pisser on the Oxidations. He would come to the Factory to urinate on canvases that had already been primed with copper-based paint by Andy or Ronnie Cutrone, a second ghost pisser much appreciated by Andy, who said that the vitamin B that Ronnie took made a prettier color when the acid in the urine turned the copper green. Did Andy ever use his own urine? My diary shows that when he first began the series, in December 1977, he did, and there were many others: boys who'd come to lunch and drink too much wine, and find it funny or even flattering to be asked to help Andy 'paint'. Andy always had a little extra bounce in his walk as he led them to his studio.{{sfn\|Colacello\|1990\|p343}}\|sign\|source=}} , Bruno Bischofberger, and Francesco Clemente in 1984]] Warhol's 1982 portrait of Basquiat, Jean-Michel Basquiat, is a silkscreen over an oxidized copper "piss painting".<ref>{{Cite web\|lastMcGreevy\|firstNora\|dateOctober 6, 2021\|titleWhy Andy Warhol Peed on This Portrait of Jean-Michel Basquiat\|urlhttps://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/why-andy-warhol-peed-on-this-portrait-of-jean-michel-basquiat-180978824/\|access-dateOctober 7, 2021\|websiteSmithsonian Magazine\|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|lastEmmerling\|firstLeonhard\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idildOSz1bKuMC&pgPA63\|titleJean-Michel Basquiat: 1960–1988\|date2003\|publisherTaschen\|isbn978-3-8228-1637-0\|pages63\|languageen}}</ref> After many years of silkscreen, oxidation, photography, etc., Warhol returned to painting with a brush in hand. In 1983, Warhol began collaborating with Basquiat and Clemente.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleBundeskunsthalle – Ménage à trois\|urlhttps://www.bundeskunsthalle.de/en/exhibitions/all-past-exhibitions/menage-a-trois.html\|access-dateAugust 30, 2021\|websitebundeskunsthalle.de}}</ref> Warhol and Basquiat created a series of more than 50 large collaborative works between 1984 and 1985.<ref>{{Cite magazine\|dateJuly 31, 2019\|titleAndy Warhol, Jean-Michel Basquiat, and the Friendship That Defined the Art World in 1980s New York City\|urlhttps://www.vanityfair.com/style/2019/07/andy-warhol-jean-michel-basquiat-friendship-book\|access-dateAugust 30, 2021\|magazineVanity Fair\|language=en-US}}</ref> Despite criticism when these were first shown, Warhol called some of them "masterpieces", and they were influential for his later work.<ref>Fretz, Eric, Jean-Michel Basquiat: A Biography. Greenwood Press, 2010. {{ISBN\|978-0-313-38056-3}}.</ref> In 1984, Warhol was commissioned by collector and gallerist Alexander Iolas to produce work based on Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper for an exhibition at the old refectory of the Palazzo delle Stelline in Milan, opposite from the Santa Maria delle Grazie where Leonardo da Vinci's mural can be seen.<ref>Claudia Schmuckli, [http://pastexhibitions.guggenheim.org/warhol/ "Andy Warhol: The Last Supper" (June 1999 – December 2001)] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090116161414/http://pastexhibitions.guggenheim.org/warhol/ \|dateJanuary 16, 2009 }} Guggenheim Museum SoHo. Retrieved September 21, 2014.</ref> Warhol exceeded the demands of the commission and produced nearly 100 variations on the theme, mostly silkscreens and paintings, and among them a collaborative sculpture with Basquiat, the Ten Punching Bags (Last Supper).<ref>[http://www.warhol.org/education/resourceslessons/Jean-Michel-Basquiat/ Collaboration with Andy Warhol: Jean Michel Basquiat] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304082251/http://www.warhol.org/education/resourceslessons/Jean-Michel-Basquiat/ \|dateMarch 4, 2016 }}, The Andy Warhol Museum. Retrieved September 21, 2014.</ref> The Milan exhibition that opened in January 1987 with a set of 22 silk-screens, was the last exhibition for both the artist and the gallerist.<ref>Court dispute over Alexander Iolas' estate: [http://www.leagle.com/decision/1990424168AD2d256_1338.xml/ANAGNOSTOU%20v.%20STIFEL "Anagnostou vs. Stifel Case – Supreme Court of the State of New York"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141006122621/http://www.leagle.com/decision/1990424168AD2d256_1338.xml/ANAGNOSTOU%20v.%20STIFEL \|dateOctober 6, 2014 }}, Leagle, Inc., December 6, 1990. Retrieved September 21, 2014.</ref> The series of The Last Supper was seen by some as "arguably his greatest",<ref name"Dillenberger-2001">{{cite book\|firstJane \|lastDillenberger \|titleThe Religious Art of Andy Warhol \|publisherContinuum \|locationLondon \|year2001 \|pages10–11 \|isbn978-0-8264-1334-5 \|oclc59540326}}</ref> but by others as "wishy-washy, religiose" and "spiritless".<ref>Anthony Haden-Guest, [http://www.artnet.com/magazine_pre2000/features/haden-guest/haden-guest8-3-99.asp "Warhol's Last Supper"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101024140203/http://www.artnet.com/magazine_pre2000/features/haden-guest/haden-guest8-3-99.asp \|dateOctober 24, 2010 }}, ArtNet, 1999.</ref> It is the largest series of religious-themed works by any American artist.<ref name="Dillenberger-2001"/> Artist Maurizio Cattelan describes that it is difficult to separate daily encounters from the art of Andy Warhol: "That's probably the greatest thing about Warhol: the way he penetrated and summarized our world, to the point that distinguishing between him and our everyday life is basically impossible, and in any case useless." Warhol was an inspiration towards Cattelan's magazine and photography compilations, such as Permanent Food, Charley, and Toilet Paper.<ref>Spector, Nancy. Maurizio Cattelan: All. New York, NY: Guggenheim Museum Publications, 2011</ref> In the period just before his death, Warhol was working on Cars, a series of paintings for Mercedes-Benz.<ref name"Kennedy-2001">{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/uk/2001/sep/01/arts.warhol \|titleWarhol: Cars \|dateSeptember 1, 2001 \|access-dateApril 24, 2010 \|workThe Guardian \|locationLondon \|firstMaev \|lastKennedy}}</ref> Drawings According to a 2023 Artnet article, "Though he is often associated with printmaking—specifically silkscreen—Warhol was also an incredibly talented illustrator and draughtsman, and drawing was an integral part of his practice throughout his career. His early drawings on paper bare a resemblance to both continuous line and blind contour drawing techniques, giving his work a sense of ease and immediacy. While working primarily within commercial advertisement, he pioneered the blotted line technique, which synthesized graphite drawing on paper with elements of printmaking. Warhol continued his practice of drawing through the last years of his life and career, and the work from this later period exemplifies a long and storied career's worth of honed skill and technique."<ref>{{Cite web \|lastNetwork \|firstArtnet Gallery \|dateApril 18, 2023 \|titleSpotlight: A New Exhibition of Andy Warhol's Late-Career Drawings Reveals His Enduring Passions, From Fashion to the Animal Kingdom \|urlhttps://news.artnet.com/buyers-guide/spotlight-long-sharp-gallery-andy-warhol-life-well-drawn-2286832 \|access-dateApril 19, 2023 \|websiteArtnet News \|languageen-US}}</ref> Art market In 1970, screens and film matrixes that had been used to produce original Warhol works in the 1960s were taken to Europe for the production of Warhol screenprints under the name "Sunday B Morning". Warhol signed and numbered one edition of 250 before subsequent unauthorized unsigned versions were produced.<ref name"Fp">{{cite web \|authorHintz, Paddy \|dateDecember 8, 2007 \|titleFactory practices: [1 First With The News Edition] \|urlhttps://www.proquest.com/docview/353917799 \|url-accesssubscription \|access-dateSeptember 24, 2023 \|workThe Courier-Mail \|pageT03 \|id{{ProQuest\|353917799}}}}</ref> The unauthorized works were the result of a falling out between Warhol and some of his New York City studio employees who went to Brussels where they produced work stamped with "Sunday B Morning" and "Add Your Own Signature Here".<ref>{{cite web \|authorWarren, Matt \|dateApril 17, 2001 \|titleFactory prints: [S2 AND INTERACTIVE SUPPLEMENT Edition] \|urlhttps://www.proquest.com/docview/326950189 \|url-accesssubscription \|access-dateSeptember 24, 2023 \|workThe Scotsman \|page8 \|id{{ProQuest\|326950189}}}}</ref> Since the works began as a collaboration, Warhol facilitated exact duplication by providing the photo negatives and precise color codes.<ref>{{cite web \|authorDavis, Holly \|dateMay 30, 2019 \|titleRMFA to exhibit "A Tribute to Sunday B. Morning and Andy Warhol" \|urlhttps://www.proquest.com/docview/2231708051 \|url-accesssubscription \|access-dateSeptember 24, 2023 \|workTCA Regional News \|id{{ProQuest\|2231708051}}}}</ref> Some of the unauthorized productions bore the markings "This is not by me, Andy Warhol".<ref name"Fp" /> The most famous unauthorized reproductions are 1967 Marilyn Monroe portfolio screenprints. These "Sunday B Morning" Marilyn Monroe prints were among those still under production as of 2013.<ref>{{cite web \|authorShaw, Kurt \|dateAugust 18, 2013 \|titleVenus in dispute: Is it a Warhol? \|urlhttps://www.proquest.com/docview/1425866395 \|url-accesssubscription \|access-dateSeptember 24, 2023 \|workPittsburgh Tribune-Review \|page8 \|id{{ProQuest\|1425866395}}}}</ref> Art galleries and dealers also market Sunday B Morning reprint versions of several other screenprint works including Flowers, ''Campbell's Soup I, Campbell's Soup Cans II,Gold Marilyn Monroe'' Mao and Dollare bill prints.<ref>{{cite web \|dateMay 18, 2015 \|titleWhat Is Sunday B. Morning And What Is The Connection To Andy Warhol Art \|urlhttps://ginaartonline.com/what-is-sunday-b-morning-and-what-is-the-connection-to-andy-warhol-art/ \|access-dateSeptember 24, 2023 \|publisherGginaartonline}}</ref> Although the original Sunday B Morning versions had black stamps on the back, by the 1980s, they switched to blue.<ref>{{cite web \|dateMarch 30, 2018 \|titleAndy Warhol vs. Sunday B Morning \|urlhttps://thearthoundgallery.com/blogs/news/andy-warhol-vs-sunday-b-morning \|access-dateSeptember 24, 2023 \|publisherGginaartonline}}</ref> In 1970, Warhol's painting ''Campbell's Soup Can With Peeling Label'' (1962) sold for $60,000 at an auction by Parke-Bernet Galleries.<ref name":9">{{Cite news \|dateMay 16, 1970 \|titleWarhol's Soup Can Sells for $60,000 \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1970/05/16/archives/warhols-soup-can-sells-for-60000.html \|access-dateJuly 8, 2024 \|workThe New York Times \|languageen-US \|issn0362-4331}}</ref> At the time it was the high price ever paid at a public auction for a work by a living American artist.<ref name=":9" /> In the 1970s, the price of a commissioned portrait by Warhol was $25,000, two for $40,000.<ref name":5" /><ref name":4" /> The value of Andy Warhol's work has been on an endless upward trajectory since his death in 1987. In 2014, his works accumulated $569&nbsp;million at auction, which accounted for more than a sixth of the global art market.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleAndy Warhol's Ever-Growing Art Market\|urlhttps://fineartmultiple.com/blog/andy-warhol-art-market-growth/\|access-dateSeptember 6, 2021\|websitefineartmultiple.com}}</ref> However, there have been some dips. According to art dealer Dominique Lévy: "The Warhol trade moves something like a seesaw being pulled uphill: it rises and falls, but each new high and low is above the last one."<ref name"Artnet News-2019">{{Cite web\|dateApril 24, 2019\|titleIs Warhol Still Art's 'One-Man Dow Jones'? Dealer Dominique Lévy Breaks Down Five Myths About the Artist's Market\|urlhttps://news.artnet.com/market/dominique-levy-warhol-women-1524946\|access-dateSeptember 5, 2021\|websiteArtnet News\|languageen-US}}</ref> She attributes this to the consistent influx of new collectors intrigued by Warhol. "At different moments, you've had different groups of collectors entering the Warhol market, and that resulted in peaks in demand, then satisfaction and a slow down," before the process repeats another demographic or the next generation.<ref name"Artnet News-2019" /> In 1998, Orange Marilyn (1964), a depiction of Marilyn Monroe, sold for $17.3&nbsp;million, which at the time set a new record as the highest price paid for a Warhol artwork.<ref>{{Cite web\|lastKamholz\|firstRoger\|dateNovember 5, 2013\|titleAndy Warhol and 'Orange Marilyn'\|urlhttps://www.sothebys.com/en/articles/andy-warhol-and-orange-marilyn\|websiteSotheby's}}</ref> In 2007, one of Warhol's 1963 paintings of Elizabeth Taylor, Liz (Colored Liz), which was owned by actor Hugh Grant, sold for $23.7&nbsp;million at Christie's.<ref>{{Cite news\|lastVogel\|firstCarol\|dateJuly 20, 2007\|titleHugh Grant Parts With 'Liz' (a Warhol)\|languageen-US\|workThe New York Times\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/20/arts/design/20voge.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070823000358/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/20/arts/design/20voge.html \|archive-dateAugust 23, 2007 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive\|access-dateSeptember 7, 2021\|issn0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|titleWarhol's 'Liz' painting nets $23.7 million\|urlhttps://www.today.com/popculture/warhol-s-liz-painting-nets-23-7-million-wbna21779502\|access-dateSeptember 7, 2021\|websitetoday.com\|dateNovember 14, 2007 \|language=en}}</ref> In 2007, Stefan Edlis and Gael Neeson sold Warhol's Turquoise Marilyn (1964) to financier Steven A. Cohen for $80&nbsp;million.<ref>{{Cite web\|lastVilla\|firstAngelica\|dateMarch 31, 2021\|titleStefan Edlis, Chicago's Impresario Collector of Mischievous Art: 'You Will Never See a B-Grade Piece by an A-Grade Artist'\|urlhttps://www.artnews.com/feature/who-is-stefan-edlis-collector-1234588227/\|access-dateSeptember 6, 2021\|websiteARTnews\|languageen-US}}</ref> In May 2007, Green Car Crash (1963) sold for $71.1&nbsp;million and Lemon Marilyn (1962) sold for $28&nbsp;million at Christie's post-war and contemporary art auction.<ref>{{Cite web\|dateMay 12, 2007\|titleWarhol's "Car Crash" rakes in green\|urlhttp://artobserved.com/2007/05/springtime-auctions/\|access-dateSeptember 6, 2021\|websiteArt Observed\|languageen-US}}</ref> In 2007, ''Large Campbell's Soup Can'' (1964) was sold at a Sotheby's auction to a South American collector for 7.4&nbsp;million.<ref>"[https://news.artnet.com/market/sothebys-100-million-contemporary-art-evening-sale-422258 Early Lucian Freud Painting Leads Sotheby's $100 Million Contemporary Art Evening Sale] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170703145710/https://news.artnet.com/market/sothebys-100-million-contemporary-art-evening-sale-422258\|dateJuly 3, 2017}}" by Colin Gleadell, Artnet, February 10, 2016</ref> In November 2009, 200 One Dollar Bills (1962) at Sotheby's for $43.8&nbsp;million.<ref>{{Cite web\|lastKamholz\|firstRoger\|dateNovember 3, 2013\|titleAndy Warhol and '200 One Dollar Bills'\|urlhttps://www.sothebys.com/en/articles/andy-warhol-and-200-one-dollar-bills\|websiteSotheby's}}</ref> In 2008, Eight Elvises (1963) was sold by Annibale Berlingieri for $100&nbsp;million to a private buyer.<ref>{{Cite news\|dateNovember 28, 2009\|titleThe Pop master's highs and lows\|newspaperThe Economist\|urlhttps://www.economist.com/special-report/2009/11/28/the-pop-masters-highs-and-lows\|access-dateSeptember 6, 2021\|issn0013-0613}}</ref> The work depicts Elvis Presley in a gunslinger pose. It was first exhibited in 1963 at the Ferus Gallery in Los Angeles. Warhol made 22 versions of the Elvis portraits, eleven of which are held in museums.<ref name"Christie's" /> In May 2012, Double Elvis (Ferus Type) sold at auction at Sotheby's for $37&nbsp;million.<ref>{{cite web\|agencyAssociated Press\|dateMay 10, 2012\|titleAndy Warhol's 'Double Elvis' sells for $37M, Lichtenstein's 'Sleeping Girl' gets $44M\|urlhttps://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/andy-warhol-double-elvis-sells-37m-lichtenstein-sleeping-girl-44m-article-1.1075674\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190929213150/https://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/andy-warhol-double-elvis-sells-37m-lichtenstein-sleeping-girl-44m-article-1.1075674\|archive-dateSeptember 29, 2019\|access-dateSeptember 29, 2019\|workDaily News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|agencyAssociated Press\|titleWarhol 'Elvis' sells for $37M; Lichtenstein, Weiwei works break own records at NYC auction\|newspaperThe Washington Post\|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/national/warhol-elvis-sells-for-37m-lichtenstein-weiwei-works-break-own-records-at-nyc-auction/2012/05/09/gIQAQQKDEU_story.html\|url-statusdead\|access-dateMay 10, 2012\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181231143627/https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/warhol-elvis-sells-for-37m-lichtenstein-weiwei-works-break-own-records-at-nyc-auction/2012/05/09/gIQAQQKDEU_story.html\|archive-dateDecember 31, 2018}}</ref> In November 2014, Triple Elvis (Ferus Type) sold for $81.9&nbsp;million at Christie's.<ref name"BBC News-2014">{{cite news\|titleAndy Warhol's Elvis triptych sells for $81.9m\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-30033747\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141113093553/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-30033747\|archive-dateNovember 13, 2014\|access-dateNovember 13, 2014\|workBBC News\|date=November 13, 2014}}</ref> In May 2010, a purple self-portrait of Warhol from 1986 that was owned by fashion designer Tom Ford sold for $32.6&nbsp;million at Sotheby's.<ref>{{Cite news\|lastVogel\|firstCarol\|dateMay 13, 2010\|titleWarhol and Rothko Lead a Big Night at Sotheby's\|languageen-US\|workThe New York Times\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/13/arts/design/13auction.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/13/arts/design/13auction.html \|archive-dateJanuary 1, 2022 \|url-accesslimited\|access-dateAugust 30, 2021\|issn0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In November 2010, Men in Her Life (1962), based on Elizabeth Taylor, sold for $63.4&nbsp;million at Phillips de Pury and Coca-Cola (4) (1962) sold for $35.3&nbsp;million at Sotheby's.<ref>{{Cite news\|dateNovember 10, 2010\|titleAndy Warhol piece sells for $35m\|languageen-GB\|workBBC News\|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-11725032\|access-dateSeptember 22, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|dateNovember 9, 2010\|titleArt Market Watch: Phillips de Pury does $137 million at its new headquarters – artnet Magazine\|urlhttp://www.artnet.com/magazineus/news/artmarketwatch/phillips-de-pury-does-137-million11-9-10.asp\|access-dateSeptember 6, 2021\|websiteartnet.com}}</ref> In May 2011, Warhol's first self-portrait from 1963 to 1964 sold for $38.4&nbsp;million and a red self-portrait from 1986 sold for $27.5&nbsp;million at Christie's.<ref>{{cite news\|dateMay 12, 2011\|titleAndy Warhol self-portrait fetches $38.4m\|workBBC News\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-13371502\|access-dateJanuary 30, 2017}}</ref> In May 2011, Liz No. 5 (Early Colored Liz) sold for $26.9&nbsp;million at Phillips.<ref>{{Cite news\|lastVogel\|firstCarol\|dateMay 13, 2011\|titleGood Week for Warhol as 'Liz #5' Sells for $27 Million\|languageen-US\|workThe New York Times\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/13/arts/design/good-week-for-warhol-as-liz-5-brings-27-million.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/13/arts/design/good-week-for-warhol-as-liz-5-brings-27-million.html \|archive-dateJanuary 1, 2022 \|url-accesslimited\|access-dateSeptember 7, 2021\|issn0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In November 2013, Warhol's rarely seen 1963 diptych, Silver Car Crash (Double Disaster), sold at Sotheby's for $105.4&nbsp;million, a new record for the artist.<ref name"Sotheby's-2013-2">{{cite web\|dateNovember 14, 2013\|titleRecord Warhol Leads Contemporary Sale\|urlhttp://www.sothebys.com/content/sothebys/en/news-video/blogs/all-blogs/contemporary/2013/11/record-warhol-leads-.html\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150115022939/http://www.sothebys.com/content/sothebys/en/news-video/blogs/all-blogs/contemporary/2013/11/record-warhol-leads-.html\|archive-dateJanuary 15, 2015\|access-dateDecember 4, 2013\|websiteSotheby's}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|dateNovember 13, 2013\|titleWarhol painting fetches record $105M at NYC auction\|publisherFox News\|urlhttps://www.foxnews.com/us/warhol-painting-fetches-record-105m-at-nyc-auction\|access-dateDecember 4, 2013}}</ref> In November 2013, Coca-Cola (3) (1962) sold for $57.3&nbsp;million at Christie's.<ref>{{Cite web\|lastMemmott\|firstMark\|dateNovember 13, 2013\|titleRecord $142.4M For Francis Bacon Art; Warhol Fetches $57.3M\|urlhttps://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2013/11/13/244964857/record-142-4m-for-francis-bacon-art-warhol-fetches-57-3m\|access-dateSeptember 6, 2021\|websiteNPR.org\|languageen}}</ref> In May 2014, White Marilyn (1962) sold for $41&nbsp;million at Christie's.<ref>{{Cite web\|dateMay 15, 2014\|titleIn The Saleroom: Andy Warhol's White Marilyn\|urlhttps://www.christies.com/features/in-the-saleroom-andy-warhols-white-marilyn-4650-3.aspx\|access-dateSeptember 6, 2021\|websiteChristie's\|languageen}}</ref> In November 2014, Four Marlons (1964), which depicts Marlon Brando, sold for $69.6&nbsp;million at Christie's.<ref>{{Cite web\|dateNovember 13, 2013\|titleIn The Saleroom: Andy Warhol's Four Marlons\|urlhttps://www.christies.com/features/In-The-Saleroom-Andy-Warhols-Four-Marlons-5229-3.aspx\|access-dateSeptember 6, 2021\|websiteChristie's\|languageen}}</ref> In May 2015, Silver Liz (diptych), painted in 1963, sold for $28&nbsp;million and Colored Mona Lisa (1963) sold for $56.2&nbsp;million at Christie's.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleAndy Warhol (1928–1987) – Silver Liz (diptych)\|urlhttps://www.christies.com/lot/lot-5895973\|access-dateSeptember 7, 2021\|websiteChristie's\|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|lastBoucher\|firstBrian\|dateMay 13, 2015\|titleChristie's Megasale Totals $658.5 Million\|urlhttps://news.artnet.com/market/christies-658-million-sale-record-rothko-89-million-297476\|access-dateSeptember 26, 2021\|websiteArtnet News\|languageen-US}}</ref> In May 2017, Warhol's 1962 painting ''Big Campbell's Soup Can With Can Opener (Vegetable)'' sold for $27.5&nbsp;million at Christie's.<ref>{{Cite web\|dateMay 17, 2017\|titleChristie's Postwar and Contemporary Sale Rakes In $448 Million\|urlhttps://news.artnet.com/market/christies-448m-postwar-contemporary-evening-963353\|access-dateSeptember 5, 2021\|websiteArtnet News\|languageen-US}}</ref> In 2017, billionaire hedge-fund manager Ken Griffin purchased Orange Marilyn privately for around $200&nbsp;million.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastPogrebin \|firstRobin \|dateMay 10, 2022 \|titleWarhol's 'Marilyn,' at $195 Million, Shatters Auction Record for an American Artist \|languageen-US \|workThe New York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/09/arts/design/warhol-auction-marilyn-monroe.html \|access-dateMay 10, 2022 \|issn0362-4331}}</ref> In March 2022, Silver Liz (Ferus Type) sold for 2.3&nbsp;billion yen ($18.9&nbsp;million) at Shinwa Auction, which set a new record for the highest bid ever at auction in Japan.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastOnishi \|firstWakato \|dateMarch 31, 2022 \|titleWarhol's Liz Taylor portrait fetches record price in Tokyo \|urlhttps://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/14587076 \|access-dateSeptember 23, 2022 \|websiteThe Asahi Shimbun \|languageen}}</ref> In May 2022, Shot Sage Blue Marilyn (1964) sold for $195&nbsp;million at Christie's, becoming the most expensive American artwork sold at auction.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastUlaby \|firstNeda \|dateMay 9, 2022 \|titleA Warhol 'Marilyn' brings a record auction price, $195 million \|languageen \|publisherNPR \|urlhttps://www.npr.org/2022/05/09/1096617152/a-warhol-marilyn-brings-a-record-auction-price-195-million \|access-dateMay 10, 2022}}</ref> Collectors Emily and Burton Tremaine were among Warhol's early collectors and influential supporters. Among the over 15 artworks purchased,<ref>(n. d.). [https://www.artdesigncafe.com/tremaine-collection-miller-co-art-design Tremaine Collection / Miller Company: Artworks and designs] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200726035434/https://www.artdesigncafe.com/tremaine-collection-miller-co-art-design\|dateJuly 26, 2020}}. artdesigncafe. Retrieved April 1, 2020.</ref> Marilyn Diptych (now at Tate Modern, London)<ref>Tate Modern, London. (n. d.). [https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/warhol-marilyn-diptych-t03093 Andy Warhol. Marilyn diptych, (1962)] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200418051729/https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/warhol-marilyn-diptych-t03093\|dateApril 18, 2020}}. Retrieved April 1, 2020.</ref> and A boy for Meg (now at the National Gallery of Art in Washington, DC),<ref>National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC. (n. d.). [https://www.nga.gov/collection/art-object-page.53090.html Andy Warhol. A boy for Meg, (1962)] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200726045001/https://www.nga.gov/collection/art-object-page.53090.html\|dateJuly 26, 2020}}. Retrieved April 1, 2020.</ref> were purchased directly out of Warhol's studio in 1962. One Christmas, Warhol left a small Head of Marilyn Monroe by the Tremaine's door at their New York apartment in gratitude for their support and encouragement.<ref>Housley, Kathleen L. (2001). Emily Hall Tremaine: Collector on the cusp, (p. 160). Emily Hall Tremaine Foundation: Meriden, CT. Retrieved April 1, 2020.</ref> Robert Scull and Ethel Scull were among the first people to support Warhol's artwork.<ref name":37">{{Cite book \|lastJones \|firstCaroline A. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idB-fpIbJZzmYC&dqwarhol+collector+ethel+robert+scull&pgPA218 \|titleMachine in the Studio: Constructing the Postwar American Artist \|date1996 \|publisherUniversity of Chicago Press \|isbn978-0-226-40649-7 \|pages218–225 \|languageen}}</ref> Ethel Scull 36 Times (1963), which is presently housed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art's collection, was Warhol's first commissioned portrait.<ref name":37" /> <gallery mode=packed> Image:Exploding Plastic Inevitable.png\|''Exploding Plastic Inevitable' (show) - the Velvet Underground & Nico, 1966, poster Image:The Souper Dress, American paper dress, 1967.jpg\|The Souper Dress'', 1967, screen-printed paper dress based on Warhol's Campbell's Soup Cans Image:Warhol7.JPG\|BMW Group - 4 M1, 1979, painted car </gallery> Works Warhol was a fan of "Business Art", as he stated in his book The Philosophy of Andy Warhol from A to B and Back Again. "I went into business art. I wanted to be an art business man or a business artist. Being good in business is the most fascinating kind of art," he said. His transformation into a mere business artist was a point of criticism.<ref name":02">{{Cite news \|lastRaymond \|firstJohn \|dateAugust 31, 1975 \|titleBusiness Artist Gives the Business \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/the-atlanta-constitution-the-philosophy/148668672/ \|access-dateJune 4, 2024 \|workThe Atlanta Constitution \|pages12–C}}</ref> In hindsight, however, some critics have come to view Warhol's superficiality and commerciality as "the most brilliant mirror of our times", contending that "Warhol had captured something irresistible about the zeitgeist of American culture in the 1970s."<ref name"Lando-2008" /> In addition to his paintings and drawings, Warhol directed and produced films, managed the Velvet Underground, and authored numerous books, as well as producing works in such diverse media as audio, photography, sculpture, theater, fashion and performance art. His ability to blur the lines between art, commerce, and everyday life was central to his creative philosophy. Filmography {{Main\|Andy Warhol filmography}} \|alt= Grainy, black-and-white still frame of the illuminated Empire State Building against the night sky]] Warhol attended the 1962 premiere of the static composition by La Monte Young called Trio for Strings and subsequently created his famous series of static films. Filmmaker Jonas Mekas, who accompanied Warhol to the premiere, claims Warhol's static films were directly inspired by that performance.<ref>{{cite book\|firstUwe \|lastHusslein \|titlePop goes art: Andy Warhol & Velvet Underground \|publisherWuppertal \|year1990 \|oclc165575494}}{{Page needed\|dateAugust 2010}}</ref> Between 1963 and 1968, Warhol made more than 600 underground films, including short black-and-white "screen test" portraits of Factory visitors.<ref>Schaffner (1999), p. 73.</ref><ref name":26" /> Many of his films premiered at the New Andy Warhol Garrick Theatre in Greenwich Village and 55th Street Playhouse in Midtown Manhattan.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateJuly 18, 1968 \|titleWarhol Theater \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/the-tampa-times-the-new-andy-warhol-garr/159151180/ \|workThe Tampa Times \|pages4–B}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastCanby \|firstVincent \|dateMay 6, 1969 \|titleFilm: Lonesome Warhol:Two Theaters Showing Latest, a Western \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1969/05/06/archives/film-lonesome-warholtwo-theaters-showing-latest-a-western.html \|work=The New York Times}}</ref> His early experimental films were silent observations of very typical daily life. Sleep (1964) monitors poet John Giorno sleeping for six hours.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastGiorno \|firstJohn \|dateSeptember 3, 2020 \|titleIn a New Memoir, John Giorno Recalls the Night Andy Warhol Conceived of His Epic Anti-Film While Watching Him Sleep—Read an Excerpt \|urlhttps://news.artnet.com/art-world/john-giorno-great-demon-kings-excerpt-1905632 \|access-dateAugust 23, 2021 \|websiteArtnet News \|languageen-US}}</ref> Kiss (1964) shows couples kissing.<ref name":24">{{Cite news \|lastGruen \|firstJohn \|dateJuly 28, 1968 \|titleThe Mystery That Is Andy Warhol \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/the-los-angeles-times-the-mystery-that-i/157852964/ \|workLos Angeles Calendar \|pages44}}</ref> The film Eat (1964) consists of an artist Robert Indiana eating a mushroom for 45 minutes.<ref name":24" /> The 35-minute film Blow Job (1964) is one continuous shot of the face of DeVeren Bookwalter supposedly receiving oral sex from poet Willard Maas, although the camera never tilts down to see this.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastWatson \|firstSteven \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idnJowwi8QvpwC&qWillard%20Maas%20blow%20job%20warhol \|titleFactory Made: Warhol and the Sixties \|dateOctober 21, 2003 \|publisherKnopf Doubleday Publishing Group \|isbn978-0-679-42372-0 \|pages159 \|languageen}}</ref> For these efforts, Mekas presented Warhol with the Independent Film Award of 1964, "the underground's answer to Oscar."<ref name":27">{{Cite news \|lastMcGrady \|firstMike \|dateDecember 2, 1964 \|titleThe Underground Movie \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/newsday-nassau-edition-andy-warhol-rec/158170848/ \|workNewsday \|pages38W}}</ref> Newsday<nowiki/>'s Mike McGrady hailed Warhol as "the Cecil B. DeMille of the Off-Hollywood movie makers."<ref name=":27" /> Batman Dracula is a 1964 film that was produced and directed by Warhol, without the permission of DC Comics.<ref name":25">{{Cite news \|lastTravis \|firstBen \|dateApril 25, 2016 \|titleBatman: 10 things you didn't know \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/films/2016/04/18/batman-10-things-you-didnt-know/ \|access-dateOctober 26, 2024 \|workThe Telegraph \|languageen-GB \|issn0307-1235}}</ref> It was screened only at his art exhibits. A fan of the Batman series, Warhol's movie was an "homage" and is considered the first appearance of a blatantly campy Batman. The film was until recently thought to have been lost, until scenes from the picture were shown at some length in the 2006 documentary Jack Smith and the Destruction of Atlantis.<ref name=":25" /> Warhol's 1965 film Empire is an eight-hour view of the Empire State Building, and shortly after he released Vinyl (1965), an adaptation of Anthony Burgess' popular dystopian novel A Clockwork Orange. Other films record improvised encounters between Factory regulars such as Brigid Berlin, Viva, Edie Sedgwick, Candy Darling, Holly Woodlawn, Ondine, Nico and Jackie Curtis. The underground artist Jack Smith appears in the film Camp. Warhol's most popular and critically successful film was Chelsea Girls (1966). It was the first underground film of the 1960s to reach widespread popularity and capture the attention of notable film critics.<ref name=":24" /> The film was highly innovative in that it consisted of two 16 mm-films being projected simultaneously, with two different stories being shown in tandem. From the projection booth, the sound would be raised for one film to elucidate that "story" while it was lowered for the other. The multiplication of images evoked Warhol's seminal silkscreen works of the early 1960s. The 1969 film Blue Movie—in which Warhol superstars Viva and Louis Waldon make love in bed—was Warhol's last film as director.<ref name"Canby-1969">{{cite news \|lastCanby \|firstVincent \|author-linkVincent Canby \|titleMovie Review – Blue Movie (1968) Screen: Andy Warhol's 'Blue Movie' \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res9507E5D91738E63ABC4A51DFB1668382679EDE \|dateJuly 22, 1969 \|workThe New York Times \|access-dateDecember 29, 2015 }}</ref><ref name"Canby-1969-2">{{cite news \|lastCanby \|firstVincent \|author-linkVincent Canby \|titleWarhol's Red Hot and 'Blue' Movie. D1. Print. (behind paywall) \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1969/08/10/archives/warhols-red-hot-and-blue-movie-warhols-red-hot-and-blue-movie.html \|dateAugust 10, 1969 \|workThe New York Times \|access-dateDecember 29, 2015 }}</ref> It is a seminal film in the Golden Age of Porn, and at the time it was controversial for its frank approach to a sexual encounter.<ref name"Comenas-2005">{{cite web \|lastComenas \|firstGary \|titleBlue Movie (1968) \|urlhttp://www.warholstars.org/andy-warhol-blue-movie.html \|year2005 \|workWarholStars.org \|access-dateDecember 29, 2015 \|archive-dateDecember 30, 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151230082332/http://www.warholstars.org/andy-warhol-blue-movie.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"IMDb-1972">{{cite web \|titleBlue Movie (1969) \|urlhttps://www.imdb.com/title/tt0062745 \|publisherIMDb \|dateFebruary 10, 1972 \|access-dateDecember 29, 2015 \|archive-dateMarch 10, 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160310230836/http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0062745/ \|url-statuslive }}{{better source needed\|dateApril 2022}}</ref> Blue Movie was publicly screened in New York City in 2005, for the first time in more than 30 years.<ref name"WarholStars.org-2005">{{cite web\|titleBlue Movie + Viva At NY Film Festival \|urlhttp://www.warholstars.org/news/october2005.html \|dateOctober 2005 \|workWarholStars.org \|access-dateJanuary 20, 2016 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151027085125/https://www.warholstars.org/news/october2005.html \|archive-date=October 27, 2015 }}</ref> in Flesh (1968), directed by Paul Morrissey]] In the wake of the 1968 shooting, Warhol's assistant director, Paul Morrissey, took over most of the film-making chores for the Factory collective, steering Warhol-branded cinema towards more mainstream, narrative-based, B-movie exploitation fare with Flesh (1968), Trash (1970) and Heat (1972). All of these films, including the later ''Andy Warhol's Dracula (1973) and Andy Warhol's Frankenstein (1974), were far more mainstream than anything Warhol as a director had attempted. Joe Dallesandro starred in these latter films, which are now considered cult classics. The last Warhol-produced film, Bad,'' starred Carroll Baker and was made without either Morrissey or Dallesandro.<ref name":2">{{Cite web \|lastHorne \|firstJed \|dateSeptember 27, 1976 \|titleAndy Warhol Thinks Everybody and Everything Is 'Great' Except His Latest Movie—it's 'Bad' \|urlhttps://people.com/archive/andy-warhol-thinks-everybody-and-everything-is-great-except-his-latest-movie-its-bad-vol-6-no-13/ \|access-dateApril 7, 2024 \|websitePeople \|languageen}}</ref> It was directed by Warhol's boyfriend Jed Johnson, who had assisted Morrissey on several films.<ref name":2" /> Most of the films directed by Warhol were pulled out of circulation by Warhol and the people around him who ran his business. With assistance from Warhol in 1984, the Whitney Museum and the Museum of Modern Art began to restore his films, which are occasionally shown at museums and film festivals.<ref name":26">{{Cite web \|titleAndy Warhol Film Project \|urlhttps://whitney.org/research/andy-warhol-film-project \|access-dateApril 8, 2024 \|websitewhitney.org \|languageen}}</ref> In 2022, the Andy Warhol Museum announced the launch of The Warhol TV, a streaming platform that allows users to watch free museum content and to rent a selection of Warhol's films from its collection.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastArtDependence \|dateMarch 29, 2022 \|titleThe Warhol Museum Launches Warhol TV, an Online Streaming Platform \|urlhttps://artdependence.com/articles/the-warhol-museum-launches-warhol-tv-an-online-streaming-platform/ \|access-dateNovember 9, 2024 \|websiteartdependence.com \|languageen}}</ref>MusicIn 1965, Warhol adopted the band the Velvet Underground, making them a crucial element of the Exploding Plastic Inevitable multimedia performance art show. Warhol, with Paul Morrissey, acted as the band's manager, introducing them to Nico (who would perform with the band at Warhol's request). While managing The Velvet Underground, Andy would have them dressed in all black to perform in front of movies that he was also presenting.<ref>{{Cite book\|titlePlease kill me : the uncensored oral history of punk \|last2McCain \|first2Gillian\|isbn978-0-8021-2536-1\|edition Twentieth anniversary \|locationNew York\|oclc955634990\|last1 McNeil\|first1 Legs\|year 2016 \|publisherGrove Press}}</ref> In 1966, he "produced" their first album The Velvet Underground & Nico, as well as providing its album art. His actual participation in the album's production amounted to simply paying for the studio time.<ref name":29">{{Cite web \|dateMarch 10, 2017 \|titleThe Velvet Underground: How Andy Warhol Was Fired by His Own Art Project \|urlhttps://consequence.net/2017/03/the-velvet-underground-how-andy-warhol-was-fired-by-his-own-art-project/ \|access-dateNovember 9, 2024 \|websiteConsequence \|language=en}}</ref> After the band's first album, Warhol and band leader Lou Reed started to disagree more about the direction the band should take, and Warhol was fired in 1967.<ref name":0">{{Cite book \|lastFurman \|firstEzra \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtZ1MDwAAQBAJ&dqlou+reed+andy's+chest&pgPA52 \|titleLou Reed's Transformer \|dateApril 19, 2018 \|publisherBloomsbury Publishing USA \|isbn978-1-5013-2305-8 \|pages52–53 \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|year2023 \|titleLou Reed Papers: The Andy Warhol Era - The Hidden Corners of the Lou Reed Papers \|urlhttps://libguides.nypl.org/c.php?g1257488&p9316474 \|access-dateApril 2, 2024 \|websiteNew York Public Library}}</ref> In 1989, Reed and John Cale reunited for the first time since 1972 to write, perform, record and release the concept album Songs for Drella, as a tribute to Warhol.<ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastEvans \|firstPaul \|dateMay 17, 1990 \|titleSongs for Drella \|urlhttps://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-album-reviews/songs-for-drella-252827/ \|access-dateNovember 9, 2024 \|magazineRolling Stone \|languageen-US}}</ref> In October 2019, an audio tape of publicly unknown music by Reed, based on Warhol's 1975 book, The Philosophy of Andy Warhol: From A to B and Back Again, was reported to have been discovered in an archive at the Andy Warhol Museum in Pittsburgh.<ref name"Sisaro-2019">{{cite news \|lastSisaro \|firstBen \|titleA Long-Lost Lou Reed Tape With a Surprise: Andy Warhol Lyrics – The cassette, discovered at the Andy Warhol Museum, finds the Velvet Underground musician performing snippets from his mentor's 1975 book. \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/30/arts/music/lou-reed-andy-warhol-tape.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/30/arts/music/lou-reed-andy-warhol-tape.html \|archive-dateJanuary 1, 2022 \|url-accesslimited \|dateOctober 30, 2019 \|workThe New York Times \|access-date=October 30, 2019 }}{{cbignore}}</ref> Warhol designed many album covers for various artists beginning during his days as an illustrator in the 1950s. The album covers he designed include for ''I'm Still Swinging (1955) by The Joe Newman Octet, Blue Lights, Vols. 1 & 2 (1958) by Kenny Burrell, This Is John Wallowitch!!! (1964) by John Wallowitch, Sticky Fingers (1971) and Love You Live (1977) by The Rolling Stones, The Academy in Peril (1972) by John Cale, Silk Electric (1982) by Diana Ross, and Aretha'' (1986) by Aretha Franklin.<ref>{{cite book \| last Bego \| first Mark \| title Aretha Franklin: The Queen of Soul \| publisher Da Capo Press \| year 2001 \| page 250 \| isbn 978-0-306-80935-4 \| oclc 46488152}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastVaziri \|firstAidin \|dateFebruary 8, 2009 \|titleWarhol's greatest album covers \|urlhttps://www.sfchronicle.com/entertainment/article/warhol-s-greatest-album-covers-3251876.php \|access-dateJanuary 27, 2023 \|websiteSan Francisco Chronicle \|languageen-US}}</ref> In 1984, Warhol co-directed the music video "Hello Again" by the Cars, and he appeared in the video as a bartender.<ref>{{Cite magazine \|dateAugust 31, 1985 \|titleClips Receive an Artful Showcase \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyCQEAAAAMBAJ&pgPT110 \|magazineBillboard \|pages52}}</ref>{{Sfn\|Warhol\|Hackett\|1989\|p560\|psEntry date: Thursday, March 29, 1984}} In 1986, Warhol co-directed the music video "Misfit" by Curiosity Killed the Cat and he made a cameo in video.{{Sfn\|Warhol\|Hackett\|1989\|psEntry date: Tuesday, July 9, 1986\|p741}}{{Sfn\|Warhol\|Hackett\|1989\|p748\|psEntry date: Tuesday, July 29, 1986}}Books and printBeginning in the 1950s, Warhol produced several unbound portfolios of his work. In 1957, his bound book 25 Cats Name Sam and One Blue Pussy was printed by Seymour Berlin.<ref name"auto"/> Berlin also printed some of Warhol's other self-published books, including Gold Book and Wild Raspberries. Warhol's book A La Recherche du Shoe Perdu marked his "transition from commercial to gallery artist".<ref name"Smith2">Smith, John W., Pamela Allara, and Andy Warhol. Possession Obsession: Andy Warhol and Collecting. Pittsburgh, PA: Andy Warhol Museum, 2002, p. 46. {{ISBN\|978-0-9715688-0-8}}.</ref> (The title is a play on words by Warhol on the title of French author Marcel Proust's À la recherche du temps perdu.)<ref name"Smith2" /> In an effort to generate work, the majority of these books were printed in order to be given out to people to draw attention to his illustrations.<ref name=":39" /> After gaining fame, Warhol "wrote" several books that were commercially published: * A, a novel (1968, {{ISBN\|978-0-8021-3553-7}}) is a literal transcription—containing spelling errors and phonetically written background noise and mumbling—of audio recordings of Ondine and several of Andy Warhol's friends hanging out at the Factory, talking, going out.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastWaalkes \|firstBekah \|dateJuly 2023 \|titleComing of age in Warhol's world of imitations and copies \|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/books/2023/07/10/coming-age-warhols-world-imitations-copies/ \|access-dateApril 2, 2024 \|newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref> * The Philosophy of Andy Warhol (From A to B & Back Again) (1975, {{ISBN\|978-0-15-671720-5}})—according to Pat Hackett's introduction to The Andy Warhol Diaries, Pat Hackett did the transcriptions and text for the book based on daily phone conversations, sometimes (when Warhol was traveling) using audio cassettes that Andy Warhol gave her.<ref name":32">{{Cite journal \|lastGross \|firstMichael \|dateMay 29, 1989 \|titleThe Satanic Diaries: Is Andy Telling The Truth \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHegCAAAAMBAJ&dqpat+hackett+warhol+barnard&pgPA51 \|journalNew York \|pages48–56}}</ref> The cassettes contained conversations with Brigid Berlin and former Interview magazine editor Bob Colacello.<ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastMenand \|firstLouis \|dateApril 20, 2022 \|titleThe Very Public Private Life of Andy Warhol \|urlhttps://www.newyorker.com/culture/cultural-comment/the-very-public-private-life-of-andy-warhol \|access-dateApril 2, 2024 \|magazineThe New Yorker \|languageen-US \|issn0028-792X}}</ref> * Exposures (1979, {{ISBN\|9780448128504}}), authored by Warhol and Bob Colacello, is a book of Warhol's photographs of his famous friends with anecdotes. * Popism: The Warhol Sixties (1980, {{ISBN\|978-0-15-672960-4}}), authored by Warhol and Pat Hackett, is a retrospective view of the 1960s and the role of pop art. * The Andy Warhol Diaries (1989, {{ISBN\|978-0-446-39138-2}}), edited by Pat Hackett, is a diary dictated by Warhol to Hackett in daily phone conversations.<ref name":32" /> Warhol started the diary to keep track of his expenses after being audited, although it soon evolved to include his personal and cultural observations.{{sfn\|Colacello\|1990\|p183}} Warhol created the fashion magazine Interview that is still published. The loopy title script on the cover is thought to be either his own handwriting or that of his mother, Julia Warhola, who would often do text work for his early commercial pieces.{{sfn\|Colacello\|1990\|p=22–23}} Warhol created covers for a number of magazines, including Time and Vogue.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastBrower \|firstSteven \|dateMarch 2, 2017 \|titleMagazine Covers by Famous Artists: Warhol, Lichtenstein, Banksy, Fairey & More \|urlhttps://www.printmag.com/featured/magazine-covers-warhol-banksy-lichtenstein/ \|access-dateAugust 23, 2024 \|websitePRINT Magazine \|languageen-US}}</ref> Other media Although Andy Warhol is most known for his paintings and films, he authored works in many different media. , December 2015, Warhol Unlimited Exposition]] * Drawing: Warhol started his career as a commercial illustrator, producing drawings in "blotted-ink" style for advertisements and magazine articles. Best known of these early works are his drawings of shoes. Some of his personal drawings were self-published in small booklets, such as Yum, Yum, Yum (about food), Ho, Ho, Ho (about Christmas) and Shoes, Shoes, Shoes. His most artistically acclaimed book of drawings is probably A Gold Book, compiled of sensitive drawings of young men. A Gold Book is so named because of the gold leaf that decorates its pages.{{Sfn\|Bourdon\|1989\|p51}} In April 2012 a sketch of 1930s singer Rudy Vallee claimed to have been drawn by Andy Warhol was found at a Las Vegas garage sale. The image was said to have been drawn when Andy was nine or 10.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-devon-17591826 \|title'Andy Warhol sketch found' in US garage sale \|dateApril 2, 2012 \|access-dateApril 3, 2012 \|workBBC News}}</ref> Various authorities have challenged the image's authenticity.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMartin \|firstAdam \|dateMay 29, 2012 \|titleAndy Warhol's Brother Says Drawing Bought at Garage Sale Is a Fake \|urlhttps://www.theatlantic.com/culture/archive/2012/05/andy-warhols-brother-says-drawing-bought-garage-sale-fake/327550/ \|access-dateApril 2, 2024 \|websiteThe Atlantic \|languageen}}</ref> * Sculpture: Warhol's most well-known sculptures are his Brillo boxes—silkscreened ink on wood replicas of the large branded cardboard boxes used to hold 24 packages of Brillo soap pads.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Levy \|first1Adrian \|last2Scott-Clark \|first2Cathy \|dateAugust 20, 2010 \|titleWarhol's box of tricks \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2010/aug/21/warhol-brillo-boxes-scandal-fraud \|access-dateNovember 21, 2024 \|workThe Guardian \|languageen-GB \|issn0261-3077}}</ref> The original Brillo design was by commercial artist James Harvey. Warhol's Brillo boxes were part of a series of "grocery carton" works that also included Heinz ketchup and Campbell's tomato juice boxes.<ref name"Staff of The Andy Warhol Museum-2004">{{cite book \|authorStaff of The Andy Warhol Museum \|titleAndy Warhol: 365 Takes \|publisherHarry N. Abrams \|locationNew York \|year2004 \|page35 \|isbn978-0-500-23814-1 \|oclc56117613}}</ref> Other famous works include the Silver Clouds—helium filled, silver mylar, pillow-shaped balloons. A Silver Cloud was included in the traveling exhibition Air Art (1968–1969) curated by Willoughby Sharp. Clouds was also adapted by Warhol for avant-garde choreographer Merce Cunningham's dance piece RainForest (1968).{{Sfn\|Bourdon\|1989\|p=231}} * Audio: At one point Warhol carried a portable recorder with him wherever he went, taping everything everybody said and did. He referred to this device as his "wife". Some of these tapes were the basis for his literary work. Another audio-work of Warhol's was his Invisible Sculpture, a presentation in which burglar alarms would go off when entering the room. Warhol's cooperation with the musicians of The Velvet Underground was driven by an expressed desire to become a music producer.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1de Duve \|first1Thierry \|last2Krauss \|first2Rosalind \|year1989 \|titleAndy Warhol, or The Machine Perfected \|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/778945 \|journalOctober \|volume48 \|pages3–14 \|doi10.2307/778945 \|jstor778945 \|issn0162-2870}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastScherman \|firstTony \|dateNovember 7, 1999 \|titleMUSIC; Warhol: The Herald Of Sampling \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1999/11/07/arts/music-warhol-the-herald-of-sampling.html \|access-dateApril 2, 2024 \|workThe New York Times}}</ref> * Time Capsules: In 1973, Warhol began saving ephemera from his daily life—correspondence, newspapers, souvenirs, childhood objects, even used plane tickets and food—which was sealed in plain cardboard boxes dubbed Time Capsules. By the time of his death, the collection grew to include 600, individually dated "capsules". The boxes are now housed at the Andy Warhol Museum.<ref>{{cite book\|authorStaff of The Andy Warhol Museum \|titleAndy Warhol: 365 Takes \|publisherHarry N. Abrams \|locationNew York \|year2004 \|page157 \|isbn978-0-500-23814-1 \|oclc56117613}}</ref> * Television: In 1968, Warhol produced a TV commercial for Schrafft's Restaurants in New York City, for an ice cream dessert appropriately titled the "Underground Sundae".<ref>{{Cite news \|dateOctober 19, 1968 \|titleUnderground Sundae \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/the-emporia-gazette-andy-warhols-underg/159468313/ \|workThe Emporia Gazette \|pages2}}</ref> Warhol dreamed of a television special about a favorite subject of his{{dash}}Nothing{{dash}}that he would call Nothing Special.<ref name":2" /> Later in his career he created three television shows: Fashion (1979–80), ''Andy Warhol's TV (1980–1983), and the MTV series Andy Warhol's Fifteen Minutes'' (1985–87).<ref>{{Cite news \|dateFebruary 22, 1991 \|titleWarhol: Where And When \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1991/02/22/arts/warhol-where-and-when.html \|access-dateAugust 23, 2024 \|workThe New York Times \|languageen-US \|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> * Fashion: Warhol is quoted for having said: "I'd rather buy a dress and put it up on the wall, than put a painting, wouldn't you?"<ref>{{cite web\|titleMonsters and Critics – Andy Warhol Biography \|urlhttp://www.monstersandcritics.com/people/Andy-Warhol/biography/ \|access-dateJuly 28, 2013 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131216214910/http://www.monstersandcritics.com/people/Andy-Warhol/biography/ \|archive-dateDecember 16, 2013 }}</ref> Warhol had friendships with fashion designers such as Yves Saint Laurent and Halston.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMeeting Andy Warhol \|urlhttps://museeyslparis.com/en/biography/rencontre-avec-andy-warhol \|access-dateAugust 23, 2024 \|websiteMusée Yves Saint Laurent Paris \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastSchwiegershausen \|firstErica \|dateMay 8, 2014 \|titleA Look at the Fruitful Friendship of Warhol and Halston \|urlhttps://www.thecut.com/2014/05/fruitful-friendship-of-warhol-and-halston.html \|access-dateAugust 23, 2024 \|websiteThe Cut \|languageen}}</ref> Warhol's work in fashion includes silkscreened dresses, a short sub-career as a catwalk-model and books on fashion as well as paintings with fashion (shoes) as a subject.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastChilvers \|firstSimon \|dateMarch 2, 2020 \|title'Hip, rebellious, even a bit sinister': how Andy Warhol made pop art fashion \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2020/mar/02/hip-rebellious-even-a-bit-sinister-how-andy-warhol-made-pop-art-fashion \|access-dateApril 2, 2024 \|workThe Guardian \|languageen-GB \|issn0261-3077}}</ref> Warhol himself has been described as a modern dandy, whose authority "rested more on presence than on words".<ref>George Walden, ''Who's a Dandy?—Dandyism and Beau Brummell, London: Gibson Square, 2002. {{ISBN\|978-1-903933-18-3}}. Reviewed by Frances Wilson in [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2002/oct/12/featuresreviews.guardianreview3 "Uncommon People"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170305005503/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2002/oct/12/featuresreviews.guardianreview3 \|dateMarch 5, 2017 }}, The Guardian'', October 12, 2006.</ref> * Performance Art: Warhol and his friends staged theatrical multimedia happenings at parties and public venues, combining music, film, slide projections and even Gerard Malanga in an S&M outfit cracking a whip. The Exploding Plastic Inevitable in 1966 was the culmination of this area of his work.{{Sfn\|Bourdon\|1989\|pp=221-225}} * by Andy Warhol, taken at the Factory on the day of the photoshoot for her silkscreen portraits in 1980]]Theater: Warhol's play ''Andy Warhol's Pork opened on May 5, 1971, at LaMama theater in New York for a two-week run and was brought to the Roundhouse in London for a longer run in August 1971. Pork'' was based on tape-recorded conversations between Brigid Berlin and Andy during which Brigid would play for Andy tapes she had made of phone conversations between herself and her mother, socialite Honey Berlin. The play featured Jayne County as "Vulva" and Cherry Vanilla as "Amanda Pork".<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.warhol.org/responsive/event.aspx?id2215\|access-dateJanuary 19, 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160126195518/http://www.warhol.org/responsive/event.aspx?id2215\|workwarhol.org\|titleTalk on the Wild Side: The Effect of Andy Warhol's PORK on the evolution of Glitter, Glam and Punk Rock\|archive-dateJanuary 26, 2016}}</ref> In 1974, Andy Warhol also produced the stage musical Man on the Moon, which was written by John Phillips of the Mamas and the Papas. * Photography: To produce his silkscreens, Warhol made photographs or had them made by his friends and assistants. These pictures were mostly taken with a specific model of Polaroid camera, The Big Shot, that Polaroid kept in production especially for Warhol. This photographic approach to painting and his snapshot method of taking pictures has had a great effect on artistic photography. Warhol was an avid photographer and also used the Polaroid SX-70 as a portable camera.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateJuly 30, 2021 \|titleAndy Warhol Polaroids \|urlhttps://publicartuhs.org/artwork/andy-warhol-polaroids/ \|access-dateOctober 24, 2024 \|websitePublic Art University of Houston System \|languageen}}</ref> He took an enormous number of photographs of Factory visitors, friends, and celebrities; many of these have been acquired by Stanford University.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAndy Warhol Photography Archive \|urlhttps://exhibits.stanford.edu/warhol \|websiteSpotlight at Stanford \|publisherStanford University \|access-dateFebruary 5, 2022 \|languageen \|quoteFrom 1976 until his death in 1987, Andy Warhol (U.S.A., 1928–1987) was never without his camera. He snapped photos at discos, dinner parties, flea markets, and wrestling matches. Friends, boyfriends, business associates, socialites, celebrities, and passersby all captured Warhol's attention. Drawing on a trove of over 3,600 contact sheets featuring 130,000 photographic exposures acquired in 2014 from The Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts, Inc., the images document Warhol's daily life.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.casualphotophile.com/2019/04/29/the-big-shot-polaroid-andy-warhols-pen-pencil/\|titleThe Big Shot Polaroid – Andy Warhol's Pen & Pencil\|dateApril 29, 2019\|websiteCasual Photophile\|languageen-US\|access-dateFebruary 26, 2020\|archive-dateMay 12, 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200512160950/https://casualphotophile.com/2019/04/29/the-big-shot-polaroid-andy-warhols-pen-pencil/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> * Music: In 1963, Warhol founded The Druds, a short-lived avant-garde noise music band that featured prominent members of the New York proto-conceptual art and minimal art community.<ref name":15">{{Cite web \|lastdesi \|dateAugust 7, 2014 \|titleMy Mind Was Blown: Experiencing the Warhol's EPI Gallery \|urlhttps://www.warhol.org/my-mind-was-blown-experiencing-the-warhols-epi-gallery/ \|access-dateNovember 8, 2024 \|websiteThe Andy Warhol Museum \|languageen-US}}</ref> * Computer: Warhol used Amiga computers to generate digital art, including You Are the One, which he helped design and build with Amiga, Inc. He also displayed the difference between slow fill and fast fill on live TV with Debbie Harry as a model.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.nowseethis.org/invisiblephoto/posts/108 \|titleAndy Warhol's Amiga Experiments \|year2014 \|access-dateMay 19, 2014 \|archive-dateMay 19, 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140519221608/http://www.nowseethis.org/invisiblephoto/posts/108 \|url-statususurped }}</ref>Personal lifeSexualityWarhol lived as a gay man before the gay liberation movement, but he often veiled his personal life in the press. In 1980, Warhol proclaimed that he was still a virgin. Former Interview editor Bob Colacello felt it was probably true and that what little sex he had was probably "a mixture of voyeurism and masturbation—to use [Andy's] word abstract."<ref name"Dillinger-2001">{{Cite book \|lastDillinger \|firstJane Daggett \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKemglT-1jSIC&q%22Andy%20Warhol%22%2BVincent%2BFerrer&pgPA16-IA7 \|titleThe Religious Art of Andy Warhol \|date2001 \|publisherContinuum International Publishing Group \|isbn978-0-8264-1334-5 \|locationNew York City \|pages16-17, 36-37 \|access-dateApril 7, 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210116052236/https://books.google.com/books?idKemglT-1jSIC&q%22Andy+Warhol%22%2BVincent%2BFerrer&pgPA16-IA7 \|archive-dateJanuary 16, 2021 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> However, Warhol's assertion of virginity is contradicted by his hospital treatment in 1960 for condylomata, a sexually transmitted disease.<ref>{{cite book\|first1Tony\|last1Scherma\|first2David\|last2Dalton\|titlePOP: The Genius of Andy Warhol\|publisherHarperCollins\|locationNew York City\|date2010\|page49}}</ref> His friend Charles Lisanby, whom Warhol had unrequited romantic feelings for, said Warhol told him sex was "messy and distasteful."<ref name":3" /> "He told me he'd had sex a few times, he had tried it and didn't really like it," said Lisanby.{{Sfn\|Gopnik\|2020\|p173}} Furthermore, some of Warhol's friends from his early career claimed to have either witnessed Warhol having sex or heard him boasting about his sexual relations.{{Sfn\|Gopnik\|2020\|p=173}} Due to Warhol's own admission that he was asexual, it has been assumed that all his relationships were platonic.<ref name":7" /> Warhol superstar Jay Johnson, whose twin brother was Warhol's partner, stated, "He enjoyed the idea that he was considered a voyeur and that he was considered asexual. That was his mystique."<ref name":7" /> The Factory photographer Billy Name was briefly Warhol's lover.<ref name":35">{{Cite news\|title I shot Andy Warhol: photographer Billy Name on drugs and shootings at the Factory\|url https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2015/sep/27/billy-name-andy-warhol-factory-photographer-pop-art\|newspaper The Guardian\|date September 27, 2015\|access-dateJanuary 19, 2016\|issn 0261-3077\|language en-GB\|first Sean\|last O'Hagan}}</ref> He said Warhol was "the essence of sexuality. It permeated everything. Andy exuded it, along with his great artistic creativity ... It brought a joy to the whole art world in New York."<ref>{{Cite web\|title Billy Name {{!}} The man who silvered The Factory\|url http://civilianglobal.com/arts/the-man-who-silvered-the-andy-warhol-factory-billy-name-lou-reed-ondine-1960s-new-york/\|website CIVILIAN\|date October 28, 2013\|access-date January 19, 2016\|language en-US\|archive-date January 26, 2016\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160126014443/http://civilianglobal.com/arts/the-man-who-silvered-the-andy-warhol-factory-billy-name-lou-reed-ondine-1960s-new-york/\|url-status live}}</ref> "But his personality was so vulnerable that it became a defense to put up the blank front," said Name.<ref>{{Cite web\|title Factory Workers Warholites Remember: Billy Name\|url http://www.interviewmagazine.com/culture/factory-workers-warholites-remember-billy-name/\|website Interview\|date November 30, 2008\|access-date January 19, 2016\|archive-date January 12, 2016\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160112140631/http://www.interviewmagazine.com/culture/factory-workers-warholites-remember-billy-name\|url-status live}}</ref> Warhol's other lovers included aspiring filmmaker Danny Williams and artist John Giorno.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMiller \|firstIain \|dateMarch 31, 2007 \|titleThe films of Warhol's lost lover rediscovered: A documentary on Danny Williams \|urlhttps://www.theartnewspaper.com/2007/04/01/the-films-of-warhols-lost-lover-rediscovered-a-documentary-on-danny-williams \|access-dateApril 29, 2024 \|websiteThe Art Newspaper}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastGiorno \|firstJohn \|dateJuly 22, 2020 \|titleSleeping With Andy Warhol \|urlhttps://www.vulture.com/article/great-demon-kings-john-giorno-andy-warhol.html \|access-dateOctober 26, 2024 \|websiteVulture \|languageen}}</ref> Paramount Pictures executive Jon Gould was one of his last companions.<ref name":7">{{Cite web \|lastPatton \|firstElaina \|dateMarch 10, 2022 \|title'The Andy Warhol Diaries' explores how the iconic artist was shaped by his great loves \|urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/nbc-out/out-pop-culture/-andy-warhol-diaries-explores-iconic-artist-was-shaped-great-loves-rcna19386 \|access-dateApril 29, 2024 \|publisherNBC News \|languageen}}</ref> His most enduring romantic relationship was with Jed Johnson who nursed him back to health after he was shot.<ref name":7" /> Johnson collaborated with Warhol on films, and went on to achieve fame as an interior designer.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMacias \|firstErnesto \|dateMarch 21, 2022 \|titleMeet Jed Johnson, the Man Who Stole Andy Warhol's Heart \|urlhttps://www.interviewmagazine.com/culture/meet-jed-johnson-the-man-who-stole-andy-warhol-heart \|access-dateMarch 21, 2024 \|websiteInterview \|languageen-US}}</ref> Warhol and Johnson "functioned as husband and husband, sharing a bed and a domestic life" for 12 years.{{Sfn\|Gopnik\|2020\|p=648}} The impact of Warhol's homosexuality on his work and connection with the art industry has been extensively studied. Throughout his career, Warhol produced erotic photography and drawings of male nudes. Many of his most famous works—portraits of Liza Minnelli, Judy Garland, and Elizabeth Taylor and films such as Blow Job, My Hustler and Lonesome Cowboys—draw from gay underground culture or openly explore the complexity of sexuality and desire. As has been addressed by a range of scholars, many of his films premiered in gay porn theaters, including the New Andy Warhol Garrick Theatre and 55th Street Playhouse, in the 1960s.<ref>{{cite book\|firstThomas\|lastWaugh\|titleHard to Imagine: Gay Male eroticism in Photography and Film from the Beginnings to Stonewall\|publisherColumbia University Press\|locationNew York City\|date1996}}</ref> The first works that Warhol submitted to a fine art gallery, homoerotic drawings of male nudes, were rejected for being too openly gay.<ref name"Koestenbaun, Wayne-2015" /> In Popism, furthermore, the artist recalls a conversation with the filmmaker Emile de Antonio about the difficulty Warhol had being accepted socially by the then-more-famous (but closeted) gay artists Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg. De Antonio explained that Warhol was "too swish and that upsets them". In response to this, Warhol writes, "There was nothing I could say to that. It was all too true. So I decided I just wasn't going to care, because those were all the things that I didn't want to change anyway, that I didn't think I 'should' want to change&nbsp;... Other people could change their attitudes but not me".<ref name"Koestenbaun, Wayne-2015" /><ref>{{Cite book\|firstGavin \|lastButt \|titleBetween you and me: queer disclosures in the New York art world, 1948–1963 \|publisherDuke University Press \|locationDurham, North Carolina\|date2005 \|isbn978-0-8223-3486-6 \|oclc57285910 \|page=113}}</ref> In exploring Warhol's biography, many turn to this period—the late 1950s and early 1960s—as a key moment in the development of his persona. Some have suggested that his frequent refusal to comment on his work, to speak about himself (confining himself in interviews to responses like "Um, no" and "Um, yes", and often allowing others to speak for him)—and even the evolution of his pop style—can be traced to the years when Warhol was first dismissed by the inner circles of the New York art world.<ref name"Fairbrother-1989">{{Cite book\|lastFairbrother \|firstTrevor \|chapterTomorrow's Man \|titleSuccess Is a Job in New York: the Early Art and Business of Andy Warhol \|editor-firstDonna\|editor-lastDe Salvo \|locationNew York \|publisherGrey Art Gallery and Study Center \|date1989 \|pages55–74 \|isbn978-0-934349-05-5 \|oclc19826995}}</ref>Religion from The Last Supper (1986) ]] Warhol was a practicing Ruthenian Catholic. He regularly volunteered at homeless shelters in New York City, particularly during the busier times of the year, and described himself as a religious person.<ref name"Romaine-2003">{{Cite journal \|firstJames \|lastRomaine \|dateNovember 12, 2003 \|titleTransubstantiating the Culture: Andy Warhol's Secret \|urlhttp://oldarchive.godspy.com/culture/Andy-Warhol-Transubstantiating-the-Culture.cfm.html \|journalGodspy \|access-dateJanuary 5, 2009 \|archive-dateNovember 18, 2008 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081118095337/http://oldarchive.godspy.com/culture/Andy-Warhol-Transubstantiating-the-Culture.cfm.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In 1966, his mother Julia Warhola told Esquire magazine that he was a "good religious boy" and he attended one o'clock Mass at St. Paul's every Sunday.<ref name":40" /> The priest at Warhol's church, Saint Vincent Ferrer, said that the artist went there almost daily,<ref name"Romaine-2003" /> and although he was not observed taking Communion or going to Confession, he sat or knelt in the pews at the back.<ref name"Dillinger-2001" /> The priest thought he was afraid of being recognized; Warhol said he was self-conscious about being seen in a Latin Catholic church crossing himself "in the Orthodox way" (right to left instead of the reverse).<ref name"Dillinger-2001" /> In 1980, Warhol met Pope John Paul II in St. Peter's Square.<ref name"Dillinger-2001" /> Many of Warhol's later works depicted religious subjects, including two series, Details of Renaissance Paintings (1984) and The Last Supper (1986). Warhol made almost 100 variations on the theme of the Last Supper, which the Guggenheim felt "indicates an almost obsessive investment in the subject matter".<ref>{{cite web \|lastSchmuckli \|firstClaudia \|year1999 \|titleAndy Warhol: The Last Supper \|urlhttp://pastexhibitions.guggenheim.org/warhol/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090116161414/http://pastexhibitions.guggenheim.org/warhol/ \|archive-dateJanuary 16, 2009 \|access-dateJanuary 5, 2009 \|publisherSolomon R. Guggenheim Foundation \|locationSoHo}}</ref> In addition, a body of religious-themed works was found posthumously in his estate.<ref name"Romaine-2003" /> Warhol's art is noticeably influenced by the Eastern Christian tradition which was so evident in his places of worship.<ref name"Romaine-2003"/> Warhol's brother has described the artist as "really religious, but he didn't want people to know about that because [it was] private". Despite the private nature of his faith, in Warhol's eulogy John Richardson depicted it as devout: "To my certain knowledge, he was responsible for at least one conversion. He took considerable pride in financing his nephew's studies for priesthood".<ref name"Romaine-2003"/> From November 2021 to June 2022, the Brooklyn Museum displayed the Andy Warhol: Revelation exhibition.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Rosenberg \|first1Karen \|dateDecember 2, 2021 \|titleFor Andy Warhol, Faith and Sexuality Intertwined \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2021/12/02/arts/design/warhol-religion-museum-review-catholic.html \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211202160003/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/12/02/arts/design/warhol-religion-museum-review-catholic.html \|archive-dateDecember 2, 2021 \|newspaperThe New York Times}}</ref> The exhibition delved at the artist's enduring connection to his faith, which was often reflected in his artwork.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.brooklynmuseum.org/exhibitions/andy_warhol_revelation\|titleAndy Warhol: Revelation\|websitewww.brooklynmuseum.org}}</ref>Collections Warhol was an avid collector. His friends referred to his numerous collections, which filled not only his four-story townhouse, but also a nearby storage unit, as "Andy's Stuff". The true extent of his collections was not discovered until after his death, when The Andy Warhol Museum in Pittsburgh took in 641 boxes of his "Stuff". Warhol's collections included a Coca-Cola memorabilia sign, and 19th century paintings along with airplane menus, unpaid invoices, pizza dough, pornographic pulp novels, newspapers, stamps, supermarket flyers and cookie jars, among other eccentricities.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-05-08-ca-3738-story.html\|titleWarhol: Pop Artist or Crusader for Tradition?\|lastMuchnic\|firstSuzanne \|dateMay 8, 1988\|workLos Angeles Times\|access-dateFebruary 26, 2018\|languageen-US\|issn0458-3035}}</ref> It also included significant works of art, such as George Bellows's Miss Bentham.<ref name"Barber Institute of Fine Arts">{{cite web\|urlhttp://barber.org.uk/american-acquisition-barber/ \|titleAmerican Acquisition \|publisherBarber Institute of Fine Arts \|access-dateFebruary 16, 2015 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150217000620/http://barber.org.uk/american-acquisition-barber/ \|archive-date=February 17, 2015 }}</ref> One of his main collections was his wigs. Warhol owned more than 40 and felt very protective of his hairpieces, which were sewn by a New York wig-maker from hair imported from Italy. In 1985, a girl snatched Warhol's wig off his head. It was later discovered in Warhol's diary entry for that day that he wrote: "I don't know what held me back from pushing her over the balcony." In 1960, he had bought a drawing of a light bulb by Jasper Johns.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastGoldsmith\|firstKenneth\|titleCapital: New York, Capital of the 20th Century}}</ref> Another item found in Warhol's boxes at the museum in Pittsburgh was a mummified human foot from Ancient Egypt. The curator of anthropology at Carnegie Museum of Natural History felt that Warhol most likely found it at a flea market.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://inktank.fi/the-5-most-unusual-habits-of-andy-warhol/ \|titleThe 5 most unusual habits of Andy Warhol \|publisherInktank.fi \|dateNovember 20, 2012 \|access-dateJanuary 13, 2013 \|archive-dateJanuary 23, 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130123194929/http://inktank.fi/the-5-most-unusual-habits-of-andy-warhol/ \|url-status=live }}</ref> Warhol collected many books, with more than 1,200 titles in his collection. Of these, 139 titles have been publicly identified through a 1988 Sotheby's Auction catalog, The Andy Warhol Collection and can be viewed online.<ref>{{cite web \|titleLegacy Library: Andy Warhol \|workLibraryThing \|urlhttps://www.librarything.com/legacylibraries/profile/Andy_Warhol \|access-dateOctober 23, 2021}}</ref> His book collection reflects his eclectic taste and interests, and includes books written by and about some of his acquaintances and friends. Some of the titles in his collection include The Two Mrs. Grenvilles: A Novel by Dominick Dunne, Artists in Uniform by Max Eastman, ''Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: Clinical Dermatology by George Clinton Andrews, D.V. by Diana Vreeland, Blood of a Poet by Jean Cocteau, Watercolours by Francesco Clemente, Little World, Hello! by Jimmy Savo, Hidden Faces by Salvador Dalí and The Dinah Shore Cookbook''.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAndy Warhol's Books \|websiteLibraryThing \|urlhttps://www.librarything.com/catalog/Andy_Warhol \|access-dateOctober 23, 2021}}</ref> Legacy , Slovakia]] In 1991, the Warhol Family Museum of Modern Art was established in Medzilaborce, Slovakia by Warhol's family and the Slovak Ministry of Culture. In 1996, it was renamed the Andy Warhol Museum of Modern Art.<ref name":10">{{Cite news \|lastKnott \|firstJonathan \|dateFebruary 5, 2016 \|titleAndy Warhol trail, Slovakia: Tales of the Unexpected \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/slovakia/articles/Andy-Warhol-trail-Slovakia-Tales-of-the-Unexpected/ \|access-dateJuly 10, 2024 \|workThe Telegraph \|languageen-GB \|issn0307-1235}}</ref> In 1992, Warhol's estate donated 15-acres of land on his former property Eothen to The Nature Conservancy. Now called The Andy Warhol Preserve, it is part of a 2,400-acre protected area in Montauk.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleThe Nature Conservancy Announces 2023 Andy Warhol Visual Arts Program Artists \|urlhttps://www.nature.org/en-us/newsroom/andy-warhol-visual-arts-program-2023/ \|access-dateNovember 28, 2024 \|websiteThe Nature Conservancy \|language=en-US}}</ref> In 1994, the Andy Warhol Museum opened in Pittsburgh.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastVogel \|firstCarol \|dateMay 16, 1994 \|title15 Minutes and Then Some At the New Warhol Museum \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/16/arts/15-minutes-and-then-some-at-the-new-warhol-museum.html \|access-dateJuly 10, 2024 \|workThe New York Times \|languageen-US \|issn0362-4331}}</ref> It holds the largest collection of the artist's works in the world.<ref name":10" /> In 1998, Warhol's Upper East Side townhouse at 57 E 66th Street in Manhattan was designated a cultural landmark by the Historical Landmarks Preservation Center to commemorate the 70th anniversary of his birthday.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastPyle \|firstRichard \|dateAugust 6, 1998 \|titleLasting Fame for Warhol Home \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/the-news-tribune-andy-warhols-home-desi/146205174/ \|access-dateApril 28, 2024 \|workThe News Tribune \|pages2}}</ref> In 2002, the US Postal Service issued an 18-cent stamp commemorating Warhol. Designed by Richard Sheaff of Scottsdale, Arizona, the stamp was unveiled at a ceremony at The Andy Warhol Museum and features Warhol's painting "Self-Portrait, 1964".<ref>{{cite web\|titleArtists\|urlhttp://www.uspsstamps.com/stamps/series/artists\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131213211849/http://uspsstamps.com/stamps/series/artists\|archive-dateDecember 13, 2013\|access-dateDecember 15, 2013\|publisherUnited States Postal Service}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|lastMcCoy\|firstAdrian\|dateAugust 10, 2002\|titleAndy Warhol Puts Stamp on the World – Again\|newspaperPittsburgh Post-Gazette\|urlhttp://old.post-gazette.com/ae/20020810warhol0810p2.asp\|access-dateOctober 22, 2013\|archive-dateMarch 4, 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304062634/http://old.post-gazette.com/ae/20020810warhol0810p2.asp\|url-statusdead}}</ref> In March 2011, a chrome statue of Andy Warhol and his Polaroid camera was revealed at Union Square in New York City.<ref>{{cite web\|dateMarch 31, 2011\|titleAndy Warhol Commemorated in Chrome on Union Square\|urlhttp://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/03/31/andy-warhol-commemorated-in-chrome-on-union-square/\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150922233253/http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/03/31/andy-warhol-commemorated-in-chrome-on-union-square/\|archive-dateSeptember 22, 2015\|access-dateAugust 6, 2015\|work=The New York Times}}</ref> A crater on Mercury was named after Warhol in 2012.<ref>{{cite web\|titleWarhol\|urlhttp://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/14975\|workGazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature\|publisherNASA\|access-date=February 3, 2021}}</ref> In 2013, to honor the 85th anniversary of Warhol's birthday, The Andy Warhol Museum and EarthCam launched a collaborative project titled Figment, a live feed of Warhol's gravesite.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAndy Warhol's Grave \|urlhttps://www.warhol.org/andy-warhols-life/figment/ \|access-dateMay 29, 2022 \|websiteThe Andy Warhol Museum \|languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastBegos \|firstKevin \|dateAugust 5, 2013 \|titleWebcam to broadcast from Andy Warhol's Pa. grave \|urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/08/05/webcam-warhols-grave/2620965/ \|access-dateMay 29, 2022 \|websiteUSA Today \|language=en-US}}</ref> In 2024, Warhol was posthumously awarded the Order of the White Double Cross of the Second Class by the Slovak Republic's ambassador to the U.S. on the 37th anniversary of his death, at the behest of Slovakian President Zuzana Čaputová, "for promoting the Slovak Republic's good name abroad."<ref>{{Cite web \|lastO'Driscoll \|firstBill \|date2024-03-07 \|titleDigging into Andy Warhol's Slovakian roots \|urlhttps://www.wesa.fm/arts-sports-culture/2024-03-07/andy-warhols-slovakian-roots \|access-date2025-03-15 \|website90.5 WESA \|languageen}}</ref> Warhol Foundation Warhol's will dictated that his entire estate—with the exception of a few modest legacies to family members—would go to create a foundation dedicated to the "advancement of the visual arts". Warhol had so many possessions that it took Sotheby's nine days to auction his estate after his death; the auction grossed more than $20&nbsp;million.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastTully \|firstJudd \|dateMay 2, 1988 \|titleSotheby's $25 Million Night \|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1988/05/03/sothebys-25-million-night/e1b76f32-3837-45f7-a322-68c6c2b3f043/ \|newspaperThe Washington Post}}</ref> In 1987, in accordance with Warhol's will, the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts was formed. The foundation serves as the estate of Andy Warhol, but also has a mission "to foster innovative artistic expression and the creative process" and is "focused primarily on supporting work of a challenging and often experimental nature".<ref name"The Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.warholfoundation.org/foundation/overview.html\|titleIntroduction\|publisherThe Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts\|access-dateJanuary 2, 2009\|archive-dateSeptember 16, 2009\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090916194207/http://warholfoundation.org/foundation/overview.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The Artists Rights Society is the US copyright representative for the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts for all Warhol works with the exception of Warhol film stills.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://arsny.com/requested.html \|titleArtists Most Frequently Requested \|publisherArtists Rights Society \|access-dateJanuary 6, 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090131151943/http://arsny.com/requested.html \|archive-dateJanuary 31, 2009 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> The US copyright representative for Warhol film stills is the Warhol Museum in Pittsburgh.<ref name"The Andy Warhol Museum">{{cite web \|urlhttp://warhol.org/museum_info/faq.html \|titleMuseum info: FAQ \|publisherThe Andy Warhol Museum \|access-dateJanuary 6, 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081220221718/http://www.warhol.org/museum_info/faq.html \|archive-dateDecember 20, 2008 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Additionally, the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts has agreements in place for its image archive. All digital images of Warhol are exclusively managed by Corbis, while all transparency images of Warhol are managed by Art Resource.<ref name"The Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts-2002">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.warholfoundation.org/faq.htm \|titleFrequently Asked Questions \|publisherThe Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts \|year2002 \|access-dateJanuary 6, 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090106230417/http://www.warholfoundation.org/faq.htm \|archive-dateJanuary 6, 2009 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> The Andy Warhol Foundation released its 20th Anniversary Annual Report as a three-volume set in 2007: Vol. I, 1987–2007; Vol. II, Grants & Exhibitions; and Vol. III, Legacy Program.<ref>{{Cite book\|titleThe Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts 1987–2007 \|publisherThe Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts \|locationNew York City \|year2007 \|isbn978-0-9765263-1-5 \|oclc180133918 \|urlhttp://www.warholfoundation.org/book2.pdf \|access-dateJanuary 6, 2009 \|authorThe Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081219051826/http://www.warholfoundation.org/book2.pdf \|archive-dateDecember 19, 2008 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> The Foundation is in the process of compiling its catalogue raisonné of paintings and sculptures in volumes covering blocks of years of the artist's career. Volumes IV and V were released in 2019. The subsequent volumes are still in the process of being compiled.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleThe Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts – Catalogues Raisonnés\|urlhttps://warholfoundation.org/legacy/raisonne.html\|access-dateMarch 30, 2021\|websitewarholfoundation.org\|archive-dateJune 4, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210604120933/https://warholfoundation.org/legacy/raisonne.html\|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Foundation remains one of the largest grant-giving organizations for the visual arts in the US.<ref name"Wachs-2002">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.warholfoundation.org/history.htm \|titlePast & Present \|publisherThe Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts \|year2002 \|first1Joel \|last1Wachs \|author-linkJoel Wachs \|author2Michael Straus \|access-dateJanuary 6, 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090106051701/http://www.warholfoundation.org/history.htm \|archive-dateJanuary 6, 2009 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> Many of Warhol's works and possessions are on display at the Andy Warhol Museum in Pittsburgh. The foundation donated more than 3,000 works of art to the museum.<ref>{{citation\|urlhttp://warholfoundation.org/legacy/museum.html\|titleThe Andy Warhol Museum\|publisherThe Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts\|access-dateJune 26, 2017\|archive-dateJuly 15, 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170715062643/http://warholfoundation.org/legacy/museum.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref>In pop cultureWarhol founded Interview, a stage for celebrities he "endorsed" and a business staffed by his friends. One might even say that he produced people (as in the Warholian "Superstar" and the Warholian portrait). Warhol endorsed products, appeared in commercials, and made frequent celebrity guest appearances on television shows and films.Films on the set of Cocaine Cowboys (1979) at Eothen, in which Warhol made a cameo]] Warhol appeared in the films Dynamite Chicken (1971), ''The Driver's Seat (1974), Cocaine Cowboys (1979) and Tootsie'' (1982).<ref>{{Cite news \|lastWeiler \|firstA. H. \|dateJanuary 4, 1972 \|title' Dynamite Chicken' Is Aimed at the Young \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1972/01/04/archives/dynamite-chicken-is-aimed-at-the-young.html \|access-dateAugust 23, 2024 \|workThe New York Times \|languageen-US \|issn0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media\|authorLommel, Ulli \|titleCocaine Cowboys\|year1979}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastAnOther \|dateMay 20, 2016 \|titleLessons We Can Learn from The Driver's Seat \|urlhttps://www.anothermag.com/fashion-beauty/8690/lessons-we-can-learn-from-the-drivers-seat \|access-dateDecember 20, 2024 \|websiteAnOther \|language=en}}</ref> After his death, Warhol was portrayed by Crispin Glover in Oliver Stone's film The Doors (1991), by Jared Harris in Mary Harron's film I Shot Andy Warhol (1996), and by David Bowie in Julian Schnabel's film Basquiat (1996). Bowie recalled how meeting Warhol in real life helped him in the role, and recounted his early meetings with him: {{blockquote\|I met him a couple of times, but we seldom shared more than platitudes. The first time we saw each other an awkward silence fell till he remarked my bright yellow shoes and started talking enthusiastically. He wanted to be very superficial. And seemingly emotionless, indifferent, just like a dead fish. Lou Reed described him most profoundly when he once told me they should bring a doll of Andy on the market: a doll that you wind up and doesn't do anything. But I managed to observe him well, and that was a helping hand for the film [Basquiat...].<ref>{{Cite magazine\|urlhttp://www.algonet.se/~bassman/articles/95/h.html \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130616041825/http://www.algonet.se/~bassman/articles/95/h.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-dateJune 16, 2013 \|titleCan the Real David Bowie Rise, Please? \|magazineHUMO Magazine \|dateDecember 5, 1995 \|access-dateJune 6, 2013 }}</ref>}} Warhol appeared as a character in Michael Daugherty's opera Jackie O (1997). Actor Mark Bringleson makes a brief cameo as Warhol in Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery (1997). Many films by avant-garde cineast Jonas Mekas have caught the moments of Warhol's life. Sean Gregory Sullivan depicted Warhol in the film 54 (1998). Guy Pearce portrayed Warhol in the film Factory Girl (2007) about Edie Sedgwick's life.<ref>{{cite AV media\|authorHickenlooper, George \|titleFactory Girl}}</ref> Actor Greg Travis portrays Warhol in a brief scene from the film Watchmen (2009). Comedian Conan O'Brien portrayed Warhol in the film Weird: The Al Yankovic Story (2022). In the movie Highway to Hell a group of Andy Warhols are part of the Good Intentions Paving Company where good-intentioned souls are ground into pavement.<ref>{{citation \|titleHorror Films of the 1990s \|first1John Kenneth \|last1Muir \|author-linkJohn Kenneth Muir \|page236 \|publisherMcFarland \|year2011 \|isbn978-0-7864-4012-2}}</ref> In the film Men in Black 3 (2012) Andy Warhol turns out to really be undercover MIB Agent W (played by Bill Hader). Warhol is throwing a party at The Factory in 1969, where he is encountered by MIB Agents K and J. Andy Warhol (portrayed by Tom Meeten) is one of main characters of the 2012 British television show ''Noel Fielding's Luxury Comedy. The character is portrayed as having robot-like mannerisms. In the 2017 feature The Billionaire Boys Club'', Cary Elwes portrays Warhol in a film based on the true story about Ron Levin (portrayed by Kevin Spacey) a friend of Warhol's who was murdered in 1986.{{Sfn\|Warhol\|Hackett\|1989\|p773\|psEntry date: Thursday, September 25, 1986}} In September 2016, it was announced that Jared Leto would portray the title character in Warhol, an upcoming American biographical drama film produced by Michael De Luca and written by Terence Winter, based on the book Warhol: The Biography by Victor Bockris.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2016/sep/20/jared-leto-andy-warhol-biopic-movie\|titleJared Leto to play Andy Warhol in biopic\|workThe Guardian\|dateSeptember 20, 2016\|access-dateSeptember 20, 2016\|archive-dateSeptember 21, 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160921152227/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2016/sep/20/jared-leto-andy-warhol-biopic-movie\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Documentaries * Warhol (1973) is an ITV documentary by British photographer David Bailey. Initially banned by British courts for containing "indecent material," the film features candid interviews with the artist and his associates.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateMarch 27, 1973 \|titleWarhol's Bizarre World \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/manchester-evening-news-warhol-documenta/153829845/ \|access-dateAugust 23, 2024 \|workManchester Evening News \|pages2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|dateMarch 23, 2015 \|titleIn bed with Andy: David Bailey's banned 'Warhol' documentary \|urlhttps://dangerousminds.net/comments/in_bed_with_andy_david_baileys_banned_warhol_documentary \|access-dateAugust 23, 2024 \|website=DangerousMinds}}</ref> * Absolut Warhola (2001) was produced by Polish director Stanislaw Mucha, featuring Warhol's parents' family and hometown in Slovakia.<ref>{{cite press release\|titleTLA Releasing Unveils the past of Famed Artist Andy Warhol to Reveal a Story Few Ever Imagined in: Absolut Warhola \|publisherTLA Releasing \|dateMarch 9, 2004 \|urlhttp://www.tlavideo.com/images/assets/97.pdf \|access-dateJanuary 9, 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090207042433/http://www.tlavideo.com/images/assets/97.pdf \|archive-dateFebruary 7, 2009 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> * Andy Warhol: A Documentary Film (2006) is a reverential, four-hour movie by Ric Burns that won a Peabody Award in 2006.<ref>[http://www.peabodyawards.com/award-profile/american-masters-andy-warhol-a-documentary-film 66th Annual Peabody Awards] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140712115815/http://www.peabodyawards.com/award-profile/american-masters-andy-warhol-a-documentary-film \|dateJuly 12, 2014 }}, May 2007.</ref><ref>{{cite news\|firstStephen \|lastHolden \|author-linkStephen Holden \|dateSeptember 1, 2006 \|titleA Portrait of the Artist as a Visionary, a Voyeur and a Brand-Name Star \|urlhttps://movies.nytimes.com/2006/09/01/movies/01warh.html \|workThe New York Times \|access-dateJanuary 9, 2009}}</ref> * Andy Warhol: Double Denied (2006) is a 52-minute movie by Ian Yentob about the difficulties authenticating Warhol's work.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.myandywarhol.eu/videos/videos1.asp \|titleMy Andy Warhol—Videos \|access-dateDecember 4, 2013 \|archive-dateJuly 26, 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130726103549/http://www.myandywarhol.eu/videos/videos1.asp \|url-statuslive }}</ref> * ''Andy Warhol's People Factory'' (2008), a three-part television documentary directed by Catherine Shorr, features interviews with several of Warhol's associates.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.imdb.com/title/tt1355272/ \|titleWelcome to the Silver Factory \|publisherIMDb }}{{better source needed\|dateApril 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|websitePlanetGroupEntertainment\|urlhttp://planetgroupentertainment.squarespace.com/andy-warhols-factory-people/\|titleAndy Warhol's "Factory People"\|access-dateDecember 4, 2013\|archive-dateDecember 11, 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131211184523/http://planetgroupentertainment.squarespace.com/andy-warhols-factory-people/\|url-status=live}}</ref> * The Andy Warhol Diaries (2022), a six-part docuseries directed by Andrew Rossi, was released on Netflix chronicling Warhol's life from the vantage point of his diaries.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastD'Addario \|firstDaniel \|dateMarch 8, 2022 \|title'The Andy Warhol Diaries' Summons the Genius, and the Person, Behind the Image: TV Review \|urlhttps://variety.com/2022/tv/reviews/andy-warhol-diaries-netflix-1235195197/ \|access-dateMarch 20, 2022 \|websiteVariety \|languageen-US}}</ref> Television In 1965, Warhol and his muse Edie Sedgwick appeared on The Merv Griffin Show.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastFeldman \|firstElla \|dateAugust 18, 2022 \|titleThe True Story of Edie Sedgwick and Andy Warhol \|urlhttps://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/edie-sedgwick-andy-warhol-180980601/ \|access-dateAugust 23, 2024 \|websiteSmithsonian Magazine \|languageen}}</ref> Warhol doesn't say much save for bashful gestures and whispering "yes" or "no," while Sedgwick mediates a conversation on how Pop Art is art without any sense of emotion.<ref name":28">{{Cite book \|lastSpampinato \|firstFrancesco \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idushQEAAAQBAJ&dqwarhol+braniff&pgPA140 \|titleArt vs. TV: A Brief History of Contemporary Artists' Responses to Television \|dateDecember 2, 2021 \|publisherBloomsbury Publishing USA \|isbn978-1-5013-7055-7 \|pages140–141 \|language=en}}</ref> In 1969, Warhol was commissioned by Braniff International to appear in two television commercials to promote the luxury airline's "When You Got It – Flaunt It" campaign. The campaign was created by the advertising agency Lois Holland Calloway, which was led by George Lois, creator of a famed series of Esquire covers. The first commercial series involved the unlikely paring of Warhol and heavyweight boxing champion Sonny Liston who shared the fact that they both flew Braniff Airways. The odd commercial worked and Warhol was featured in another commercial entering a Braniff jet and being greeted by a Braniff hostess, while espousing their like for flying Braniff. The rights to Warhol's films for Braniff and his signed contracts are owned by a private trust and are administered by Braniff Airways Foundation in Dallas, Texas.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Cass \|first1Richard Benjamin \|titleBraniff Airways Flying Colors \|dateDecember 14, 2015 \|publisherArcadia Publishing, Inc. \|isbn978-1-4671-3440-8 \|page74 \|edition1st \|urlhttps://www.arcadiapublishing.com/Products/9781467134408?gclidEAIaIQobChMIroPGvtz25AIVENvACh0--AgaEAQYAiABEgISDfD_BwE \|access-dateSeptember 29, 2019 \|archive-dateDecember 21, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191221151308/https://www.arcadiapublishing.com/Products/9781467134408?gclidEAIaIQobChMIroPGvtz25AIVENvACh0--AgaEAQYAiABEgISDfD_BwE \|url-status=live }}</ref> Warhol appeared on the BBC series Arena in a scene with writers William S. Burroughs and Victor Bockris in an episode that aired in January 1981.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateDecember 28, 1980 \|titleLook Out For \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/sunday-telegraph-chelsea-hotel-bbc-docum/146242447/ \|access-dateAugust 23, 2024 \|workThe Sunday Telegraph \|pages17}}</ref> Warhol filmed a segment for the sketch comedy television show Saturday Night Live, which aired in October 1981.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastSpigel \|firstLynn \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idq_dekIDkPtMC&dqwarhol+saturday+night+live+1981&pgPA282 \|titleTV by Design: Modern Art and the Rise of Network Television \|date2008 \|publisherUniversity of Chicago Press \|isbn978-0-226-76968-4 \|pages281 \|languageen}}</ref> In a 1981 Sony Beta Tapes advertisement, Warhol featured beside a Marilyn image to showcase the tapes' capacity to record "brilliant color and delicate shading."<ref name":20">{{Cite web \|titleWarhol Effect: A Timeline \|urlhttps://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2012/steins-collect/~/media/Files/Exhibitions/WarholTimeline.pdf \|websiteMet Museum}}</ref> In 1983, he appeared in a commercial for TDK Videotape.<ref name=":28" /> In 1985, Warhol appeared in a Diet Coke commercial.<ref name":28" /> He also had a guest appearance on the 200th episode of the television series The Love Boat wherein a Midwestern wife (Marion Ross) fears Andy Warhol will reveal to her husband (Tom Bosley) her secret past as a Warhol superstar named Marina del Rey.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastSpigel \|firstLynn \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idq_dekIDkPtMC&dqwarhol+love+boat+1985+Marina+del+Rey&pgPA42 \|titleTV by Design: Modern Art and the Rise of Network Television \|date2008 \|publisherUniversity of Chicago Press \|isbn978-0-226-76968-4 \|pages42 \|language=en}}</ref> In 1986, Warhol appeared in an ad for the Drexel Burnham Lambert investment group.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastStutterheim \|firstSydney \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5RYUEQAAQBAJ&dqDrexel+Burnham+Lambert+warhol+1986&pgPT99 \|titleArtist, Audience, Accomplice: Ethics and Authorship in Art of the 1970s and 1980s \|dateJuly 15, 2024 \|publisherDuke University Press \|isbn978-1-4780-5967-7 \|language=en}}</ref> Warhol appeared as a recurring character in TV series Vinyl, played by John Cameron Mitchell.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.vulture.com/2016/02/tv-review-martin-scorseses-vinyl.html\|titleMartin Scorsese's Vinyl Is the Year's First Must-See Show\|dateFebruary 9, 2016 \|access-dateMarch 21, 2016\|archive-dateMarch 19, 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160319015843/http://www.vulture.com/2016/02/tv-review-martin-scorseses-vinyl.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Warhol was portrayed by Evan Peters in the American Horror Story: Cult episode "Valerie Solanas Died for Your Sins: Scumbag". The episode depicts the attempted assassination of Warhol by Valerie Solanas (Lena Dunham).<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv-news/american-horror-story-cult-story-beheind-lena-dunhams-episode-1050134/ \|titleHow Lena Dunham and 'American Horror Story' Delivered a Timely Look at Feminism \|workThe Hollywood Reporter \|lastStrause \|firstJackie \|dateOctober 18, 2017 \|access-dateDecember 13, 2021}}</ref> Music Warhol strongly influenced the new wave/punk rock band Devo, as well as David Bowie. Bowie recorded a song called "Andy Warhol" for his 1971 album Hunky Dory.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateDecember 16, 2021 \|titleRevisiting David Bowie's 'Hunky Dory' (1971) {{!}} Tribute \|urlhttps://albumism.com/features/tribute-celebrating-50-years-of-david-bowie-hunky-dory \|access-dateNovember 9, 2024 \|websiteAlbumism \|languageen-US}}</ref> Lou Reed wrote the song "Andy's Chest" in response to the attempted assassination of Warhol.<ref name":0" /> The song was originally recorded by the Velvet Underground in 1969, but it wasn't released until a version appeared on Reed's solo album Transformer in 1972. The band Triumph also wrote a song about Andy Warhol, "Stranger In A Strange Land" off their 1984 album Thunder Seven.BooksMany books have been written about Warhol. In 1989, the biography The Life and Death of Andy Warhol by author Victor Bockris was published.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateFebruary 26, 2024 \|titleThe Man Who Wasn't There \|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/entertainment/books/1989/10/15/the-man-who-wasnt-there/b75ba4ef-7735-492b-8a1d-b9a89f050015/ \|access-dateApril 3, 2024 \|newspaperThe Washington Post \|languageen-US \|issn0190-8286}}</ref> Bockris expanded the book in 2003 for the 75th anniversary of Warhol's birth and called it Warhol: The Biography.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateMarch 1, 2004 \|titleBriefly Noted \|urlhttps://thepenngazette.com/briefly-noted-56/ \|access-dateApril 3, 2024 \|websiteThe Pennsylvania Gazette \|languageen-US}}</ref> Former Interview editor Bob Colacello wrote the book Holy Terror: Andy Warhol Close Up, which was published in 1990.<ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastTashjian \|firstRachel \|dateApril 24, 2014 \|titlePhotos: Holy Terror: Inside Andy Warhol's World \|urlhttps://www.vanityfair.com/culture/photos/2014/04/andy-warhol-bob-colacello-photographs \|access-dateApril 3, 2024 \|magazineVanity Fair \|languageen-US}}</ref> A biography written by art critic Blake Gopnik was published in 2020 under the title Warhol.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAndy Warhol, Superstar \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/03/books/review/warhol-blake-gopnik.html \|lastSante \|firstLucy \|author-linkLucy Sante \|dateMay 3, 2020 \|websiteThe New York Times \|access-dateMay 8, 2020 \|archive-dateMay 7, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200507143030/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/03/books/review/warhol-blake-gopnik.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleWarhol by Blake Gopnik review – sex, religion and overtaking Picasso \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2020/feb/22/warhol-life-in-art-blake-gopnik \|lastHughes \|firstKathryn \|author-linkKathryn Hughes \|dateFebruary 22, 2020 \|websiteThe Guardian \|access-dateMay 8, 2020 \|archive-dateMay 26, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200526051800/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2020/feb/22/warhol-life-in-art-blake-gopnik \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|title'Warhol' paints the Pop Art icon as the most influential artist of the 20th century \|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/books/warhol-paints-the-pop-art-icon-as-the-most-influential-artist-of-the-20th-century/2020/04/15/664124e8-7db4-11ea-9040-68981f488eed_story.html \|lastAlexander \|firstPaul \|dateApril 17, 2020 \|newspaperThe Washington Post \|access-dateMay 8, 2020 \|archive-dateMay 11, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200511104740/https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/books/warhol-paints-the-pop-art-icon-as-the-most-influential-artist-of-the-20th-century/2020/04/15/664124e8-7db4-11ea-9040-68981f488eed_story.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Comic books Warhol is featured as a character in the Miracleman series of comics. It is first mentioned that he was resurrected by the alien scientist Mors and subsequently convinces the latter to mass-produce copies of himself.<ref>{{Cite comic\| writer Alan Moore\| artist John Totleben\| story Olympus\| title Miracleman\| issue 16\| date December 1989\| publisher Eclipse Comics}}</ref> Later on, 18 copies of Warhol are seen in the underworld beneath the pyramid structure Olympus, where they produce pop art relating to the new superhuman regime. One Warhol clone numbered 6 is assigned to and develop a friendship with a clone of Emil Gargunza (Miracleman's creator) before the latter's betrayal and attempted escape.<ref>{{Cite comic\| writer Neil Gaiman\| artist Mark Buckingham\| story Notes From The Underground\| title Miracleman\| issue 19\| date November 1990\| publisher Eclipse Comics}}</ref> Video games Warhol makes an appearance in the 2003 video game The Sims: Superstar as the photographer in Studio Town.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.thegamer.com/celebrities-you-forgot-were-in-the-sims/\|title10 Celebrities You Forgot Were In The Sims\|lastCastania\|firstGabrielle\|dateOctober 3, 2022\|access-dateSeptember 1, 2024\|websiteTheGamer.com}}</ref> Warhol (played by Jeff Grace) makes a cameo appearance in the 2022 video game Immortality.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastKing \|firstDarryn \|titleManon Gage On Playing Marissa Marcel In 'Immortality' \|urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/darrynking/2023/01/23/manon-gage-on-playing-marissa-marcel-in-immortality/ \|access-dateOctober 19, 2023 \|websiteForbes \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastFaber \|firstTom \|dateSeptember 6, 2022 \|titleImmortality review — a compelling, cinematic mystery video game \|workFinancial Times \|urlhttps://www.ft.com/content/bc015966-25cb-4e2d-b6d5-eb97c086eae4 \|access-dateOctober 19, 2023}}</ref>See also{{Div col\|colwidth27em}} * Andy Warhol Art Authentication Board * Andy Warhol Bridge, Pittsburgh, PA * Andy Warhol Foundation v. Goldsmith, copyright case decided by the US Supreme Court * LGBT culture in New York City * List of LGBT people from New York City * Moon Museum * Painting the Century: 101 Portrait Masterpieces 1900–2000 {{div col end}} References {{Reflist}} Bibliography * {{Cite book \|firstVictor \|lastBockris \|titleWarhol: The Biography \|edition2nd \|locationNew York \|publisherDa Capo Press \|year1997 \|isbn978-0306807954}} * {{Cite book \|lastBourdon \|firstDavid \|titleWarhol \|publisherAbrams \|year1989 \|isbn978-0810917613 \|locationNew York \|pages}} * {{cite book \|firstBob \|lastColacello \|author-linkBob Colacello \|titleHoly Terror: Andy Warhol Close Up \|publisherHarperCollins \|locationLondon \|year1990 \|isbn978-0-06-016419-5 \|oclc=21196706}} * {{Cite book\|lastGopnik\|firstBlake\|titleWarhol\|year2020\|publisherEcco\|isbn978-0-06-229839-3\|url=https://archive.org/details/warhol0000gopn}} * {{cite book\|first1Andy\|last1Warhol\|first2Pat \|last2Hackett\|titlePOPism: The Warhol Sixties\|year1980\|publisherHardcore Brace Jovanovich\|isbn978-0-15-173095-7}} * {{cite book\|last1Warhol\|first1Andy\|titleThe Andy Warhol Diaries\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/andywarholdiarie0000warh\|url-accessregistration\|year1989\|isbn978-0-446-39138-2\|publisherWarner Books\|last2Hackett\|first2Pat}} Further reading {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book\|lastDanto\|firstArthur C.\|titleAndy Warhol\|year2009\|publisherYale University Press\|isbn978-0-300-13555-8\|url=https://archive.org/details/andywarhol00dant}} * {{Cite book\|firstJane D.\|lastDillenberger\|titleThe Religious Art of Andy Warhol\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKemglT-1jSIC\|locationNew York\|publisherContinuum International Publishing Group\|year2001\|isbn978-0-8264-1334-5\|access-dateJanuary 5, 2016\|archive-dateMay 11, 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150511100600/http://books.google.com/books?idKemglT-1jSIC\|url-statuslive}} * Doyle, Jennifer, Jonathan Flatley, and José Esteban Muñoz, eds (1996). Pop Out: Queer Warhol. Durham: Duke University Press. * {{Cite book\|firstWayne\|lastKoestenbaum\|author-linkWayne Koestenbaum\|titleAndy Warhol\|locationNew York\|publisherPenguin\|year2003\|isbn978-0-670-03000-2\|url=https://archive.org/details/andywarhol00koes}} * {{cite book\|lastWarhol\|firstAndy\|titleThe Philosophy of Andy Warhol: (From A to B and Back Again)\|year1975\|publisherHardcore Brace Jovanovich\|isbn978-0-15-189050-7\|url=https://archive.org/details/philosophyofandy00warh}} * {{Cite book\|firstJohn\|lastYau\|author-linkJohn Yau\|titleIn the Realm of Appearances: The Art of Andy Warhol\|locationHopewell, NJ\|publisherEcco Press\|year1993\|isbn978-0-88001-298-0}} {{Refend}} External links {{sister project links\|auto=1}} * [http://www.nga.gov/content/ngaweb/Collection/artist-info.1966.html#works Andy Warhol at the National Gallery of Art] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20181203055205/https://warholfoundation.org/ Warhol Foundation] in New York City * [http://www.warhol.org/ Andy Warhol Collection in Pittsburgh] * [http://www.ubu.com/sound/warhol.html The work of Andy Warhol] spoken about by David Cronenberg * [https://web.archive.org/web/20181124081303/http://warholstars.org/ Warholstars]: Andy Warhol Films, Art and Superstars * [http://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/warhol-the-computer/ Warhol & The Computer] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190306043613/https://www.wnycstudios.org/story/andy-warhol-pop-art-tavi-gevinson Tavi Gevinson and Abbi Jacobson discuss Andy Warhol's Campbell's Soup Cans] on A Piece of Work {{Warhol}} {{The Velvet Underground}} {{Authority control (arts)}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Warhol, Andy}} Category:1928 births Category:1987 deaths Category:20th-century American LGBTQ people Category:20th-century American male artists Category:20th-century American male musicians Category:20th-century American male writers Category:20th-century American painters Category:20th-century American photographers Category:20th-century American screenwriters Category:American album-cover and concert-poster artists Category:American cinematographers Category:American contemporary artists Category:American Eastern Catholics Category:American experimental filmmakers Category:American film producers Category:American gay artists Category:American gay writers Category:American LGBTQ film directors Category:American LGBTQ photographers Category:American male painters Category:American male screenwriters Category:American people of Rusyn descent Category:American pop artists Category:American portrait painters Category:American portrait photographers Category:American postmodern artists Category:American printmakers Category:American shooting survivors Category:American socialites Category:Artists from Pittsburgh Category:Carnegie Mellon University College of Fine Arts alumni Category:Catholics from Pennsylvania Category:Censorship in the arts Category:Deaths from surgical complications Category:Experiments in Art and Technology collaborating artists Category:Fashion illustrators Category:Film directors from New York (state) Category:Film directors from Pennsylvania Category:LGBTQ film producers Category:LGBTQ people from New York (state) Category:LGBTQ people from Pennsylvania Category:LGBTQ Roman Catholics Category:People associated with The Factory Category:People with hypochondriasis Category:Photographers from New York (state) Category:Ruthenian Greek Catholics Category:Schenley High School alumni Category:The Velvet Underground Category:Warhola family Category:Writers from New York (state) Category:Writers from Pittsburgh Category:American people of Czechoslovak descent	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Warhol	2025-04-05T18:25:25.095362
868	Alp Arslan	{{Short description\|Sultan of the Seljuk Empire from 1063 to 1072}} {{for\|the ruler of Aleppo in 1113–14\|Alp Arslān al-Akhras}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=August 2023}} {{Infobox royalty \| name = Alp Arslan \| title {{ubl\|Al-Sultan al-Mu'azzam<ref namedavidmus>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.davidmus.dk/en/collections/islamic/dynasties/seljuks/coins/c504?showdesign\|titleTHE SELJUKS AND THEIR SUCCESSORS: IRAN AND CENTRAL ASIA, C.1040-1250 Coin no. 3 of 14\|quoteThis coin was struck at the mint of al-Ahwaz, the capital town of Khuzistan, which, together with al-Basra, was the main trading city at the head of the Arabian Gulf. On it, Alp Arslan clearly states his power and prestige as "the Exalted Sultan, King of Kings, King of Islam." In the inscription on his coins his name appears as Alb because Arabic lacks the letter "p", but to Persian and Turkish speakers his name is pronounced "Alp".}}</ref>{{efn\|English: The Exalted Sultan}}\|Malik al-Islam<ref namedavidmus/>{{efn\|King of Islam}}\|Shahanshah<ref namedavidmus/>{{efn\|King of Kings}} }} \| image = File:Alp Arslan on throne Majma al-Tawarikh by Hafiz Abru (cropped).png \| image_size \| caption Miniature from the Majma al-Tawarikh by Hafiz Abru circa 1425; which depicts accession to the throne by Alp Arslan \| succession = Sultan of the Seljuk Empire \| reign = 4 October 1063 – 15 December 1072 \| predecessor = Tughril \| successor = Malik-Shah I \| spouse = {{unbulleted list\|Safariyya Khatun\|Akka Khatun\|Shah Khatun\|Ummu Hifchaq\|}} \| issue = {{unbulleted list\|Malik-Shah I\|Tutush I\|Bori-Bars\|Ayaz\|Toghan-Shah\|Arslan-Shah\|Tekish\|Sifri Khatun\|Aisha Khatun\|Zulaikha Khatun\|Sara Khatun\|Others two daughters}} \| dynasty = Seljuk Dynasty \| father = Chaghri Beg \| mother \| birth_date 20 January 1029 <br>({{small\|1 Muharram 420 AH}}){{sfn\|Kafesoğlu\|1989\|p=526}} \| birth_place \| death_date {{death date and age\|1072\|11\|24\|1029\|1\|20\|df=y}} <br>({{small\|10 Rabiʻ I 465 AH}}) \| death_place = Barzam Fortress, near Amu Darya, Khwarezm \| religion = Sunni Islam }} Alp Arslan, born Muhammad Alp Arslan bin Dawud Chaghri,{{sfn\|Cahen\|1986\|p420}} was the second sultan of the Seljuk Empire and great-grandson of Seljuk, the eponymous founder of the dynasty. He greatly expanded Seljuk territories and consolidated his power, defeating rivals to the south, east and northwest. His victory over the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 ushered in the Turkoman settlement of Anatolia.<ref name"anatolia">{{cite web \|last1Cahen \|first1Claude \|titleAlp-Arslan \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com:443/biography/Alp-Arslan \|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica\|date12 February 2024 }} "But the Battle of Manzikert opened Asia Minor to Turkmen conquest"</ref> Early life Historical sources differ about Alp Arslan's birth date. Some 12th- and 13th-century sources give 1032/1033 as his birth year, while later sources give 1030. According to İbrahim Kafesoğlu, the most likely date is 20 January 1029 (1 Muharram 420 AH), recorded by the medieval historian Ibn al-Athir.{{sfn\|Kafesoğlu\|1989\|p526}} He was the son of Chaghri and nephew of Tughril, the founding sultans of the Seljuk Empire. His grandfather was Mikail, who in turn was the son of the warlord Seljuk. He was the father of numerous children, including Malik-Shah I and Tutush I.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia \|urlhttp://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/alp-arslan-saljuq-sultan \|titleALP ARSLAN \|authorK. A. Luther \|encyclopediaEncyclopaedia Iranica \|volumeI Fascicle 8 \|pages895–898}}</ref> It is unclear who the mother or mothers of his children were. He was known to have been married at least twice. His wives included the widow of his uncle Tughril, a Kara-Khanid princess known as Aka or Seferiye Khatun, and the daughter or niece of Bagrat IV of Georgia (who would later marry his vizier, Nizam al-Mulk).<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia \|urlhttp://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ahmad-b-nezam \|titleAḤMAD B. NEẒĀM-AL-MOLK \|authorBosworth, C. E. \|encyclopediaEncyclopaedia Iranica \|volumeI, Fasc. 6 \|pages642–643}}</ref> One of Seljuk's other sons was the Turkic chieftain Arslan Isra'il, whose son, Kutalmish, contested his nephew's succession to the sultanate. Alp Arslan's younger brothers Suleiman ibn Chaghri and Qavurt were his rivals. Kilij Arslan, the son and successor of Suleiman ibn Kutalmish (Kutalmish's son, who would later become Sultan of Rûm), was a major opponent of the Franks during the First Crusade and the Crusade of 1101.<ref>Peacock, A.C,S., Great Seljuk Empire, Edinburgh University Press, 2015, pgs. 179, 183</ref> Early career ]] , ''Jami' al-tawarikh, 1654 Ottoman copy, Topkapi Museum.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Yıldız \|first1Osman Fikret \|titleBüyük Selçuklular Ve Nizamül-Mülk, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, (Yüksek Lisans Tezi), Isparta 2019,(Great Seljuks and Nizamal-Mulk) \|date1 January 2019 \|page93 Fig.4 \|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/41950842 \|quote=Miniature from Reşîdüddîn, Câmiu't-Tevârîh'', TSMK, Hazine, nr. 1654, vr. 202}}</ref>]] Alp Arslan accompanied his uncle Tughril on campaigns in the south against the Fatimids while his father Chaghri remained in Khorasan. Upon Alp Arslan's return to Khorasan, he began his work in administration at his father's suggestion. While there, his father introduced him to Nizam al-Mulk, one of the most eminent statesmen in early Muslim history and Alp Arslan's future vizier.<ref>{{Cite book\|title Dictionary of World Biography: The Middle Ages, Volume 2\|last Magill\|first Frank Northen\|publisher Routledge\|year 1998\|isbn 978-1-57958-041-4\|pages = 67}}</ref> After the death of his father, Alp Arslan succeeded him as governor of Khorasan in 1059. His uncle Tughril died in 1063 and designated his successor as Suleiman, Arslan's infant brother. Arslan and his uncle Kutalmish both contested this succession which was resolved at the battle of Damghan in 1063. Arslan defeated Kutalmish for the throne and succeeded on 27 April 1064 as sultan of the Seljuk Empire, thus becoming the sole monarch of Persia from the river Oxus to the Tigris. In 1064 he led a campaign in Georgia during which he captured the regions between Tbilisi and the Çoruh river, Akhalkalaki and Alaverdi.<ref name=Toksoy>[https://turuz.com/storage/Turkologi-1-2019/3862-1-1018-1071_Yillari_Arasinda_Selcuqlu-Bizans_ilishgileri_Ve_Ermeniler-ahmed_toksoy.pdf 1018-1071 Yılları Arasında Selçuklu Bizans İlişkileri ve Ermeniler] A Toksoy. Yeni Türkiye S. 60 CI Ermeni Meselesi Özel Sayısı. 2014.</ref> Bagrat IV submitted to paying jizya to the Seljuks but the Georgians broke the agreement in 1065.<ref nameTellioglu>[https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_opview_citation&usersVgXdhMAAAAJ&cstart20&pagesize80&citation_for_viewsVgXdhMAAAAJ:YsMSGLbcyi4C Orta Çağ'da Türk-Gürcü münasebetlerini şekillendiren faktörler]. İ Tellioğlu. 2009.</ref> Alp Arslan invaded Georgia again in 1068. He captured Tbilisi after a short battle and obtained the submission of Bagrat IV; however, the Georgians freed themselves from Seljuk rule around 1073–1074.<ref nameTellioglu/><ref nameSenol>Şenol, F. "[https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/otad/issue/59572/828453 Ortaçağ Gürcistanının Meşhur Şehri: Tiflis]". Oğuz-Türkmen Araştırmaları Dergisi 4 (2020 ): 9-100</ref> In consolidating his empire and subduing contending factions, Arslan was ably assisted by Nizam al-Mulk, and the two are credited with helping to stabilize the empire after the death of Tughril. With peace and security established in his dominions, Arslan convoked an assembly of the states, and in 1066, he declared his son Malik Shah I his heir and successor.<ref>{{Cite book\|title Dictionary of World Biography: The Middle Ages, Volume 2\|last Magill\|first Frank Northen\|publisher Routledge\|year 1998\|isbn 978-1-57958-041-4\|pages 68}}</ref> With the hope of capturing Caesarea Mazaca, the capital of Cappadocia, he placed himself at the head of the Turkoman<ref>{{cite web \|last1Cauhen \|first1Claude \|titleAlp-Arslan \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com:443/biography/Alp-Arslan \|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica\|date12 February 2024 }}"On the other hand, he was aware of the necessity of keeping his influence over the Oğuz Turkic tribes (sometimes called Turkmens), which was essential to his military strength."</ref> cavalry, crossed the Euphrates, and entered and invaded the city. Along with Nizam al-Mulk, he then marched into Armenia and Georgia, which he conquered in 1064.{{sfn\|Bosworth\|1968\|p62-65}} After a siege of 25 days, the Seljuks captured Ani, the capital city of Armenia. An account of the sack and massacres in Ani is given by the historian Sibt ibn al-Jawzi, who quotes an eyewitness saying: {{blockquote\|The army entered the city, massacred its inhabitants, pillaged and burned it, leaving it in ruins and taking prisoner all those who remained alive... The dead bodies were so many that they blocked the streets; one could not go anywhere without stepping over them. And the number of prisoners was not less than 50,000 souls. I was determined to enter the city and see the destruction with my own eyes. I tried to find a street in which I would not have to walk over the corpses, but that was impossible.<ref>Quoted in {{cite book\|lastNorwich\|firstJohn Julius\|author-linkJohn Julius Norwich\|titleByzantium: The Apogee\|publisherViking\|locationNew York\|year 1991\|pages 342–343\|isbn 978-0-394-53779-5}}</ref>}} Byzantine struggle En route to fight the Fatimids in Syria in 1068, Alp Arslan invaded the Byzantine Empire. The Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes, assuming command in person, met the invaders in Cilicia. In three arduous campaigns, the Turks were defeated in detail and driven across the Euphrates in 1070. The first two campaigns were conducted by the emperor himself, while the third was directed by Manuel Komnenos, the brother of future emperor Alexios I Komnenos. During this time, Arslan gained the allegiance of Rashid al-Dawla Mahmud, the Mirdasid emir of Aleppo. In 1071, Romanos again took the field and advanced into Armenia with possibly 30,000 men, including a contingent of Cuman Turks as well as contingents of Franks and Normans, under Ursel de Baieul. Alp Arslan, who had moved his troops south to fight the Fatimids, quickly reversed to meet the Byzantines. Alp Arslan handed control of his army to his eunuch slave general, Taranges, and commanded him to "Win or be beheaded."<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idxNXZAAAAMAAJ\|titleA Military History of the Western World: From the Earliest Times to the Battle of Lepanto\|page402\|isbn9780306803048 \|last1Fuller \|first1J. F. C. \|date22 August 1987 \|publisherHachette Books }}</ref> Taranges prepared for the battle by setting traps and organizing ambushes.<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSJ67QgAACAAJ\|titleTurkish Myth and Muslim Symbol: The Battle of Manzikert\|page247\|isbn9780748625734 \|last1Hillenbrand \|first1Carole \|year2007 }}</ref> The Seljuk and Byzantine armies met on Friday, 26 August 1071 at Manzikert on the Murat River, north of Lake Van, beginning the Battle of Manzikert.<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSJ67QgAACAAJ\|titleTurkish Myth and Muslim Symbol: The Battle of Manzikert\|page101\|isbn9780748625734 \|last1Hillenbrand \|first1Carole \|year2007 }}</ref> The Cuman mercenaries among the Byzantine forces immediately defected to the Turkic side. Seeing this, the Western mercenaries subsequently abandoned the battlefield as well.<ref>{{cite book\|titleThe First Crusade\|firstSteve\|last Runciman\|publisherCambridge University Press\|year1992}}</ref> To be exact, Romanos was betrayed by general Andronikos Doukas, son of the Caesar (Romanos's stepson), who pronounced him dead and rode off with a large part of the Byzantine forces at a critical moment.<ref>{{cite book\| last Norwich\| first John Julius\| title Byzantium The Apogee\| year 1993\| publisher Penguin\| isbn 0-14-011448-3 }}</ref> The Byzantines were wholly routed. after the Battle of Manzikert. From a 15th-century illustrated French translation of Boccaccio's De Casibus Virorum Illustrium<ref>Çoban, R. V. (2020). The Manzikert Battle and Sultan Alp Arslan with European Perspective in the 15th Century in the Miniatures of Giovanni Boccaccio's "De Casibus Virorum Illustrium"s 226 and 232. French Manuscripts in Bibliothèque Nationale de France. S. Karakaya ve V. Baydar (Ed.), in 2nd International Muş Symposium Articles Book (pp. 48-64). Muş: Muş Alparslan University. [https://www.academia.edu/48958867/Giovanni_Boccaccio_nun_De_Casibus_Virorum_Illustrium_Adl%C4%B1_Eserinin_Biblioth%C3%A8que_Nationale_de_France_daki_226_ve_232_Numaral%C4%B1_Frans%C4%B1zca_N%C3%BCshalar%C4%B1nda_Yer_Alan_Minyat%C3%BCrlerde_XV_Y%C3%BCzy%C4%B1l_da_Avrupal%C4%B1_G%C3%B6z%C3%BCyle_Malazgirt_Sava%C5%9F%C4%B1_ve_Sultan_Alp_Arslan_a_Bak%C4%B1%C5%9F Source]</ref>]] Emperor Romanos himself was captured in battle and presented to Alp Arslan. It is reported that upon seeing the Roman emperor, the sultan leaped from his throne, commanded Romanos to kiss the ground, and stepped on his neck. He repeatedly berated the emperor, including for spurning his emissaries and offers of peace. Romanos remained unrepentant, asserting that he had merely done what was "possible for a man, and which kings are bound to do, and I have fallen short in nothing. But God has fulfilled his will. And now, do what you wish and abandon recriminations."<ref name"auto">Carole Hillenbrand. (2007).[https://academic.oup.com/edinburgh-scholarship-online/book/18976 Turkish Myth and Muslim Symbol: The Battle of Manzikert ] Oxford University Press</ref> Purportedly declaring Romanos "too trivial... to kill", Arslan then led him about the camp to sell the prisoner to one of his men. The Seljuk soldiers initially refused to spend any money on buying the emperor, until one man traded a dog for him.<ref name"auto"/> Next, wishing to test Romanos, Alp Arslan asked Romanos what he would do if their situation were reversed and Arslan was imprisoned by the Byzantines. Romanos bluntly answered "The worst!" His honesty impressed Arslan, who then decided to spare Romanos's life and instead ransom him back to his homeland. After agreeing on a ransom, Alp Arslan sent Romanos to Constantinople with a Turkish escort, carrying a banner above the disgraced emperor that read: "There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is his messenger".<ref name="auto"/> The reason Alp Arslan spared Romanos was likely to avoid a two-front war. The Fatimids were launching devastating raids on the Seljuk domains during this period, Arslan may have worried that executing the Roman emperor might escalate his conflict with the Byzantines. Romanos himself had told the sultan that "killing me will not be of any use to you".<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSJ67QgAACAAJ\|titleTurkish Myth and Muslim Symbol: The Battle of Manzikert\|year2007 \|page71\|isbn9780748625734 \|last1Hillenbrand \|first1Carole }}</ref> After hearing of the death of Byzantine Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes, Sultan Alp Arslan pledged: "The Byzantine nation has no God, so this day the oath of peace and friendship taken by both the Persians and Byzantines is nullified; henceforth I shall consume with the sword all those people who venerate the cross, and all the lands of the Christians shall be enslaved."<ref>{{cite book \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idleqqBgAAQBAJ \| isbn9780748631155 \| titleTurkish Myth and Muslim Symbol: The Battle of Manzikert\|page244\|date21 November 2007 \| last1Hillenbrand \| first1Carole }}</ref> Alp Arslan and his successor Malik Shah urged Turkish tribes to invade and settle Anatolia where they would not only cease to be a problem for the Seljuk Sultanate but also extend its territory further. Alp Arslan commanded the Turks as follows: {{blockquote\|Henceforth all of you be like lion cubs and eagle young, racing through the countryside day and night, slaying the Christians and not sparing any mercy on the Roman nation.<ref>{{cite book \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5rmHCwAAQBAJ \| isbn9781780965055 \| titleManzikert 1071: The breaking of Byzantium\|page92\| date20 August 2013 \| publisherBloomsbury }}</ref><ref>{{cite book \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsExoAAAAMAAJ \| isbn9780819189530 \| titleArmenia and the Crusades: Tenth to Twelfth Centuries : The Chronicle of Matthew of Edessa\|pages135–136\|year1993 \| publisherNational Association for Armenian Studies and Research }}</ref>}} Alp Arslan's victories changed the balance in western Asia completely in favor of the Seljuq Turks and Sunni Muslims. While the Byzantine Empire was to continue for nearly four more centuries, the victory at Manzikert signalled the beginning of Turkic ascendancy in Anatolia.<ref name"anatolia"/> The victory at Manzikert became so popular among the Turks that later every noble family in Anatolia claimed to have had an ancestor who had fought on that day.<ref name"anatolia2">{{cite web \|last1Cahen \|first1Claude \|titleAlp-Arslan \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com:443/biography/Alp-Arslan \|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica\|date12 February 2024 }} "Later, every princely family in Asia Minor was to claim an ancestor who had fought on that prestigious day."</ref> State organization Alp Arslan's strength lay in the military realm. Domestic affairs were handled by his able vizier, Nizam al-Mulk, the founder of the administrative organization that characterized and strengthened the sultanate during the reigns of Alp Arslan and his son, Malik Shah. Military iqtas, governed by Seljuq princes, were established to provide support for the soldiery and to accommodate the nomadic Turks to the established Anatolian agricultural scene. This type of military fiefdom enabled the nomadic Turks to draw on the resources of the sedentary Persians, Turks, and other established cultures within the Seljuq realm, and allowed Alp Arslan to field a huge standing army without depending on tribute from conquest to pay his soldiers. He not only had enough food from his subjects to maintain his military, but the taxes collected from traders and merchants added to his coffers sufficiently to fund his continuous wars. Suleiman ibn Qutalmish was the son of the contender for Arslan's throne; he was appointed governor of the north-western provinces and assigned to complete the invasion of Anatolia. An explanation for this choice can only be conjectured from Ibn al-Athir's account of the battle between Alp-Arslan and Kutalmish, in which he writes that Alp-Arslan wept for the latter's death and greatly mourned the loss of his kinsman. Physical appearance and personality Contemporary descriptions portray Alp Arslan as "very awe-inspiring, dominating," a "great-formed one, elegant of stature. He had long, thin whiskers, which he used to knot up when shooting arrows. And they say his arrow never went astray.... From the top button of his hat to the end of his moustaches it was two yards".<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSJ67QgAACAAJ\|titleTurkish Myth and Muslim Symbol: The Battle of Manzikert\|year2007 \|page217\|isbn9780748625734 \|last1Hillenbrand \|first1Carole }}</ref> Muslim sources show Alp Arslan as fanatically pious but just. Alp Arslan was so dedicated to the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence that he always kept a qadi by his side, including in battles.<ref>{{cite book \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idleqqBgAAQBAJ \| isbn9780748631155 \| titleTurkish Myth and Muslim Symbol: The Battle of Manzikert \| date21 November 2007 \| last1Hillenbrand \| first1Carole }}</ref> His vizier, Nizam al-Mulk, described the young sultan in his Book of Government:<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSJ67QgAACAAJ\|titleTurkish Myth and Muslim Symbol: The Battle of Manzikert\|year2007 \|page6\|isbn9780748625734 \|last1Hillenbrand \|first1Carole }}</ref>{{blockquote\|He was exceedingly imperious and awe-inspiring and, because he was so earnest and fanatical in his beliefs and disapproved of the Shafi‘i rite, I lived in constant fear of him.}}Some authors have doubted whether the Turks, who had adopted Islam recently, completely understood such religious distinctions. Alex Mallett writes, "Whatever the case, the fact that almost all writers have good things to say about him suggests that he treated everyone more or less equally, in religious terms."<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMallett \|firstA. \|date2013 \|editor-lastFleet \|editor-firstK. \|editor2-lastKrämer \|editor2-firstG. \|editor3-lastMatringe \|editor3-firstD. \|editor4-lastNawas \|editor4-firstJ. \|editor5-lastStewart \|editor5-firstD. J. \|titleAlp Arslan \|urlhttps://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_24882 \|url-accesssubscription \|access-date27 February 2025 \|websiteEncyclopaedia of Islam Three Online \|publisherBrill}}</ref> Death After Manzikert, the dominion of Alp Arslan extended over much of western Asia. He soon prepared to march for the conquest of Turkestan, the original seat of his ancestors. With a powerful army, he advanced to the banks of the Oxus. Before he could pass the river safely, however, it was necessary to subdue certain fortresses, one of which was for several days vigorously defended by the rebel, Yusuf al-Kharezmi or Yusuf al-Harani. Perhaps over-eager to press on against his Qarakhanid enemy, Alp Arslan gained the governor's submission by promising the rebel 'perpetual ownership of his lands'. When he was produced a captive in the royal tent, the sultan, instead of praising his valor, severely reproached his obstinate folly: and the insolent replies of the rebel provoked a sentence, that he should be fastened to four stakes, and left to expire in that painful situation. At this command, the desperate Yusuf al-Kharezmi, drawing a dagger, rushed headlong towards the throne: the guards raised their battle-axes; their zeal was checked by Alp Arslan, the most skilful archer of the age: he drew his bow, but his foot slipped, the arrow glanced aside, and he received in his breast the dagger of Yusuf al-Kharezmi, who was instantly cut in pieces. The wound was mortal; and the Turkish sultan bequeathed a dying admonition to the pride of kings. "In my youth," said Alp Arslan, "I was advised by a sage to humble before God; to distrust my own strength; and never to despise the most contemptible foe. I have neglected these lessons; and my neglect has been deservedly punished. Yesterday, as from an eminence I beheld the numbers, the discipline, and the spirit, of my armies, the earth seemed to tremble under my feet; and I said in my heart, Surely thou art the king of the world, the greatest and most invincible of warriors. These armies are no longer mine; and, in the confidence of my personal strength, I now fall by the hand of an assassin. Four days later on 24 November 1072, Alp Arslan died and was buried at Merv, having designated his 18-year-old son Malik Shah as his successor.<ref>David Nicolle, Manzikert 1071: The breaking of Byzantium. Edward Gibbon, The history of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire.</ref> Family One of his wives was Safariyya Khatun.<ref name"KAÇIN">{{cite journal \| lastKAÇIN \| firstBülent \| titleBÜYÜK SELÇUKLULAR'DA EVLİLİK MERASİMLERİ \| journalSelçuklu Medeniyeti Araştırmaları Dergisi \| publisherNecmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi \| issue2 \| date2017-12-27 \| issn2651-2602 \| pages97–121 \| urlhttps://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/sema/issue/33414/350171 \| languagetr \| access-date2024-01-13}}</ref> She had a daughter,<ref name"Richards">{{cite book \| lastRichards \| firstD.S. \| titleThe Annals of the Saljuq Turks: Selections from al-Kamil fi'l-Ta'rikh of Ibn al-Athir \| publisherTaylor & Francis \| seriesRoutledge Studies in the History of Iran and Turkey \| year2014 \| isbn978-1-317-83255-3 \| pages155, 163 n. 1, 174, 178}}</ref> Sifri Khatun,<ref>{{cite book \| lastEl-Hibri \| firstT. \| titleThe Abbasid Caliphate: A History \| publisherCambridge University Press \| year2021 \| isbn978-1-107-18324-7 \| page211}}</ref> who in 1071–72, married Abbasid Caliph Al-Muqtadi.<ref name"Richards"/><ref name"lambton">{{cite book \| lastLambton \| firstA.K.S. \| titleContinuity and Change in Medieval Persia \| publisherBibliotheca Persica \| seriesBibliotheca Persica \| year1988 \| isbn978-0-88706-133-2 \| pages259, 261, 262–63, 267, 269 n. 74}}</ref> Safariyya died in Isfahan in 1073–74.<ref name"lambton"/> Another of his wives was Akka Khatun. She had been formerly the wife of Sultan Tughril. Alp Arslan married her after Tughril's death in 1063.<ref name"lambton"/> Another of his wives was Shah Khatun. She was the daughter of Qadir Khan Yusuf, and had been formerly married to Ghaznavid Mas'ud I.<ref name"Richards"/><ref name"lambton"/><ref name"Massignon Mason 2019 p. 162">{{cite book \| last1Massignon \| first1L. \| last2Mason \| first2H. \| titleThe Passion of Al-Hallaj, Mystic, and Martyr of Islam, Volume 2: The Survival of Al-Hallaj \| publisherPrinceton University Press \| seriesOnline access with JISC subscription agreement: ACLS Humanities E-Books \| year2019 \| isbn978-0-691-65721-9 \| page162}}</ref> Another wife was Ummu Hifchaq also known as Ummu Qipchaq.<ref name"İSTEK">{{cite journal \| lastİSTEK \| firstGülşen \| titleBüyük Selçuklu Devleti ile Abbasi Hilafeti Arasında Gerçekleşen Siyasi Evlilikler \| journalSocial Mentality and Researcher Thinkers Journal \| publisherASOS Yayinevi \| volume6 \| issue32 \| date2020-01-01 \| issn2630-631X \| doi10.31576/smryj.542 \| pages944–961}}</ref> Another of his wives was the daughter of King of Tashir Kiurike I, who was married to the sister of the Georgian king Bagrat IV. Alp Arslan divorced her, and married her to Nizam al-Mulk.<ref name"Minorsky">{{cite book \| lastMinorsky \| firstV. \| titleStudies in Caucasian History: I. New Light on the Shaddadids of Ganja II. The Shaddadids of Ani III. Prehistory of Saladin \| publisherCambridge University Press \| seriesCambridge Oriental Series \| year1953 \| isbn978-0-521-05735-6 \| page66}}</ref> His sons were Malik-Shah I, Tutush I, Arslan Shah, Tekish,<ref name"Unesco">{{cite book \| titleHistory of Civilizations of Central Asia \| publisherUnesco \| issuev. 4 \| year1998 \| isbn978-92-3-103467-1 \| page157}}</ref> Toghan-Shah,<ref>{{cite book \| last1Fisher \| first1W.B. \| last2Boyle \| first2J.A. \| titleThe Cambridge History of Iran \| publisherCambridge University Press \| seriesCambridge histories online \| issuev. 5 \| year1968 \| isbn978-0-521-06936-6 \| page87}}</ref> Ayaz and Buibars.<ref name"Richards"/> One of his daughters married the son of Kurd Surkhab, son of Bard in 1068.<ref name"lambton"/> Another daughter, Zulaikha Khatun, was married to a Muslim, son of Quraish in 1086–87.<ref name"lambton"/> Another daughter, Aisha Khatun, married Shams al-Mulk Nasr, son of Ibrahim Khan Tamghach.<ref name"lambton"/> Another daughter was married to Mas'ud III of Ghazni and was his first wife.<ref name"Fisher">{{cite book \| last1Fisher \| first1W.B. \| last2Boyle \| first2J.A. \| titleThe Cambridge History of Iran \| publisherCambridge University Press \| seriesCambridge histories online \| issuev. 5 \| year1968 \| isbn978-0-521-06936-6 \| page94}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \| lastRichards \| firstD.S. \| titleThe Chronicle of Ibn al-Athir for the Crusading Period from al-Kamil fi'l-Ta'rikh. Part 3 \| publisherAshgate \| seriesCrusade Texts in Translation \| year2010 \| isbn978-0-7546-6952-4 \| page168}}</ref> Another daughter was Sara Khatun.<ref name"Richards"/> Legacy Alp Arslan's conquest of Anatolia from the Byzantines is also seen as one of the pivotal precursors to the launch of the Crusades. From 2002 to July 2008 under Turkmen calendar reform, the month of August was named after Alp Arslan. The 2nd Training Motorized Rifle Division of the Turkmen Ground Forces is named in his honor. Notes {{notelist}} References {{reflist}} Sources {{Wikiquote}} {{sfn whitelist \|CITEREFKafesoğlu1989}} * {{cite book\|lastMinorsky\|firstVladimir\| author-link Vladimir Minorsky\|titleA History of Sharvān and Darband in the 10th–11th Centuries\|publisherUniversity of Michigan\|year1958\|pages 1–219\|isbn978-1-84511-645-3\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idGPMHVEt_wVUC}} * {{cite book \| title The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 5: The Saljuq and Mongol periods \| year 1968 \| publisher Cambridge University Press \| location Cambridge \| editor-last Frye \| editor-first R. N. \| last Bosworth \| first C. E. \| author-link C. E. Bosworth \| chapter The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World (A.D. 1000–1217) \| pages 1–202 \| isbn 0-521-06936-X \| chapter-url https://books.google.com/books?id16yHq5v3QZAC&pg=PA1}} * {{cite book \| title The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs \| year 1975 \| publisher Cambridge University Press \| location Cambridge \| editor-last Frye \| editor-first R. N. \| last Bosworth \| first C. E. \| author-link C. E. Bosworth \| chapter The early Ghaznavids \| pages 162–198 \| isbn 0-521-20093-8 \| chapter-url https://books.google.com/books?idhvx9jq_2L3EC&pg=PA162}} * {{cite book \| title The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs \| year 1975 \| publisher Cambridge University Press \| location Cambridge \| editor-last Frye \| editor-first R. N. \| last Bosworth \| first C. E. \| author-link C. E. Bosworth \| chapter Iran under the Buyids \| pages 250–305 \| isbn 0-521-20093-8 \| chapter-url https://books.google.com/books?idhvx9jq_2L3EC&pg=PA250}} * {{cite book \| title The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs \| year 1975 \| publisher Cambridge University Press \| location Cambridge \| editor-last Frye \| editor-first R. N. \| last Madelung \| first W. \| author-link Wilferd Madelung \| chapter The Minor Dynasties of Northern Iran \| pages 198–249 \| isbn 978-0-521-20093-6 \| chapter-url https://books.google.com/books?idhvx9jq_2L3EC&pg=PA198}} * {{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam \|last1Kafesoğlu \|first1İbrahim\|urlhttps://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/alparslan \|titleAlparslan\|pages526–530 \|volume2\|author-link=İbrahim Kafesoğlu}} * Çoban, R. V. (2020). The Manzikert Battle and Sultan Alp Arslan with European Perspective in the 15st Century in the Miniatures of Giovanni Boccaccio's "De Casibus Virorum Illustrium"s 226 and 232. French Manuscripts in Bibliothèque Nationale de France. S. Karakaya ve V. Baydar (Ed.), in 2nd International Muş Symposium Articles Book (pp.&nbsp;48–64). Muş: Muş Alparslan University. [https://www.academia.edu/48958867/Giovanni_Boccaccio_nun_De_Casibus_Virorum_Illustrium_Adl%C4%B1_Eserinin_Biblioth%C3%A8que_Nationale_de_France_daki_226_ve_232_Numaral%C4%B1_Frans%C4%B1zca_N%C3%BCshalar%C4%B1nda_Yer_Alan_Minyat%C3%BCrlerde_XV_Y%C3%BCzy%C4%B1l_da_Avrupal%C4%B1_G%C3%B6z%C3%BCyle_Malazgirt_Sava%C5%9F%C4%B1_ve_Sultan_Alp_Arslan_a_Bak%C4%B1%C5%9F Source] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210518111803/https://www.academia.edu/48958867/Giovanni_Boccaccio_nun_De_Casibus_Virorum_Illustrium_Adl%C4%B1_Eserinin_Biblioth%C3%A8que_Nationale_de_France_daki_226_ve_232_Numaral%C4%B1_Frans%C4%B1zca_N%C3%BCshalar%C4%B1nda_Yer_Alan_Minyat%C3%BCrlerde_XV_Y%C3%BCzy%C4%B1l_da_Avrupal%C4%B1_G%C3%B6z%C3%BCyle_Malazgirt_Sava%C5%9F%C4%B1_ve_Sultan_Alp_Arslan_a_Bak%C4%B1%C5%9F \|date18 May 2021 }} *{{cite encyclopedia \|encyclopediaThe Encyclopaedia of Islam \|titleAlp Arslan \|firstClaude \|lastCahen \|publisherBrill \|volumeI: A-B \|year1986 \|editor-first1H. A. R. \|editor-last1Gibb \|editor-first2J. H. \|editor-last2Kramers \|editor-first3 E. \|editor-last3Levi-Provencal \|editor-first4J. \|editor-last4=Schacht }} {{s-start}} {{s-hou\|House of Seljuq\|\|20 January 1029\|\|15 December 1072}} {{s-reg}} {{s-bef \| before = Toghrul-Beg }} {{s-ttl \| title = Sultan of the Seljuq Empire \| years = 4 October 1063– 15 December 1072 }} {{s-aft \| after = Malik-Shah I }} {{s-end}} {{Seljuk dynasty}} {{Authority control}} Category:11th-century births Category:Year of birth unknown Category:11th-century murdered monarchs Category:1072 deaths Category:Seljuk rulers Category:Byzantine–Seljuk wars Category:Deaths by stabbing Category:Shahanshahs Category:11th-century monarchs in Asia	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alp_Arslan	2025-04-05T18:25:25.152833
869	American Film Institute	{{short description\|Nonprofit educational arts organization}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=April 2024}} {{Infobox organization \| name = American Film Institute \| abbreviation = AFI \| image = American Film Institute (AFI) logo.svg \| founded {{start date and age\|1967\|6\|5}}<ref>{{cite news\|last1Howe\|first1Desson\|titleFilm Notes\|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1987/06/05/film-notes/82ed3751-36da-40aa-9f5f-108eb47bc697/\|access-dateJune 10, 2017\|newspaperThe Washington Post\|dateJune 5, 1987\|quoteAnd the AFI was born June 5, 1967 – exactly 20 years ago.\|archive-dateAugust 22, 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170822101040/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1987/06/05/film-notes/82ed3751-36da-40aa-9f5f-108eb47bc697/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> \| type = Nonprofit \| purpose = To educate filmmakers and honor the heritage of the history of cinema in the United States \| location = Los Angeles, California, U.S. \| key_people = {{Plainlist\| Bob Gazzale (President and CEO) Kathleen Kennedy (Chair, Board of Trustees) Robert A. Daly (Chair, Board of Directors)}} \| website = {{URL\|https://www.afi.com/}} }} The American Film Institute (AFI) is an American nonprofit film organization that educates filmmakers and honors the heritage of the motion picture arts in the United States. AFI is supported by private funding and public membership fees. Leadership style AFI campus in Los Angeles, in the Los Feliz district of L.A.]] The institute is composed of leaders from the film, entertainment, business, and academic communities. The board of trustees is chaired by Kathleen Kennedy and the board of directors chaired by Robert A. Daly guide the organization, which is led by President and CEO, film historian Bob Gazzale. Prior leaders were founding director George Stevens Jr. (from the organization's inception in 1967 until 1980) and Jean Picker Firstenberg (from 1980 to 2007).<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.afi.com/about/bod.aspx\|titleAFI Board of Trustees etc\|publisherAmerican Film Institute\|dateOctober 2014\|access-dateDecember 24, 2014\|archive-dateApril 21, 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180421042556/http://www.afi.com/about/bod.aspx\|url-statuslive}}</ref> History The American Film Institute was founded by a 1965 presidential mandate announced in the Rose Garden of the White House by Lyndon B. Johnson—to establish a national arts organization to preserve the legacy of American film heritage, educate the next generation of filmmakers, and honor the artists and their work. Two years later, in 1967, AFI was established, supported by the National Endowment for the Arts, the Motion Picture Association of America and the Ford Foundation.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.moviemaker.com/archives/moviemaking/directing/articles-directing/summer-2002-afi-3378/\|titleAFI Conservatory: Still the Program of Choice\|lastRhys\|firstTimothy\|dateJune 21, 2002\|publisherMovieMaker\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170822180910/https://www.moviemaker.com/archives/moviemaking/directing/articles-directing/summer-2002-afi-3378/\|archive-date=August 22, 2017}}</ref> The original 22-member Board of Trustees included actor Gregory Peck as chairman and actor Sidney Poitier as vice-chairman, as well as director Francis Ford Coppola, film historian Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., lobbyist Jack Valenti, and other representatives from the arts and academia.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.mtholyoke.edu/175/gallery/jean-picker-firstenberg\|titleJean Picker Firstenberg\|workMount Holyoke College \|dateJune 8, 2012\|publisherMount Holyoke College\|access-dateMay 28, 2015\|archive-dateFebruary 24, 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150224224219/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/175/gallery/jean-picker-firstenberg\|url-status=live}}</ref> The institute established a training program for filmmakers known then as the Center for Advanced Film Studies. Also created in the early years were a repertory film exhibition program at the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts and the AFI Catalog of Feature Films — a scholarly source for American film history. The institute moved to its current eight-acre Hollywood campus in 1981.<ref>{{cite magazine\|urlhttps://variety.com/2007/film/awards/afi-s-departing-chief-looks-back-1117966388/\|titleAFI's departing chief looks back\|magazineVariety\|dateJune 6, 2007\|access-dateDecember 10, 2017\|archive-dateApril 7, 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180407183728/https://variety.com/2007/film/awards/afi-s-departing-chief-looks-back-1117966388/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The film training program grew into the AFI Conservatory, an accredited graduate school. AFI moved its presentation of first-run and <!--SHOULD THIS BE AMATEUR?-->auteur films from the Kennedy Center to the historic AFI Silver Theatre and Cultural Center, which hosts the AFI DOCS film festival, making AFI the largest nonprofit film exhibitor in the world. AFI educates audiences and recognizes artistic excellence through its awards programs and 10 Top 10 Lists. {{Further\|topic=the 1984 establishment of the\|National Center for Film and Video Preservation}} In 2017, then-aspiring filmmaker Ilana Bar-Din Giannini claimed that the AFI expelled her after she accused Dezso Magyar of sexually harassing her in the early 1980s.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/i-was-harassed-by-an-afi-director-kicked-i-reported-it-guest-column-1053469\|titleI Was Harassed by a Director at the AFI and Kicked Out When I Reported It (Guest Column)\|lastIlana Bar-Din Giannini\|dateNovember 3, 2017\|websiteHollywoodreporter.com\|access-dateJanuary 5, 2018}}</ref> List of programs in brief AFI educational and cultural programs include: American Film Institute Awards – an honor celebrating the creative ensembles of the most outstanding motion picture and television programs of the year * AFI Catalog of Feature Films and AFI Archive – the written history of all feature films during the first 100 years of the art form – accessible free online<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.afi.com/members/catalog/default.aspx\|titleAbout the AFI Catalog of Feature Films\|publisherAmerican Film Institute\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140913132407/http://www.afi.com/members/catalog/default.aspx\|archive-dateSeptember 13, 2014\|access-date=September 13, 2014}}</ref> * AFI Conservatory – a film school led by master filmmakers in a graduate-level program<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/afi-conservatory-ranked-1-film-school-in-the-world-by-the-hollywood-reporter-126365498.html\|titleAFI Conservatory Ranked #1 Film School in the World by The Hollywood Reporter\|dateJuly 28, 2011\|publisherPR Newswire\|access-dateMay 28, 2015\|archive-dateMay 6, 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150506084108/http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/afi-conservatory-ranked-1-film-school-in-the-world-by-the-hollywood-reporter-126365498.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> * AFI Directing Workshop for Women – a production-based training program committed to increasing the number of women working professionally in screen directing<ref>{{Cite web\|titleWOMEN DIRECTORS IN HOLLYWOOD, AFI: Directing Workshop for Women, History\|urlhttp://janhaag.com/ESTheDWW.html\|access-dateApril 30, 2021\|websitejanhaag.com\|archive-dateJune 13, 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200613224645/http://janhaag.com/ESTheDWW.html\|url-status=live}}</ref> * AFI Life Achievement Award – a tradition since 1973, a high honor for a career in film<ref>{{cite web\|titleThe AFI Life Achievement Awards\|urlhttp://www.afi.com/laa/default.aspx\|publisherAmerican Film Institute\|access-dateJuly 28, 2014\|archive-dateJuly 9, 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190709103222/http://www.afi.com/laa/default.aspx\|url-status=live}}</ref> * AFI 100 Years... series – television events and movie reference lists<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.afi.com/100years/\|titleAFI's 100 Years...\|publisherAmerican Film Institute\|access-dateMay 28, 2015\|archive-dateFebruary 6, 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180206132115/http://www.afi.com/100years/\|url-status=live}}</ref> * AFI's two film festivals – AFI Fest in Los Angeles and AFI Docs in Washington, D.C., and Silver Spring, Maryland<ref>{{Cite web\|dateNovember 18, 2020\|titleThe American Film Institute Announces Dates For 2021 AFI Docs Film Festival\|urlhttps://www.shootonline.com/spw/american-film-institute-announces-dates-2021-afi-docs-film-festival\|url-statuslive\|access-dateApril 30, 2021\|websiteSHOOTonline\|languageen\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201118212908/https://www.shootonline.com/spw/american-film-institute-announces-dates-2021-afi-docs-film-festival \|archive-dateNovember 18, 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|titleAFI DOCS Film Festival\|urlhttps://telefilm.ca/en/call-for-entry/afi-docs-film-festival\|access-dateApril 30, 2021\|websiteTelefilm Canada\|languageen\|archive-dateApril 30, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210430185618/https://telefilm.ca/en/call-for-entry/afi-docs-film-festival\|url-status=live}}</ref> * AFI Silver Theatre and Cultural Center – a historic theater with year-round art house, first-run and classic film programming in Silver Spring, Maryland<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://silverspringdowntown.com/spring.php?pid126\|titleAFI Silver Theater and Cultural Arts Center\|publisherSilver Spring's Downtown\|access-dateMay 28, 2015\|archive-dateApril 10, 2008\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080410094939/http://www.silverspringdowntown.com/spring.php?pid126\|url-status=dead}}</ref> * American Film – a magazine launched in October 1975 that explores the art of new and historic film classics, now a blog on AFI.com<ref>{{Cite web\|last1H\|first1Two\|last2Warriors\|first2ed\|dateApril 12, 2012\|titleLaunch of American Film e-Magazine features FREE Cover Story "SNOW WHITE: TWICE UPON A TIME"\|urlhttps://www.garydavidstratton.com/2012/04/12/launch-of-american-film-e-magazine-features-free-cover-story-snow-white-twice-upon-a-time/\|access-dateApril 30, 2021\|websiteTwo Handed Warriors\|languageen-US\|archive-dateAugust 18, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210818023111/https://garydavidstratton.com/2012/04/12/launch-of-american-film-e-magazine-features-free-cover-story-snow-white-twice-upon-a-time/\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine\|magazineDaily Variety\|dateOctober 7, 1975\|page9\|titleAmerican Film, New AFI Magazine, Off The Presses}}</ref>AFI ConservatoryIn 1969, the institute established the AFI Conservatory for Advanced Film Studies at Greystone, the Doheny Mansion in Beverly Hills, California. The first class included filmmakers Terrence Malick, Caleb Deschanel, and Paul Schrader.<ref>{{cite magazine \|dateMay 27, 2015 \|titleAFI to Honor Cinematograher Caleb Deschanel \|urlhttps://variety.com/2015/film/news/afi-caleb-deschanel-honor-1201505593/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180407182958/https://variety.com/2015/film/news/afi-caleb-deschanel-honor-1201505593/ \|archive-dateApril 7, 2018 \|access-dateDecember 10, 2017 \|magazineVariety}}</ref> That program grew into the AFI Conservatory, an accredited graduate film school located in the hills above Hollywood, California, providing training in six filmmaking disciplines: cinematography, directing, editing, producing, production design, and screenwriting. Mirroring a professional production environment, Fellows collaborate to make more films than any other graduate level program. Admission to AFI Conservatory is highly selective, with a maximum of 140 graduates per year.<ref>{{cite web \|dateJuly 6, 2014 \|titleHana Kazim, first Emirati to graduate from renowned AFI Conservatory, shares her experiences \|urlhttp://www.thenational.ae/arts-lifestyle/film/hana-kazim-first-emirati-to-graduate-from-renowned-afi-conservatory-shares-her-experiences \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150528141537/http://www.thenational.ae/arts-lifestyle/film/hana-kazim-first-emirati-to-graduate-from-renowned-afi-conservatory-shares-her-experiences \|archive-dateMay 28, 2015 \|access-dateMay 28, 2015 \|publisher=The National}}</ref> In 2013, Emmy and Oscar-winning director, producer, and screenwriter James L. Brooks (As Good as It Gets, Broadcast News, Terms of Endearment) joined as the artistic director of the AFI Conservatory where he provides leadership for the film program.<ref>{{cite magazine \|dateJune 17, 2013 \|titleJames L. Brooks Joins AFI Conservatory as artistic director (Exclusive) \|urlhttp://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/james-l-brooks-joins-afi-570056 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150528142155/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/james-l-brooks-joins-afi-570056 \|archive-dateMay 28, 2015 \|access-dateMay 28, 2015 \|magazineThe Hollywood Reporter}}</ref> Brooks' artistic role at the AFI Conservatory has a rich legacy that includes Daniel Petrie, Jr., Robert Wise, and Frank Pierson. Award-winning director Bob Mandel served as dean of the AFI Conservatory for nine years. Jan Schuette took over as dean in 2014 and served until 2017. Film producer Richard Gladstein was dean from 2017 until 2019, when Susan Ruskin was appointed.<ref>{{cite web \|last1McNary \|first1Dave \|dateJune 18, 2019 \|titleSusan Ruskin Appointed AFI Conservatory Dean \|urlhttps://variety.com/2019/film/news/american-film-institute-susan-ruskin-afi-conservatory-dean-1203246359/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200726063337/https://variety.com/2019/film/news/american-film-institute-susan-ruskin-afi-conservatory-dean-1203246359/ \|archive-dateJuly 26, 2020 \|access-dateMay 3, 2020 \|websiteVariety}}</ref> Notable alumni AFI Conservatory's alumni have careers in film, television and on the web. They have been recognized with all of the major industry awards—Academy Award, Emmy Award, guild awards, and the Tony Award.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAmerican Film Institute Conservatory Alumni \|urlhttp://www.afi.com/education/conservatory/alumni.aspx \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110605094342/http://www.afi.com/education/conservatory/alumni.aspx \|archive-dateJune 5, 2011 \|access-dateMay 28, 2015 \|publisherAmerican Film Institute}}</ref>AFI Film FestivalsAFI operates two film festivals: {{vanchor\|AFI Fest}} in Los Angeles, and AFI Docs (formally known as Silverdocs) in Silver Spring, Maryland, and Washington, D.C.American Film Institute Festival Commonly shortened to AFI Fest, it is the American Film Institute’s annual celebration of artistic excellence. It is a showcase for the best festival films of the year as selected by AFI and an opportunity for master filmmakers and emerging artists to come together with audiences. It is the only festival of its stature that is free to the public. The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences recognizes AFI Fest as a qualifying festival for the Short Films category for the annual Academy Awards. The festival was first announced in January 1987 to take the place of Filmex in March 1987 with Ken Wlaschin, former Filmex artistic director, named as director of the new festival. The first festival was funded with a grant of $200,000 from the Interface Group and was to feature 80 films in a non-competitive format with a mix of independent American and foreign films. Its primary venue was the Los Feliz Theater.<ref>{{cite news\|newspaperLos Angeles Times\|dateJanuary 14, 1987\|page1 Calendar section\|titleAFI introduces its new offspring: A film festival\|lastMatthews\|firstJack}}</ref> The festival has paid tribute to numerous influential filmmakers and artists over the years, including Agnès Varda, Pedro Almodóvar and David Lynch as guest artistic directors, and has screened scores of films that have gone on to win Oscar nominations and awards. The movies selected by AFI are assigned to different sections for the festival; these include Galas/Red Carpet Premieres, Special Screenings, Documentaries, Discovery, and Short Film Competition.<ref>{{Cite web \|titlemovies list {{!}} \|urlhttps://fest.afi.com/2023/movies/ \|access-date2024-09-04 \|languageen}}</ref> Red Carpet Premieres Formerly named Galas, it is AFI Fest’s section for the most highly anticipated films at the festival, presenting selected feature-length movies from world-class filmmakers and artisans.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleFilm Results {{!}} \|urlhttps://fest.afi.com/2023/red-carpet-premieres-2023/ \|access-date2024-09-04 \|languageen}}</ref> Although it is a very restrictive selection, usually presenting between three and seven movies at most, many films selected by AFI for this section eventually also earn an Academy Award Best Picture nomination. Examples include Bradley Cooper's Maestro (2023),<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMAESTRO {{!}} AFI FEST \|urlhttps://fest.afi.com/2023/red-carpet-premieres-2023/maestro/ \|access-date2024-09-04 \|languageen}}</ref> Steven Spielberg's The Fabelmans (2022),<ref>{{Cite web \|titleTHE FABELMANS {{!}} AFI FEST \|urlhttps://fest.afi.com/2022/red-carpet-premieres-2022/the-fabelmans/ \|access-date2024-09-04 \|languageen}}</ref> Will Smith's King Richard (2021), Jane Campion's The Power of the Dog (2021),<ref>{{Cite web \|titleTHE POWER OF THE DOG {{!}} AFI FEST \|urlhttps://fest.afi.com/2021/red-carpet-premieres-2021/the-power-of-the-dog/ \|access-date2024-09-04 \|languageen}}</ref> Anthony Hopkins's The Father (2020),<ref>{{Cite web \|titleTHE FATHER {{!}} AFI FEST \|urlhttps://fest.afi.com/2020/special-presentations-2020/the-father/ \|access-date2024-09-04 \|languageen}}</ref> Noah Baumbach's Marriage Story (2019),<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMARRIAGE STORY {{!}} AFI FEST \|urlhttps://fest.afi.com/2019/galas-2019/marriage-story/ \|access-date2024-09-04 \|languageen}}</ref> Peter Farrelly's Green Book (2018),<ref>{{Cite web \|titleGREEN BOOK {{!}} AFI FEST \|urlhttps://fest.afi.com/2018/galas-2018/green-book/ \|access-date2024-09-04 \|languageen}}</ref> Luca Guadagnino's Call Me by Your Name (2017),<ref>{{Cite web \|titleCALL ME BY YOUR NAME {{!}} AFI FEST \|urlhttps://fest.afi.com/2017/galas-2017/call-me-by-your-name/ \|access-date2024-09-04 \|languageen}}</ref> Damien Chazelle's La La Land (2016),<ref>{{Cite web \|titleLA LA LAND {{!}} AFI FEST \|urlhttps://fest.afi.com/2016/galas-2016/la-la-land/ \|access-date2024-09-04 \|languageen}}</ref> and Adam McKay's The Big Short (2015).<ref>{{Cite web \|titleTHE BIG SHORT {{!}} AFI FEST \|urlhttps://fest.afi.com/2015/galas-2015/the-big-short/ \|access-date2024-09-04 \|languageen}}</ref> AFI Docs Held annually in June, AFI Docs (formerly Silverdocs) is a documentary festival in Washington, D.C. The festival attracts over 27,000 documentary enthusiasts. AFI programs {{anchor\|AFI Catalog\|Catalog}} AFI Catalog of Feature Films {{main\|AFI Catalog of Feature Films}} The AFI Catalog, started in 1968, is a web-based filmographic database. A research tool for film historians, the catalog consists of entries on more than 60,000 feature films and 17,000 short films produced from 1893 to 2011, as well as AFI Awards Outstanding Movies of the Year from 2000 through 2010. Early print copies of this catalog may also be found at local libraries.<ref>American Film Institute. (1971). Catalog of Motion Pictures Produced in the United States: Feature Films. Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> AFI Life Achievement Award {{main\|AFI Life Achievement Award}} AFI Awards {{Main\|American Film Institute Awards}} Created in 2000, the AFI Awards honor the ten outstanding films ("Movies of the Year") and ten outstanding television programs ("TV Programs of the Year").<ref>{{cite web\|titleAFI Awards\|urlhttp://www.afi.com/afiawards/\|publisherAmerican Film Institute\|access-dateOctober 23, 2016\|archive-dateJanuary 13, 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130113043709/http://www.afi.com/afiawards/\|url-status=live}}</ref> The awards are a non-competitive acknowledgment of excellence. The awards are announced in December, and a private luncheon for award honorees takes place the following January. AFI Maya Deren Award {{main\|Maya Deren Award}} AFI 100 Years... series The AFI 100 Years... series, which ran from 1998 to 2008 and created jury-selected lists of America's best movies in categories such as Musicals, Laughs and Thrills, prompted new generations to experience classic American films. The juries consisted of over 1,500 artists, scholars, critics, and historians. Citizen Kane was voted the greatest American film twice. AFI Silver Theatre and Cultural Center The AFI Silver Theatre and Cultural Center is a moving image exhibition, education and cultural center located in Silver Spring, Maryland. Anchored by the restoration of noted architect John Eberson's historic 1938 Silver Theatre, it features 32,000 square feet of new construction housing two stadium theatres, office and meeting space, and reception and exhibit areas. The AFI Silver Theatre and Cultural Center presents film and video programming, augmented by filmmaker interviews, panels, discussions, and musical performances. The AFI Directing Workshop for Women The Directing Workshop for Women is a training program committed to educating and mentoring participants in an effort to increase the number of women working professionally in screen directing. In this tuition-free program, each participant is required to complete a short film by the end of the year-long program.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.afi.com/dww/program.aspx\|titleDWW: The Program\|publisherAmerican Film Institute\|access-dateMay 28, 2015\|archive-dateMarch 16, 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150316154949/http://afi.com/dww/program.aspx\|url-status=live}}</ref> Alumnae of the program include Maya Angelou, Anne Bancroft, Dyan Cannon, Ellen Burstyn, Jennifer Getzinger, Lesli Linka Glatter, Lily Tomlin, Susan Oliver and Nancy Malone.<ref>{{cite magazine\|urlhttps://variety.com/2014/film/news/afi-expands-workshop-for-women-directors-1201286989/\|titleAFI Expands Workshop for Women Directors\|magazineVariety\|dateAugust 21, 2014\|access-dateDecember 10, 2017\|archive-dateMarch 12, 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180312083944/http://variety.com/2014/film/news/afi-expands-workshop-for-women-directors-1201286989/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> AFI Directors Series AFI released a set of hour-long programs reviewing the career of acclaimed directors. The Directors Series content was copyrighted in 1997 by Media Entertainment Inc and The American Film Institute, and the VHS and DVDs were released between 1999 and 2001 on Winstar TV and Video.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.worldcat.org/identities/lccn-no00-15175\|titleWinStar TV and Video (Firm)\|publisherWorldCat Identities\|access-dateMarch 28, 2013\|archive-dateMarch 1, 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130301043202/http://www.worldcat.org/identities/lccn-no00-15175\|url-status=live}}</ref> Directors featured included: {{div col\|colwidth20em\|rulesyes}} * John McTiernan (WHE73067) * Ron Howard (WHE73068) * Sydney Pollack (WHE73071) * Norman Jewison (WHE73076) * Lawrence Kasdan (WHE73088) * Terry Gilliam (WHE73089) * Spike Lee (WHE73090) * Barry Levinson (WHE73093) * Miloš Forman (WHE73094) * Martin Scorsese (WHE73098) * Barbra Streisand (WHE73099) * David Cronenberg (WHE73101) * Robert Zemeckis (WHE73131) * Robert Altman * John Frankenheimer * Adrian Lyne * Garry Marshall * William Friedkin * Clint Eastwood * David Zucker, Jim Abrahams and Jerry Zucker * Roger Corman * Michael Mann * James Cameron * Rob Reiner * Joel Schumacher * Steven Spielberg * Wes Craven {{div col end}} See also {{Portal bar\|Film\|United States}} * British Film Institute – the British equivalent to AFI {{Clear}} References {{Reflist}} External links {{Commons category\|American Film Institute}} {{Official website\|http://www.afi.com/}} [https://archive.org/search?query=creator%3A%22American+Film+Institute%22 American Film Institute] on Internet Archive [https://web.archive.org/web/20090717075412/http://www.ukhotmovies.com/film-festivals/los-angeles-film-festival/information.html AFI Los Angeles Film Festival – history and information] (archived July 17, 2009) {{NYTtopic\|organizations/a/american_film_institute}} {{Cinema of the United States}} {{authority control}} Category:Arts organizations based in Los Angeles Category:Cinema of Southern California Category:Culture of Hollywood, Los Angeles Category:Los Feliz, Los Angeles Category:Organizations based in Los Angeles Category:1967 establishments in California Category:Educational organizations established in 1967 Category:FIAF-affiliated institutions Category:Arts organizations established in 1967	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Film_Institute	2025-04-05T18:25:25.185620
872	Akira Kurosawa	{{Short description\|Japanese film director (1910–1998)}} {{Redirect\|Kurosawa}} {{Eastern name order\|Kurosawa Akira}} {{Good article}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=March 2025}} {{Use American English\|date=July 2020}} {{Infobox person \| name = Akira Kurosawa \| image = Kinema-Junpo-1960-February-late-4.jpg \| caption = Kurosawa in 1960 \| native_name = {{nobold\|黒澤明}} \| birth_date = {{Birth date\|1910\|3\|23}} \| birth_place = Shinagawa, Tokyo, Empire of Japan \| death_date = {{Death date and age\|1998\|9\|6\|1910\|3\|23}} \| death_place = Setagaya, Tokyo, Japan \| resting_place = An'yō-in, Kamakura, Kanagawa, Japan \| occupation = {{hlist\|Film director\|screenwriter\|producer\|editor}} \| years_active = 1936–1993 \| notable_works = <!--Please try to keep this list at no more than six entries.-->{{ubl\|Rashomon (1950)\|Seven Samurai (1954)\|Throne of Blood (1957)\|Yojimbo (1961)\|High and Low (1963)\|{{lang\|ja-latn\|Ran}} (1985)}} \| spouse {{marriage\|Yōko Yaguchi\|1945\|1985\|endher death}} \| children = Hisao (b. 1945–) and Kazuko (b. 1954–) \| signature = Akira Kurosawa Signature.svg \| awards {{ubl\|Golden Lion (1951)\|{{lang\|fr\|Palme d'Or\|italicno}} (1980)\|Légion d'honneur (1984)\|Order of Culture (1985)\|Academy Award (1990)}} }} {{nihongo\|Akira Kurosawa{{refn\|groupnote\|{{IPAc-en\|ə\|ˈ\|k\|ɪər\|ə\|_\|k\|ʊər\|ə\|ˈ\|s\|ɑː\|w\|ə}};<ref>{{Cite Collins Dictionary\|kurosawa\|access-dateJanuary 4, 2023}}</ref> {{IPA\|ja\|kɯɾosawa aꜜkiɾa\|lang}}.}}\|黒澤明 or 黒沢明\|Kurosawa Akira\|March 23, 1910{{spnd}}September 6, 1998}} was a Japanese filmmaker who created 30 films of his own as well as occasionally directing and writing for others in a career spanning seven decades. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential filmmakers in the history of cinema. Kurosawa displayed a bold, dynamic style strongly influenced by Western cinema yet distinct from it. He was involved with all aspects of film production. Kurosawa entered the Japanese film industry in 1936, following a brief stint as a painter. After years of working on numerous films as an assistant director and scriptwriter, he made his debut as a director during World War II with the popular action film Sanshiro Sugata (1943). After the war, the critically acclaimed Drunken Angel (1948), in which Kurosawa cast the then little-known actor Toshiro Mifune in a starring role, cemented the director's reputation as one of the most important young filmmakers in Japan. The two men would go on to collaborate on another fifteen films. Rashomon (1950), which premiered in Tokyo, became the surprise winner of the Golden Lion at the 1951 Venice Film Festival. The commercial and critical success of that film opened up Western film markets for the first time to the products of the Japanese film industry, which in turn led to international recognition for other Japanese filmmakers. Kurosawa directed approximately one film per year throughout the 1950s and early 1960s, including a number of highly regarded (and often adapted) films, including {{lang\|ja-latn\|Ikiru}} (1952), Seven Samurai (1954), Throne of Blood (1957), The Hidden Fortress (1958), Yojimbo (1961), High and Low (1963) and Red Beard (1965). After the 1960s he became much less prolific; even so, his later work – including two of his final films, {{lang\|ja-latn\|Kagemusha}} (1980) and {{lang\|ja-latn\|Ran}} (1985) – continued to receive great acclaim. In 1990, he accepted the Academy Award for Lifetime Achievement. Posthumously, he was named "Asian of the Century" in the "Arts, Literature, and Culture" category by AsianWeek magazine and CNN, cited there as being among the five people who most prominently contributed to the improvement of Asia in the 20th century. His career has been honored by many retrospectives, critical studies and biographies in both print and video, and by releases in many consumer media. Kurosawa told the critic Donald Richie: "I suppose all of my films have a common theme. If I think about it, though, the only theme I can think of is really a question: Why can't people be happier together?"<ref nameNYTObit>{{cite news\| titleAkira Kurosawa, Film Director, Is Dead at 88\| lastLyman\| firstRick\| dateSeptember 7, 1998\| urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1998/09/07/movies/akira-kurosawa-film-director-is-dead-at-88.html\| workThe New York Times}}</ref> Biography Childhood to war years (1910–1945) Childhood and youth (1910–1935) Kurosawa was born on March 23, 1910,<ref>{{Harvnb\|San Juan\|2018\|p11}}</ref> in Ōimachi in the Ōmori district of Tokyo. His father Isamu (1864–1948), a member of a samurai family from Akita Prefecture, worked as the director of the Army's Physical Education Institute's lower secondary school, while his mother Shima (1870–1952) came from a merchant's family living in Osaka.<ref name"Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp14–15">{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp14–15}}</ref> Akira was the eighth and youngest child of the moderately wealthy family, with two of his siblings already grown up at the time of his birth and one deceased, leaving Kurosawa to grow up with three sisters and a brother.<ref name"Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp14–15" /><ref name"Kurosawa 1983 17">{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa\|1983\|p=17}}</ref> In addition to promoting physical exercise, Isamu Kurosawa was open to Western traditions and considered theatre and motion pictures to have educational merit. He encouraged his children to watch films; young Akira viewed his first movies at the age of six.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa\|1983\|pp5–7}}</ref> An important formative influence was his elementary school teacher Mr. Tachikawa, whose progressive educational practices ignited in his young pupil first a love of drawing and then an interest in education in general.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa\|1983\|pp12–13}}</ref> During this time, Akira also studied calligraphy and Kendo swordsmanship.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|p=16}}</ref> Another major childhood influence was Heigo Kurosawa (1906–1933), Akira's older brother by four years. In the aftermath of the Great Kantō earthquake and the subsequent Kantō Massacre of 1923, Heigo took the thirteen-year-old Akira to view the devastation. When Akira wanted to look away from the corpses of humans and animals scattered everywhere, Heigo forbade him to do so, encouraging Akira instead to face his fears by confronting them directly. Some commentators have suggested that this incident would influence Kurosawa's later artistic career, as the director was seldom hesitant to confront unpleasant truths in his work.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa\|1983\|pp51–52}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Prince\|p302}}</ref> Heigo was academically gifted, but soon after failing to secure a place in Tokyo's foremost high school, he began to detach himself from the rest of the family, preferring to concentrate on his interest in foreign literature.<ref name"Kurosawa 1983 17" /> In the late 1920s, Heigo became a benshi (silent film narrator) for Tokyo theaters showing foreign films and quickly made a name for himself. Akira, who at this point planned to become a painter,<ref>{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa\|1983\|pp70–71}}</ref> moved in with him, and the two brothers became inseparable.<ref name"Galbraith IV 2002 19">{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|p19}}</ref> With Heigo's guidance, Akira devoured not only films but also theater and circus performances,<ref>{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa\|1983\|pp72–74, 82}}</ref> while exhibiting his paintings and working for the left-wing Proletarian Artists' League. However, he was never able to make a living with his art, and, as he began to perceive most of the proletarian movement as "putting unfulfilled political ideals directly onto the canvas", he lost his enthusiasm for painting.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa\|1983\|p77}}</ref> With the increasing production of talking pictures in the early 1930s, film narrators like Heigo began to lose work, and Akira moved back in with his parents. In July 1933, Heigo died by suicide. Kurosawa has commented on the lasting sense of loss he felt at his brother's death<ref>{{Harvnb\|Richie\|1999\|p11}}</ref> and the chapter of Something Like an Autobiography that describes it—written nearly half a century after the event—is titled, "A Story I Don't Want to Tell".<ref name"story">{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa\|1983\|p84}}</ref> Only four months later, Kurosawa's eldest brother also died, leaving Akira, at age 23, the only one of the Kurosawa brothers still living, together with his three surviving sisters.<ref name"Galbraith IV 2002 19" /><ref name"story" /> Director in training (1935–1941) {{multiple image \| align = right \| direction = vertical \| width = 200 \| header \| image1 Akira Kurosawa, Ishiro Honda, Senkichi Taniguchi, and Kajiro Yamamoto.jpg \| alt1 \| caption1 From the left: Kurosawa, Ishirō Honda, and Senkichi Taniguchi with their mentor Kajirō Yamamoto, late 1930s \| image2 = Akira Kurosawa and Mikio Naruse during the shooting of Nadare, 1937.jpg \| alt2 \| caption2 Kurosawa (left) and Mikio Naruse (right) during the production of Avalanche (1937) }} In 1935, the new film studio Photo Chemical Laboratories, known as P.C.L. (which later became the major studio Toho), advertised for assistant directors. Although he had demonstrated no previous interest in film as a profession, Kurosawa submitted the required essay, which asked applicants to discuss the fundamental deficiencies of Japanese films and find ways to overcome them. His half-mocking view was that if the deficiencies were fundamental, there was no way to correct them. Kurosawa's essay earned him a call to take the follow-up exams, and director Kajirō Yamamoto, who was among the examiners, took a liking to Kurosawa and insisted that the studio hire him. The 25-year-old Kurosawa joined P.C.L. in February 1936.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa\|1983\|pp89–93}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|p25}}</ref> During his five years as an assistant director, Kurosawa worked under numerous directors, but by far the most important figure in his development was Yamamoto. Of his 24 films as A.D., he worked on 17 under Yamamoto, many of them comedies featuring the popular actor Ken'ichi Enomoto, known as "Enoken".<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp652–658 }}</ref> Yamamoto nurtured Kurosawa's talent, promoting him directly from third assistant director to chief assistant director after a year.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp29–30}}</ref> Kurosawa's responsibilities increased, and he worked at tasks ranging from stage construction and film development to location scouting, script polishing, rehearsals, lighting, dubbing, editing, and second-unit directing.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Goodwin\|1994\|p40}}</ref> In the last of Kurosawa's films as an assistant director for Yamamoto, Horse (1941), Kurosawa took over most of the production, as his mentor was occupied with the shooting of another film.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|p35}}</ref> Yamamoto advised Kurosawa that a good director needed to master screenwriting.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa\|1983\|p103}}</ref> Kurosawa soon realized that the potential earnings from his scripts were much higher than what he was paid as an assistant director.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Goodwin\|1994\|p42}}</ref> He later wrote or co-wrote all his films and frequently penned screenplays for other directors such as Satsuo Yamamoto's film, A Triumph of Wings (Tsubasa no gaika, 1942). This outside scriptwriting would serve Kurosawa as a lucrative sideline lasting well into the 1960s, long after he became famous.<ref name"Akira Kurosawa" /><ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp658–707}}</ref> Wartime films and marriage (1942–1945) In the two years following the release of Horse in 1941, Kurosawa searched for a story he could use to launch his directing career. Towards the end of 1942, about a year after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, novelist Tsuneo Tomita published his Musashi Miyamoto-inspired judo novel, Sanshiro Sugata, the advertisements for which intrigued Kurosawa. He bought the book on its publication day, devoured it in one sitting, and immediately asked Toho to secure the film rights. Kurosawa's initial instinct proved correct as, within a few days, three other major Japanese studios also offered to buy the rights. Toho prevailed, and Kurosawa began pre-production on his debut work as director.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|p39}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa\|1983\|pp121–123}}</ref> Shooting of Sanshiro Sugata began on location in Yokohama in December 1942. Production proceeded smoothly, but getting the completed film past the censors was an entirely different matter. The censorship office considered the work to be objectionably "British-American" by the standards of wartime Japan, and it was only through the intervention of director Yasujirō Ozu, who championed the film, that Sanshiro Sugata was finally accepted for release on March 25, 1943. (Kurosawa had just turned 33.) The movie became both a critical and commercial success. Nevertheless, the censorship office would later decide to cut out some 18 minutes of footage, much of which is now considered lost.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp43, 45–46}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa\|1983\|pp124–128, 130–131}}</ref> He next turned to the subject of wartime female factory workers in The Most Beautiful, a propaganda film which he shot in a semi-documentary style in early 1944. To elicit realistic performances from his actresses, the director had them live in a real factory during the shoot, eat the factory food and call each other by their character names. He would use similar methods with his performers throughout his career.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa\|1983\|pp132–135 }}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp46–51 }}</ref> '', 1945]] During production, the actress playing the leader of the factory workers, Yōko Yaguchi, was chosen by her colleagues to present their demands to the director. She and Kurosawa were constantly at odds, and it was through these arguments that the two paradoxically became close. They married on May 21, 1945, with Yaguchi two months pregnant (she never resumed her acting career), and the couple would remain together until her death in 1985.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa\|1983\|pp137–139}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp55–57}}</ref> They had two children, both surviving Kurosawa {{as of\|2018\|lcy}}: a son, Hisao, born December 20, 1945, who served as producer on some of his father's last projects, and Kazuko, a daughter, born April 29, 1954, who became a costume designer.<ref name"Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp64, 191">{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp64, 191}}</ref> Shortly before his marriage, Kurosawa was pressured by the studio against his will to direct a sequel to his debut film. The often blatantly propagandistic Sanshiro Sugata Part II, which premiered in May 1945, is generally considered one of his weakest pictures.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa\|1983\|pp135–137}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp51–55}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Richie\|1999\|pp=24–25}}</ref> Kurosawa decided to write the script for a film that would be both censor-friendly and less expensive to produce. ''The Men Who Tread on the Tiger's Tail, based on the Kabuki play Kanjinchō and starring the comedian Enoken, with whom Kurosawa had often worked during his assistant director days, was completed in September 1945. By this time, Japan had surrendered and the occupation of Japan had begun. The new American censors interpreted the values allegedly promoted in the picture as overly "feudal" and banned the work. It was not released until 1952, the year another Kurosawa film, {{lang\|ja-latn\|Ikiru}}, was also released. Ironically, while in production, the film had already been savaged by Japanese wartime censors as too Western and "democratic" (they particularly disliked the comic porter played by Enoken), so the movie most probably would not have seen the light of day even if the war had continued beyond its completion.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp660–661}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Richie\|2001\|p106}}</ref> Early postwar years to Red Beard (1946–1965) First postwar works (1946–1950) After the war, Kurosawa, influenced by the democratic ideals of the Occupation, sought to make films that would establish a new respect towards the individual and the self{{Citation needed\|reasonNot mentioned in his Autobiography, "Something Like And Autobiography" contrarily he mentioned struggling with occupation as an influence for the post-war period. Needs supporting evidence\|dateSeptember 2022}}. The first such film, No Regrets for Our Youth'' (1946), inspired by both the 1933 Takigawa incident and the Hotsumi Ozaki wartime spy case, criticized Japan's prewar regime for its political oppression.{{refn\|groupnote\|In 1946, Kurosawa co-directed, with his mentor, Kajiro Yamamoto, and Hideo Sekigawa, the feature Those Who Make Tomorrow (Asu o tsukuru hitobito). Apparently, he was commanded to make this film against his will by Toho studios, to which he was under contract at the time. (He claimed that his part of the film was shot in only a week.) It was the only film he ever directed for which he did not receive sole credit as director and the only one that has never been released on home video in any form. The movie was later repudiated by Kurosawa and is often not counted with the 30 other films he made, though it is listed in some filmographies of the director.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp65–67}}</ref><ref name"Akira Kurosawa">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.biography.com/people/akira-kurosawa-9370236\|titleAkira Kurosawa \|publisherA&E Television Networks \|dateApril 21, 2016 \|access-dateJune 8, 2017 }}</ref>}} Atypically for the director, the heroic central character is a woman, Yukie (Setsuko Hara), who, born into upper-middle-class privilege, comes to question her values in a time of political crisis. The original script had to be extensively rewritten and, because of its controversial theme and gender of its protagonist, the completed work divided critics. Nevertheless, it managed to win the approval of audiences, who turned variations on the film's title into a postwar catchphrase.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp70–79}}; {{Harvnb\|Richie\|1999\|p37}}; {{Harvnb\|Kurosawa\|1983\|p150}}; {{Harvnb\|Yoshimoto\|pp114–134}}</ref> His next film, One Wonderful Sunday, premiered in July 1947 to mixed reviews. It is a relatively uncomplicated and sentimental love story dealing with an impoverished postwar couple trying to enjoy, within the devastation of postwar Tokyo, their one weekly day off. The movie bears the influence of Frank Capra, D. W. Griffith and F. W. Murnau, each of whom was among Kurosawa's favorite directors.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Richie\|1999\|pp43–46}}; {{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp87–91}}</ref><ref name"Kurosawa Top 100">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.openculture.com/2015/01/akira-kurosawas-list-of-his-100-favorite-movies.html\|titleAkira Kurosawa's Top 100 Films \|publisherOpen Culture \|lastCrow\|firstJonathan\|dateJanuary 9, 2015 \|access-dateAugust 8, 2017 }}</ref> Another film released in 1947 with Kurosawa's involvement was the action-adventure thriller, Snow Trail, directed by Senkichi Taniguchi from Kurosawa's screenplay. It marked the debut of the intense young actor Toshiro Mifune. It was Kurosawa who, with his mentor Yamamoto, had intervened to persuade Toho to sign Mifune, during an audition in which the young man greatly impressed Kurosawa, but managed to alienate most of the other judges.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa\|1983\|pp=159–161}}</ref> played a dedicated doctor helping an ailing gangster in Drunken Angel. Shimura performed in over 20 of Kurosawa's films.\|alt=Publicity still of Shimura cleanly shaven and wearing glasses.]] Drunken Angel is often considered the director's first major work.<ref>{{cite news\|last1Morris\|first1Gary\|titleThree Early Kurosawas: Drunken Angel, Scandal, I Live in Fear\|urlhttp://brightlightsfilm.com/three-early-kurosawas-drunken-angel-scandal-live-fear/\|websiteBright Lights Film Journal\|dateOctober 1, 2000\|access-dateJune 8, 2017}}</ref> Although the script, like all of Kurosawa's occupation-era works, had to go through rewrites due to American censorship, Kurosawa felt that this was the first film in which he was able to express himself freely. A gritty story of a doctor who tries to save a gangster (yakuza) with tuberculosis, it was also the first time that Kurosawa directed Mifune, who went on to play major roles in all but one of the director's next 16 films (the exception being {{lang\|ja-latn\|Ikiru}}). While Mifune was not cast as the protagonist in Drunken Angel, his explosive performance as the gangster so dominates the drama that he shifted the focus from the title character, the alcoholic doctor played by Takashi Shimura, who had already appeared in several Kurosawa movies. However, Kurosawa did not want to smother the young actor's immense vitality, and Mifune's rebellious character electrified audiences in much the way that Marlon Brando's defiant stance would startle American film audiences a few years later.<ref>{{cite web\|last1Warren\|first1Richard\|titleBrando and Eliot in shadows\|urlhttps://richardawarren.wordpress.com/tag/toshiro-mifune/\|publisherRichard Warren Review\|dateFebruary 2, 2015\|access-dateAugust 8, 2017}}</ref> The film premiered in Tokyo in April 1948 to rave reviews and was chosen by the prestigious Kinema Junpo critics poll as the best film of its year, the first of three Kurosawa movies to be so honored.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa\|1983\|pp161–164}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Bock\|1978\|p169}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp94–97}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Richie\|1999\|pp47–53}}</ref> After the completion of Drunken Angel, Toho became embroiled in a months-long labor strike, in which the Toho union occupied the grounds of the studio. When Toho management ceased paying workers' salaries, Kurosawa formed a touring acting troupe to raise funds, directing Anton Chekhov's The Proposal, and an adaptation of Drunken Angel starring Mifune and Shimura.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Hirano \|first1Kyoko \|titleMr. Smith Goes to Tokyo: Japanese Cinema Under the American Occupation, 1945–1952 \|date1992 \|publisherSmithsonian Institution Press \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6OsKAQAAMAAJ \|locationWashington and London \|isbn1560981571 \|pages225–226}}</ref> Disillusioned by the division and violence between employees at Toho, the underhanded tactics of Toho leadership, and the breaking of the occupation by police and military standoff, Kurosawa left Toho, later recalling "I had come to understand that the studio I had thought was my home actually belonged to strangers".<ref>{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa\|1983\|pp=166–168}}</ref> Kurosawa, with producer Sōjirō Motoki and fellow directors and friends Kajiro Yamamoto, Mikio Naruse and Senkichi Taniguchi, formed a new independent production unit called Film Art Association (Eiga Geijutsu Kyōkai). For this organization's debut work, and first film for Daiei studios, Kurosawa turned to a contemporary play by Kazuo Kikuta and, together with Taniguchi, adapted it for the screen. The Quiet Duel starred Toshiro Mifune as an idealistic young doctor struggling with syphilis, a deliberate attempt by Kurosawa to break the actor away from being typecast as gangsters. Released in March 1949, it was a box office success, but is generally considered one of the director's lesser achievements.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa\|1983\|pp168–169}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Richie\|1999\|pp54–57}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp100–104}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Yoshimoto\|pp140–146}}</ref> , a frequent lead in Kurosawa's films, in 1954]] His second film of 1949, also produced by Film Art Association and released by Shintoho, was Stray Dog. It is a detective movie (perhaps the first important Japanese film in that genre)<ref>{{cite book\|last1Broe\|first1Dennis\|titleClass, Crime and International Film Noir: Globalizing America's Dark Art\|date2014\|publisherPalgrave Macmillan\|locationLondon\|isbn978-1-137-29013-7\|pages162–167\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idBbyuAwAAQBAJ\|access-dateJune 9, 2017}}</ref> that explores the mood of Japan during its painful postwar recovery through the story of a young detective, played by Mifune, and his fixation on the recovery of his handgun, which was stolen by a penniless war veteran who proceeds to use it to rob and murder. Adapted from an unpublished novel by Kurosawa in the style of a favorite writer of his, Georges Simenon, it was the director's first collaboration with screenwriter Ryuzo Kikushima, who would later help to script eight other Kurosawa films. A famous, virtually wordless sequence, lasting over eight minutes, shows the detective, disguised as an impoverished veteran, wandering the streets in search of the gun thief; it employed actual documentary footage of war-ravaged Tokyo neighborhoods shot by Kurosawa's friend, Ishirō Honda, the future director of Godzilla.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa\|1983\|pp172–177}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp108–115}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Richie\|1999\|pp58–64}}</ref> The film is considered a precursor to the contemporary police procedural and buddy cop film genres.<ref>{{cite journal\|titleFilmInt\|journalFilm International\|year2006\|volume4\|issue1–6\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idy50qAQAAIAAJ\|access-dateJune 9, 2017\|page163\|quoteIn addition to being a masterful precursor to the buddy cop movies and police procedurals popular today, Stray Dog is also a complex genre film that examines the plight of soldiers returning home to post-war Japan.\|publisherKulturrådet\|locationSweden}}</ref> Scandal, released by Shochiku in April 1950, was inspired by the director's personal experiences with (and anger towards) Japanese yellow journalism. The work is an ambitious mixture of courtroom drama and social problem film about free speech and personal responsibility, but even Kurosawa regarded the finished product as dramatically unfocused and unsatisfactory, and almost all critics agree.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa\|1983\|pp=177–180}}; {{Harvnb\|Richie\|1999\|pp65–69}}; {{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp118–126}}; {{Harvnb\|Yoshimoto\|pp180–181}}</ref> However, it would be Kurosawa's second film of 1950 that would ultimately win him (and Japanese cinema) a whole new international audience. International recognition (1950–1958) After finishing Scandal, Kurosawa was approached by Daiei studios to make another film for them. Kurosawa picked a script by an aspiring young screenwriter, Shinobu Hashimoto, who would eventually work on nine of his films. Their first joint effort was based on Ryūnosuke Akutagawa's experimental short story "In a Grove", which recounts the murder of a samurai and the rape of his wife from various different and conflicting points of view. Kurosawa saw potential in the script and, with Hashimoto's help, polished and expanded it and then pitched it to Daiei, who were happy to accept the project due to its low budget.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp127–138}}</ref> The shooting of Rashomon began on July 7, 1950, and, after extensive location work in the primeval forest of Nara, wrapped on August 17. Just one week was spent in hurried post-production, hampered by a studio fire, and the finished film premiered at Tokyo's Imperial Theatre on August 25, expanding nationwide the following day. The movie was met by lukewarm reviews, with many critics puzzled by its unique theme and treatment, but it was nevertheless a moderate financial success for Daiei.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa\|1983\|pp180–187}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Nogami\|pp82–99}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|p=132}}</ref> wrote The Idiot, which Kurosawa adapted into a Japanese film of the same name in 1951. Perov's portrait from the 1800s]] Kurosawa's next film, for Shochiku, was The Idiot, an adaptation of the novel by the director's favorite writer, Fyodor Dostoevsky. The story is relocated from Russia to Hokkaido, but otherwise adheres closely to the original, a fact seen by many critics as detrimental to the work. A studio-mandated edit shortened it from Kurosawa's original cut of 265 minutes to just 166 minutes, making the resulting narrative exceedingly difficult to follow. The severely edited film version is widely considered to be one of the director's least successful works and the original full-length version no longer exists. Contemporary reviews of the much shortened edited version were very negative, but the film was a moderate success at the box office, largely because of the popularity of one of its stars, Setsuko Hara.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp144–147}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Prince\|pp135–142}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Yoshimoto\|pp190–193}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Richie\|1999\|pp81–85}}</ref> Meanwhile, unbeknownst to Kurosawa, Rashomon had been entered in the Venice Film Festival, due to the efforts of Giuliana Stramigioli, a Japan-based representative of an Italian film company, who had seen and admired the movie and convinced Daiei to submit it. On September 10, 1951, Rashomon was awarded the festival's highest prize, the Golden Lion, shocking not only Daiei but the international film world, which at the time was largely unaware of Japan's decades-old cinematic tradition.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|p=136}}</ref> After Daiei briefly exhibited a subtitled print of the film in Los Angeles, RKO purchased distribution rights to Rashomon in the United States. The company was taking a considerable gamble. It had put out only one prior subtitled film in the American market, and the only previous Japanese talkie commercially released in New York had been Mikio Naruse's comedy, Wife! Be Like a Rose!, in 1937: a critical and box-office flop. However, Rashomon{{'}}s commercial run, greatly helped by strong reviews from critics and even the columnist Ed Sullivan, earned $35,000 in its first three weeks at a single New York theatre, an almost unheard-of sum at the time. This success in turn led to a vogue in America and the West for Japanese movies throughout the 1950s, replacing the enthusiasm for Italian neorealist cinema.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp137–142}}</ref> By the end of 1952 Rashomon was released in Japan, the United States, and most of Europe. Among the Japanese film-makers whose work, as a result, began to win festival prizes and commercial release in the West were Kenji Mizoguchi (The Life of Oharu, Ugetsu, Sansho the Bailiff) and, somewhat later, Yasujirō Ozu (Tokyo Story, An Autumn Afternoon)—artists highly respected in Japan but, before this period, almost totally unknown in the West.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Bock\|1978\|pp35, 71}}</ref> Kurosawa's growing reputation among Western audiences in the 1950s would make Western audiences more sympathetic to the reception of later generations of Japanese film-makers ranging from Kon Ichikawa, Masaki Kobayashi, Nagisa Oshima and Shohei Imamura to Juzo Itami, Takeshi Kitano and Takashi Miike. His career boosted by his sudden international fame, Kurosawa, now reunited with his original film studio, Toho (which would go on to produce his next 11 films), set to work on his next project, {{lang\|ja-latn\|Ikiru}}. Based on Leo Tolstoy's The Death of Ivan Ilyich, the movie stars Takashi Shimura as a cancer-ridden Tokyo bureaucrat, Watanabe, on a final quest for meaning before his death.<ref>{{cite journal \|lastSimone \|firstR. Thomas \|date1975 \|titleThe Mythos of "The Sickness Unto Death" Kurosawa's "Ikiru" and Tolstoy's "The Death of Ivan Ilyich" \|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/43795380 \|journalLiterature/Film Quarterly \|volume3 \|issue1 \|pages2–12 \|jstor43795380 \|access-dateApril 27, 2024}}</ref> For the screenplay, Kurosawa brought in Hashimoto as well as writer Hideo Oguni, who would go on to co-write twelve Kurosawa films. Despite the work's grim subject matter, the screenwriters took a satirical approach, which some have compared to the work of Brecht, to both the bureaucratic world of its hero and the U.S. cultural colonization of Japan. (American pop songs figure prominently in the film.) Because of this strategy, the filmmakers are usually credited with saving the picture from the kind of sentimentality common to dramas about characters with terminal illnesses. {{lang\|ja-latn\|Ikiru}} opened in October 1952 to rave reviews—it won Kurosawa his second Kinema Junpo "Best Film" award—and enormous box office success. It remains the most acclaimed of all the artist's films set in the modern era.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp155–167}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Richie\|1999\|pp86–96}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Prince\|pp99–113}}</ref> In December 1952, Kurosawa took his {{lang\|ja-latn\|Ikiru}} screenwriters, Shinobu Hashimoto and Hideo Oguni, for a forty-five-day secluded residence at an inn to create the screenplay for his next movie, Seven Samurai. The ensemble work was Kurosawa's first proper samurai film, the genre for which he would become most famous. The simple story, about a poor farming village in Sengoku period Japan that hires a group of samurai to defend it against an impending attack by bandits, was given a full epic treatment, with a huge cast (largely consisting of veterans of previous Kurosawa productions) and meticulously detailed action, stretching out to almost three-and-a-half hours of screen time.<ref name"seven">{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp170–171}}</ref> Three months were spent in pre-production and a month in rehearsals. Shooting took up 148 days spread over almost a year, interrupted by production and financing troubles and Kurosawa's health problems. The film finally opened in April 1954, half a year behind its original release date and about three times over budget, making it at the time the most expensive Japanese film ever made. (However, by Hollywood standards, it was a quite modestly budgeted production, even for that time.) The film received positive critical reaction and became a big hit, quickly making back the money invested in it and providing the studio with a product that they could (and did) market internationally—though with extensive edits. Over time—and with the theatrical and home video releases of the uncut version—its reputation has steadily grown. It is now regarded by some commentators as the greatest Japanese film ever made, and in 1999 a poll of Japanese film critics also voted it the best Japanese film ever made.<ref name"seven" /><ref>{{Harvnb\|Mellen\|2002\|p6}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Richie\|1999\|pp97–108}}</ref> In the most recent (2022) version of the widely respected British Film Institute (BFI) Sight & Sound "Greatest Films of All Time" poll, Seven Samurai placed 20th among all films from all countries in the critics' and tied at 14th in the directors' polls, receiving a place in the Top Ten lists of 48 critics and 22 directors.<ref>{{cite web\|titleSeven Samurai (1954)\|urlhttps://www.bfi.org.uk/film/01391b07-5940-5d02-aa47-1158142f2b64/seven-samurai\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231218162901/https://www.bfi.org.uk/film/01391b07-5940-5d02-aa47-1158142f2b64/seven-samurai\|archive-dateDecember 18, 2023\|websiteBFI Film Forever\|publisherBritish Film Institute\|access-dateDecember 18, 2023}}</ref> In 1954, nuclear tests in the Pacific were causing radioactive rainstorms in Japan and one particular incident in March had exposed a Japanese fishing boat to nuclear fallout, with disastrous results. It is in this anxious atmosphere that Kurosawa's next film, I Live in Fear, was conceived. The story concerned an elderly factory owner (Toshiro Mifune) so terrified of the prospect of a nuclear attack that he becomes determined to move his entire extended family (both legal and extra-marital) to what he imagines is the safety of a farm in Brazil. Production went much more smoothly than the director's previous film, but a few days before shooting ended, Kurosawa's composer, collaborator, and close friend Fumio Hayasaka died (of tuberculosis) at the age of 41. The film's score was finished by Hayasaka's student, Masaru Sato, who would go on to score all of Kurosawa's next eight films. I Live in Fear opened in November 1955 to mixed reviews and muted audience reaction, becoming the first Kurosawa film to lose money during its original theatrical run. Today, it is considered by many to be among the finest films dealing with the psychological effects of the global nuclear stalemate.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp214–223}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Goodwin\|1994\|p125}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Prince\|pp=159–170}}</ref> Kurosawa's next project, Throne of Blood, an adaptation of William Shakespeare's Macbeth—set, like Seven Samurai, in the Sengoku Era—represented an ambitious transposition of the English work into a Japanese context. Kurosawa instructed his leading actress, Isuzu Yamada, to regard the work as if it were a cinematic version of a Japanese rather than a European literary classic. Given Kurosawa's appreciation of traditional Japanese stage acting, the acting of the players, particularly Yamada, draws heavily on the stylized techniques of the Noh theater. It was filmed in 1956 and released in January 1957 to a slightly less negative domestic response than had been the case with the director's previous film. Abroad, Throne of Blood, regardless of the liberties it takes with its source material, quickly earned a place among the most celebrated Shakespeare adaptations.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp230–239}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Richie\|1999\|pp115–124}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa (WNET)\|locbonus materials: Isuzu Yamada interview}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Prince\|pp142–149}}</ref> Another adaptation of a classic European theatrical work followed almost immediately, with production of The Lower Depths, based on a play by Maxim Gorky, taking place in May and June 1957. In contrast to the Shakespearean sweep of Throne of Blood, The Lower Depths was shot on only two confined sets, in order to emphasize the restricted nature of the characters' lives. Though faithful to the play, this adaptation of Russian material to a completely Japanese setting—in this case, the late Edo period—unlike his earlier The Idiot, was regarded as artistically successful. The film premiered in September 1957, receiving a mixed response similar to that of Throne of Blood. However, some critics rank it among the director's most underrated works.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp239–246}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Prince\|pp149–154}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Bock\|1978\|pp171, 185–186}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Richie\|1999\|pp125–133}}</ref> Kurosawa's three next movies after Seven Samurai had not managed to capture Japanese audiences in the way that that film had. The mood of the director's work had been growing increasingly pessimistic and dark even as Japan entered a boom period of high-speed growth and rising standards of living. Out of step with the prevailing mood of the era, Kurosawa's films questioned the possibility of redemption through personal responsibility, particularly in Throne of Blood and The Lower Depths. He recognized this and deliberately aimed for a more light-hearted and entertaining film for his next production while switching to the new widescreen format that had been gaining popularity in Japan. The resulting film, The Hidden Fortress, is an action-adventure comedy-drama about a medieval princess, her loyal general, and two peasants who all need to travel through enemy lines in order to reach their home region. Released in December 1958, The Hidden Fortress became an enormous box-office success in Japan and was warmly received by critics both in Japan and abroad. Today, the film is considered one of Kurosawa's most lightweight efforts, though it remains popular, not least because it is one of several major influences on George Lucas's 1977 space opera, Star Wars.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp253–264}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Richie\|1999\|pp134–139}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Star Wars\|locGeorge Lucas com1mentary}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Conrad\|2022\|pp123–128}}</ref> Birth of a company and Red Beard (1959–1965) Starting with Rashomon, Kurosawa's productions had become increasingly large in scope and so had the director's budgets. Toho, concerned about this development, suggested that he might help finance his own works, therefore making the studio's potential losses smaller, while in turn allowing himself more artistic freedom as co-producer. Kurosawa agreed, and the Kurosawa Production Company was established in April 1959, with Toho as the majority shareholder.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|p=264}}</ref> Despite risking his own money, Kurosawa chose a story that was more directly critical of the Japanese business and political elites than any previous work. The Bad Sleep Well, based on a script by Kurosawa's nephew Mike Inoue, is a revenge drama about a young man who is able to infiltrate the hierarchy of a corrupt Japanese company with the intention of exposing the men responsible for his father's death. Its theme proved topical: while the film was in production, the massive Anpo protests were held against the new U.S.–Japan Security treaty, which was seen by many Japanese, particularly the young, as threatening the country's democracy by giving too much power to corporations and politicians. The film opened in September 1960 to positive critical reaction and modest box office success. The 25-minute opening sequence depicting a corporate wedding reception is widely regarded as one of Kurosawa's most skillfully executed set pieces, but the remainder of the film is often perceived as disappointing by comparison. The movie has also been criticized for employing the conventional Kurosawan hero to combat a social evil that cannot be resolved through the actions of individuals, however courageous or cunning.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Richie\|1999\|pp140–146}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Yoshimoto\|p274}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp286–293}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Prince\|pp175–188}}</ref> Yojimbo (The Bodyguard), Kurosawa Production's second film, centers on a masterless samurai, Sanjuro, who strolls into a 19th-century town ruled by two opposing violent factions and provokes them into destroying each other. The director used this work to play with many genre conventions, particularly the Western, while at the same time offering an unprecedentedly (for the Japanese screen) graphic portrayal of violence. Some commentators have seen the Sanjuro character in this film as a fantasy figure who magically reverses the historical triumph of the corrupt merchant class over the samurai class. Featuring Tatsuya Nakadai in his first major role in a Kurosawa movie, and with innovative photography by Kazuo Miyagawa (who shot Rashomon) and Takao Saito, the film premiered in April 1961 and was a critically and commercially successful venture, earning more than any previous Kurosawa film. The movie and its blackly comic tone were also widely imitated abroad. Sergio Leone's A Fistful of Dollars was a virtual (unauthorized) scene-by-scene remake with Toho filing a lawsuit on Kurosawa's behalf and prevailing.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp301–313}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Yoshimoto\|pp289–292}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Richie\|1999\|pp=147–155}}</ref> 's novel ''King's Ransom. Image of McBain c. 1953]] Following the success of Yojimbo, Kurosawa found himself under pressure from Toho to create a sequel. Kurosawa turned to a script he had written before Yojimbo, reworking it to include the hero of his previous film. Sanjuro was the first of three Kurosawa films to be adapted from the work of the writer Shūgorō Yamamoto (the others would be Red Beard and Dodeskaden). It is lighter in tone and closer to a conventional period film than Yojimbo, though its story of a power struggle within a samurai clan is portrayed with strongly comic undertones. The film opened on January 1, 1962, quickly surpassing Yojimbo''{{'}}s box office success and garnering positive reviews.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp324–329}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Yoshimoto\|pp293–296}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Richie\|1999\|pp=156–162}}</ref> Kurosawa had meanwhile instructed Toho to purchase the film rights to ''King's Ransom, a novel about a kidnapping written by American author and screenwriter Evan Hunter, under his pseudonym of Ed McBain, as one of his 87th Precinct series of crime books. The director intended to create a work condemning kidnapping, which he considered one of the very worst crimes. The suspense film, titled High and Low'', was shot during the latter half of 1962 and released in March 1963. It broke Kurosawa's box office record (the third film in a row to do so), became the highest grossing Japanese film of the year and won glowing reviews. However, his triumph was somewhat tarnished when, ironically, the film was blamed for a wave of kidnappings which occurred in Japan about this time (he himself received kidnapping threats directed at his young daughter, Kazuko). High and Low is considered by many commentators to be among the director's strongest works.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp341–361}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Richie\|1999\|pp163–170}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Prince\|pp188–189}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Mellen\|2002\|p28}}</ref> Kurosawa quickly moved on to his next project, Red Beard. Based on a short story collection by Shūgorō Yamamoto and incorporating elements from Dostoevsky's novel The Insulted and Injured, it is a period film, set in a mid-nineteenth century clinic for the poor, in which Kurosawa's humanist themes receive perhaps their fullest statement. A conceited and materialistic, foreign-trained young doctor, Yasumoto, is forced to become an intern at the clinic under the stern tutelage of Doctor Niide, known as "Akahige" ("Red Beard"), played by Mifune. Although he resists Red Beard initially, Yasumoto comes to admire his wisdom and courage and to perceive the patients at the clinic, whom he at first despised, as worthy of compassion and dignity.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp=372–374}}</ref> Yūzō Kayama, who plays Yasumoto, was an extremely popular film and music star at the time, particularly for his "Young Guy" (Wakadaishō) series of musical comedies, so signing him to appear in the film virtually guaranteed Kurosawa strong box-office. The shoot, the filmmaker's longest ever, lasted well over a year (after five months of pre-production) and wrapped in spring 1965, leaving the director, his crew and his actors exhausted. Red Beard premiered in April 1965, becoming the year's highest-grossing Japanese production and the third (and last) Kurosawa film to top the prestigious Kinema Jumpo yearly critics poll. It remains one of Kurosawa's best-known and most-loved works in his native country. Outside Japan, critics have been much more divided. Most commentators concede its technical merits and some praise it as among Kurosawa's best, while others insist that it lacks complexity and genuine narrative power, with still others claiming that it represents a retreat from the artist's previous commitment to social and political change.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp374–389}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Richie\|1999\|pp171–183}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Yoshimoto\|pp332–333}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Prince\|pp235–249}}</ref> The film marked something of an end of an era for its creator. The director himself recognized this at the time of its release, telling critic Donald Richie that a cycle of some kind had just come to an end and that his future films and production methods would be different.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Richie\|1999\|p183}}</ref> His prediction proved quite accurate. Beginning in the late 1950s, television began increasingly to dominate the leisure time of the formerly large and loyal Japanese cinema audience. And as film company revenues dropped, so did their appetite for risk—particularly the risk represented by Kurosawa's costly production methods.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Prince\|pp4–5}}</ref> Red Beard also marked the midway point, chronologically, in the artist's career. During his previous twenty-nine years in the film industry (which includes his five years as assistant director), he had directed twenty-three films, while during the remaining twenty-eight years, for many complex reasons, he would complete only seven more. Also, for reasons never adequately explained, Red Beard would be his final film starring Toshiro Mifune. Yū Fujiki, an actor who worked on The Lower Depths, observed, regarding the closeness of the two men on the set, "Mr. Kurosawa's heart was in Mr. Mifune's body."<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|p242}}</ref> Donald Richie has described the rapport between them as a unique "symbiosis".<ref>{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa (WNET)\|locDonald Richie interview}}</ref> Hollywood ambitions to last films (1966–1998) Hollywood detour (1966–1968) When Kurosawa's exclusive contract with Toho came to an end in 1966, the 56-year-old director was seriously contemplating change. Observing the troubled state of the domestic film industry and having already received dozens of offers from abroad, the idea of working outside Japan appealed to him as never before.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp=440–441}}</ref> For his first foreign project, Kurosawa chose a story based on a Life magazine article. The Embassy Pictures action thriller, to be filmed in English and called simply Runaway Train, would have been his first in color. But the language barrier proved a major problem, and the English version of the screenplay was not even finished by the time filming was to begin in autumn 1966. The shoot, which required snow, was moved to autumn 1967, then canceled in 1968. Almost two decades later, another foreign director working in Hollywood, Andrei Konchalovsky, finally made Runaway Train (1985), though from a new script loosely based on Kurosawa's.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp=440–448}}</ref> The director meanwhile had become involved in a much more ambitious Hollywood project. Tora! Tora! Tora!, produced by 20th Century Fox and Kurosawa Production, would be a portrayal of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor from both the American and the Japanese points of view, with Kurosawa helming the Japanese half and an Anglophonic film-maker directing the American half. He spent several months working on the script with Ryuzo Kikushima and Hideo Oguni, but very soon the project began to unravel. The director of the American sequences turned out not to be David Lean, as originally planned, but American Richard Fleischer. The budget was also cut, and the screen time allocated for the Japanese segment would now be no longer than 90 minutes—a major problem, considering that Kurosawa's script ran over four hours. After numerous revisions with the direct involvement of Darryl Zanuck, a more or less finalized cut screenplay was agreed upon in May 1968. Shooting began in early December, but Kurosawa would last only a little over three weeks as director. He struggled to work with an unfamiliar crew and the requirements of a Hollywood production, while his working methods puzzled his American producers, who ultimately concluded that the director must be mentally ill. Kurosawa was examined at Kyoto University Hospital by a neuropsychologist, Dr. Murakami, whose diagnosis was forwarded to Darryl Zanuck and Richard Zanuck at Fox studios indicating a diagnosis of neurasthenia stating that, "He is suffering from disturbance of sleep, agitated with feelings of anxiety and in manic excitement caused by the above mentioned illness. It is necessary for him to have rest and medical treatment for more than two months."<ref>Hiroshi Tasogawa. ''All the Emperor's Men'', Hardcover: 337 pp Publisher: Applause; 1 edition (2012). {{ISBN\|1-55783-850-X}}. p. 255.</ref> On Christmas Eve 1968, the Americans announced that Kurosawa had left the production due to "fatigue", effectively firing him. He was ultimately replaced, for the film's Japanese sequences, with two directors, Kinji Fukasaku and Toshio Masuda.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp=448–468}}</ref> Tora! Tora! Tora!, finally released to unenthusiastic reviews in September 1970, was, as Donald Richie put it, an "almost unmitigated tragedy" in Kurosawa's career. He had spent years of his life on a logistically nightmarish project to which he ultimately did not contribute a foot of film shot by himself. (He had his name removed from the credits, though the script used for the Japanese half was still his and his co-writers'.) He became estranged from his longtime collaborator, writer Ryuzo Kikushima, and never worked with him again. The project had inadvertently exposed corruption in his own production company (a situation reminiscent of his own movie, The Bad Sleep Well). His very sanity had been called into question. Worst of all, the Japanese film industry—and perhaps Kurosawa himself—began to suspect that he would never make another film.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa: The Last Emperor\|locDonald Richie interview}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp458–471}}</ref> A difficult decade (1969–1977) Knowing that his reputation was at stake following the much publicised Tora! Tora! Tora! debacle, Kurosawa moved quickly to a new project to prove he was still viable. To his aid came friends and famed directors Keisuke Kinoshita, Masaki Kobayashi and Kon Ichikawa, who together with Kurosawa established in July 1969 a production company called the Club of the Four Knights (Yonki no kai). Although the plan was for the four directors to create a film each, it has been suggested that the real motivation for the other three directors was to make it easier for Kurosawa to successfully complete a film and therefore find his way back into the business.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp437–474}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Yojimbo\|locDVD featurette: It Is Wonderful to Create – Crew Interview}}</ref> The first project proposed and worked on was a period film to be called Dora-heita, but when this was deemed too expensive, attention shifted to Dodesukaden, an adaptation of yet another Shūgorō Yamamoto work, again about the poor and destitute. The film was shot quickly (by Kurosawa's standards) in about nine weeks, with Kurosawa determined to show he was still capable of working quickly and efficiently within a limited budget. For his first work in color, the dynamic editing and complex compositions of his earlier pictures were set aside, with the artist focusing on the creation of a bold, almost surreal palette of primary colors, in order to reveal the toxic environment in which the characters live. It was released in Japan in October 1970, but though a minor critical success, it was greeted with audience indifference. The picture lost money and caused the Club of the Four Knights to dissolve. Initial reception abroad was somewhat more favorable, but Dodesukaden has since been typically considered an interesting experiment not comparable to the director's best work.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp=474–486}}</ref> After struggling through the production of Dodesukaden, Kurosawa turned to television work the following year for the only time in his career with Song of the Horse, a documentary about thoroughbred race horses. It featured a voice-over narrated by a fictional man and a child (voiced by the same actors as the beggar and his son in Dodesukaden). It is the only documentary in Kurosawa's filmography; the small crew included his frequent collaborator Masaru Sato, who composed the music. Song of the Horse is also unique in Kurosawa's oeuvre in that it includes an editor's credit, suggesting that it is the only Kurosawa film that he did not cut himself.<ref>{{cite web \|titleSong of the Horse \|urlhttps://akirakurosawa.info/song-of-the-horse/\|publisherAkirakurosawa.info \|access-dateDecember 13, 2020}}</ref> Unable to secure funding for further work and allegedly having health problems, Kurosawa apparently reached the breaking point: on December 22, 1971, he slit his wrists and throat multiple times. The suicide attempt proved unsuccessful and the director's health recovered fairly quickly, with Kurosawa now taking refuge in domestic life, uncertain if he would ever direct another film.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp=487–489, 522}}</ref> In early 1973, the Soviet studio Mosfilm approached the film-maker to ask if he would be interested in working with them. Kurosawa proposed an adaptation of Russian explorer Vladimir Arsenyev's autobiographical work Dersu Uzala. The book, about a Goldi hunter who lives in harmony with nature until destroyed by encroaching civilization, was one that he had wanted to make since the 1930s. In December 1973, the 63-year-old Kurosawa set off for the Soviet Union with four of his closest aides, beginning a year-and-a-half stay in the country. Shooting began in May 1974 in Siberia, with filming in exceedingly harsh natural conditions proving very difficult and demanding. The picture wrapped in April 1975, with a thoroughly exhausted and homesick Kurosawa returning to Japan and his family in June. Dersu Uzala had its world premiere in Japan on August 2, 1975, and did well at the box office. While critical reception in Japan was muted, the film was better reviewed abroad, winning the Golden Prize at the 9th Moscow International Film Festival,<ref name"Moscow1975">{{cite web\|urlhttp://akirakurosawa.info/2015/07/23/40-years-ago-today-dersu-uzala-wins-at-the-moscow-international-film-festival/ \|title9th Moscow International Film Festival (1975) \|publisherAkira Kurosawa info \|dateJuly 23, 2015 \|access-dateJune 12, 2017}}</ref> as well as an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film. Today, critics remain divided over the film: some see it as an example of Kurosawa's alleged artistic decline, while others count it among his finest works.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Nogami\|pp127–155}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp518–522}}</ref> Although proposals for television projects were submitted to him, he had no interest in working outside the film world. Nevertheless, the hard-drinking director did agree to appear in a series of television ads for Suntory whiskey, which aired in 1976. While fearing that he might never be able to make another film, the director nevertheless continued working on various projects, writing scripts and creating detailed illustrations, intending to leave behind a visual record of his plans in case he would never be able to film his stories.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp513–514, 522–523, 544–546}}</ref> Two epics (1978–1986) In 1977, George Lucas released Star Wars, a wildly successful science fiction film influenced by Kurosawa's The Hidden Fortress. Lucas, like many other New Hollywood directors, revered Kurosawa and considered him a role model and was shocked to discover that the Japanese film-maker was unable to secure financing for any new work. The two met in San Francisco in July 1978 to discuss the project Kurosawa considered most financially viable: {{lang\|ja-latn\|Kagemusha}}, the epic story of a thief hired as the double of a medieval Japanese lord of a great clan. Lucas, enthralled by the screenplay and Kurosawa's illustrations, leveraged his influence over 20th Century Fox to coerce the studio that had fired Kurosawa just ten years earlier to produce {{lang\|ja-latn\|Kagemusha}}, then recruited fellow fan Francis Ford Coppola as co-producer.<ref name"Lucas">{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|p=547}}</ref> Production began the following April, with Kurosawa in high spirits. Shooting lasted from June 1979 through March 1980 and was plagued with problems, not the least of which was the firing of the original lead actor, Shintaro Katsu—known for portraying the popular character Zatoichi—due to an incident in which the actor insisted, against the director's wishes, on videotaping his own performance. (He was replaced by Tatsuya Nakadai, in his first of two consecutive leading roles in a Kurosawa movie.) The film was completed only a few weeks behind schedule and opened in Tokyo in April 1980. It quickly became a massive hit in Japan. The film was also a critical and box office success abroad, winning the coveted {{lang\|fr\|Palme d'Or\|italicno}} at the 1980 Cannes Film Festival in May, though some critics, then and now, have faulted the film for its alleged coldness. Kurosawa spent much of the rest of the year in Europe and America promoting {{lang\|ja-latn\|Kagemusha}}, collecting awards and accolades and exhibiting as art the drawings he had made to serve as storyboards for the film.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp547–558}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Richie\|1999\|pp=204–213}}</ref> (pictured) successfully requested that Kurosawa be nominated as Best Director for his film {{lang\|ja-latn\|Ran}} at the 58th Academy Awards; the award was won by Sydney Pollack.]] The international success of {{lang\|ja-latn\|Kagemusha}} allowed Kurosawa to proceed with his next project, {{lang\|ja-latn\|Ran}}, another epic in a similar vein. The script, partly based on Shakespeare's King Lear, depicted a ruthless, bloodthirsty daimyō (warlord), played by Tatsuya Nakadai, who, after foolishly banishing his one loyal son, surrenders his kingdom to his other two sons, who then betray him, thus plunging the entire kingdom into war. As Japanese studios still felt wary about producing another film that would rank among the most expensive ever made in the country, international help was again needed. This time it came from French producer Serge Silberman, who had produced Luis Buñuel's final movies. Filming did not begin until December 1983 and lasted more than a year.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp=569–576}}</ref> In January 1985, production of {{lang\|ja-latn\|Ran}} was halted as Kurosawa's 64-year-old wife Yōko fell ill. She died on February 1. Kurosawa returned to finish his film and {{lang\|ja-latn\|Ran}} premiered at the Tokyo Film Festival on May 31, with a wide release the next day. The film was a moderate financial success in Japan, but a larger one abroad and, as he had done with {{lang\|ja-latn\|Kagemusha}}, Kurosawa embarked on a trip to Europe and America, where he attended the film's premieres in September and October.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp=576–583}}</ref> {{lang\|ja-latn\|Ran}} won several awards in Japan, but was not quite as honored there as many of the director's best films of the 1950s and 1960s had been. The film world was surprised, however, when Japan passed over the selection of {{lang\|ja-latn\|Ran}} in favor of another film as its official entry to compete for an Oscar nomination in the Best Foreign Film category, which was ultimately rejected for competition at the 58th Academy Awards. Both the producer and Kurosawa himself attributed the failure to even submit {{lang\|ja-latn\|Ran}} for competition to a misunderstanding: because of the academy's arcane rules, no one was sure whether {{lang\|ja-latn\|Ran}} qualified as a Japanese film, a French film (due to its financing), or both, so it was not submitted at all. In response to what at least appeared to be a blatant snub by his own countrymen, the director Sidney Lumet led a successful campaign to have Kurosawa receive an Oscar nomination for Best Director that year (Sydney Pollack ultimately won the award for directing Out of Africa). {{lang\|ja-latn\|Ran}}{{'}}s costume designer, Emi Wada, won the movie's only Oscar.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.allmovie.com/movie/ran-v40236/awards \|titleRan (1985) – Awards \|workAllMovie\|access-dateJune 9, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp=582–586}}</ref> {{lang\|ja-latn\|Kagemusha}} and {{lang\|ja-latn\|Ran}}, particularly the latter, are often considered to be among Kurosawa's finest works. After {{lang\|ja-latn\|Ran}}{{'}}s release, Kurosawa would point to it as his best film, a major change of attitude for the director who, when asked which of his works was his best, had always previously answered "my next one".<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp580–586}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Richie1999\|p214}}</ref> Final works and last years (1987–1998) For his next movie, Kurosawa chose a subject very different from any that he had ever filmed before. While some of his previous pictures (for example, Drunken Angel and {{lang\|ja-latn\|Kagemusha}}) had included brief dream sequences, Dreams was to be entirely based upon the director's own dreams. Significantly, for the first time in over forty years, Kurosawa, for this deeply personal project, wrote the screenplay alone. Although its estimated budget was lower than the films immediately preceding it, Japanese studios were still unwilling to back one of his productions, so Kurosawa turned to another famous American fan, Steven Spielberg, who convinced Warner Bros. to buy the international rights to the completed film. This made it easier for Kurosawa's son, Hisao, as co-producer and soon-to-be head of Kurosawa Production, to negotiate a loan in Japan that would cover the film's production costs. Shooting took more than eight months to complete, and Dreams premiered at Cannes in May 1990 to a polite but muted reception, similar to the reaction the picture would generate elsewhere in the world.<ref name"Spielberg">{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp604–608}}</ref> In 1990, he accepted the Academy Award for Lifetime Achievement. In his acceptance speech, he famously said "I'm a little worried because I don't feel that I understand cinema yet."<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://aaspeechesdb.oscars.org/ics-wpd/exec/icswppro.dll?ACqbe_query&TNAAtrans&RFWebReportPermaLink&MFoscarsmsg.ini&NP255&BUhttp://aaspeechesdb.oscars.org/index.htm&QYfind+acceptorlink+%3D062-25 \|titleSearch Results \|workAcademy Award Acceptance Speech Database \|publisherAcademy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences\|access-dateJune 12, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100217234929/http://aaspeechesdb.oscars.org/ics-wpd/exec/icswppro.dll?ACqbe_query&TNAAtrans&RFWebReportPermaLink&MFoscarsmsg.ini&NP255&BUhttp%3A%2F%2Faaspeechesdb.oscars.org%2Findex.htm&QYfind+acceptorlink+%3D062-25 \|archive-dateFebruary 17, 2010 }}</ref> At the time, Bob Thomas of The Daily Spectrum noted that Kurosawa was "considered by many critics as the greatest living filmmaker."<ref>{{cite news \|titleOscars 'a fine night for the Irish' \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/image/288377867/ \|access-dateApril 19, 2022 \|workThe Daily Spectrum \|viaNewspapers.com \|dateMarch 28, 1990 \|page14 \|url-access=subscription}}</ref> helped finance the production of several of Kurosawa's final films. Spielberg at his masterclass at the Cinémathèque Française in 2012]] Kurosawa now turned to a more conventional story with Rhapsody in August—the director's first film fully produced in Japan since Dodeskaden over twenty years before—which explored the scars of the nuclear bombing which destroyed Nagasaki at the very end of World War II. It was adapted from a Kiyoko Murata novel, but the film's references to the Nagasaki bombing came from the director rather than from the book. This was his only movie to include a role for an American movie star: Richard Gere, who plays a small role as the nephew of the elderly heroine. Shooting took place in early 1991, with the film opening on May 25 that year to a largely negative critical reaction, especially in the United States, where the director was accused of promulgating naïvely anti-American sentiments,<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp612–618}}</ref><ref name"Gere">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1990/10/01/movies/kurosawa-still-finding-unfamiliar-seas-to-sail.html \|lastWeisman\|firstSteven R.\|titleKurosawa Still Finding Unfamiliar Seas to Sail \|access-dateJune 9, 2017 \| workThe New York Times \| date=October 1, 1990}}</ref> though Kurosawa rejected these accusations. Kurosawa wasted no time moving onto his next project: Madadayo, or Not Yet. Based on autobiographical essays by Hyakken Uchida, the film follows the life of a Japanese professor of German through the Second World War and beyond. The narrative centers on yearly birthday celebrations with his former students, during which the protagonist declares his unwillingness to die just yet—a theme that was becoming increasingly relevant for the film's 81-year-old creator. Filming began in February 1992 and wrapped by the end of September. Its release on April 17, 1993, was greeted by an even more disappointed reaction than had been the case with his two preceding works.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp=622–627}}</ref> Kurosawa nevertheless continued to work. He wrote the original screenplays The Sea Is Watching in 1993 and After the Rain in 1995. While putting finishing touches on the latter work in 1995, Kurosawa slipped and broke the base of his spine. Following the accident, he would use a wheelchair for the rest of his life, putting an end to any hopes of him directing another film.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp636–639}}</ref> His longtime wish—to die on the set while shooting a movie<ref name"Gere" /><ref>{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa\|1983\|p=viii}}</ref>—was never to be fulfilled. After his accident, Kurosawa's health began to deteriorate. While his mind remained sharp and lively, his body was giving up, and for the last half-year of his life the director was largely confined to bed, listening to music and watching television at home. On September 6, 1998, Kurosawa died of a stroke in Setagaya, Tokyo, at the age of 88.<ref name"indy">{{cite news \|last1Adair \|first1Gilbert \|titleObituary: Akira Kurosawa \|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-akira-kurosawa-1196526.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190821192706/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-akira-kurosawa-1196526.html \|archive-dateAugust 21, 2019 \|url-accesslimited \|url-statuslive \|access-dateAugust 21, 2019 \|workThe Independent \|dateSeptember 7, 1998}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp639–640}}</ref> At the time of his death, Kurosawa had two children, his son Hisao Kurosawa (who married Hiroko Hayashi) and his daughter Kazuko Kurosawa (who married Harayuki Kato), along with several grandchildren.<ref name"Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp64, 191" /> One of Kazuko Kurosawa's children, Takayuki Kato, became a supporting actor in two films posthumously developed from screenplays written by Kurosawa, Takashi Koizumi's After the Rain (1999) and Kei Kumai's The Sea Is Watching (2002).<ref name"Arnold">{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.seattlepi.com/ae/movies/article/Sea-is-Watching-an-absorbing-slice-of-a-bygone-1119532.php \|lastArnold\|firstWilliam \|title'Sea is Watching' an absorbing slice of a bygone Japan \|access-dateJuly 2, 2017 \| workSeattle Post-Intelligencer \| dateJuly 17, 2003}}</ref>Filmography {{Main\|List of works by Akira Kurosawa}} Although Kurosawa is primarily known as a filmmaker, he also worked in theater and television and wrote books. A detailed list, including his complete filmography, can be found in the list of works by Akira Kurosawa. Style, themes and techniques {{See also\|Filmmaking technique of Akira Kurosawa}} cast and crew photo taken in 1956, showing (from left to right) Shinjin Akiike, Fumio Yanoguchi, Kuichiro Kishida, Samaji Nonagase, Takao Saito, Toshiro Mifune (in the jeep), Minoru Chiaki, Takashi Shimura, Teruyo Nogami, Yoshirō Muraki, Akira Kurosawa, Hiroshi Nezu, Asakazu Nakai, and Sōjirō Motoki\|alt=cast and crew of Throne of Blood]] Kurosawa displayed a bold, dynamic style, strongly influenced by Western cinema yet distinct from it; he was involved with all aspects of film production.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa\|2008\|loc=p. 131, reprinted from John Powers interview, L.A. Weekly'', 4 April 1986, pp. 45–47}}</ref> He was a gifted screenwriter and worked closely with his co-writers from the film's development onward to ensure a high-quality script, which he considered the firm foundation of a good film. He frequently served as editor of his own films. His team, known as the {{Nihongo\|"Kurosawa-gumi"\|黒澤組\|\|Kurosawa group}}, which included the cinematographer Asakazu Nakai, the production assistant Teruyo Nogami and the actor Takashi Shimura, was notable for its loyalty and dependability. Kurosawa's style is marked by a number of devices and techniques. In his films of the 1940s and 1950s, he frequently employs the "axial cut", in which the camera moves toward or away from the subject through a series of matched jump cuts rather than tracking shots or dissolves.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.davidbordwell.net/blog/2009/12/08/kurosawas-early-spring/ \|titleObservations on Film Art: Kurosawa's Early Spring \|typeBlog \|dateDecember 8, 2009\|access-dateJune 12, 2017}}</ref> Another stylistic trait is "cut on motion", which displays the motion on the screen in two or more shots instead of one uninterrupted one.<ref name"Mellentalk">{{Harvnb\|Seven Samurai\|loc=DVD bonus featurette: Seven Samurai: Origins and Influences, Joan Mellen commentary}}</ref> A form of cinematic punctuation strongly identified with Kurosawa is the wipe, an effect created through an optical printer: a line or bar appears to move across the screen, wiping away the end of a scene and revealing the first image of the next. As a transitional device, it is used as a substitute for the straight cut or the dissolve; in his mature work, the wipe became Kurosawa's signature. In the film's soundtrack, Kurosawa favored the sound-image counterpoint, in which the music or sound effects appeared to comment ironically on the image rather than emphasizing it. Teruyo Nogami's memoir gives several such examples from Drunken Angel and Stray Dog. Kurosawa was also involved with several of Japan's outstanding contemporary composers, including Fumio Hayasaka and Tōru Takemitsu.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Nogami\|pp=183–209}}</ref> , used by several of his characters as their mon-tsuki''<ref name"kamon">{{cite web \|title丸に剣片喰(片喰紋)について解説 \|urlhttps://kisetsumimiyori.com/marunikenkata/ \|website季節の耳より \|date=May 6, 2017}}</ref>]] Kurosawa employed a number of recurring themes in his films: the master-disciple relationship between a usually older mentor and one or more novices, which often involves spiritual as well as technical mastery and self-mastery; the heroic champion, the exceptional individual who emerges from the mass of people to produce something or right some wrong; the depiction of extremes of weather as both dramatic devices and symbols of human passion; and the recurrence of cycles of savage violence within history. According to Stephen Prince, the last theme, which he calls, "the countertradition to the committed, heroic mode of Kurosawa's cinema," began with Throne of Blood (1957) and recurred in the films of the 1980s.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Prince\|p149}}</ref> Legacy and cultural impact {{See also\|Remakes of films by Akira Kurosawa}} Kurosawa is often cited as one of the greatest filmmakers of all time.<ref>{{cite web\|titleThe 50 greatest directors and their 100 best movies\|urlhttps://ew.com/article/1996/04/19/50-greatest-directors-and-their-100-best-movies/\|websiteentertainment weekly.com April 19, 1996\|access-dateOctober 27, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleBFI – Sight & Sound – Top Ten Poll 2002 Poll – The Critics' Top Ten Directors \|urlhttp://www.bfi.org.uk/sightandsound/topten/poll/critics-directors.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110623182355/http://www.bfi.org.uk/sightandsound/topten/poll/critics-directors.html \|archive-dateJune 23, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|titleThe Greatest Directors Ever by Total Film Magazine \|publisherFilmsite.org \|urlhttp://www.filmsite.org/greatdirectors-totalfilm2.html \|access-dateApril 19, 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140702113557/http://www.filmsite.org/greatdirectors-totalfilm.html\|archive-dateJuly 2, 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|titleThe 25 Most Influential Directors of All Time\|urlhttps://www.moviemaker.com/25-most-influential-directors-of-all-time-scorsese-kubrick-welles/4/\|websiteMovieMaker\|dateJuly 7, 2002}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|titleGreatest Film Directors\|urlhttps://www.filmsite.org/directors.html\|websitefilmsite.org}}</ref> In 1999, he was named "Asian of the Century" in the "Arts, Literature, and Culture" category by AsianWeek magazine and CNN, cited as "one of the [five] people who contributed most to the betterment of Asia in the past 100 years".<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://edition.cnn.com/ASIANOW/asiaweek/features/aoc/aoc.kurosawa.html\|titleASIANOW&nbsp;– Asiaweek&nbsp;– Asian of the Century&nbsp;– Kurosawa Akira&nbsp;– 12/10/99 \|access-dateJune 8, 2017}}</ref> Kurosawa was ranked third in the directors' poll and fifth in the critics' poll in Sight & Sound's 2002 list of the greatest directors of all time. In commemoration of the 100th anniversary of Kurosawa's birth in 2010, a project called AK100 was launched in 2008. The AK100 Project aims to "expose young people who are the representatives of the next generation, and all people everywhere, to the light and spirit of Akira Kurosawa and the wonderful world he created".<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://akirakurosawa.info/2008/09/21/ak100-world-tour-website/ \|titleAK100 World Tour website \|publisherAkira Kurosawa info\|dateSeptember 21, 2008\|lastMaunula\|firstVili \|access-dateJune 9, 2017}}</ref> Reputation among filmmakers , shown here in a bust located in Kielce, Poland, was an admirer of Kurosawa's work.]] Many filmmakers have been influenced by Kurosawa's work. Ingmar Bergman called his own film The Virgin Spring a "touristic... lousy imitation of Kurosawa" and added, "At that time my admiration for the Japanese cinema was at its height. I was almost a samurai myself!"<ref>{{cite book\|lastSano\|firstFrank\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idmyqJ3XwjA1UC&pgPA241\|titleThe Passion of Ingmar Bergman \|publisherDuke University Press\|year1986\|page241 \|access-dateJune 9, 2017\|isbn978-0-8223-0586-6}}</ref> Federico Fellini considered Kurosawa to be "the greatest living example of all that an author of the cinema should be".<ref>{{Harvnb\|Fellini\|p49}}</ref> Steven Spielberg cited Kurosawa's cinematic vision as shaping his own.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Warren \|first1Adrian \|title'Seven Samurai' Spawned a Subgenre All of Its Own, PopMatters \|urlhttps://www.popmatters.com/182639-seven-samurai-2495651387.html \|access-dateApril 21, 2022 \|workPopMatters \|dateJune 11, 2014}}</ref> Satyajit Ray, who was posthumously awarded the Akira Kurosawa Award for Lifetime Achievement in Directing at the San Francisco International Film Festival in 1992,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://history.sffs.org/awards_tributes/search.php?search_by6&searchfieldSatyajit+Ray\|titleAwards and Tributes: Satyajit Ray\|workSan Francisco International Film Festival: The First to Fifty\|publisherSan Francisco Film Society\|access-dateApril 8, 2008}}</ref> had said earlier of Rashomon: {{blockquote\|The effect of the film on me [upon first seeing it in Calcutta in 1952] was electric. I saw it three times on consecutive days and wondered each time if there was another film anywhere which gave such sustained and dazzling proof of a director's command over every aspect of film making.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Ray\|p=180}}</ref>}} Ray described him as "one of the giants of cinema." Roman Polanski considered Kurosawa to be among the three film-makers he favored most, along with Fellini and Orson Welles, and picked Seven Samurai, Throne of Blood and The Hidden Fortress for praise.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Morrison\|p160}}</ref> Bernardo Bertolucci considered Kurosawa's influence to be seminal: "Kurosawa's movies and La Dolce Vita of Fellini are the things that pushed me, sucked me into being a film director."<ref>{{Harvnb\|Kurosawa: The Last Emperor\|locBernardo Bertolucci interview}}</ref> Andrei Tarkovsky cited Kurosawa as one of his favorites and named Seven Samurai as one of his ten favorite films.<ref name"Andrei Tarkovsky">{{cite web\|last1Lasica\|first1Tom\|titleTarkovsky's Choice\|urlhttp://people.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/Tarkovsky-TopTen.html\|publisherNostalghia.com\|access-dateJune 10, 2017}}</ref> Sidney Lumet called Kurosawa the "Beethoven of movie directors".<ref>{{cite web\|titleLet's Talk About the Master – An Ode to Akira Kurosawa\|urlhttps://studentnewspaper.org/article/lets-talk-about-the-master-an-ode-to-akira-kurosawa\|websiteThe Student\|date=November 10, 2015}}</ref> Werner Herzog reflected on film-makers with whom he feels kinship and the movies that he admires: {{blockquote\|Griffith – especially his Birth of a Nation and Broken Blossoms – Murnau, Buñuel, Kurosawa and Eisenstein's Ivan the Terrible, ... all come to mind. ... I like Dreyer's The Passion of Joan of Arc, Pudovkin's Storm Over Asia and Dovzhenko's Earth, ... Mizoguchi's Ugetsu Monogatari, Satyajit Ray's The Music Room ... I have always wondered how Kurosawa made something as good as Rashomon; the equilibrium and flow are perfect, and he uses space in such a well-balanced way. It is one of the best films ever made.<ref name"Werner Herzog">{{cite book\|last1Cronin\|first1Paul\|titleWerner Herzog – A Guide for the Perplexed: Conversations with Paul Cronin\|date2014\|publisherFaber & Faber\|isbn978-0-571-25977-9\|editionRevised}}<!--\|access-date=May 22, 2016--></ref>}} According to an assistant, Stanley Kubrick considered Kurosawa to be "one of the great film directors" and spoke of him "consistently and admiringly", to the point that a letter from him "meant more than any Oscar" and caused him to agonize for months over drafting a reply.<ref>{{cite web \| last1Wrigley \| first1Nick \| titleStanley Kubrick, cinephile \| dateFebruary 8, 2018 \| publisherBFI \| access-dateAugust 8, 2018 \|urlhttps://www2.bfi.org.uk/news-opinion/sight-sound-magazine/polls-surveys/stanley-kubrick-cinephile}}</ref> Robert Altman claimed that, upon first seeing Rashomon, he was so impressed by the sequence of frames of the sun that he began to shoot the same sequences in his work the very next day.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Rashomon\|locRobert Altman Introductory Interview}}</ref> George Lucas cited The Hidden Fortress as the main inspiration for Star Wars. He also cited other films of Kurosawa as his favorites including Seven Samurai, Yojimbo, and {{lang\|ja-latn\|Ikiru}}. He also said, "I had never seen anything that powerful or cinematographic. The emotions were so strong that it didn't matter that I did not understand the culture or the traditions. From that moment on, Kurosawa's films have served as one of my strongest sources of creative inspiration."<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://faroutmagazine.co.uk/george-lucas-favourite-akira-kurosawa-film/\|titleGeorge Lucas named his favourite Akira Kurosawa film\|dateApril 27, 2022\|websitefaroutmagazine.co.uk}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|lastJennings\|firstCollier\|urlhttps://www.slashfilm.com/802239/this-is-george-lucas-favorite-akira-kurosawa-film-of-all-time/\|titleThis Is George Lucas' Favorite Akira Kurosawa Film Of All Time\|dateMarch 17, 2022\|websiteSlash Film\|access-dateApril 21, 2022}}</ref> Wes Anderson's animated film Isle of Dogs is partially inspired by Kurosawa's filming techniques.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.yahoo.com/entertainment/wes-anderson-isle-dogs-inspired-173402638.html \| title Wes Anderson's 'Isle of Dogs' is Inspired By Akira Kurosawa and Christmas Television Specials \| first Zach \| lastSharf \| date March 13, 2017 \| access-date March 28, 2017 \| work Indie Wire\|viaYahoo! }}</ref> At the 64th Sydney Film Festival, there was a retrospective of Akira Kurosawa where films of his were screened to remember the great legacy he has created from his work.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://ourculturemag.com/2017/04/24/sydney-film-festival-announces-kurosawa-retrospective/ \| title Sydney Film Festival announces Kurosawa retrospective \| first Modestas \| lastMankus \| date April 24, 2017 \| access-date May 8, 2017 \| work Our Culture }}</ref> Zack Snyder cited him as one of his influences for his Netflix film Rebel Moon.<ref>{{cite web\|last1Lash\|first1Jolie\|last2Gettell\|first2Oliver\|urlhttps://ew.com/movies/zack-snyder-rebel-moon-star-wars-kurosawa-netflix/\|titleZack Snyder is finally making his Star Wars- and Kurosawa-inspired sci-fi film for Netflix\|dateJuly 6, 2021\|magazineEW\|access-dateApril 21, 2022}}</ref> Criticism {{Further\|Criticism of Akira Kurosawa}} , a prominent critic of the French New Wave who assessed Mizoguchi's work to be more wholly Japanese in comparison to Kurosawa's]] Kenji Mizoguchi, the acclaimed director of Ugetsu (1953) and Sansho the Bailiff (1954), was eleven years Kurosawa's senior. After the mid-1950s, some critics of the French New Wave began to favor Mizoguchi over Kurosawa. New Wave critic and film-maker Jacques Rivette, in particular, thought Mizoguchi to be the only Japanese director whose work was at once entirely Japanese and truly universal;<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.moviemaker.com/archives/moviemaking/directing/articles-directing/beauty-beneath-the-brutality-japanese-masters-mizoguchi-and-ozu-3225/\|titleBeauty Beneath the Brutality: Japanese Masters Mizoguchi and Ozu\|lastThompson\|firstRustin\|dateDecember 1, 1998\|websiteMovieMaker\|access-dateJune 7, 2017\|archive-dateApril 20, 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190420114732/https://www.moviemaker.com/archives/moviemaking/directing/articles-directing/beauty-beneath-the-brutality-japanese-masters-mizoguchi-and-ozu-3225/}}</ref> Kurosawa, by contrast, was thought to be more influenced by Western cinema and culture, a view that has been disputed.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Bock\|1978\|p35}}</ref> In Japan, some critics and filmmakers considered Kurosawa to be elitist. They viewed him to center his effort and attention on exceptional or heroic characters. In her DVD commentary on Seven Samurai, Joan Mellen argued that certain shots of the samurai characters Kambei and Kyuzo, which show Kurosawa to have accorded higher status or validity to them, constitutes evidence for this point of view. These Japanese critics argued that Kurosawa was not sufficiently progressive because the peasants were unable to find leaders from within their ranks. In an interview with Mellen, Kurosawa defended himself, saying, {{blockquote\|I wanted to say that after everything the peasants were the stronger, closely clinging to the earth&nbsp;... It was the samurai who were weak because they were being blown by the winds of time.<ref name"Mellentalk" /><ref>{{Harvnb\|Mellen\|2002\|p65}}</ref>}} From the early 1950s, Kurosawa was also charged with catering to Western tastes due to his popularity in Europe and America. In the 1970s, the politically engaged, left-wing director Nagisa Ōshima, who was noted for his critical reaction to Kurosawa's work, accused Kurosawa of pandering to Western beliefs and ideologies.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Mellen\|2002\|p60}}</ref> Author Audie Block, however, assessed Kurosawa to have never played up to a non-Japanese viewing public and to have denounced those directors who did.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Bock\|1978\|p172}}</ref> Posthumous screenplays {{See also\|List of creative works by Akira Kurosawa}} Following Kurosawa's death, several posthumous works based on his unfilmed screenplays have been produced. After the Rain, directed by Takashi Koizumi, was released in 1999,<ref>{{Harvnb\|Galbraith\|pp641–645}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/after_the_rain_1999 \|titleAfter the Rain (1999) \|access-dateJuly 2, 2018\| workRotten Tomatoes}}</ref> and The Sea Is Watching, directed by Kei Kumai, premiered in 2002.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/the_sea_is_watching/ \|titleThe Sea Is Watching (2002) \|workRotten Tomatoes\|access-dateJune 9, 2017}}</ref> A script created by the Yonki no Kai ("Club of the Four Knights") (Kurosawa, Keisuke Kinoshita, Masaki Kobayashi, and Kon Ichikawa), around the time that Dodeskaden was made, finally was filmed and released (in 2000) as Dora-heita, by the only surviving founding member of the club, Kon Ichikawa.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/ff20000523a1.html \|titleThe samurai flick that got away \|last1Schilling \|first1Mark \|access-dateJune 9, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20121010102056/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/ff20000523a1.html \|archive-dateOctober 10, 2012 }}</ref> Huayi Brothers Media and CKF Pictures in China announced in 2017 plans to produce a film of Kurosawa's posthumous screenplay of The Masque of the Red Death by Edgar Allan Poe for 2020, to be entitled The Mask of the Black Death.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://thefilmstage.com/news/unfilmed-akira-kurosawa-script-the-mask-of-the-black-death-will-be-produced-in-china/ \|titleUnfilmed Akira Kurosawa script the mask of the black death will be produced in china \|last1Raup \|first1Jordan \|publisherThe Film Stage\|dateMarch 5, 2017\|access-dateJune 9, 2017}}</ref> Patrick Frater writing for Variety magazine in May 2017 stated that another two unfinished films by Kurosawa were planned, with Silvering Spear to start filming in 2018.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://variety.com/2017/film/asia/china-japan-pair-to-complete-akira-kurosawas-unfinished-movies-1202432044/ \|titleChinese-Japanese Partnership to Complete Akira Kurosawa's Unfinished Movies \|last1Frater \|workVariety\|first1Patrick\|dateMay 18, 2018 \|access-dateJune 9, 2017}}</ref> Kurosawa Production Company In September 2011, it was reported that remake rights to most of Kurosawa's movies and unproduced screenplays were assigned by the Akira Kurosawa 100 Project to the L.A.-based company Splendent. Splendent's chief Sakiko Yamada, stated that he aimed to "help contemporary film-makers introduce a new generation of moviegoers to these unforgettable stories".<ref name"Patterson2011">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2011/sep/01/akira-kurosawa-remakes \|titleWhy Hollywood can't get enough Akira Kurosawa remakes\|newspaperThe Guardian\|lastPatterson\|firstJohn\|dateSeptember 1, 2011\|access-dateJuly 2, 2018}}</ref> Kurosawa Production Co., established in 1959, continues to oversee many of the aspects of Kurosawa's legacy. The director's son, Hisao Kurosawa, is the current head of the company. Its American subsidiary, Kurosawa Enterprises, is located in Los Angeles. Rights to Kurosawa's works were then held by Kurosawa Production and the film studios under which he worked, most notably Toho. These rights were then assigned to the Akira Kurosawa 100 Project before being reassigned in 2011 to the L.A. based company Splendent.<ref name"Patterson2011" /> Kurosawa Production works closely with the Akira Kurosawa Foundation, established in December 2003 and also run by Hisao Kurosawa. The foundation organizes an annual short film competition and spearheads Kurosawa-related projects, including a recently shelved one to build a memorial museum for the director.<ref>{{cite web\|titlePlans for Akira Kurosawa museum officially abandoned \|urlhttp://akirakurosawa.info/2010/06/05/plans-for-akira-kurosawa-museum-officially-abandoned/ \|publisherAkira Kurosawa info\|lastMaunula\|firstVili \|dateJune 5, 2010 \|access-dateJune 7, 2017}}</ref> Film studios In 1981, the Kurosawa Film Studio was opened in Yokohama; two additional locations have since been launched in Japan.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.kurosawafilmstudio.com/info.html \|titleKurosawa Film Studio \|publisherKurosawa Film Studio Co. Ltd. \|languageja \|access-dateJune 10, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091105004851/http://www.kurosawafilmstudio.com/info.html \|archive-dateNovember 5, 2009 }}</ref> A large collection of archive material, including scanned screenplays, photos and news articles, has been made available through the Akira Kurosawa Digital Archive, a Japanese proprietary website maintained by Ryukoku University Digital Archives Research Center in collaboration with Kurosawa Production.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.afc.ryukoku.ac.jp/Komon/kurosawa/index.html\|titlebluesky \|publisherSGI Japan Ltd. \| languageja \|access-dateJuly 2, 2018}}</ref> Anaheim University Akira Kurosawa School of Film Anaheim University in collaboration with Kurosawa Production and the Kurosawa family established the Anaheim University Akira Kurosawa School of Film in spring 2009. The Anaheim University Akira Kurosawa School of Film offers an Online Master of Fine Arts (MFA) in Digital Filmmaking supported by many of the world's greatest filmmakers.<ref>{{cite web\|titleThe Anaheim University Akira Kurosawa School of Film – Online MFA in Digital Filmmaking\|publisherAnaheim University\|urlhttp://www.anaheim.edu/schools-and-institutes/akira-kurosawa-school-of-film\|access-dateSeptember 22, 2012\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140721032348/http://anaheim.edu/schools-and-institutes/akira-kurosawa-school-of-film\|archive-dateJuly 21, 2014}}</ref> Kurosawa Restaurant Group Kurosawa was known to be a connoisseur of Japanese cuisine and as such, the Kurosawa family foundation established the Kurosawa Restaurant Group after his passing in 1999, opening four restaurants in the Tokyo area bearing the family name. Nagatacho Kurosawa specializing in Shabu-shabu, Teppanyaki Kurosawa in Tsukiji specializing in Teppanyaki, Keyaki Kurosawa in Nishi-Azabu specializing in soba, and Udon Kurosawa specializing in udon in Roppongi. All four locations were designed to evoke the Meiji era machiya of Kurosawa's youth and feature memorabilia of Kurosawa's career. As of 2023, only the Tsukiji location is currently still operating. A number of entrepreneurs around the world have also opened restaurants and businesses in honor of Kurosawa without any connection to Akira or the estate.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Lindsay \|first1Dennis \|titleKurosawa Restaurant Tokyo \|urlhttps://www.thebetterlivingindex.com/kurosawa-restaurant-tokyo/ \|publisherthebetterlivingindex.com \|dateNovember 23, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleKurosawa \|urlhttps://9638.net \|websiteKurosawa Restaurant Group \|access-dateMarch 16, 2023}}</ref> Awards and honours {{Main\|List of awards and honors given to Akira Kurosawa}} Two film awards have also been named in Kurosawa's honour. The Akira Kurosawa Award for Lifetime Achievement in Film Directing is awarded during the San Francisco International Film Festival, while the Akira Kurosawa Award is given during the Tokyo International Film Festival.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://history.sffs.org/awards_tributes/search.php?search_by1&searchfieldAkira+Kurosawa+Award&x16&y10 \|titleAwards & Tributes\|publisherSan Francisco Film Society \|access-dateJune 9, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://variety.com/2008/film/features/mikhalkov-given-kurosawa-award-1117994692/ \|lastSchilling\|firstMark \|titleMikhalkov given Kurosawa Award\|workVariety \|access-dateJune 9, 2017 \| date=October 26, 2008}}</ref> Kurosawa has also been given a number of state honours, including being named as an officer of the French Légion d'honneur in 1984 and a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic in 1986, and he was the first filmmaker to receive the Order of Culture from his native Japan in 1985. Posthumously, he was recognized with the Junior Third Court Rank, which would be the modern equivalent of a noble title under the Kazoku aristocracy.<ref name"praemium">{{cite web \|title黒澤明 \|urlhttps://www.praemiumimperiale.org/ja/laureate/laureates/kuros \|websitepraemiumimperiale.org}}</ref> Documentaries A significant number of short and full-length documentaries concerning the life and work of Kurosawa were made both during his artistic heyday and after his death. AK, by French video essay director Chris Marker, was filmed while Kurosawa was working on {{lang\|ja-latn\|Ran}}; however, the documentary is more concerned about Kurosawa's distant yet polite personality than on the making of the film.<!-- The documentary is sometimes seen as being reflective of Marker's fascination with Japanese culture, which he also drew on for one of his best-known films, Sans Soleil.<ref name"Kehr" /> The film was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1985 Cannes Film Festival.--><ref name"festival-cannes.com">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.festival-cannes.com/en/films/a-k \|titleA.K. \|access-dateJune 28, 2009\|workfestival-cannes.com}}</ref><ref name"Kehr">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.chicagoreader.com/chicago/ak/Film?oid1054410\|publisherChicago Reader\|lastKehr\|firstDave\|titleA.K.\|dateMarch 7, 1986 \|access-date=June 24, 2017}}</ref> Other documentaries concerning Kurosawa's life and works produced posthumously include: * Kurosawa: The Last Emperor (Alex Cox, 1999)<ref>{{cite interview\|lastKurosawa\|firstKasuko\|urlhttp://www.alexcox.com/dir_lastemperor.htm\|titleKurosawa – The Last Emperor\|access-dateJune 24, 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071113154911/http://www.alexcox.com/dir_lastemperor.htm\|archive-date=November 13, 2007}}</ref> * A Message from Akira Kurosawa: For Beautiful Movies (Hisao Kurosawa, 2000)<ref name"akirakurosawa.info documentaries">{{cite web\|urlhttp://akirakurosawa.info/documentaries-on-akira-kurosawa/\|publisherAkira Kurosawa info\|titleDocumentaries on Akira Kurosawa\|dateNovember 16, 2015\|lastMaunula\|firstVili\|access-dateJune 30, 2018}}</ref> * Kurosawa (Adam Low, 2001)<ref>{{cite magazine\|urlhttps://www.timeout.com/london/film/kurosawa\|magazineTime Out\|locationLondon\|titleKurosawa\|authorWH\|access-dateJune 24, 2017}}</ref> * Akira Kurosawa: It Is Wonderful to Create (Toho Masterworks, 2002)<ref name="akirakurosawa.info documentaries" /> * Akira Kurosawa: The Epic and the Intimate (2010)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.oldies.com/product-view/6130FD.html\|publisherOldies.com\|titleRan (Blu-ray)\|access-dateJune 24, 2017}}</ref> * ''Kurosawa's Way'' (Catherine Cadou, 2011)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.criterion.com/films/28700-akira-kurosawa-s-dreams\|publisherThe Criterion Collection\|titleAkira Kurosawa's Dreams\|access-dateJune 21, 2017}}</ref> Notes {{reflist\|groupnote}} References {{reflist}} Sources {{refbegin\|30em}} * {{audie-bock-directors}} * {{cite book\| lastConrad\|firstDavid A.\|titleAkira Kurosawa and Modern Japan\|year2022\|publisherMcFarland & Co.\|isbn978-1-4766-8674-5}} * {{cite book\|lastFellini\|firstFederico\|titleFederico Fellini: Interviews \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/federicofellini00fede\|url-accessregistration\|editorBert Cardullo \|year2006\|publisherUniversity Press of Mississippi\|isbn978-1-57806-885-2 \|refCITEREFFellini}} * {{cite book\|lastGalbraith\|firstStuart IV\|titleThe Emperor and the Wolf: The Lives and Films of Akira Kurosawa and Toshiro Mifune\|year2002\|publisherFaber and Faber, Inc.\|isbn978-0-571-19982-2\|refCITEREFGalbraith\|url-accessregistration\|url=https://archive.org/details/emperorwolf00galb}} * {{cite book\| lastGoodwin\|firstJames\|titlePerspectives on Akira Kurosawa\|year1994\|publisherG. K. Hall & Co.\|isbn978-0-8161-1993-6}} * {{cite book\|lastKurosawa\|firstAkira\|othersTranslated by Audie E. Bock\|titleSomething Like an Autobiography\|year1983\|publisherVintage Books\|isbn=978-0-394-71439-4}} * {{cite book\|lastKurosawa\|firstAkira\|editorBert Cardullo\|titleAkira Kurosawa: Interviews\|year2008\|publisherUniversity Press of Mississippi \|isbn=978-1-57806-996-5 }} * {{cite video\|titleKurosawa: The Last Emperor \|publisherChannel Four (UK)/Exterminating Angel Productions\|date1999\|typeDVD-R\|ref=CITEREFKurosawa: The Last Emperor}} * {{cite video\|titleKurosawa\|date2000\|publisherWNET, BBC and NHK\|typeDVD\|ref=CITEREFKurosawa (WNET)}} * {{cite book\|lastMellen\|firstJoan\|titleSeven Samurai (BFI Classics)\|year2002\|publisherBritish Film Institute\|isbn978-0-85170-915-4}} * {{cite book\|lastNogami\|firstTeruyo\|author-linkTeruyo Nogami\|titleWaiting on the Weather\|year2006\|publisherStone Bridge Press\|isbn978-1-933330-09-9\|refCITEREFNogami}} * {{cite book\|lastPrince\|firstStephen\|titleThe Warrior's Camera: The Cinema of Akira Kurosawa\|edition2nd, revised \|year1999\|publisherPrinceton University Press\|isbn978-0-691-01046-5 \|refCITEREFPrince}} * {{cite video\|titleRashomon\|date2002\|publisherCriterion\|typeDVD\|ref=CITEREFRashomon}} * {{cite book\|lastRay\|firstSatyajit\|titleOur Films Their Films\|year2007\|publisherOrient Blackswan\|isbn978-81-250-1565-9\|ref=CITEREFRay}} * {{cite book\|lastRichie\|firstDonald\|author-linkDonald Richie\|titleThe Films of Akira Kurosawa \|editionThird, Expanded and Updated\|year1999\|publisherUniversity of California Press\|isbn978-0-520-22037-9}} * {{cite book\|lastRichie\|firstDonald\|titleA Hundred Years of Japanese Film\|year2001\|publisherKodansha International \|isbn978-4-7700-2682-8}} * {{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSVVyDwAAQBAJ\|titleAkira Kurosawa: A Viewer's Guide\|lastSan Juan\|firstEric\|date2018\|publisherRowman & Littlefield\|isbn978-1-5381-1090-4\|language=en}} * {{cite video\|titleSeven Samurai: 3-disc Remastered Edition (Criterion Collection Spine #2)\|publisherCriterion\|typeDVD\|year2006\|ref=CITEREFSeven Samurai}} * {{cite book\|lastTagusagawa\|firstHiroshi\|titleAkira Kurosawa vs. Hollywood\|publisherBungeishunjū\|year2006\|languageJapanese\|isbn=978-4-16-367790-3}} * {{cite video\|titleYojimbo: Remastered Edition (Criterion Collection Spine #52)\|publisherCriterion\|typeDVD\|year2007\|ref=CITEREFYojimbo}} * {{cite book\|lastYoshimoto\|firstMitsuhiro\|titleKurosawa: Film Studies and Japanese Cinema\|year2000\|publisherDuke University Press\|isbn978-0-8223-2519-2\|ref=CITEREFYoshimoto}} {{refend}} Further reading {{refbegin\|30em}} * Buchanan, Judith (2005). Shakespeare on Film. Pearson Longman. {{ISBN\|0-582-43716-4}}. * Burch, Nöel (1979). [https://quod.lib.umich.edu/c/cjfs/aaq5060.0001.001 To the Distant Observer: Form and Meaning in the Japanese Cinema]. University of California Press. {{ISBN\|0-520-03605-0}}. * Cowie, Peter (2010). Akira Kurosawa: Master of Cinema. Rizzoli Publications. {{ISBN\|0-8478-3319-4}}. * Davies, Anthony (1990). ''Filming Shakespeare's Plays: The Adaptions of Laurence Olivier, Orson Welles, Peter Brook and Akira Kurosawa. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN\|0-521-39913-0}}. * Desser, David (1983). The Samurai Films of Akira Kurosawa (Studies in Cinema No. 23)''. UMI Research Press. {{ISBN\|0-8357-1924-3}}. * {{cite book\|lastDesser\|firstDavid\|titleEros Plus Massacre\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/erosplusmassacre00davi\|url-accessregistration\|year1988\|publisherIndiana University Press \|isbn978-0-253-20469-1\|ref=CITEREFDesser}} * {{cite book\| lastGoodwin\|firstJames\|titleAkira Kurosawa and Intertextual Cinema\|year1993\|publisherThe Johns Hopkins University Press\|isbn978-0-8018-4661-8}} * {{cite book\|lastGodard\|firstJean-Luc\|editorTom Milne\|titleGodard on Godard\|year1972\|publisherDa Capo Press\|isbn978-0-306-80259-1\|refCITEREFGodard}} * {{cite book\|lastHigh\|firstPeter B.\|titleThe Imperial Screen: Japanese Film Culture in the Fifteen Years' War, 1931–45\|year2003\|publisherThe University of Wisconsin Press\|isbn978-0-299-18134-5\|ref=CITEREFHigh}} * {{cite book\|lastKurosawa\|firstAkira\|year1999\|titleKurosawa Akira zengashū\|languageja\|publisher Shogakukan\|isbn978-4-09-699611-9\|trans-titleThe complete artworks of Akira Kurosawa}} * {{cite book\|lastKurosawa\|firstAkira\|titleYume wa tensai de aru (A Dream Is a Genius)\|year1999\|publisherBungei Shunjū\|isbn978-4-16-355570-6}} * {{cite book\|lastKardozi\|firstKarzan\| author-link Karzan Kardozi \|title100 Years of Cinema, 100 Directors, Vol 9: Akira Kurosawa\|year2024\|publisherXazalnus Publication\|url-accessregistration\|viaThe Moving Silent \| url=https://themovingsilent.wordpress.com/2015/03/24/book-100-years-of-cinema-from-d-w-griffith-to-richard-linklater/}} * Leonard, Kendra Preston (2009). Shakespeare, Madness, and Music: Scoring Insanity in Cinematic Adaptations. Plymouth: The Scarecrow Press. {{ISBN\|0-8108-6946-2}}. * {{cite book\|lastMartinez\|firstDelores P.\|titleRemaking Kurosawa: Translations and Permutations in Global Cinema\|year2009 \|publisherPalgrave Macmillan\|isbn978-0-312-29358-1 \|ref=CITEREFMartinez}} * {{cite book\|lastMellen\|firstJoan\|titleVoices from the Japanese Cinema\|year1975\|publisherLiveright Publishing Corporation\|isbn978-0-87140-604-0}} * {{cite book\|lastMellen\|firstJoan\|titleThe Waves at Genji's Door\|year1976\|publisherPantheon Books\|isbn978-0-394-49799-0\|url-accessregistration\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/wavesatgenjisdoo0000mell}} * {{cite book\|lastMorrison\|firstJames\|titleRoman Polanski (Contemporary Film Directors)\|year2007\|publisherUniversity of Illinois Press\|isbn978-0-252-07446-2\|ref=CITEREFMorrison}} * {{cite book\|lastPeckinpah\|firstSam\|titleSam Peckinpah: Interviews \|editorKevin J. Hayes \|year2008\|publisherUniversity Press of Mississippi \|isbn978-1-934110-64-5 \|refCITEREFPeckinpah}} * {{cite book\|lastSato\|firstTadao\|titleCurrents in Japanese Cinema\|year1987\|publisherKodansha International Ltd.\|isbn978-0-87011-815-9\|ref=CITEREFSato}} * Sorensen, Lars-Martin (2009). Censorship of Japanese Films During the U.S. Occupation of Japan: The Cases of Yasujiro Ozu and Akira Kurosawa. Edwin Mellen Press. {{ISBN\|0-7734-4673-7}}. * {{cite video\|titleStar Wars Episode IV: A New Hope \|date2006\|publisher20th Century Fox Home Entertainment \|typeDVD\|ref=CITEREFStar Wars}} * {{cite book\|lastTirard\|firstLaurent\|titleMoviemakers' Master Class: Private Lessons from the World's Foremost Directors\|year2002\|publisherFaber and Faber Ltd.\|isbn978-0-571-21102-9\|ref=CITEREFTirard}} * Wild, Peter. (2014) Akira Kurosawa Reaktion Books {{ISBN\|978-1-78023-343-7}} {{refend}} External links {{Commons category\|Akira Kurosawa}} {{Wikiquote}} * {{IMDb name\|41}} * {{Tcmdb name\|106389%7C8004\|Akira Kurosawa}} * [https://www.criterion.com/shop/collection/3-akira-kurosawa Akira Kurosawa] at The Criterion Collection * [http://akirakurosawa.info/ Akira Kurosawa: News, Information and Discussion] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100704194325/http://archive.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/02/kurosawa.html Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081024014317/http://www.horror-house.jp/cat2/19101998.html Akira Kurosawa at Japanese celebrity's grave guide] {{in lang\|ja}} * {{jmdb name\|0121190}} * [https://sites.google.com/site/illustratedjapanesevocabulary/film/kurosawa Several trailers] * [https://anaheim.edu/schools-and-institutes/akira-kurosawa-school-of-film.html Anaheim University Akira Kurosawa School of Film] * {{Rotten Tomatoes person\|akira_kurosawa}} {{Akira Kurosawa}} {{Yojimbo}} {{Navboxes \|title = Awards for Akira Kurosawa \|list = {{Asian of the Century}} {{Academy Award Best Foreign Language Film}} {{Academy Honorary Award}} {{BAFTA Award for Best Direction 1968–1984}} {{British Film Institute Fellowship}} {{DirectorsGuildofAmericaAwardLifetimeFilm}} {{Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement}} {{London Film Critics Circle Award for Director of the Year}} {{National Board of Review Award for Best Director}} {{Ramon Magsaysay Award Winners}} {{Silver Bear for Best Director}} }} {{Portal bar\|Japan\|Film}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Kurosawa, Akira}} Category:1910 births Category:1998 deaths Category:20th-century Japanese writers Category:20th-century Japanese male writers Category:Academy Honorary Award recipients Category:Akira Kurosawa Award winners Category:Best Director BAFTA Award winners Category:César Award winners Category:David di Donatello winners Category:Directors Guild of America Award winners Category:Directors of Best Foreign Language Film Academy Award winners Category:Directors of Palme d'Or winners Category:Directors of Golden Lion winners Category:Filmmakers who won the Best Foreign Language Film BAFTA Award Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Category:Recipients of the Fukuoka Prize Category:Japanese film directors Category:Japanese film editors Category:Japanese film producers Category:Japanese male writers Category:Japanese male screenwriters Category:Japanese pacifists Category:Japanese screenwriters Category:Kyoto laureates in Arts and Philosophy Category:Recipients of the Legion of Honour Category:People from Shinagawa Category:People from the Empire of Japan Category:People's Honour Award winners Category:Persons of Cultural Merit Category:Japanese propagandists Category:Japanese propaganda film directors Category:Ramon Magsaysay Award winners Category:Recipients of the Order of Culture Category:Recipients of the Order of Friendship of Peoples Category:Recipients of the Praemium Imperiale Category:Samurai film directors Category:Silver Bear for Best Director recipients Category:Writers from Tokyo Category:Activists from Tokyo Category:Yakuza film directors Category:Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement recipients Category:Shakespearean directors	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akira_Kurosawa	2025-04-05T18:25:25.257555
874	Ancient Egypt	{{Short description\|Cradle of civilization in Northeast Africa}} {{For\|the magazine\|Ancient Egypt (magazine)}}{{for\|the TV series\|Ancient Egyptians (TV series)}} {{pp-move}} {{pp\|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=September 2024}} {{Infobox former country \| image_map = Ancient Egypt map-en.svg \| map_width = 150 \| map_caption = Map of ancient Egyptian cities and other major sites following the Nile up to the Fifth Cataract. Modern Cairo and Jerusalem are marked for reference. \| conventional_long_name = Ancient Egypt \| native_name = {{huge\|𓆎 𓅓 𓏏𓊖}}<!--km.t/kemet/kumat per Egypt article--><br/>{{resize\|80%\|{{nobold\|{{transliteration\|egy\|km.t (Kemet)}}}}}} \| common_name = Ancient Egypt \| capital = See: List of historical capitals of Egypt \| religion = Egyptian religion \| era = Ancient history <!--Intentionally ignored the intermediate periods because they can overlap with the main periods, also the third intermediate period is not really a chaotic period compared to two other intermediate periods-->\| year_start = {{circa\|3150 BC}} \| common_languages = Egyptian language \| year_end = 30 BC{{efn\|Depending on the definition, the end of ancient Egypt may be considered to have occurred either with the end of the Late Period in 332 BC or with the end of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in 30 BC.}} \| event_start = Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt \| date_start \| event1 Early Dynastic Period \| date_event1 = {{circa\|3150 BC}} – 2686 BC \| event2 = {{nowrap\|Old Kingdom}} \| date_event2 = 2686 BC – 2181 BC \| event3 = {{nowrap\|Middle Kingdom}} \| date_event3 = 2134 BC – 1690 BC \| event4 = {{nowrap\|New Kingdom}} \| date_event4 = {{nowrap\|1549 BC – 1078/77 BC{{efn\|With the death of Ramesses XI}}}} \| event5 = {{nowrap\|Late Period}} \| date_event5 = 664 BC – 332 BC \| event6 = {{nowrap\|Ptolemaic Kingdom}} \| date_event6 = 332 BC – 30 BC \| event_end = Annexation by the Roman Empire \| p1 = Predynastic Egypt \| s1 = Roman Egypt }} Ancient Egypt was a cradle of civilization concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in Northeast Africa. It emerged from prehistoric Egypt around 3150{{nbsp}}BC (according to conventional Egyptian chronology),{{sfnp\|Chronology\|2000}} when Upper and Lower Egypt were amalgamated by Menes, who is believed by the majority of Egyptologists to have been the same person as Narmer.{{sfnp\|Dodson\|Hilton\|2004\|p=46}} The history of ancient Egypt unfolded as a series of stable kingdoms interspersed by the "Intermediate Periods" of relative instability. These stable kingdoms existed in one of three periods: the Old Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age; the Middle Kingdom of the Middle Bronze Age; or the New Kingdom of the Late Bronze Age. The pinnacle of ancient Egyptian power was achieved during the New Kingdom, which extended its rule to much of Nubia and a considerable portion of the Levant. After this period, Egypt entered an era of slow decline. Over the course of its history, it was invaded or conquered by a number of foreign civilizations, including the Hyksos, the Kushites, the Assyrians, the Persians, and, most notably, the Greeks and then the Romans. The end of ancient Egypt is variously defined as occurring with the end of the Late Period during the Wars of Alexander the Great in 332 BC or with the end of the Greek-ruled Ptolemaic Kingdom during the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BC.{{sfnp\|Clayton\|1994\|p=217}} In AD 642, the Arab conquest of Egypt brought an end to the region's millennium-long Greco-Roman period. The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the Nile's conditions for agriculture. The predictable flooding of the Nile and controlled irrigation of its fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and thereby substantial social and cultural development. With resources to spare, the administration sponsored the mineral exploitation of the valley and its surrounding desert regions, the early development of an independent writing system, the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects, trade with other civilizations, and a military to assert Egyptian dominance throughout the Near East. Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite scribes, religious leaders, and administrators under the control of the reigning pharaoh, who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people in the context of an elaborate system of religious beliefs.{{sfnmp\|1a1James\|1y2005\|1p8\|2a1Manuelian\|2y1998\|2pp6–7}} Among the many achievements of ancient Egypt are: the quarrying, surveying, and construction techniques that supported the building of monumental pyramids, temples, and obelisks; a system of mathematics; a practical and effective system of medicine; irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques; the first known planked boats;{{sfnp\|Ward\|2001}} Egyptian faience and glass technology; new forms of literature; and the earliest known peace treaty, which was ratified with the Anatolia-based Hittite Empire.{{sfnp\|Clayton\|1994\|p153}} Its art and architecture were widely copied and its antiquities were carried off to be studied, admired, or coveted in the far corners of the world. Likewise, its monumental ruins inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for millennia. A newfound European and Egyptian respect for antiquities and excavations that began in earnest in the early modern period has led to much scientific investigation of ancient Egypt and its society, as well as a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy.{{sfnp\|James\|2005\|p84}} History {{Main\|History of ancient Egypt\|Population history of Egypt}} The Nile has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history. The fertile floodplain of the Nile gave humans the opportunity to develop a settled agricultural economy and a more sophisticated, centralized society that became a cornerstone in the history of human civilization.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|pp=16, 65–66}} {{Ancient Egypt graphical timeline}} Predynastic period {{Main\|Predynastic Egypt}} jar decorated with gazelles (Predynastic Period)]] In Predynastic and Early Dynastic times, the Egyptian climate was much less arid than it is today. Large regions of Egypt were savanna and traversed by herds of grazing ungulates. Foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs, and the Nile region supported large populations of waterfowl. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians, and this is also the period when many animals were first domesticated.{{sfnp\|Ikram\|1992\|p=5}} By about 5500&nbsp;BC, small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a series of cultures demonstrating firm control of agriculture and animal husbandry, and identifiable by their pottery and personal items, such as combs, bracelets, and beads. The largest of these early cultures in upper (Southern) Egypt was the Badarian culture, which probably originated in the Western Desert; it was known for its high-quality ceramics, stone tools, and its use of copper.{{sfnp\|Hayes\|1964\|p=220}} The Badari was followed by the Naqada culture: the Naqada I (Amratian), the Naqada II (Gerzeh), and Naqada III (Semainean).{{sfnp\|Kemp\|1989\|p14}} These brought a number of technological improvements. As early as the Naqada I Period, predynastic Egyptians imported obsidian from Ethiopia, used to shape blades and other objects from flakes.{{sfnp\|Aston\|Harrell\|Shaw\|2000\|pp46–47}}{{sfnp\|Aston\|1994\|pp23–26}} Mutual trade with the Levant was established during Naqada II ({{circa\|3600–3350 BC}}); this period was also the beginning of trade with Mesopotamia, which continued into the early dynastic period and beyond.{{sfnp\|Ataç\|2014\|pp424–425}} Over a period of about 1,000 years, the Naqada culture developed from a few small farming communities into a powerful civilization whose leaders were in complete control of the people and resources of the Nile valley.{{sfnp\|Chronology of the Naqada Period\|2001}} Establishing a power center at Nekhen, and later at Abydos, Naqada III leaders expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the Nile.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|pp64–64}} They also traded with Nubia to the south, the oases of the western desert to the west, and the cultures of the eastern Mediterranean and Near East to the east.{{sfnmp\|1a1Shaw\|1y2003\|1p61\|2a1Ataç\|2y2014\|2pp=424–425}} The Naqada culture manufactured a diverse selection of material goods, reflective of the increasing power and wealth of the elite, as well as societal personal-use items, which included combs, small statuary, painted pottery, high quality decorative stone vases, cosmetic palettes, and jewelry made of gold, lapis, and ivory. They also developed a ceramic glaze known as faience, which was used well into the Roman Period to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines.{{sfnp\|Nicholson\|Peltenburg\|2000\|pp178–179}}{{sfnp\|Faience in different Periods\|2000}} During the last predynastic phase, the Naqada culture began using written symbols that eventually were developed into a full system of hieroglyphs for writing the ancient Egyptian language.{{sfnp\|Allen\|2000\|p1}} , {{circa\|3500 BC}}, Naqada, possibly Gerzeh culture]] Early Dynastic Period ({{circa\|3150–2686}} BC) {{Main\|Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)}} The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the early Sumerian-Akkadian civilization of Mesopotamia and of ancient Elam. The third-century{{nbsp}}BC Egyptian priest Manetho grouped the long line of kings from Menes to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today. He began his official history with the king named "Meni" (or Menes in Greek), who was believed to have united the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt.{{sfnp\|Clayton\|1994\|p=6}} depicts the unification of the Two Lands.{{sfnp\|Robins\|2008\|p=32}}]] The transition to a unified state happened more gradually than ancient Egyptian writers represented, and there is no contemporary record of Menes. Some scholars now believe, however, that the mythical Menes may have been the king Narmer, who is depicted wearing royal regalia on the ceremonial Narmer Palette, in a symbolic act of unification.{{sfnp\|Clayton\|1994\|pp12–13}} In the Early Dynastic Period, which began about 3000{{nbsp}}BC, the first of the Dynastic kings solidified control over lower Egypt by establishing a capital at Memphis, from which he could control the labor force and agriculture of the fertile delta region, as well as the lucrative and critical trade routes to the Levant. The increasing power and wealth of the kings during the early dynastic period was reflected in their elaborate mastaba tombs and mortuary cult structures at Abydos, which were used to celebrate the deified king after his death.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|pp66–67}} The strong institution of kingship developed by the kings served to legitimize state control over the land, labor, and resources that were essential to the survival and growth of ancient Egyptian civilization.{{sfnp\|Early Dynastic Egypt\|2001}} Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) {{Main\|Old Kingdom of Egypt}} are among the most recognizable symbols of ancient Egyptian civilization.]] Major advances in architecture, art, and technology were made during the Old Kingdom, fueled by the increased agricultural productivity and resulting population growth, made possible by a well-developed central administration.{{sfnp\|James\|2005\|p40}} Some of ancient Egypt's crowning achievements, the Giza pyramids and Great Sphinx, were constructed during the Old Kingdom. Under the direction of the vizier, state officials collected taxes, coordinated irrigation projects to improve crop yield, and drafted peasants to work on construction projects.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|pp93–95}} enthroned]] With the rising importance of central administration in Egypt, a new class of educated scribes and officials arose who were granted estates by the king in payment for their services. Kings also made land grants to their mortuary cults and local temples, to ensure that these institutions had the resources to worship the king after his death. Scholars believe that five centuries of these practices slowly eroded the economic vitality of Egypt, and that the economy could no longer afford to support a large centralized administration.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|pp104–107}} As the power of the kings diminished, regional governors called nomarchs began to challenge the supremacy of the office of king. This, coupled with severe droughts between 2200 and 2150{{nbsp}}BC,{{sfnp\|Hassan\|2011}} is believed to have caused the country to enter the 140-year period of famine and strife known as the First Intermediate Period.{{sfnp\|Clayton\|1994\|p69}} First Intermediate Period (2181–2055 BC) {{Main\|First Intermediate Period of Egypt}} After Egypt's central government collapsed at the end of the Old Kingdom, the administration could no longer support or stabilize the country's economy. The ensuing food shortages and political disputes escalated into famines and small-scale civil wars. Yet despite difficult problems, local leaders, owing no tribute to the king, used their new-found independence to establish a thriving culture in the provinces. Once in control of their own resources, the provinces became economically richer—which was demonstrated by larger and better burials among all social classes.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|pp=111–112}} Free from their loyalties to the king, local rulers began competing with each other for territorial control and political power. By 2160{{nbsp}}BC, rulers in Herakleopolis controlled Lower Egypt in the north, while a rival clan based in Thebes, the Intef family, took control of Upper Egypt in the south. As the Intefs grew in power and expanded their control northward, a clash between the two rival dynasties became inevitable. Around 2055{{nbsp}}BC the northern Theban forces under Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II finally defeated the Herakleopolitan rulers, reuniting the Two Lands. They inaugurated a period of economic and cultural renaissance known as the Middle Kingdom.{{sfnp\|Clayton\|1994\|p29}}Middle Kingdom (2134–1690 BC) {{Main\|Middle Kingdom of Egypt}} or Senwosret II. It functioned as a divine guardian for the imiut; the divine kilt suggests that the statuette was not merely a representation of the living ruler.{{sfnp\|Guardian Figure 14.3.17\|2022}}]] , capstone of the Black Pyramid]] The kings of the Middle Kingdom restored the country's stability, which saw a resurgence of art and monumental building projects, and a new flourishing of literature.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|pp142, 171}} Mentuhotep II and his Eleventh Dynasty successors ruled from Thebes, but the vizier Amenemhat I, upon assuming the kingship at the beginning of the Twelfth Dynasty around 1985{{nbsp}}BC, shifted the kingdom's capital to the city of Itjtawy, located in Faiyum.{{sfnp\|Clayton\|1994\|p79}} From Itjtawy, the kings of the Twelfth Dynasty undertook a far-sighted land reclamation and irrigation scheme to increase agricultural output in the region. Moreover, the military reconquered territory in Nubia that was rich in quarries and gold mines, while laborers built a defensive structure in the Eastern Delta, called the "Walls of the Ruler", to defend against foreign attack.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|pp=148–152}} With the kings having secured the country militarily and politically and with vast agricultural and mineral wealth at their disposal, the nation's population, arts, and religion flourished. The Middle Kingdom displayed an increase in expressions of personal piety toward the gods. Middle Kingdom literature featured sophisticated themes and characters written in a confident, eloquent style.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|pp169–171}} The relief and portrait sculpture of the period captured subtle, individual details that reached new heights of technical sophistication.{{sfnp\|Robins\|2008\|p90}} Second Intermediate Period (1674–1549 BC) and the Hyksos {{Main\|Second Intermediate Period of Egypt}} Around 1785{{nbsp}}BC, as the power of the Middle Kingdom kings weakened, a Western Asian people called the Hyksos, who had already settled in the Delta, seized control of Egypt and established their capital at Avaris, forcing the former central government to retreat to Thebes. The king was treated as a vassal and expected to pay tribute.{{sfnp\|Ryholt\|1997\|p310}} The Hyksos ('foreign rulers') retained Egyptian models of government and identified as kings, thereby integrating Egyptian elements into their culture.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|pp180–182}} After retreating south, the native Theban kings found themselves trapped between the Canaanite Hyksos ruling the north and the Hyksos' Nubian allies, the Kushites, to the south. After years of vassalage, Thebes gathered enough strength to challenge the Hyksos in a conflict that lasted more than 30 years, until 1555{{nbsp}}BC.{{sfnp\|Ryholt\|1997\|p310}} Ahmose I waged a series of campaigns that permanently eradicated the Hyksos' presence in Egypt. He is considered the founder of the Eighteenth Dynasty, and the military became a central priority for his successors, who sought to expand Egypt's borders and attempted to gain mastery of the Near East.{{sfnp\|Redford\|1992\|pp129, 148–149}} New Kingdom (1549–1069 BC) {{Main\|New Kingdom of Egypt}} .]] The New Kingdom pharaohs established a period of unprecedented prosperity by securing their borders and strengthening diplomatic ties with their neighbours, including the Mitanni Empire, Assyria, and Canaan. Military campaigns waged under Tuthmosis I and his grandson Tuthmosis III extended the influence of the pharaohs to the largest empire Egypt had ever seen. Between their reigns, Hatshepsut, a queen who established herself as pharaoh, launched many building projects, including the restoration of temples damaged by the Hyksos, and sent trading expeditions to Punt and the Sinai.{{sfnp\|Clayton\|1994\|pp104–107}} When Tuthmosis III died in 1425{{nbsp}}BC, Egypt had an empire extending from Niya in north west Syria to the Fourth Cataract of the Nile in Nubia, cementing loyalties and opening access to critical imports such as bronze and wood.{{sfnp\|James\|2005\|p48}} The New Kingdom pharaohs began a large-scale building campaign to promote the god Amun, whose growing cult was based in Karnak. They also constructed monuments to glorify their own achievements, both real and imagined. The Karnak temple is the largest Egyptian temple ever built.{{sfnp\|Bleiberg\|2005\|p=49–50}} Around 1350{{nbsp}}BC, the stability of the New Kingdom was threatened when Amenhotep IV ascended the throne and instituted a series of radical and chaotic reforms. Changing his name to Akhenaten, he touted the previously obscure sun deity Aten as the supreme deity, suppressed the worship of most other deities, and moved the capital to the new city of Akhetaten (modern-day Amarna).{{sfnp\|Aldred\|1988\|p259}} He was devoted to his new religion and artistic style. After his death, the cult of the Aten was quickly abandoned and the traditional religious order restored. The subsequent pharaohs, Tutankhamun, Ay, and Horemheb, worked to erase all mention of Akhenaten's heresy, now known as the Amarna Period.{{sfnp\|O'Connor\|Cline\|2001\|p273}} flank the entrance of his temple Abu Simbel.]] Around 1279{{nbsp}}BC, Ramesses II, also known as Ramesses the Great, ascended the throne, and went on to build more temples, erect more statues and obelisks, and sire more children than any other pharaoh in history.{{efn\|With his two principal wives and large harem, Ramesses II sired more than 100 children. ({{harvp\|Clayton\|1994\|p146}})}} A bold military leader, Ramesses II led his army against the Hittites in the Battle of Kadesh (in modern Syria) and, after fighting to a stalemate, finally agreed to the first recorded peace treaty, around 1258{{nbsp}}BC.{{sfnp\|Tyldesley\|2001\|pp76–77}} Egypt's wealth, however, made it a tempting target for invasion, particularly by the Libyan Berbers to the west, and the Sea Peoples, a conjectured confederation of seafarers from the Aegean Sea.{{efn\|From {{harvp\|Killebrew\|Lehmann\|2013\|p2}}: "First coined in 1881 by the French Egyptologist G. Maspero (1896), the somewhat misleading term "Sea Peoples" encompasses the ethnonyms Lukka, Sherden, Shekelesh, Teresh, Eqwesh, Denyen, Sikil / Tjekker, Weshesh, and Peleset (Philistines). Footnote: The modern term "Sea Peoples" refers to peoples that appear in several New Kingdom Egyptian texts as originating from "islands"... The use of quotation marks in association with the term "Sea Peoples" in our title is intended to draw attention to the problematic nature of this commonly used term. It is noteworthy that the designation "of the sea" appears only in relation to the Sherden, Shekelesh, and Eqwesh. Subsequently, this term was applied somewhat indiscriminately to several additional ethnonyms, including the Philistines, who are portrayed in their earliest appearance as invaders from the north during the reigns of Merenptah and Ramesses III."{{blist\|From {{harvp\|Drews\|1993\|pp48–61}}: "The thesis that a great "migration of the Sea Peoples" occurred ca. 1200 B.C. is supposedly based on Egyptian inscriptions, one from the reign of Merneptah and another from the reign of Ramesses III. Yet in the inscriptions themselves such a migration nowhere appears. After reviewing what the Egyptian texts have to say about 'the sea peoples', one Egyptologist (Wolfgang Helck) recently remarked that although some things are unclear, "eins ist aber sicher: Nach den agyptischen Texten haben wir es nicht mit einer 'Volkerwanderung' zu tun." Thus the migration hypothesis is based not on the inscriptions themselves but on their interpretation."}}}} Initially, the military was able to repel these invasions, but Egypt eventually lost control of its remaining territories in southern Canaan, much of it falling to the Assyrians. The effects of external threats were exacerbated by internal problems such as corruption, tomb robbery, and civil unrest. After regaining their power, the high priests at the temple of Amun in Thebes accumulated vast tracts of land and wealth, and their expanded power splintered the country during the Third Intermediate Period.{{sfnp\|James\|2005\|p54}}Third Intermediate Period (1069–653 BC) {{Main\|Third Intermediate Period of Egypt}} Following the death of Ramesses XI in 1078{{nbsp}}BC, Smendes assumed authority over the northern part of Egypt, ruling from the city of Tanis. The south was effectively controlled by the High Priests of Amun at Thebes, who recognized Smendes in name only.{{sfnp\|Cerny\|1975\|p=645}} During this time, Libyans had been settling in the western delta, and chieftains of these settlers began increasing their autonomy. Libyan princes took control of the delta under Shoshenq I in 945{{nbsp}}BC, founding the so-called Libyan or Bubastite dynasty that would rule for some 200 years. Shoshenq also gained control of southern Egypt by placing his family members in important priestly positions. Libyan control began to erode as a rival dynasty in the delta arose in Leontopolis, and Kushites threatened from the south. and several other Kushite kings, Kerma Museum{{sfnp\|Bonnet\|2006\|p=128}}]] Around 727{{nbsp}}BC the Kushite king Piye invaded northward, seizing control of Thebes and eventually the Delta, which established the 25th Dynasty.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|p347}} During the 25th Dynasty, Pharaoh Taharqa created an empire nearly as large as the New Kingdom's. Twenty-fifth Dynasty pharaohs built, or restored, temples and monuments throughout the Nile valley, including at Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, and Jebel Barkal.{{sfnp\|Bonnet\|2006\|pp142–154}} During this period, the Nile valley saw the first widespread construction of pyramids (many in modern Sudan) since the Middle Kingdom.{{sfnp\|Mokhtar\|1990\|pp161–163}}{{sfnp\|Emberling\|2011\|pp9–11}}{{sfnp\|Silverman\|1997\|pp=36–37}} Egypt's far-reaching prestige declined considerably toward the end of the Third Intermediate Period. Its foreign allies had fallen into the Assyrian sphere of influence, and by 700{{nbsp}}BC war between the two states became inevitable. Between 671 and 667{{nbsp}}BC the Assyrians began the Assyrian conquest of Egypt. The reigns of both Taharqa and his successor, Tanutamun, were filled with frequent conflict with the Assyrians. Ultimately, the Assyrians pushed the Kushites back into Nubia, occupied Memphis, and sacked the temples of Thebes.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|pp352–353}}Late Period (653–332 BC) {{Main\|Late Period of ancient Egypt\|History of Persian Egypt}} The Assyrians left control of Egypt to a series of vassals who became known as the Saite kings of the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty. By 653{{nbsp}}BC, the Saite king Psamtik I was able to oust the Assyrians with the help of Greek mercenaries, who were recruited to form Egypt's first navy. Greek influence expanded greatly as the city-state of Naucratis became the home of Greeks in the Nile Delta. The Saite kings based in the new capital of Sais witnessed a brief but spirited resurgence in the economy and culture, but in 525{{nbsp}}BC, the Persian Empire, led by Cambyses II, began its conquest of Egypt, eventually defeating the pharaoh Psamtik III at the Battle of Pelusium. Cambyses II then assumed the formal title of pharaoh, but ruled Egypt from Iran, leaving Egypt under the control of a satrap. A few revolts against the Persians marked the 5th century{{nbsp}}BC, but Egypt was never able to overthrow the Persians until the end of the century.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|pp=365-369, 374-375, 377}} Following its annexation by Persia, Egypt was joined with Cyprus and Phoenicia in the sixth satrapy of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. This first period of Persian rule over Egypt, also known as the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty, ended in 402{{nbsp}}BC, when Egypt regained independence under a series of native dynasties. The last of these dynasties, the Thirtieth, proved to be the last native royal house of ancient Egypt, ending with the kingship of Nectanebo II. A brief restoration of Persian rule, sometimes known as the Thirty-First Dynasty, began in 343{{nbsp}}BC, but shortly after, in 332{{nbsp}}BC, the Persian ruler Mazaces handed Egypt over to Alexander the Great without a fight.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|p377-382}}Ptolemaic period (332–30 BC) {{Main\|Ptolemaic Kingdom}} wearing the double crown of Egypt]] In 332{{nbsp}}BC, Alexander the Great conquered Egypt with little resistance from the Persians and was welcomed by the Egyptians as a deliverer. The administration established by Alexander's successors, the Macedonian Ptolemaic Kingdom, was based on an Egyptian model and based in the new capital city of Alexandria. The city showcased the power and prestige of Hellenistic rule, and became a centre of learning and culture that included the famous Library of Alexandria and the Mouseion.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|pp388, 399-400}} The Lighthouse of Alexandria lit the way for the many ships that kept trade flowing through the city—as the Ptolemies made commerce and revenue-generating enterprises, such as papyrus manufacturing, their top priority.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|p405}} Hellenistic culture did not supplant native Egyptian culture, as the Ptolemies supported time-honored traditions in an effort to secure the loyalty of the populace. They built new temples in Egyptian style, supported traditional cults, and portrayed themselves as pharaohs. Some traditions merged, as Greek and Egyptian gods were syncretized into composite deities, such as Serapis, and classical Greek forms of sculpture influenced traditional Egyptian motifs. Despite their efforts to appease the Egyptians, the Ptolemies were challenged by native rebellion, bitter family rivalries, and frequent mob violence in Alexandria.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|pp404, 406, 409-412}} In addition, as Rome relied more heavily on imports of grain from Egypt, the Romans took great interest in the political situation in the country. Continued Egyptian revolts, ambitious politicians, and powerful opponents from the Near East made this situation unstable, leading Rome to send forces to secure the country as a province of its empire.{{sfnp\|James\|2005\|p62}} Roman period (30 BC – AD 642) {{Main\|Roman Egypt}} epitomize the meeting of Egyptian and Roman cultures.]] Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire in 30{{nbsp}}BC, following the defeat of Mark Antony and Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII by Octavian (later Emperor Augustus) in the Battle of Actium. The Romans relied heavily on grain shipments from Egypt, and the Roman army, under the control of a prefect appointed by the emperor, quelled rebellions, strictly enforced the collection of heavy taxes, and prevented attacks by bandits, which had become a notorious problem during the period.{{sfnp\|James\|2005\|p63}} Alexandria became an increasingly important center on the trade route with the orient, as exotic luxuries were in high demand in Rome.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|p426}} Although the Romans had a more hostile attitude than the Greeks towards the Egyptians, some traditions such as mummification and worship of the traditional gods continued.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|p422}} The art of mummy portraiture flourished, and some Roman emperors had themselves depicted as pharaohs, though not to the extent that the Ptolemies had. The former lived outside Egypt and did not perform the ceremonial functions of Egyptian kingship. Local administration became Roman in style and closed to native Egyptians.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|p422}} From the mid-first century AD, Christianity took root in Egypt and it was originally seen as another cult that could be accepted. However, it was an uncompromising religion that sought to win converts from the pagan Egyptian and Greco-Roman religions and threatened popular religious traditions. This led to the persecution of converts to Christianity, culminating in the great purges of Diocletian starting in 303, but eventually Christianity won out.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|p431}} In 391, the Christian emperor Theodosius introduced legislation that banned pagan rites and closed temples.{{sfnp\|Chadwick\|2001\|p373}} Alexandria became the scene of great anti-pagan riots with public and private religious imagery destroyed.{{sfnp\|MacMullen\|1984\|p63}} As a consequence, Egypt's native religious culture was continually in decline. While the native population continued to speak their language, the ability to read hieroglyphic writing slowly disappeared as the role of the Egyptian temple priests and priestesses diminished. The temples themselves were sometimes converted to churches or abandoned to the desert.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|p445}} Government and economy Administration and commerce The pharaoh was the absolute monarch of the country and, at least in theory, wielded complete control of the land and its resources. The king was the supreme military commander and head of the government, who relied on a bureaucracy of officials to manage his affairs. In charge of the administration was his second in command, the vizier, who acted as the king's representative and coordinated land surveys, the treasury, building projects, the legal system, and the archives.{{sfnp\|Manuelian\|1998\|p358}} At a regional level, the country was divided into as many as 42 administrative regions called nomes each governed by a nomarch, who was accountable to the vizier for his jurisdiction. The temples formed the backbone of the economy. Not only were they places of worship, but were also responsible for collecting and storing the kingdom's wealth in a system of granaries and treasuries administered by overseers, who redistributed grain and goods.{{sfnp\|Manuelian\|1998\|p363}} Much of the economy was centrally organized and strictly controlled. Although the ancient Egyptians did not use coinage until the Late period,{{sfnp\|Egypt: Coins of the Ptolemies\|2002}} they did use a type of money-barter system,{{sfnp\|Meskell\|2004\|p23}} with standard sacks of grain and the deben, a weight of roughly {{convert\|91\|g\|oz\|0}} of copper or silver, forming a common denominator.{{sfnp\|Manuelian\|1998\|p372}} Workers were paid in grain; a simple laborer might earn {{frac\|5\|1\|2}}&nbsp;sacks (200&nbsp;kg or 400&nbsp;lb) of grain per month, while a foreman might earn {{frac\|7\|1\|2}}&nbsp;sacks (250&nbsp;kg or 550&nbsp;lb). Prices were fixed across the country and recorded in lists to facilitate trading; for example a shirt cost five copper deben, while a cow cost 140{{nbsp}}deben.{{sfnp\|Manuelian\|1998\|p372}} Grain could be traded for other goods, according to the fixed price list.{{sfnp\|Manuelian\|1998\|p372}} During the fifth century{{nbsp}}BC coined money was introduced into Egypt from abroad. At first the coins were used as standardized pieces of precious metal rather than true money, but in the following centuries international traders came to rely on coinage.{{sfnp\|Turner\|1984\|p125}}Social statusEgyptian society was highly stratified, and social status was expressly displayed. Farmers made up the bulk of the population, but agricultural produce was owned directly by the state, temple, or noble family that owned the land.{{sfnp\|Manuelian\|1998\|p383}} Farmers were also subject to a labor tax and were required to work on irrigation or construction projects in a corvée system.{{sfnp\|James\|2005\|p136}} Artists and craftsmen were of higher status than farmers, but they were also under state control, working in the shops attached to the temples and paid directly from the state treasury. Scribes and officials formed the upper class in ancient Egypt, known as the "white kilt class" in reference to the bleached linen garments that served as a mark of their rank.{{sfnp\|Billard\|1978\|p109}} The upper class prominently displayed their social status in art and literature. Below the nobility were the priests, physicians, and engineers with specialized training in their field. It is unclear whether slavery as understood today existed in ancient Egypt; there is difference of opinions among authors.{{sfnp\|Social classes in ancient Egypt\|2003}} The ancient Egyptians viewed men and women, including people from all social classes, as essentially equal under the law, and even the lowliest peasant was entitled to petition the vizier and his court for redress.{{sfnp\|Johnson\|2002}} Although slaves were mostly used as indentured servants, they were able to buy and sell their servitude, work their way to freedom or nobility, and were usually treated by doctors in the workplace.{{sfnp\|Slavery\|2012}} Both men and women had the right to own and sell property, make contracts, marry and divorce, receive inheritance, and pursue legal disputes in court. Married couples could own property jointly and protect themselves from divorce by agreeing to marriage contracts, which stipulated the financial obligations of the husband to his wife and children should the marriage end. Compared with their counterparts in ancient Greece, Rome, and even more modern places around the world, ancient Egyptian women had a greater range of personal choices, legal rights, and opportunities for achievement. Women such as Hatshepsut and Cleopatra VII even became pharaohs, while others wielded power as Divine Wives of Amun. Despite these freedoms, ancient Egyptian women did not often take part in official roles in the administration, aside from the royal high priestesses, apparently served only secondary roles in the temples (not much data for many dynasties), and were not so probably to be as educated as men.{{sfnp\|Johnson\|2002}} Legal system from Saqqara, 5th dynasty]] The head of the legal system was officially the pharaoh, who was responsible for enacting laws, delivering justice, and maintaining law and order, a concept the ancient Egyptians referred to as Ma'at.{{sfnp\|Manuelian\|1998\|p358}} Although no legal codes from ancient Egypt survive, court documents show that Egyptian law was based on a common-sense view of right and wrong that emphasized reaching agreements and resolving conflicts rather than strictly adhering to a complicated set of statutes.{{sfnp\|Johnson\|2002}} Local councils of elders, known as Kenbet in the New Kingdom, were responsible for ruling in court cases involving small claims and minor disputes.{{sfnp\|Manuelian\|1998\|p358}} More serious cases involving murder, major land transactions, and tomb robbery were referred to the Great Kenbet, over which the vizier or pharaoh presided. Plaintiffs and defendants were expected to represent themselves and were required to swear an oath that they had told the truth. In some cases, the state took on both the role of prosecutor and judge, and it could torture the accused with beatings to obtain a confession and the names of any co-conspirators. Whether the charges were trivial or serious, court scribes documented the complaint, testimony, and verdict of the case for future reference.{{sfnp\|Oakes\|Gahlin\|2003\|p=472}} Punishment for minor crimes involved either imposition of fines, beatings, facial mutilation, or exile, depending on the severity of the offense. Serious crimes such as murder and tomb robbery were punished by execution, carried out by decapitation, drowning, or impaling the criminal on a stake. Punishment could also be extended to the criminal's family.{{sfnp\|Manuelian\|1998\|p358}} Beginning in the New Kingdom, oracles played a major role in the legal system, dispensing justice in both civil and criminal cases. The procedure was to ask the god a "yes" or "no" question concerning the right or wrong of an issue. The god, carried by a number of priests, rendered judgement by choosing one or the other, moving forward or backward, or pointing to one of the answers written on a piece of papyrus or an ostracon.{{sfnp\|McDowell\|1999\|p168}} Agriculture {{Main\|Ancient Egyptian agriculture}} {{See also\|Gardens of ancient Egypt}} at Thebes (Eighteenth Dynasty)]] planted round with date palms and fruit trees, Tomb of Nebamun, Thebes, 18th Dynasty]] A combination of favorable geographical features contributed to the success of ancient Egyptian culture, the most important of which was the rich fertile soil resulting from annual inundations of the Nile River. The ancient Egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance of food, allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural, technological, and artistic pursuits. Land management was crucial in ancient Egypt because taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned.{{sfnp\|Manuelian\|1998\|p=361}} Farming in Egypt was dependent on the cycle of the Nile River. The Egyptians recognized three seasons: Akhet (flooding), Peret (planting), and Shemu (harvesting). The flooding season lasted from June to September, depositing on the river's banks a layer of mineral-rich silt ideal for growing crops. After the floodwaters had receded, the growing season lasted from October to February. Farmers plowed and planted seeds in the fields, which were irrigated with ditches and canals. Egypt received little rainfall, so farmers relied on the Nile to water their crops.{{sfnp\|Nicholson\|Shaw\|2000\|p514}} From March to May, farmers used sickles to harvest their crops, which were then threshed with a flail to separate the straw from the grain. Winnowing removed the chaff from the grain, and the grain was then ground into flour, brewed to make beer, or stored for later use.{{sfnp\|Nicholson\|Shaw\|2000\|p506}} The ancient Egyptians cultivated emmer and barley, and several other cereal grains, all of which were used to make the two main food staples of bread and beer.{{sfnp\|Nicholson\|Shaw\|2000\|p510}} Flax plants, uprooted before they started flowering, were grown for the fibers of their stems. These fibers were split along their length and spun into thread, which was used to weave sheets of linen and to make clothing. Papyrus growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper. Vegetables and fruits were grown in garden plots, close to habitations and on higher ground, and had to be watered by hand. Vegetables included leeks, garlic, melons, squashes, pulses, lettuce, and other crops, in addition to grapes that were made into wine.{{sfnp\|Nicholson\|Shaw\|2000\|pp577, 630}} .]]{{-\|left}} Animals plows his fields in Aaru with a pair of oxen, Deir el-Medina.]] The Egyptians believed that a balanced relationship between people and animals was an essential element of the cosmic order; thus humans, animals and plants were believed to be members of a single whole.{{sfnp\|Strouhal\|1989\|p117}} Animals, both domesticated and wild, were therefore a critical source of spirituality, companionship, and sustenance to the ancient Egyptians. Cattle were the most important livestock; the administration collected taxes on livestock in regular censuses, and the size of a herd reflected the prestige and importance of the estate or temple that owned them. In addition to cattle, the ancient Egyptians kept sheep, goats, and pigs. Poultry, such as ducks, geese, and pigeons, were captured in nets and bred on farms, where they were force-fed with dough to fatten them.{{sfnp\|Manuelian\|1998\|p381}} The Nile provided a plentiful source of fish. Bees were also domesticated from at least the Old Kingdom, and provided both honey and wax.{{sfnp\|Nicholson\|Shaw\|2000\|p=409}} The ancient Egyptians used donkeys and oxen as beasts of burden, and they were responsible for plowing the fields and trampling seed into the soil. The slaughter of a fattened ox was also a central part of an offering ritual. Horses were introduced by the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period. Camels, although known from the New Kingdom, were not used as beasts of burden until the Late Period. There is also evidence to suggest that elephants were briefly used in the Late Period but largely abandoned due to lack of grazing land.{{sfnp\|Manuelian\|1998\|p381}} Cats, dogs, and monkeys were common family pets, while more exotic pets imported from the heart of Africa, such as Sub-Saharan African lions,{{sfnp\|Heptner\|Sludskii\|1992\|pp83–95}} were reserved for royalty. Herodotus observed that the Egyptians were the only people to keep their animals with them in their houses.{{sfnp\|Strouhal\|1989\|p117}} During the Late Period, the worship of the gods in their animal form was extremely popular, such as the cat goddess Bastet and the ibis god Thoth, and these animals were kept in large numbers for the purpose of ritual sacrifice.{{sfnp\|Oakes\|Gahlin\|2003\|p229}} Natural resources {{Further\|Mining industry of Egypt\|Stone quarries of ancient Egypt}} Egypt is rich in building and decorative stone, copper and lead ores, gold, and semiprecious stones. These natural resources allowed the ancient Egyptians to build monuments, sculpt statues, make tools, and fashion jewelry.{{sfnp\|Greaves\|Little\|1930\|p123}} Embalmers used salts from the Wadi Natrun for mummification, which also provided the gypsum needed to make plaster.{{sfnp\|Lucas\|1962\|p413}} Ore-bearing rock formations were found in distant, inhospitable wadis in the Eastern Desert and the Sinai, requiring large, state-controlled expeditions to obtain natural resources found there. There were extensive gold mines in Nubia, and one of the first maps known is of a gold mine in this region. The Wadi Hammamat was a notable source of granite, greywacke, and gold. Flint was the first mineral collected and used to make tools, and flint handaxes are the earliest pieces of evidence of habitation in the Nile valley. Nodules of the mineral were carefully flaked to make blades and arrowheads of moderate hardness and durability even after copper was adopted for this purpose.{{sfnp\|Nicholson\|Shaw\|2000\|p28}} Ancient Egyptians were among the first to use minerals such as sulfur as cosmetic substances.{{sfnp\|Hogan \|2011\|loc"Sulphur"}} The Egyptians worked deposits of the lead ore galena at Gebel Rosas to make net sinkers, plumb bobs, and small figurines. Copper was the most important metal for toolmaking in ancient Egypt and was smelted in furnaces from malachite ore mined in the Sinai.{{sfnp\|Scheel\|1989\|p14}} Workers collected gold by washing the nuggets out of sediment in alluvial deposits, or by the more labor-intensive process of grinding and washing gold-bearing quartzite. Iron deposits found in upper Egypt were used in the Late Period.{{sfnp\|Nicholson\|Shaw\|2000\|p166}} High-quality building stones were abundant in Egypt; the ancient Egyptians quarried limestone all along the Nile valley, granite from Aswan, and basalt and sandstone from the wadis of the Eastern Desert. Deposits of decorative stones such as porphyry, greywacke, alabaster, and carnelian dotted the Eastern Desert and were collected even before the First Dynasty. In the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods, miners worked deposits of emeralds in Wadi Sikait and amethyst in Wadi el-Hudi.{{sfnp\|Nicholson\|Shaw\|2000\|p51}}Trade {{Main\|Ancient Egyptian trade}} ]] The ancient Egyptians engaged in trade with their foreign neighbors to obtain rare, exotic goods not found in Egypt. In the Predynastic Period, they established trade with Nubia to obtain gold and incense. They also established trade with Palestine, as evidenced by Palestinian-style oil jugs found in the burials of the First Dynasty pharaohs.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|pp63, 69}} An Egyptian colony stationed in southern Canaan dates to slightly before the First Dynasty.{{sfnp\|Porat\|1992\|pp433–440}} Tell es-Sakan in present-day Gaza was established as an Egyptian settlement in the late 4th millennium&nbsp;BC, and is theorised to have been the main Egyptian colonial site in the region.{{sfnp\|de Miroschedji\|Sadeq\|2008}} Narmer had Egyptian pottery produced in Canaan and exported back to Egypt.{{sfnp\|Porat\|1986\|pp=109–129}}{{sfnp\|Egyptian pottery of the beginning of the First Dynasty, found in South Palestine\|2000}} By the Second Dynasty at latest, ancient Egyptian trade with Byblos yielded a critical source of quality timber not found in Egypt. By the Fifth Dynasty, trade with Punt provided gold, aromatic resins, ebony, ivory, and wild animals such as monkeys and baboons.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|pp74, 101}} Egypt relied on trade with Anatolia for essential quantities of tin as well as supplementary supplies of copper, both metals being necessary for the manufacture of bronze. The ancient Egyptians prized the blue stone lapis lazuli, which had to be imported from far-away Afghanistan. Egypt's Mediterranean trade partners also included Greece and Crete, which provided, among other goods, supplies of olive oil.{{sfnp\|Manuelian\|1998\|p145}} Language {{Main\|Egyptian language}} Historical development {{Hiero \| r n kmt<br /> 'Egyptian language' \| <hiero>r:Z1 n km m t:O49</hiero> \| alignright \| eradefault}} The Egyptian language is a northern Afro-Asiatic language closely related to the Berber and Semitic languages.{{sfnp\|Loprieno\|1995b\|p2137}} It has the longest known history of any language having been written from {{circa\|3200}}{{nbsp}}BC to the Middle Ages and remaining as a spoken language for longer. The phases of ancient Egyptian are Old Egyptian, Middle Egyptian (Classical Egyptian), Late Egyptian, Demotic and Coptic.{{sfnp\|Loprieno\|2004\|p161}} Egyptian writings do not show dialect differences before Coptic, but it was probably spoken in regional dialects around Memphis and later Thebes.{{sfnp\|Loprieno\|2004\|p=162}} Ancient Egyptian was a synthetic language, but it became more analytic later on. Late Egyptian developed prefixal definite and indefinite articles, which replaced the older inflectional suffixes. There was a change from the older verb–subject–object word order to subject–verb–object.{{sfnp\|Loprieno\|1995b\|pp2137–2138}} The Egyptian hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic scripts were eventually replaced by the more phonetic Coptic alphabet. Coptic is still used in the liturgy of the Egyptian Orthodox Church, and traces of it are found in modern Egyptian Arabic.{{sfnp\|Vittman\|1991\|pp197–227}} Sounds and grammar Ancient Egyptian has 25 consonants similar to those of other Afro-Asiatic languages. These include pharyngeal and emphatic consonants, voiced and voiceless stops, voiceless fricatives and voiced and voiceless affricates. It has three long and three short vowels, which expanded in Late Egyptian to about nine.{{sfnp\|Loprieno\|1995a\|p46}} The basic word in Egyptian, similar to Semitic and Berber, is a triliteral or biliteral root of consonants and semiconsonants. Suffixes are added to form words. The verb conjugation corresponds to the person. For example, the triconsonantal skeleton {{transliteration\|egy\|S-Ḏ-M}} is the semantic core of the word 'hear'; its basic conjugation is {{transliteration\|egy\|sḏm}}, 'he hears'. If the subject is a noun, suffixes are not added to the verb:{{sfnp\|Loprieno\|1995a\|p74}} {{transliteration\|egy\|sḏm ḥmt}}, 'the woman hears'. Adjectives are derived from nouns through a process that Egyptologists call nisbation because of its similarity with Arabic.{{sfnp\|Loprieno\|2004\|p175}} The word order is {{smallcaps\|predicate–subject}} in verbal and adjectival sentences, and {{smallcaps\|subject–predicate}} in nominal and adverbial sentences.{{sfnp\|Allen\|2000\|pp67, 70, 109}} The subject can be moved to the beginning of sentences if it is long and is followed by a resumptive pronoun.{{sfnp\|Loprieno\|1995b\|p2147}} Verbs and nouns are negated by the particle n, but nn is used for adverbial and adjectival sentences. Stress falls on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, which can be open (CV) or closed (CVC).{{sfnp\|Loprieno\|2004\|p173}} Writing ({{circa\|196}} BC) enabled linguists to begin deciphering ancient Egyptian scripts.{{sfnp\|Allen\|2000\|p=13}}\|280x280px]] Hieroglyphic writing dates from {{circa\|3000}}{{nbsp}}BC, and is composed of hundreds of symbols. A hieroglyph can represent a word, a sound, or a silent determinative; and the same symbol can serve different purposes in different contexts. Hieroglyphs were a formal script, used on stone monuments and in tombs, that could be as detailed as individual works of art. In day-to-day writing, scribes used a cursive form of writing, called hieratic, which was quicker and easier. While formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in either direction (though typically written from right to left), hieratic was always written from right to left, usually in horizontal rows. A new form of writing, Demotic, became the prevalent writing style, and it is this form of writing—along with formal hieroglyphs—that accompany the Greek text on the Rosetta Stone.{{sfnp\|Loprieno\|1995a\|pp=10–26}} Around the first century AD, the Coptic alphabet started to be used alongside the Demotic script. Coptic is a modified Greek alphabet with the addition of some Demotic signs.{{sfnp\|Allen\|2000\|p7}} Although formal hieroglyphs were used in a ceremonial role until the fourth century, towards the end only a small handful of priests could still read them. As the traditional religious establishments were disbanded, knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was mostly lost. Attempts to decipher them date to the Byzantine{{sfnp\|Loprieno\|2004\|p166}} and Islamic periods in Egypt,{{sfnp\|El-Daly\|2005\|p164}} but only in the 1820s, after the discovery of the Rosetta Stone and years of research by Thomas Young and Jean-François Champollion, were hieroglyphs substantially deciphered.{{sfnp\|Allen\|2000\|p8}} Literature {{Main\|Ancient Egyptian literature}} , {{circa\|1321}} BC]] Writing first appeared in association with kingship on labels and tags for items found in royal tombs. It was primarily an occupation of the scribes, who worked out of the Per Ankh institution or the House of Life. The latter comprised offices, libraries (called House of Books), laboratories and observatories.{{sfnp\|Strouhal\|1989\|p=235}} Some of the best-known pieces of ancient Egyptian literature, such as the Pyramid and Coffin Texts, were written in Classical Egyptian, which continued to be the language of writing until about 1300{{nbsp}}BC. Late Egyptian was spoken from the New Kingdom onward and is represented in Ramesside administrative documents, love poetry and tales, as well as in Demotic and Coptic texts. During this period, the tradition of writing had evolved into the tomb autobiography, such as those of Harkhuf and Weni. The genre known as Sebayt ('instructions') was developed to communicate teachings and guidance from famous nobles; the Ipuwer papyrus, a poem of lamentations describing natural disasters and social upheaval, is a famous example. The Story of Sinuhe, written in Middle Egyptian, might be the classic of Egyptian literature.{{sfnp\|Lichtheim\|1975\|p11}} Also written at this time was the Westcar Papyrus, a set of stories told to Khufu by his sons relating the marvels performed by priests.{{sfnp\|Lichtheim\|1975\|p215}} The Instruction of Amenemope is considered a masterpiece of Near Eastern literature.{{sfnp\|Day\|Gordon\|Williamson\|1995\|p23}} Towards the end of the New Kingdom, the vernacular language was more often employed to write popular pieces such as the Story of Wenamun and the Instruction of Any. The former tells the story of a noble who is robbed on his way to buy cedar from Lebanon and of his struggle to return to Egypt. From about 700{{nbsp}}BC, narrative stories and instructions, such as the popular Instructions of Onchsheshonqy, as well as personal and business documents were written in the demotic script and phase of Egyptian. Many stories written in demotic during the Greco-Roman period were set in previous historical eras, when Egypt was an independent nation ruled by great pharaohs such as Ramesses II.{{sfnp\|Lichtheim\|1980\|p159}} Culture Daily life {{Further\|Clothing in ancient Egypt\|Dance in ancient Egypt\|Music of Egypt#Old Kingdom}} Most ancient Egyptians were farmers tied to the land. Their dwellings were restricted to immediate family members, and were constructed of mudbrick designed to remain cool in the heat of the day. Each home had a kitchen with an open roof, which contained a grindstone for milling grain and a small oven for baking the bread.{{sfnp\|Manuelian\|1998\|p401}} Ceramics served as household wares for the storage, preparation, transport, and consumption of food, drink, and raw materials. Walls were painted white and could be covered with dyed linen wall hangings. Floors were covered with reed mats, while wooden stools, beds raised from the floor and individual tables comprised the furniture.{{sfnp\|Manuelian\|1998\|p403}} The ancient Egyptians placed a great value on hygiene and appearance. Most bathed in the Nile and used a pasty soap made from animal fat and chalk. Men shaved their entire bodies for cleanliness; perfumes and aromatic ointments covered bad odors and soothed skin.{{sfnp\|Manuelian\|1998\|p405}} Clothing was made from simple linen sheets that were bleached white, and both men and women of the upper classes wore wigs, jewelry, and cosmetics. Children went without clothing until maturity, at about age 12, and at this age males were circumcised and had their heads shaved. Mothers were responsible for taking care of the children, while the father provided the family's income.{{sfnp\|Manuelian\|1998\|pp406–407}} Music and dance were popular entertainments for those who could afford them. Early instruments included flutes and harps, while instruments similar to trumpets, oboes, and pipes developed later and became popular. In the New Kingdom, the Egyptians played on bells, cymbals, tambourines, drums, and imported lutes and lyres from Asia.{{sfnp\|Music in Ancient Egypt\|2003}} The sistrum was a rattle-like musical instrument that was especially important in religious ceremonies. The ancient Egyptians enjoyed a variety of leisure activities, including games and music. Senet, a board game where pieces moved according to random chance, was particularly popular from the earliest times; another similar game was mehen, which had a circular gaming board. "Hounds and Jackals" also known as 58 holes is another example of board games played in ancient Egypt. The first complete set of this game was discovered from a Theban tomb of the Egyptian pharaoh Amenemhat IV that dates to the 13th Dynasty.{{sfnmp\|1a1Metcalfe\|1y2018\|2a1Seaburn\|2y2018}} Juggling and ball games were popular with children, and wrestling is also documented in a tomb at Beni Hasan.{{sfnp\|Manuelian\|1998\|p=126}} The wealthy members of ancient Egyptian society enjoyed hunting, fishing, and boating as well. The excavation of the workers' village of Deir el-Medina has resulted in one of the most thoroughly documented accounts of community life in the ancient world, which spans almost four hundred years. There is no comparable site in which the organization, social interactions, and working and living conditions of a community have been studied in such detail.{{sfnp\|Hayes\|1973\|p380}}Cuisine <!-- this section is intended as a brief overview, more details under 'see also' --> {{Main\|Ancient Egyptian cuisine}} and his wife Itet ({{circa\|2700 BC}})]] Egyptian cuisine remained remarkably stable over time; indeed, the cuisine of modern Egypt retains some striking similarities to the cuisine of the ancients. The staple diet consisted of bread and beer, supplemented with vegetables such as onions and garlic, and fruit such as dates and figs. Wine and meat were enjoyed by all on feast days while the upper classes indulged on a more regular basis. Fish, meat, and fowl could be salted or dried, and could be cooked in stews or roasted on a grill.{{sfnp\|Manuelian\|1998\|pp399–400}}Architecture <!-- this section is intended as a brief overview, more details under 'see also' --> {{Main\|Ancient Egyptian architecture}} The architecture of ancient Egypt includes some of the most famous structures in the world: the Great Pyramids of Giza and the temples at Thebes. Building projects were organized and funded by the state for religious and commemorative purposes, but also to reinforce the wide-ranging power of the pharaoh. The ancient Egyptians were skilled builders; using only simple but effective tools and sighting instruments, architects could build large stone structures with great accuracy and precision that is still envied today.{{sfnp\|Clarke\|Engelbach\|1990\|pp=94–97}} The domestic dwellings of elite and ordinary Egyptians alike were constructed from perishable materials such as mudbricks and wood, and have not survived. Peasants lived in simple homes, while the palaces of the elite and the pharaoh were more elaborate structures. A few surviving New Kingdom palaces, such as those in Malkata and Amarna, show richly decorated walls and floors with scenes of people, birds, water pools, deities and geometric designs.{{sfnp\|Badawy\|1968\|p50}} Important structures such as temples and tombs that were intended to last forever were constructed of stone instead of mudbricks. The architectural elements used in the world's first large-scale stone building, Djoser's mortuary complex, include post and lintel supports in the papyrus and lotus motif.{{citation needed\|dateDecember 2023}} The earliest preserved ancient Egyptian temples, such as those at Giza, consist of single, enclosed halls with roof slabs supported by columns. In the New Kingdom, architects added the pylon, the open courtyard, and the enclosed hypostyle hall to the front of the temple's sanctuary, a style that was standard until the Greco-Roman period.{{sfnp\|Types of temples in ancient Egypt\|2003}} The earliest and most popular tomb architecture in the Old Kingdom was the mastaba, a flat-roofed rectangular structure of mudbrick or stone built over an underground burial chamber. The step pyramid of Djoser is a series of stone mastabas stacked on top of each other. Pyramids were built during the Old and Middle Kingdoms, but most later rulers abandoned them in favor of less conspicuous rock-cut tombs.{{sfnp\|Dodson\|1991\|p23}} The use of the pyramid form continued in private tomb chapels of the New Kingdom and in the royal pyramids of Nubia.{{sfnp\|Dodson\|Ikram\|2008\|pages218, 275–276}} <gallery mode"packed" class"center" heights="170"> File:Model of a Porch and Garden MET DP350593.jpg\|Model of a household porch and garden, {{circa\|1981–1975 BC}} File:The Temple of Dendur MET DT563.jpg\|The Temple of Dendur, completed by 10 BC, Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) File:Philae temple at night.jpg\|The well preserved Temple of Isis from Philae is an example of Egyptian architecture and architectural sculpture. File:Lepsius-Projekt tw 1-2-108.jpg\|Illustration of various types of capitals, by Karl Richard Lepsius </gallery> Art <!-- this section is intended as a brief overview, more details under 'see also' --> {{Main\|Art of ancient Egypt\|Portraiture in ancient Egypt}} The ancient Egyptians produced art to serve functional purposes. For over 3500 years, artists adhered to artistic forms and iconography that were developed during the Old Kingdom, following a strict set of principles that resisted foreign influence and internal change.{{sfnp\|Robins\|2008\|p29}} These artistic standards—simple lines, shapes, and flat areas of color combined with the characteristic flat projection of figures with no indication of spatial depth—created a sense of order and balance within a composition. Images and text were intimately interwoven on tomb and temple walls, coffins, stelae, and even statues. The Narmer Palette, for example, displays figures that can also be read as hieroglyphs.{{sfnp\|Robins\|2008\|p21}} Because of the rigid rules that governed its highly stylized and symbolic appearance, ancient Egyptian art served its political and religious purposes with precision and clarity.{{sfnp\|Robins\|2008\|p=12}} as funerary goods]] Ancient Egyptian artisans used stone as a medium for carving statues and fine reliefs, but used wood as a cheap and easily carved substitute. Paints were obtained from minerals such as iron ores (red and yellow ochres), copper ores (blue and green), soot or charcoal (black), and limestone (white). Paints could be mixed with gum arabic as a binder and pressed into cakes, which could be moistened with water when needed.{{sfnp\|Nicholson\|Shaw\|2000\|p=105}} Pharaohs used reliefs to record victories in battle, royal decrees, and religious scenes. Common citizens had access to pieces of funerary art, such as shabti statues and books of the dead, which they believed would protect them in the afterlife.{{sfnp\|James\|2005\|p122}} During the Middle Kingdom, wooden or clay models depicting scenes from everyday life became popular additions to the tomb. In an attempt to duplicate the activities of the living in the afterlife, these models show laborers, houses, boats, and even military formations that are scale representations of the ideal ancient Egyptian afterlife.{{sfnp\|Robins\|2008\|p74}} Despite the homogeneity of ancient Egyptian art, the styles of particular times and places sometimes reflected changing cultural or political attitudes. After the invasion of the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period, Minoan-style frescoes were found in Avaris.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|p204}} The most striking example of a politically driven change in artistic forms comes from the Amarna Period, where figures were radically altered to conform to Akhenaten's revolutionary religious ideas.{{sfnp\|Robins\|2008\|p149}} This style, known as Amarna art, was quickly abandoned after Akhenaten's death and replaced by the traditional forms.{{sfnp\|Robins\|2008\|p=158}} <gallery mode"packed" class"center" heights="170"> File:Kneeling portrait statue of Amenemhat holding a stele with an inscription 01.jpg\|Stelophorous statue of Amenemhat; {{Circa\|1500 BC}} File:Tomb of Nebamun.jpg\|Fresco which depicts Nebamun hunting birds; {{Circa}} 1350&nbsp;BC File:Portrait head of pharaoh Hatshepsut or Thutmose III 01.jpg\|Portrait head of pharaoh Hatshepsut or Thutmose III; 1480–1425 BC File:Falcon Box with Wrapped Contents MET 12.182.5a b EGDP023129.jpg\|Falcon box with wrapped contents; 332–30&nbsp;BC </gallery> Religious beliefs <!-- this section is intended as a brief overview, more details under 'see also' --> {{Main\|Ancient Egyptian religion}} was a guide to the deceased's journey in the afterlife.]] Beliefs in the divine and in the afterlife were ingrained in ancient Egyptian civilization from its inception; pharaonic rule was based on the divine right of kings. The Egyptian pantheon was populated by gods who had supernatural powers and were called on for help or protection. However, the gods were not always viewed as benevolent, and Egyptians believed they had to be appeased with offerings and prayers. The structure of this pantheon changed continually as new deities were promoted in the hierarchy, but priests made no effort to organize the diverse and sometimes conflicting myths and stories into a coherent system.{{sfnp\|James\|2005\|p102}} These various conceptions of divinity were not considered contradictory but rather layers in the multiple facets of reality.{{sfnp\|Redford\|2003\|p106}} , Anubis, and Horus in the tomb of Horemheb (KV57) in the Valley of the Kings]] Gods were worshiped in cult temples administered by priests acting on the king's behalf. At the center of the temple was the cult statue in a shrine. Temples were not places of public worship or congregation, and only on select feast days and celebrations was a shrine carrying the statue of the god brought out for public worship. Normally, the god's domain was sealed off from the outside world and was only accessible to temple officials. Common citizens could worship private statues in their homes, and amulets offered protection against the forces of chaos.{{sfnp\|James\|2005\|p117}} After the New Kingdom, the pharaoh's role as a spiritual intermediary was de-emphasized as religious customs shifted to direct worship of the gods. As a result, priests developed a system of oracles to communicate the will of the gods directly to the people.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|p313}} The Egyptians believed that every human being was composed of physical and spiritual parts or aspects. In addition to the body, each person had a šwt (shadow), a ba (personality or soul), a ka (life-force), and a name.{{sfnp\|Allen\|2000\|pp79, 94–95}} The heart, rather than the brain, was considered the seat of thoughts and emotions. After death, the spiritual aspects were released from the body and could move at will, but they required the physical remains (or a substitute, such as a statue) as a permanent home. The ultimate goal of the deceased was to rejoin his ka and ba and become one of the "blessed dead", living on as an akh, or "effective one". For this to happen, the deceased had to be judged worthy in a trial, in which the heart was weighed against a "feather of truth". If deemed worthy, the deceased could continue their existence on earth in spiritual form.{{sfnp\|Wasserman\|1994\|pp150–153}} If they were not deemed worthy, their heart was eaten by Ammit the Devourer and they were erased from the Universe.{{citation needed\|dateDecember 2023}}Burial customs <!-- this section is intended as a brief overview, more details under 'see also' --> {{Main\|Ancient Egyptian funerary practices}} , the god associated with mummification and burial rituals, attending to a mummy]] The ancient Egyptians maintained an elaborate set of burial customs that they believed were necessary to ensure immortality after death. These customs involved preserving the body by mummification, performing burial ceremonies, and interring with the body goods the deceased would use in the afterlife.{{sfnp\|James\|2005\|p122}} Before the Old Kingdom, bodies buried in desert pits were naturally preserved by desiccation. The arid, desert conditions were a boon throughout the history of ancient Egypt for burials of the poor, who could not afford the elaborate burial preparations available to the elite. Wealthier Egyptians began to bury their dead in stone tombs and use artificial mummification, which involved removing the internal organs, wrapping the body in linen, and burying it in a rectangular stone sarcophagus or wooden coffin. Beginning in the Fourth Dynasty, some parts were preserved separately in canopic jars.{{sfnp\|Ikram\|Dodson\|1998\|p29}} By the New Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had perfected the art of mummification; the best technique took 70 days and involved removing the internal organs, removing the brain through the nose, and desiccating the body in a mixture of salts called natron. The body was then wrapped in linen with protective amulets inserted between layers and placed in a decorated anthropoid coffin. Mummies of the Late Period were also placed in painted cartonnage mummy cases. Actual preservation practices declined during the Ptolemaic and Roman eras, while greater emphasis was placed on the outer appearance of the mummy, which was decorated.{{sfnp\|Ikram\|Dodson\|1998\|pp=40, 51, 138}} Wealthy Egyptians were buried with larger quantities of luxury items, but all burials, regardless of social status, included goods for the deceased. Funerary texts were often included in the grave, and, beginning in the New Kingdom, so were shabti statues that were believed to perform manual labor for them in the afterlife.{{sfnp\|Shabtis\|2001}} Rituals in which the deceased was magically re-animated accompanied burials. After burial, living relatives were expected to occasionally bring food to the tomb and recite prayers on behalf of the deceased.{{sfnp\|James\|2005\|p124}}Military {{Main\|Military of ancient Egypt}} {{Further\|Ancient Egyptian navy}} , 18th dynasty]] The ancient Egyptian military was responsible for defending Egypt against foreign invasion, and for maintaining Egypt's domination in the ancient Near East. The military protected mining expeditions to the Sinai during the Old Kingdom and fought civil wars during the First and Second Intermediate Periods. The military was responsible for maintaining fortifications along important trade routes, such as those found at the city of Buhen on the way to Nubia. Forts also were constructed to serve as military bases, such as the fortress at Sile, which was a base of operations for expeditions to the Levant. In the New Kingdom, a series of pharaohs used the standing Egyptian army to attack and conquer Kush and parts of the Levant.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|p=245}} (11th dynasty)]] Typical military equipment included bows and arrows, spears, and round-topped shields made by stretching animal skin over a wooden frame. In the New Kingdom, the military began using chariots that had earlier been introduced by the Hyksos invaders. Weapons and armor continued to improve after the adoption of bronze: shields were now made from solid wood with a bronze buckle, spears were tipped with a bronze point, and the khopesh was adopted from Asiatic soldiers.{{sfnp\|Gutgesell\|1998\|p365}} The pharaoh was usually depicted in art and literature riding at the head of the army; it has been suggested that at least a few pharaohs, such as Seqenenre Tao II and his sons, did do so.{{sfnp\|Clayton\|1994\|p96}} However, it has also been argued that "kings of this period did not personally act as frontline war leaders, fighting alongside their troops".{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2009}} Soldiers were recruited from the general population, but during, and especially after, the New Kingdom, mercenaries from Nubia, Kush, and Libya were hired to fight for Egypt.{{sfnp\|Shaw\|2003\|p400}}Technology, medicine and mathematics<!-- This section is linked from Civilization -->Technology {{Main\|Ancient Egyptian technology}} In technology, medicine, and mathematics, ancient Egypt achieved a relatively high standard of productivity and sophistication. Traditional empiricism, as evidenced by the Edwin Smith and Ebers papyri ({{circa\|1600 BC}}), is first credited to Egypt. The Egyptians created their own alphabet and decimal system. Faience and glass Even before the Old Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had developed a glassy material known as faience, which they treated as a type of artificial semi-precious stone. Faience is a non-clay ceramic made of silica, small amounts of lime and soda, and a colorant, typically copper.{{sfnp\|Nicholson\|Shaw\|2000\|p177}} The material was used to make beads, tiles, figurines, and small wares. Several methods can be used to create faience, but typically production involved application of the powdered materials in the form of a paste over a clay core, which was then fired. By a related technique, the ancient Egyptians produced a pigment known as Egyptian blue, also called blue frit, which is produced by fusing (or sintering) silica, copper, lime, and an alkali such as natron. The product can be ground up and used as a pigment.{{sfnp\|Nicholson\|Shaw\|2000\|p109}} The ancient Egyptians could fabricate a wide variety of objects from glass with great skill, but it is not clear whether they developed the process independently.{{sfnp\|Nicholson\|Shaw\|2000\|p195}} It is also unclear whether they made their own raw glass or merely imported pre-made ingots, which they melted and finished. However, they did have technical expertise in making objects, as well as adding trace elements to control the color of the finished glass. A range of colors could be produced, including yellow, red, green, blue, purple, and white, and the glass could be made either transparent or opaque.{{sfnp\|Nicholson\|Shaw\|2000\|p215}} Medicine {{Main\|Ancient Egyptian medicine}} The medical problems of the ancient Egyptians stemmed directly from their environment. Living and working close to the Nile brought hazards from malaria and debilitating schistosomiasis parasites, which caused liver and intestinal damage. Dangerous wildlife such as crocodiles and hippos were also a common threat. The lifelong labors of farming and building put stress on the spine and joints, and traumatic injuries from construction and warfare all took a significant toll on the body. The grit and sand from stone-ground flour abraded teeth, leaving them susceptible to abscesses (though caries were rare).{{sfnp\|Filer\|1995\|p=94}} The diets of the wealthy were rich in sugars, which promoted periodontal disease.{{sfnp\|Filer\|1995\|pp78–80}} Despite the flattering physiques portrayed on tomb walls, the overweight mummies of many of the upper class show the effects of a life of overindulgence.{{sfnp\|Filer\|1995\|p21}} Adult life expectancy was about 35 for men and 30 for women, but reaching adulthood was difficult as about one-third of the population died in infancy.{{efn\|Figures are given for adult life expectancy and do not reflect life expectancy at birth. ({{harvp\|Filer\|1995\|p=25}})}} describes anatomy and medical treatments, written in hieratic, {{circa\|1550 BC}}.]] Ancient Egyptian physicians were renowned in the ancient Near East for their healing skills, and some, such as Imhotep, remained famous long after their deaths.{{sfnp\|Filer\|1995\|p39}} Herodotus remarked that there was a high degree of specialization among Egyptian physicians, with some treating only the head or the stomach, while others were eye-doctors and dentists.{{sfnp\|Strouhal\|1989\|p243}} Training of physicians took place at the Per Ankh or "House of Life" institution, most notably those headquartered in Per-Bastet during the New Kingdom and at Abydos and Saïs in the Late period. Medical papyri show empirical knowledge of anatomy, injuries, and practical treatments.{{sfnp\|Strouhal\|1989\|pp=244–246}} Wounds were treated by bandaging with raw meat, white linen, sutures, nets, pads, and swabs soaked with honey to prevent infection,{{sfnp\|Strouhal\|1989\|p250}} while opium, thyme, and belladona were used to relieve pain. The earliest records of burn treatment describe burn dressings that use the milk from mothers of male babies. Prayers were made to the goddess Isis. Moldy bread, honey, and copper salts were also used to prevent infection from dirt in burns.{{sfnp\|Pećanac\|Janjić\|Komarcević\|Pajić\|2013\|pages263–267}} Garlic and onions were used regularly to promote good health and were thought to relieve asthma symptoms. Ancient Egyptian surgeons stitched wounds, set broken bones, and amputated diseased limbs, but they recognized that some injuries were so serious that they could only make the patient comfortable until death occurred.{{sfnp\|Filer\|1995\|p38}}Maritime technology Early Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood into a ship hull and had mastered advanced forms of shipbuilding as early as 3000{{nbsp}}BC. The Archaeological Institute of America reports that the oldest planked ships known are the Abydos boats.{{sfnp\|Ward\|2001}} A group of 14 discovered ships in Abydos were constructed of wooden planks "sewn" together. Discovered by Egyptologist David O'Connor of New York University,{{sfnp\|Schuster\|2000}} woven straps were found to have been used to lash the planks together,{{sfnp\|Ward\|2001}} and reeds or grass stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams.{{sfnp\|Ward\|2001}} Because the ships are all buried together and near a mortuary belonging to Pharaoh Khasekhemwy, originally they were all thought to have belonged to him, but one of the 14 ships dates to 3000{{nbsp}}BC, and the associated pottery jars buried with the vessels also suggest earlier dating. The ship dating to 3000{{nbsp}}BC was {{convert\|75\|ft\|m}} long and is now thought to perhaps have belonged to an earlier pharaoh, perhaps one as early as Hor-Aha.{{sfnp\|Schuster\|2000}} Early Egyptians also knew how to assemble planks of wood with treenails to fasten them together, using pitch for caulking the seams. The "Khufu ship", a {{convert\|43.6\|m\|ft\|adj=on}} vessel sealed into a pit in the Giza pyramid complex at the foot of the Great Pyramid of Giza in the Fourth Dynasty around 2500{{nbsp}}BC, is a full-size surviving example that may have filled the symbolic function of a solar barque. Early Egyptians also knew how to fasten the planks of this ship together with mortise and tenon joints.{{sfnp\|Ward\|2001}} , Deir el-Bahari]]Large seagoing ships are known to have been heavily used by the Egyptians in their trade with the city states of the eastern Mediterranean, especially Byblos (on the coast of modern-day Lebanon), and in several expeditions down the Red Sea to the Land of Punt. In fact one of the earliest Egyptian words for a seagoing ship is a "Byblos Ship", which originally defined a class of Egyptian seagoing ships used on the Byblos run; however, by the end of the Old Kingdom, the term had come to include large seagoing ships, whatever their destination.{{sfnp\|Wachsmann\|2009\|p=19}} In 1977, an ancient north–south canal was discovered extending from Lake Timsah to the Ballah Lakes.{{sfnp\|Shea\|1977\|pp31–38}} It was dated to the Middle Kingdom of Egypt by extrapolating dates of ancient sites constructed along its course.{{sfnp\|Shea\|1977\|pp31–38}}{{efn\|See Suez Canal.}} In 2011, archaeologists from Italy, the United States, and Egypt, excavating a dried-up lagoon known as Mersa Gawasis, unearthed traces of an ancient harbor that once launched early voyages, such as Hatshepsut's Punt, expedition onto the open ocean. Some of the site's most evocative evidence for the ancient Egyptians' seafaring prowess include large ship timbers and hundreds of feet of ropes, made from papyrus, coiled in huge bundles.{{sfnp\|Curry\|2011}} In 2013, a team of Franco-Egyptian archaeologists discovered what is believed to be the world's oldest port, dating back about 4500 years, from the time of King Khufu, on the Red Sea coast, near Wadi el-Jarf (about 110 miles south of Suez).{{sfnmp\|1a1Boyle\|1y2013\|2a1Lorenzi\|2y2013}} Mathematics {{Main\|Ancient Egyptian mathematics}} , 18th dynasty{{sfnp\|Astronomical Ceiling\|2020}}]] The earliest attested examples of mathematical calculations date to the predynastic Naqada period, and show a fully developed numeral system.{{efn\|Understanding of Egyptian mathematics is incomplete due to paucity of available material and lack of exhaustive study of the texts that have been uncovered ({{harvp\|Imhausen\|2007\|p13}}).}} The importance of mathematics to an educated Egyptian is suggested by a New Kingdom fictional letter in which the writer proposes a scholarly competition between himself and another scribe regarding everyday calculation tasks such as accounting of land, labor, and grain.{{sfnp\|Imhausen\|2007\|p11}} Texts such as the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus and the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus show that the ancient Egyptians could perform the four basic mathematical operations—addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division—use fractions, calculate the areas of rectangles, triangles, and circles and compute the volumes of boxes, columns and pyramids. They understood basic concepts of algebra and geometry, and could solve systems of equations.{{sfnp\|Clarke\|Engelbach\|1990\|p=222}} {{hiero \| {{frac\|2\|3}} \| <hiero>D22</hiero>\| alignright\| eradefault}} Mathematical notation was decimal, and based on hieroglyphic signs for each power of ten up to one million. Each of these could be written as many times as necessary to add up to the desired number; so to write the number eighty or eight hundred, the symbol for ten or one hundred was written eight times respectively.{{sfnp\|Clarke\|Engelbach\|1990\|p217}} Because their methods of calculation could not handle most fractions with a numerator greater than one, they had to write fractions as the sum of several fractions. For example, they resolved the fraction two-fifths into the sum of one-third + one-fifteenth. Standard tables of values facilitated this.{{sfnp\|Clarke\|Engelbach\|1990\|p218}} Some common fractions, however, were written with a special glyph—the equivalent of the modern two-thirds is shown on the right.{{sfnp\|Gardiner\|1957\|p=197}} Ancient Egyptian mathematicians knew the Pythagorean theorem as an empirical formula. They were aware, for example, that a triangle had a right angle opposite the hypotenuse when its sides were in a 3–4–5 ratio.{{sfnp\|Strouhal\|1989\|p=241}} They were able to estimate the area of a circle by subtracting one-ninth from its diameter and squaring the result: :Area ≈ [({{frac\|8\|9}})D]<sup>2</sup> = ({{frac\|256\|81}})r<sup>2</sup> ≈ 3.16r<sup>2</sup>, a reasonable approximation of the formula {{nowrap\|πr<sup>2</sup>}}.{{sfnmp\|1a1Strouhal\|1y1989\|1p241\|2a1Imhausen\|2y2007\|2p31}} Population {{Further\|Population history of Egypt}} {{See also\|Ancient Egyptian race controversy}} Estimates of the size of the population range from 1–1.5 million in the 3rd millennium BC to possibly 2–3 million by the 1st millennium BC, before growing significantly towards the end of that millennium.{{sfnp\|Bowman\|2020}} Archaeogenetics {{Main\|Genetic history of Egypt}} According to historian William Stiebling and archaeologist Susan N. Helft, conflicting DNA analysis on recent genetic samples such as the Amarna royal mummies has led to a lack of consensus on the genetic makeup of the ancient Egyptians and their geographic origins.{{sfnp\|Stiebing\|Helft\|2023}} The genetic history of Ancient Egypt remains a developing field, and is relevant for the understanding of population demographic events connecting Africa and Eurasia. To date, the amount of genome-wide aDNA analyses on ancient specimens from Egypt and Sudan remain scarce, although studies on uniparental haplogroups in ancient individuals have been carried out several times, pointing broadly to affinities with other African and Eurasian groups.{{sfnp\|Sirak\|Sawchuk\|Prendergast\|2022\|p20–22}}{{sfnp\|Prendergast\|Sawchuk\|Sirak\|2022\|p13}} The currently most advanced full genome analyses was made on three ancient specimens recovered from the Nile River Valley, Abusir el-Meleq, Egypt. Two of the individuals were dated to the Pre-Ptolemaic Period (New Kingdom to Late Period), and one individual to the Ptolemaic Period, spanning around 1300 years of Egyptian history. These results point to a genetic continuity of Ancient Egyptians with modern Egyptians. The results further point to a close genetic affinity between ancient Egyptians and Middle Eastern populations, especially ancient groups from the Levant.{{sfnp\|Sirak\|Sawchuk\|Prendergast\|2022\|p20–22}}{{sfnp\|Prendergast\|Sawchuk\|Sirak\|2022\|p13}} Ancient Egyptians also displayed affinities to Nubians to the south of Egypt, in modern-day Sudan. Archaeological and historical evidence support interactions between Egyptian and Nubian populations more than 5000 years ago, with socio-political dynamics between Egyptians and Nubians ranging from peaceful coexistence to variably successful attempts of conquest. A study on sixty-six ancient Nubian individuals revealed significant contact with ancient Egyptians, characterized by the presence of {{circa\|57}}% Neolithic/Bronze Age Levantine ancestry in these individuals. Such geneflow of Levantine-like ancestry corresponds with archaeological and botanic evidence, pointing to a Neolithic movement around 7,000 years ago.{{sfnp\|Sirak\|Sawchuk\|Prendergast\|2022\|p20–22}}{{sfnp\|Prendergast\|Sawchuk\|Sirak\|2022\|p13}} Modern Egyptians, like modern Nubians, also underwent subsequent admixture events, contributing both "Sub-Saharan" African-like and West Asian-like ancestries, since the Roman period, with significance on the African Slave Trade and the Spread of Islam.{{sfnp\|Sirak\|Sawchuk\|Prendergast\|2022\|p20–22}}{{sfnp\|Prendergast\|Sawchuk\|Sirak\|2022\|p13}} Some scholars, such as Christopher Ehret, caution that a wider sampling area is needed and argue that the current data is inconclusive on the origin of ancient Egyptians. They also point out issues with the previously used methodology such as the sampling size, comparative approach and a "biased interpretation" of the genetic data. They argue in favor for a link between Ancient Egypt and the northern Horn of Africa. This latter view has been attributed to the corresponding archaeological, genetic, linguistic and biological anthropological sources of evidence which broadly indicate that the earliest Egyptians and Nubians were the descendants of populations in northeast Africa.{{sfnp\|Eltis\|Bradley\|Engerman\|Perry\|2021}}{{sfnp\|Keita\|2022}}{{sfnp\|Ehret\|2023}}{{sfnp\|Stiebing\|Helft\|2023}} Legacy {{See also\|Egyptian Revival architecture\|Tourism in Egypt}} of ''Description de l'Égypte'', published in 38 volumes between 1809 and 1829]] The culture and monuments of ancient Egypt have left a lasting legacy on the world. Egyptian civilization significantly influenced the Kingdom of Kush and Meroë with both adopting Egyptian religious and architectural norms (hundreds of pyramids (6–30 meters high) were built in Egypt/Sudan), as well as using Egyptian writing as the basis of the Meroitic script.{{sfnp\|Török\|1998\|pp62–67, 299–314, 500–510, 516–527}} Meroitic is the oldest written language in Africa, other than Egyptian, and was used from the 2nd century BC until the early 5th century AD.{{sfnp\|Török\|1998\|pp62–65}} The cult of the goddess Isis, for example, became popular in the Roman Empire, as obelisks and other relics were transported back to Rome.{{sfnp\|Siliotti\|1998\|p8}} The Romans also imported building materials from Egypt to erect Egyptian-style structures. Early historians such as Herodotus, Strabo, and Diodorus Siculus studied and wrote about the land, which Romans came to view as a place of mystery.{{sfnp\|Siliotti\|1998\|p10}} During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Egyptian pagan culture was in decline after the rise of Christianity and later Islam, but interest in Egyptian antiquity continued in the writings of medieval scholars such as Dhul-Nun al-Misri and al-Maqrizi.{{sfnp\|El-Daly\|2005\|p112}} In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, European travelers and tourists brought back antiquities and wrote stories of their journeys, leading to a wave of Egyptomania across Europe, as evident in symbolism such as the Eye of Providence and the Great Seal of the United States. This renewed interest sent collectors to Egypt, who took, purchased, or were given many important antiquities.{{sfnp\|Siliotti\|1998\|p13}} Napoleon arranged the first studies in Egyptology when he brought some 150 scientists and artists to study and document Egypt's natural history, which was published in the ''Description de l'Égypte.{{sfnp\|Siliotti\|1998\|p=100}} In the 20th century, the Egyptian Government and archaeologists alike recognized the importance of cultural respect and integrity in excavations. Since the 2010s, the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities has overseen excavations and the recovery of artifacts.{{sfnp\|Mohamed\|2022}} <gallery mode"packed" class"center" heights="150"> File:LuxorAbuHaggagNorthSide.jpg\|The Abu Haggag Mosque is integrated into the Luxor temple from the 14th century BC, which has made it the oldest continuously used temple. File:Alexandre_Cabanel_-_Cléopatre_essayant_des_poisons_sur_des_condamnés_à_mort.jpg\|Cleopatra Testing Poisons on Condemned Prisoners'' (1887), by Alexandre Cabanel{{sfnp\|Anderson\|2003\|p=36}} File:The Sphinx and Pyramid of Khafre (8838365561).jpg\|Tourists at the pyramid complex of Khafre near the Great Sphinx of Giza </gallery> See also {{Portal\|Ancient Egypt\|Civilizations}} {{Ancient Egypt dynasties sidebar}} * Egyptology * Glossary of ancient Egypt artifacts * Index of ancient Egypt–related articles * Outline of ancient Egypt * List of ancient Egyptians * List of Ancient Egyptian inventions and discoveries * Archaeology of Ancient Egypt * Archeological Map of Egypt * British school of diffusionism Notes {{Notelist}} References Citations {{Reflist\|22em}} Works cited {{Refbegin}} * {{cite book\|lastAldred\|firstCyril\|titleAkhenaten, King of Egypt\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/akhenatenkingofe0000aldr/\|date1988\|publisherThames and Hudson\|isbn=978-0-500-05048-4}} * {{cite book\|lastAllen\|firstJames P.\|titleMiddle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/middle-egyptian-an-introduction-to-the-language-and-culture-of-hieroglyphs-1999\|date2000\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn=978-0-521-77483-3}} * {{cite book\|lastAnderson \|firstJaynie \|author-linkJaynie Anderson \|titleTiepolo's Cleopatra \|locationMelbourne \|publisherMacmillan \|date2003 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idK_zR2mHWPmoC \|isbn978-1-876832-44-5 \|access-date15 November 2015 \|archive-date7 October 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191007111829/https://books.google.com/books?idK_zR2mHWPmoC \|url-status=live}} * {{cite book\|lastAston\|firstBarbara G.\|titleAncient Egyptian Stone Vessels: Materials and Forms\|seriesStudien zur Archäologie und Geschichte Altägyptens\|volume5\|date1994\|publisherHeidelberger Orientverlag\|isbn978-3-927552-12-8\|pages=23–26}} * {{cite book \|last1Aston \|first1Barbara G. \|last2Harrell \|first2James A. \|last3Shaw \|first3Ian \|editor1-lastNicholson \|editor1-firstPaul T. \|editor2-lastShaw \|editor2-firstIan \|chapterStone: Obsidian \|titleAncient Egyptian Materials and Technology \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVj7A9jJrZP0C&pgPP1 \|date2000 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn978-0-521-45257-1 \|pages=46–47}} * {{cite web \|titleAstronomical Ceiling \|publisherMetropolitan Museum of Art \|urlhttps://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/544566 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200517170349/https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/544566 \|archive-date17 May 2020 \|ref{{harvid\|Astronomical Ceiling\|2020}}}} * {{cite book \|last1Ataç \|first1Mehmet-Ali \|editor-last1Hartwig \|editor-first1Melinda K. \|chapterEgyptian Connections with the Larger World: Ancient Near East \|titleA Companion to Ancient Egyptian Art \|date2014 \|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons \|isbn978-1-4443-3350-3 \|pages423–446 \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idz0NwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA424}} * {{cite book\|lastBadawy\|firstAlexander\|titleA History of Egyptian Architecture\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/Badawy1968\|volumeIII\|date1968\|publisherUniversity of California Press\|isbn978-0-520-00057-5}} * {{cite book\|lastBillard\|firstJules B.\|titleAncient Egypt, Discovering Its Splendors\|date1978\|publisherNational Geographic Society\|isbn978-0-87044-220-9}} * {{cite book\|lastBleiberg\|firstEdward\|author-linkEdward Bleiberg\|titleArts and Humanities Through the Eras: Ancient Egypt 2675–332 B.C.E.\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/artsandhumanitiesthroughtheerasvol.1ancientegypt_406_T/\|volume1\|date2005\|publisherThomson/Gale\|isbn=978-0-7876-5698-0}} * {{cite book\|lastBonnet\|firstCharles\|titleThe Nubian Pharaohs\|date2006\|publisherThe American University in Cairo Press\|locationNew York\|isbn978-977-416-010-3\|pages142–154}} * {{cite web\|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Egypt\|last1Bowman \|first1Alan K. \|websiteEncyclopædia Britannica\|date22 October 2020\|access-date3 January 2021\|title=Ancient Egypt}} * {{cite news \|last1Boyle \|first1Alan \|title4,500-year-old harbor structures and papyrus texts unearthed in Egypt \|urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/science/cosmic-log/4-500-year-old-harbor-structures-papyrus-texts-unearthed-egypt-flna1C9356840 \|publisherNBC News \|date15 April 2013}} * {{cite book\|lastCerny\|firstJ.\|chapterEgypt from the Death of Ramesses III to the End of the Twenty-First Dynasty\|editorI.E.S. Edwards\|editor-linkI. E. S. Edwards\|titleThe Cambridge Ancient History: Volume II, Part 2. History of the Middle East and the Aegean Region, c. 1380–1000 B.C\|chapter-urlhttps://archive.org/details/the-cambridge-ancient-history-vol.-2-part-2/page/606/\|date1975\|editionthird\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn978-0-521-08691-2\|page606}} * {{cite book\|lastChadwick\|firstHenry\|author-linkHenry Chadwick (theologian)\|titleThe Church in Ancient Society: From Galilee to Gregory the Great\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/Book_2239/page/373/\|date2001\|publisherOxford University Press\|isbn978-0-19-152995-5\|page=373}} * {{cite web \|urlhttps://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/chronology/index.html\|titleChronology\|date2000\|websiteDigital Egypt for Universities \|publisherUniversity College London\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080316015559/https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/chronology/index.html\| archive-date16 March 2008 \|url-statuslive \|ref={{harvid\|Chronology\|2000}}}} * {{cite web\|urlhttps://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/naqadan/chronology.html#naqadaI\|titleChronology of the Naqada Period\|date2001\|websiteDigital Egypt for Universities \|publisherUniversity College London\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080328182409/https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/naqadan/chronology.html \|archive-date28 March 2008 \|url-statuslive\|ref={{harvid\|Chronology of the Naqada Period\|2001}}}} * {{cite book\|last1Clarke\|first1Somers\|author-link1Somers Clarke\|last2Engelbach\|first2Reginald\|author-link2Reginald Engelbach\|titleAncient Egyptian Construction and Architecture\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIe6DDwAAQBAJ&pgPP1\|editionUnabridged reprint of Ancient Egyptian Masonry: The Building Craft originally published by Oxford University Press\|date1990\|publisherDover Publications\|isbn978-0-486-26485-1\|orig-date=1930}} * {{Cite book\|lastClayton \|firstPeter A. \|titleChronicle of the Pharaohs \|publisherThames and Hudson \|locationLondon \|date1994 \|isbn978-0-500-05074-3 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/chronicleofphara00clay}} * {{cite news \|titleEgypt's Ancient Fleet: Lost for Thousands of Years, Discovered in a Desolate Cave\|workDiscover \|firstAndrew \|lastCurry \|date5 September 2011 \|urlhttps://discovermagazine.com/2011/jun/02-egypts-lost-fleet-its-been-found}} * {{cite web\|urlhttps://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/faience/periods.html\|titleFaience in different Periods\|date2000\|websiteDigital Egypt for Universities \|publisherUniversity College London\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080330041500/https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/faience/periods.html\| archive-date30 March 2008 \|url-statuslive \|ref={{harvid\|Faience in different Periods\|2000}}}} * {{Cite journal\|last1D’Atanasio \|first1Eugenia \|last2Risi \|first2Flavia \|last3Ravasini \|first3Francesco \|last4Montinaro \|first4Francesco \|last5Hajiesmaeil \|first5Mogge \|last6Bonucci \|first6Biancamaria \|last7Pistacchia \|first7Letizia \|last8Amoako-Sakyi \|first8Daniel \|last9Bonito \|first9Maria \|last10Onidi \|first10Sara \|last11Colombo \|first11Giulia \|last12Semino \|first12Ornella \|last13Destro Bisol \|first13Giovanni \|last14Anagnostou \|first14Paolo \|last15Metspalu \|first15Mait \|date2023-12-18 \|titleThe genomic echoes of the last Green Sahara on the Fulani and Sahelian people \|journalCurrent Biology \|volume33 \|issue24 \|pages5495–5504.e4 \|doi10.1016/j.cub.2023.10.075 \|pmid37995693 \|bibcode2023CBio...33E5495D \|s2cid265356320 \|issn=0960-9822}} * {{cite book\|editor1-lastDay\|editor1-firstJohn\|editor-link1John Day (biblical scholar)\|editor2-lastGordon\|editor2-firstRobert P.\|editor-link2Robert P. Gordon\|editor3-lastWilliamson\|editor3-firstH.G.M.\|editor-link3Hugh G. M. Williamson\|titleWisdom in Ancient Israel\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbHJYcVlrcfcC&pgPA23\|date1995\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn978-0-521-62489-3\|page=23}} * {{cite book\|lastDodson\|firstAidan\|titleEgyptian Rock-cut Tombs\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsmWCAAAAIAAJ&pgPP1\|date1991\|publisherShire\|isbn=978-0-7478-0128-3}} * {{cite book\|last1Dodson\|first1Aidan\|last2Hilton\|first2Dyan\|titleThe Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idP7CpQgAACAAJ&pgPP1\|date2004\|publisherThames & Hudson\|isbn=978-0-500-05128-3}} * {{cite book\|last1Dodson\|first1Aidan\|last2Ikram\|first2Salima\|titleThe Tomb in Ancient Egypt: Royal and Private Sepulchres from the Early Dynastic Period to the Romans\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9-0CGwAACAAJ&pgPP1\|date2008\|publisherThames & Hudson\|isbn=978-0-500-05139-9}} * {{cite book\|lastDrews\|firstRobert\|titleThe End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe Ca. 1200 B.C.\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbFpK6aXEWN8C&pgPA48\|date1993\|publisherPrinceton University Press\|isbn978-0-691-02591-9\|pages48–61}} * {{cite web \|titleEgyptian pottery of the beginning of the First Dynasty, found in South Palestine \|date2000 \|websiteDigital Egypt for Universities \|publisherUniversity College London \|urlhttps://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/foreignrelations/1stdynegyppotsinpalestine.html \|access-date11 February 2022 \|archive-date31 May 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130531225453/http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/foreignrelations/1stdynegyppotsinpalestine.html \|url-statusdead \|ref{{harvid\|Egyptian pottery of the beginning of the First Dynasty, found in South Palestine\|2000}}}} * {{cite book\|lastEl-Daly\|firstOkasha\|titleEgyptology: The Missing Millennium: Ancient Egypt in Medieval Arabic Writings\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idGmuTDAAAQBAJ&pgPP1\|date2005\|publisherRoutledge\|isbn=978-1-315-42976-2}} * {{Cite book \|last1Eltis \|first1David \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDskwEAAAQBAJ&pgPA150\|titleThe Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2, AD 500–AD 1420 \|last2Bradley \|first2Keith R. \|last3Engerman \|first3Stanley L. \|last4Perry \|first4Craig \|last5Cartledge \|first5Paul \|last6Richardson \|first6David \|last7Drescher \|first7Seymour \|date2021 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn978-0-521-84067-5 \|pages150}} * {{cite book\|lastEmberling\|firstGeoff\|titleNubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa\|date2011\|publisherInstitute for the Study of the Ancient World\|locationNew York\|isbn=978-0-615-48102-9}} * {{Cite book \|lastFiler \|firstJoyce \|titleDisease \|publisherUniversity of Texas Press \|date1995 \|isbn978-0-292-72498-3 \|url=https://archive.org/details/disease00file}} * {{Cite journal\|lastFregel \|firstRosa \|titlePaleogenomics of the Neolithic Transition in North Africa \|date2021-11-17 \|urlhttps://brill.com/display/book/9789004500228/BP000019.xml \|journalAfrica, the Cradle of Human Diversity \|pages213–235 \|access-date2024-01-09 \|publisherBrill \|doi10.1163/9789004500228_009\|isbn978-90-04-50022-8\|doi-accessfree }} * {{Cite book\|lastGardiner\|firstSir Alan\|author-linkAlan Gardiner\|titleEgyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs \|publisherPublished on behalf of the Griffith Institute, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, by Oxford University Press\|date1957\|isbn978-0-900416-35-4\| title-linkEgyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs}} * {{Cite journal \|lastGrajetzki \|firstW. \|date2007 \|titleBox Coffins in the Late Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period \|journalEgitto e Vicino Oriente \|volume30 \|pages41–54 \|jstor24233566}} * {{cite book\|contributor-last1Greaves \|contributor-first1R. H. \|contributor-last2Little \|contributor-first2O. H. \|contributionGold Resources of Egypt \|authorInternational Geological Congress \|titleCompte Rendu of the XV Session, South Africa, 1929 \|date1930\|page123 \|locationPretoria \|publisher=Wallach}} * {{cite web \|titleGuardian Figure \|urlhttps://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/543864 \|publisherMetropolitan Museum of Art \|access-date9 February 2022 \|ref={{harvid\|Guardian Figure 14.3.17\|2022}}}} * {{Cite book\|lastGutgesell \|firstManfred\|editor1Regine Schulz\|editor2Matthias Seidel\|chapterThe Military\|titleEgypt: The World of the Pharaohs\|date1998\|locationCologne\|publisherKönemann\|isbn978-3-89508-913-8\|pages=364–369}} * {{cite web\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/apocalypse_egypt_01.shtml \|titleThe Fall of the Old Kingdom \|lastHassan \|firstFekri \|publisherBBC \|date17 February 2011}} * {{Cite journal \|lastHayes \|first William C. \|author-linkWilliam C. Hayes \|titleMost Ancient Egypt: Chapter III. The Neolithic and Chalcolithic Communities of Northern Egypt \|journalJournal of Near Eastern Studies \|dateOctober 1964 \|pages217–272 \|volume23\|issue4 \|doi10.1086/371778\|s2cid161307683 \|issn0022-2968}} * {{cite book \|lastHayes \|firstWilliam C. \|author-linkWilliam C. Hayes \|chapterEgypt: Internal affairs from Tuthmosis I to the death of Amenophis III \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idFF5-7JVj4jYC&pgPA380 \|page380 \|editor1-lastEdwards\|editor1-firstI.E.S.\|editor-link1I. E. S. Edwards\|editor2-lastGadd \|editor2-firstC.J. \|editor2-link C. J. Gadd \|editor3-lastHammond\|editor3-firstN.G.L.\|editor-link3N. G. L. Hammond\|editor4-lastSollberger\|editor4-firstE.\|titleThe Cambridge Ancient History: Volume II part I: History of the Middle East and the Aegean Region c. 1800–1380\|date1973\|edition3rd\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn978-0-521-08230-3}} * {{cite book \|last1Heptner\|first1V.G. \|last2Sludskii \|first2A.A. \|orig-date1972 \|date1992 \|titleMammals of the Soviet Union. Volume II, Part 2. Carnivora (Hyaenas and Cats) \|publisherSmithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation \|locationWashington, DC \|chapterLion \|chapter-urlhttps://archive.org/details/mammalsofsov221992gept/page/83 \|pages83–95}} * {{Cite journal \|last1Hodgson \|first1Jason A. \|last2Mulligan \|first2Connie J. \|last3Al-Meeri \|first3Ali \|last4Raaum \|first4Ryan L. \|date2014-06-12 \|titleEarly Back-to-Africa Migration into the Horn of Africa \|journalPLOS Genetics\|volume10 \|issue6 \|pagese1004393 \|doi10.1371/journal.pgen.1004393 \|doi-accessfree \|issn1553-7404 \|pmc4055572 \|pmid=24921250}} * {{cite encyclopedia \|lastHogan \|firstC.Michael \|date2011 \|titleSulfur \|encyclopediaEncyclopedia of Earth \|editor1A. Jorgensen \|editor2C.J. Cleveland \|publisherNational Council for Science and the Environment \|locationWashington DC \|urlhttps://editors.eol.org/eoearth/wiki/Sulfur \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121028080550/https://www.eoearth.org/article/Sulfur?topic49557 \|archive-date28 October 2012 \|url-statuslive}} * {{Cite book\|last1Ikram\|first1Salima\|author-link1Salima Ikram\|titleChoice Cuts: Meat Production in Ancient Egypt\|publisherUniversity of Cambridge\|date1992\|isbn978-90-6831-745-9\|page5 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1Am88Yc8gRkC&pg=PA5}} * {{cite book \|last1Ikram \|first1Salima \|last2Dodson \|first2Aidan \|titleThe Mummy in Ancient Egypt : equipping the dead for eternity \|date1998 \|publisherThames & Hudson \|locationLondon \|isbn978-0-500-05088-0 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/mummyinancienteg00ikra/page/29/mode/1up \|access-date=28 November 2023}} * {{Cite book \|lastEhret \|firstChristopher \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQ5KjEAAAQBAJ&pgPG1 \|titleAncient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE \|date2023 \|publisherPrinceton University Press \|isbn978-0-691-24409-9 \|pages82–90, 97, 167}} * {{cite book\|lastImhausen\|firstAnnette\|author-linkAnnette Imhausen\|chapterEgyptian Mathematics\|editorVictor J. Katz\|titleThe Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3ullzl036UEC&pgPA7\|date2007\|publisherPrinceton University Press\|isbn978-0-691-11485-9}} * {{Cite book\|lastJames\|firstT.G.H.\|author-linkT. G. H. James\|titleThe British Museum Concise Introduction to Ancient Egypt\|publisherUniversity of Michigan Press\|date2005\|isbn978-0-472-03137-5\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/britishmuseumcon00jame}} * {{cite web\|lastJohnson \|firstJanet H. \|author-linkJanet H. Johnson \|urlhttps://fathom.lib.uchicago.edu/1/777777190170/\|titleWomen's Legal Rights in Ancient Egypt\|date2002\|websiteFathom Archive\|publisherUniversity of Chicago }} * {{cite book \|lastKeita \|firstShomarka \|titleAncient Egyptian 'Origins and "Identity"'. In Ancient Egyptian society : challenging assumptions, exploring approaches \|date2022 \|locationAbingdon, Oxon \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn978-0367434632 \|pages111–122}} * {{Cite book\|lastKemp\|firstBarry J.\|author-linkBarry Kemp (Egyptologist)\|titleAncient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization\|publisherRoutledge\|date1989\|locationLondon\|isbn978-0-415-06346-3\|url-accessregistration\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/isbn_9780415063463}} * {{cite book\|editor1-lastKillebrew\|editor1-firstAnn E.\|editor2-lastLehmann\|editor2-firstGunnar\|titleThe Philistines and Other Sea Peoples in Text and Archaeology\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgBCl2IQfNioC&pgPP1\|volume15\|date2013\|publisherSociety of Biblical Literature\|isbn978-1-58983-721-8}} * {{cite book\|lastLichtheim\|firstMiriam\|author-linkMiriam Lichtheim\|titleAncient Egyptian Literature: The Old and Middle Kingdoms\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbqG3NtbDdzQC&pgPP1\|date1975\|publisherUniversity of California Press\|isbn978-0-520-02899-9}} * {{cite book\|lastLichtheim\|firstMiriam\|titleAncient Egyptian Literature: A Book of Readings\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNhdV8Z9oVkgC&pgPP1\|date1980\|publisherUniversity of California Press\|isbn=978-0-520-04020-5}} * {{cite book\|lastLoprieno\|firstAntonio\|author-linkAntonio Loprieno\|titleAncient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/ancientegyptianl0000lopr\|date1995a\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn978-0-521-44849-9}} * {{cite book\|lastLoprieno\|firstAntonio\|chapterAncient Egyptian and other Afroasiatic Languages\|editorJack M. Sasson\|titleCivilizations of the ancient Near East\|volume4\|date1995b\|publisherScribner\|isbn978-0-684-19723-4\|pages2137–2150}} * {{cite book\|lastLoprieno\|firstAntonio\|chapterAncient Egyptian and Coptic\|editorRoger D. Woodard\|titleThe Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/cambridgeencyclo0000unse_t8o9\|date2004\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn978-0-521-56256-0\|pages160–192}} * {{cite web \|last1Lorenzi \|first1Rossella \|titleMost Ancient Port, Hieroglyphic Papyri Found \|urlhttps://www.seeker.com/most-ancient-port-hieroglyphic-papyri-found-1767404864.html \|websiteSeeker.com \|date12 April 2013}} * {{cite book\|lastLucas\|firstAlfred\|titleAncient Egyptian Materials and Industries\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/ancientegyptianm0000aluc\|edition4th\|date1962\|publisherEdward Arnold\|locationLondon\|isbn=978-1-85417-046-0}} * {{cite book\|lastMacMullen\|firstRamsay\|author-linkRamsay MacMullen\|titleChristianizing the Roman Empire: (A.D. 100–400)\|date1984\|publisherYale University Press\|isbn978-0-300-03642-8\|page63}} * {{cite book \|lastMcDowell\|firstA. G.\|titleVillage Life in Ancient Egypt: Laundry Lists and Love Songs\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQmNSO5-LUcwC&pgPP1\|date1999\|publisherOxford University Press\|isbn=978-0-19-924753-0}} * {{Cite book\|year1998\|lastManuelian \| first Peter Der\|titleEgypt: The World of the Pharaohs\|locationBonner Straße, Cologne Germany\|publisherKönemann Verlagsgesellschaft mbH\|isbn=3-89508-913-3}} * {{cite book \|lastMeskell\|firstLynn\|author-linkLynn Meskell\|titleObject Worlds in Ancient Egypt: Material Biographies Past and Present\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYLISEAAAQBAJ&pgPP1\|date2004\|publisherBerg\|isbn978-1-85973-867-2}} * {{cite web \|urlhttps://www.livescience.com/64266-ancient-board-games.html\|title16 of the Most Interesting Ancient Board and Dice Games\|lastMetcalfe\|firstTom\|websiteLive Science\|date10 December 2018}} * {{cite encyclopedia \|last1de Miroschedji \|first1Pierre \|last2Sadeq \|first2Moain \|titleSakan, Tell es- \|encyclopedia The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land \|date2008 \|publisherIsrael Exploration Society/Biblical Archaeology Society (BAS) \|volume5: Supplementary Volume \|viaBAS Library \|urlhttps://library.biblicalarchaeology.org/book/the-new-encyclopedia-of-archaeological-excavations-in-the-holy-land/sakan-tell-es/ \|access-date23 June 2024}} * {{Cite web \|lastMohamed \|firstGobran \|date2022-09-08 \|titleEgypt recovers 16 historic artifacts from US \|urlhttps://arab.news/mtxj6 \|access-date2023-01-14 \|website=Arab News}} * {{cite book \|lastMokhtar\|firstG.\|titleGeneral History of Africa\|date1990\|publisherUniversity of California Press\|locationCalifornia\|isbn=978-0-520-06697-7}} * {{cite web\|urlhttps://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/furniture/music.html\|titleMusic in Ancient Egypt\|date2003\|websiteDigital Egypt for Universities \|publisherUniversity College London \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080328000007/https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/furniture/music.html \|archive-date28 March 2008 \|url-statuslive \|ref={{harvid\|Music in Ancient Egypt\|2003}}}} * {{cite book \|editor1-lastNicholson\|editor1-firstPaul T.\|editor2-lastShaw\|editor2-firstIan\|titleAncient Egyptian Materials and Technology\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVj7A9jJrZP0C&pgPP1\|date2000\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn=978-0-521-45257-1}} * {{cite book \|last1Nicholson \|first1Paul T. \|last2Peltenburg \|first2Edgar \|editor1-lastNicholson \|editor1-firstPaul T. \|editor2-lastShaw \|editor2-firstIan \|chapterEgyptian faience \|titleAncient Egyptian Materials and Technology\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVj7A9jJrZP0C&pgPP1 \|date2000 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn978-0-521-45257-1 \|pages=177–194}} * {{Cite journal\|last1Prendergast \|first1Mary E. \|titleGenetics and the African Past \|date2022-10-19 \|urlhttps://reich.hms.harvard.edu/sites/reich.hms.harvard.edu/files/inline-files/2022_PrendergastSawchukSirak_OxfordResearchEncyclopedia_.pdf \|workOxford Research Encyclopedia of African History \|access-date2024-01-09\|doi10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.143 \|isbn978-0-19-027773-4 \|last2Sawchuk \|first2Elizabeth A. \|last3Sirak \|first3=Kendra A.}} * {{cite book\|last1Oakes\|first1Lorna\|last2Gahlin\|first2Lucia\|titleAncient Egypt: An Illustrated Reference to the Myths, Religions, Pyramids and Temples of the Land of the Pharaohs\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/ancientegyptillu0000oake_e5q1\|date2003\|publisherBarnes & Noble\|isbn=978-0-7607-4943-2}} * {{cite book\|last1O'Connor\|first1David\|last2Cline\|first2Eric H.\|titleAmenhotep III: Perspectives on His Reign\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/AmenhotepIIIPerspectivesOnHisReign_201905/page/n144/\|date2001\|page273\|publisherUniversity of Michigan Press\|isbn978-0-472-08833-1}} * {{cite journal\|last1Pećanac \|first1Marija \|last2Janjić \|first2Zlata \|last3Komarcević \|first3Aleksandar \|last4Pajić \|first4Milos \|last5Dobanovacki \|first5Dusanka \|last6Misković \|first6Sanja Skeledzija \|display-authors3 \|journalMedicinski Pregled\|dateMay 2013\|titleBurns treatment in ancient times\|pmid23888738\|volume66\|issue5–6\|pages263–267}} * {{cite book\|lastPorat\|firstNaomi\|chapterLocal Industry of Egyptian Pottery in Southern Palestine During the Early Bronze I Period\|titleBulletin of the Egyptological Seminar\|volume8\|date1986\|publisherScholars Press\|pages109–129}} * {{cite book\|lastPorat\|firstNaomi\|chapterAn Egyptian colony in southern Palestine during the Late Predynastic/Early Dynastic period\|editorEdwin C. M. van den Brink\|titleThe Nile Delta in Transition: 4th.–3rd. Millennium B.C.: Proceedings of the Seminar Held in Cairo, 21–24 October 1990, at the Netherlands Institute of Archaeology and Arabic Studies\|date1992\|publisherBrink\|isbn978-965-221-015-9\|pages=433–440}} {{cite book \|lastRedford \|firstDonald B. \|titleEgypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times \|year1992 \|publisherPrinceton University Press \|isbn978-0-691-03606-9 }} {{cite book\|lastRedford\|firstDonald B.\|author-linkDonald B. Redford\|titleThe Oxford Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythology\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/oxfordessentialg0000unse_m7s6\|date2003\|publisherBerkley\|isbn978-0-425-19096-8}} * {{cite book\|lastRobins\|firstGay\|titleThe Art of Ancient Egypt\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/artofancientegyp0000robi\|editionrevised\|date2008\|publisherHarvard University Press\|isbn978-0-674-03065-7}} * {{cite book\|lastRyholt\|firstK.S.B.\|author-linkKim Ryholt\|titleThe Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800–1550 B.C.\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idANRi7cM5ZwsC&pgPP1\|date1997\|publisherMuseum Tusculanum Press\|isbn978-87-7289-421-8}} * {{cite book\|lastScheel\|firstBernd\|titleEgyptian Metalworking and Tools\|date1989\|publisherShire Publications\|isbn978-0-7478-0001-9}} * {{cite magazine \|lastSchuster \|firstAngela M.H. \|titleThis Old Boat \|magazineArchaeology \|date11 December 2000 \|urlhttps://archive.archaeology.org/online/news/abydos.html}} * {{cite web \|lastSeaburn\|firstPaul \|title4,000-Year-Old Board Game Called 58 Holes Discovered in Azerbaijan \|date21 November 2018 \|websiteMysterious Universe \|urlhttps://mysteriousuniverse.org/2018/11/4000-year-old-board-game-called-58-holes-discovered-in-azerbaijan/}} * {{cite web\|urlhttps://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/burialcustoms/shabtis.html\|titleShabtis\|date2001\|websiteDigital Egypt for Universities \|publisherUniversity College London \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080324044813/https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/burialcustoms/shabtis.html \|archive-date24 March 2008 \|url-statuslive \|ref={{harvid\|Shabtis\|2001}}}} * {{Cite book\|editor-lastShaw\|editor-firstIan\|titleThe Oxford History of Ancient Egypt\|publisherOxford University Press\|date2003\|locationOxford\|isbn978-0-19-280458-7\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofa00shaw}} * {{cite journal\|lastShaw\|firstGarry J.\|titleThe Death of King Seqenenre Tao \|journalJournal of the American Research Center in Egypt \|date2009 \|volume45 \|pages159–176 \|jstor25735452}} * {{cite journal \|last1Shea \|first1William H. \|titleA Date for the Recently Discovered Eastern Canal of Egypt \|journalBulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research \|dateApril 1977 \|volume226 \|pages31–38 \|doi10.2307/1356573\|jstori258744\|s2cid163869704 }} * {{Cite book \|lastSiliotti \|firstAlberto \|titleThe Discovery of Ancient Egypt \|publisherBook Sales, Inc \|locationEdison, NJ \|date1998\|isbn=978-0-7858-1360-6}} * {{cite book\|lastSilverman\|firstDavid\|titleAncient Egypt\|date1997\|publisherOxford University Press\|locationNew York\|isbn978-0-19-521270-9\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/ancientegypt00davi_0/page/36}} * {{cite web \|urlhttps://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/slavery.htm \|titleSlavery \|websiteAn introduction to the history and culture of Pharaonic Egypt \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120830093437/https://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/slavery.htm \|archive-date30 August 2012 \|ref{{harvid\|Slavery\|2012}}}} * {{cite journal \|last1Sirak \|first1Kendra A. \|titleAncient Human DNA and African Population History \|date2022-05-18 \|urlhttps://reich.hms.harvard.edu/sites/reich.hms.harvard.edu/files/inline-files/acrefore-9780190854584-e-484%5B1%5D.pdf \|workOxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology \|access-date2024-01-09\|doi10.1093/acrefore/9780190854584.013.484 \|isbn978-0-19-085458-4 \|last2Sawchuk \|first2Elizabeth A. \|last3Prendergast \|first3=Mary E.}} * {{cite web \|urlhttps://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/social/index.html \|titleSocial classes in ancient Egypt \|date2003 \|websiteDigital Egypt for Universities \|publisherUniversity College London \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071213192904/https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/social/index.html \|archive-date13 December 2007 \|url-statuslive \|ref={{harvid\|Social classes in ancient Egypt\|2003}}}} * {{Cite journal \|last1Skoglund \|first1Pontus \|last2Thompson \|first2Jessica C. \|last3Prendergast \|first3Mary E. \|last4Mittnik \|first4Alissa \|last5Sirak \|first5Kendra \|last6Hajdinjak \|first6Mateja \|last7Salie \|first7Tasneem \|last8Rohland \|first8Nadin \|last9Mallick \|first9Swapan \|last10Peltzer \|first10Alexander \|last11Heinze \|first11Anja \|last12Olalde \|first12Iñigo \|last13Ferry \|first13Matthew \|last14Harney \|first14Eadaoin \|last15Michel \|first15Megan \|dateSeptember 2017 \|titleReconstructing Prehistoric African Population Structure \|journalCell \|volume171 \|issue1 \|pages59–71.e21 \|doi10.1016/j.cell.2017.08.049 \|issn0092-8674 \|pmc5679310 \|pmid28938123}} * {{Cite book \|last1Stiebing \|first1William H. Jr \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAUm7EAAAQBAJ&pg1 \|titleAncient Near Eastern History and Culture \|last2Helft \|first2Susan N. \|date2023 \|publisherTaylor & Francis \|isbn978-1-000-88066-3 \|pages209–212}} * {{Cite book \| lastStrouhal \| firstEugen \| titleLife in Ancient Egypt \| publisherUniversity of Oklahoma Press \| locationNorman \|date1989 \| isbn978-0-8061-2475-9 \| urlhttps://archive.org/details/lifeofancientegy0000stro }} * {{cite book \|lastTörök\|firstLászló \|titleThe Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic Civilization \|publisherBrill \|locationLeiden \|date1998 \|isbn=978-90-04-10448-8}} * {{cite book\|lastTyldesley\|firstJoyce\|author-linkJoyce Tyldesley\|titleRamesses: Egypt's Greatest Pharaoh\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/ramessesegyptsgr0000tyld\|date2001\|publisherPenguin Books Ltd.\|isbn978-0-14-194978-9\|pages=76–77}} * {{cite web\|urlhttps://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/temple/typestime.html\|titleTypes of temples in ancient Egypt\|date2003\|websiteDigital Egypt for Universities \|publisherUniversity College London \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080319233620/https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/temple/typestime.html \|archive-date19 March 2008 \| url-statuslive \|ref={{harvid\|Types of temples in ancient Egypt\|2003}}}} * {{Cite journal \|lastVittman \|firstGünther \|titleZum koptischen Sprachgut im Ägyptisch-Arabisch \|trans-titlethe Coptic language in Egyptian Arabic \|languagede\|journalWiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes \|date1991 \|volume81 \|pages197–227 \|jstor23865622}} * {{cite book\|lastWachsmann\|firstShelley\|titleSeagoing Ships & Seamanship in the Bronze Age Levant\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idapna4pv7Ks8C&pgPP1\|date2009\|publisherTexas A&M University Press\|isbn=978-1-60344-080-6}} * {{cite book\|lastTurner\|firstE.G.\|chapterPtolemaic Egypt\|editor1-lastWalbank\|editor1-firstF. W.\|editor-linkF. W. Walbank\|editor2-lastAstin\|editor2-firstA. E.\|editor3-lastFredericksen\|editor3-firstM. W.\|editor4-firstR.M.\|editor4-lastOgilvie\|titleThe Cambridge Ancient History: Volume VII, Part 1, The Hellenic World \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlnIpo8KBbP4C&pgPA125\|edition2nd\|date1984\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn978-0-521-23445-0\|page125\|orig-date1928}} * {{cite web\|urlhttps://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/archaicegypt/info.html\|titleEarly Dynastic Egypt\|date2001 \|websiteDigital Egypt for Universities \|publisherUniversity College London\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080304143847/https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/archaicegypt/info.html \|archive-date4 March 2008 \|url-statuslive\|ref={{harvid\|Early Dynastic Egypt\|2001}}}} * {{cite web\|urlhttps://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/metal/coins.html\|titleEgypt: Coins of the Ptolemies\|websiteDigital Egypt for Universities\|publisherUniversity College London\|date2002\|ref{{harvid\|Egypt: Coins of the Ptolemies\|2002}}}} * {{cite journal \|lastWard \|firstCheryl \|urlhttps://www.archaeology.org/0105/abstracts/abydos3.html \|titleWorld's Oldest Planked Boats \|journalArchaeology \|volume54\|issue3 \|dateMay 2001}} * {{Cite book \|editor-lastWasserman \|editor-firstJames \|translatorRaymond Faulkner \|titleThe Egyptian Book of the Dead: The Book of Going Forth by Day \|publisherChronicle Books \|locationSan Francisco \|date1994 \|isbn978-0-8118-0767-8 \|url=https://archive.org/details/egyptianbookofde0000unse/mode/2up}} {{Refend}} Further reading * {{cite book\|last1Baines\|first1John\|last2Málek\|first2Jaromír\|titleCultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt\|date2000\|publisherCheckmark Books\|isbn978-0-8160-4036-0}} * {{cite book\|editor-lastBard\|editor-firstKathryn A.\|editor-linkKathryn A. Bard \|titleEncyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/EncyclopediaOfTheArchaeologyOfAncientEgypt\|date1999\|publisherRoutledge\|isbn978-1-134-66525-9}} * {{cite book\|lastGrimal\|firstNicolas\|author-linkNicolas Grimal\|titleA History of Ancient Egypt\|date1994\|publisherWiley\|isbn978-0-631-19396-8\|orig-date1988}} * {{cite book\|editor1-lastHelck\|editor1-firstWolfgang\|editor1-linkWolfgang Helck\|editor2-lastOtto\|editor2-firstEberhard\|titleLexikon der Ägyptologie\|publisherO. Harrassowitz\|date1972–1992\|isbn=978-3-447-01441-0}} * {{Cite book\|lastLehner \|firstMark\|author-linkMark Lehner\|titleThe Complete Pyramids\|locationLondon\|publisherThames & Hudson\|date1997\|isbn978-0-500-05084-2\|url=https://archive.org/details/completepyramids00lehn}} * {{Cite journal \|lastMallory-Greenough \|firstLeanne M. \|titleThe Geographical, Spatial, and Temporal Distribution of Predynastic and First Dynasty Basalt Vessels \|journalJournal of Egyptian Archaeology \|dateDecember 2002 \|volume88\|issue1 \|pages67–93 \|doi10.2307/3822337 \|jstor3822337}} * {{cite book \|lastMidant-Reynes\|firstBeatrix\|titleThe Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Pharaohs\|date2000\|publisherWiley\|isbn978-0-631-21787-9}} * {{cite book\|editor-lastRedford\|editor-firstDonald B.\|editor-linkDonald B. Redford\|titleThe Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt\|publisherOxford University Press\|date2001\|isbn=978-0-19-510234-5}} * {{Cite journal\|last1Schuenemann\|first1Verena J.\|last2Peltzer\| first2Alexander\| last3Welte\| first3Beatrix\| last4Van Pelt\| first4W. Paul\| last5Molak\| first5Martyna\| last6Wang\| first6Chuan-Chao\| last7Furtwängler\| first7Anja\| last8Urban\| first8Christian\| last9Reiter\| first9Ella\| last10Nieselt\| first10Kay\| last11Teßmann\| first11Barbara\| last12Francken\| first12Michael\| last13Harvati\| first13Katerina\| last14Haak\| first14Wolfgang\| last15Schiffels\| first15Stephan\| last16Krause\| first16Johannes\|display-authors3\| doi10.1038/ncomms15694\|pmid28556824\|pmc5459999\|titleAncient Egyptian mummy genomes suggest an increase of Sub-Saharan African ancestry in post-Roman periods\|journalNature Communications\|volume8\|page15694\|date2017\|bibcode2017NatCo...815694S}} * {{Cite book\|lastWilkinson\|firstR.H.\|date2000\|titleThe Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt\|locationLondon\|publisherThames and Hudson\|isbn978-0-500-05100-9\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/completetempleso00wilk}} * {{Cite book\|lastWilkinson\|firstR.H.\|author-linkRichard H. Wilkinson\|titleThe Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt\|locationLondon\|publisherThames and Hudson\|date2003\|isbn978-0-500-05120-7\|url=https://archive.org/details/completegodsgodd00wilk_0}} * {{cite journal \|last1Zakrzewski \|first1Sonia \|date2007 \|titlePopulation continuity or population change: Formation of the ancient Egyptian state \|urlhttps://eprints.soton.ac.uk/12075/1/2007_PopnContinuityChange_AJPA_132pp501-9.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/12075/1/2007_PopnContinuityChange_AJPA_132pp501-9.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|journalAmerican Journal of Physical Anthropology \|volume132 \|issue4 \|pages501–509 \|doi10.1002/ajpa.20569 \|pmid17295300 }} External links {{Sister project links\|voyAncient Egypt\|bAncient History/Egypt\|sPortal:Ancient Egypt\|commonsCategory:Ancient Egypt}} * {{cite EB1911\|wstitleEgypt/2 Ancient Egypt \|volume9 \|short=x}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/ BBC History: Egyptians]{{snd}}provides a reliable general overview and further links * [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_8c10QYoGa4UC <!-- quote=PtahHotep. --> Ancient Egyptian Science: A Source Book Door Marshall Clagett, 1989] * Napoleon on the Nile: Soldiers, Artists, and the Rediscovery of Egypt, [https://web.archive.org/web/20080602082144/https://arthistory.about.com/od/from_exhibitions/ig/Napoleon-on-the-Nile/Joseph--1874.htm Art History]. * [https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/ Digital Egypt for Universities.] Scholarly treatment with broad coverage and cross references (internal and external). Artifacts used extensively to illustrate topics. * [https://www.ancient-egypt-priests.com/ Priests of Ancient Egypt] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220322033044/http://www.ancient-egypt-priests.com/ \|date22 March 2022 }} In-depth-information about Ancient Egypt's priests, religious services and temples. Much picture material and bibliography. In English and German. * [https://www.uee.ucla.edu/ UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/women_01.shtml Ancient Egypt and the Role of Women] by Joann Fletcher * {{Cite web \|titleFull-length account of Ancient Egypt as part of history of the world \|urlhttps://www.civilization.org.uk/egypt \|url-statususurped \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210524151020/http://www.civilization.org.uk/egypt/ \|archive-date=24 May 2021}} {{Ancient Egypt topics}} {{Ancient seafaring}} {{Empires}} {{Authority control}} Category:Ancient Egypt Category:Bronze Age civilizations Category:Cradle of civilization Egypt Category:Former empires in Asia Category:Ancient peoples Category:History of Egypt by period Category:History of the Mediterranean	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt	2025-04-05T18:25:25.406248
875	Analog Brothers	{{Short description\|Experimental hip hop band}} {{More citations needed\|date=February 2020}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=November 2017}} {{Infobox musical artist \| name = Analog Brothers \| image = AnalogBrothersPromoPhoto.jpg \| image_size \| caption \| origin \| genre Hip hop \| years_active = 2000, 2014, 2016 \| label = {{hlist\|Ground Control Records\|Junkadelic Music\|Mello Music Group}} \| associated_acts = {{hlist\|Kool Keith\|Ice-T\|Black Ice\|Jacky Jasper\|KHM\|Odd Oberheim}} \| website \| current_members * Ice-T * Keith Korg * Rex Roland JX3P * Marc Moog * Silver Synth * Kiew Nikon \| past_members = }} Analog Brothers were an experimental hip hop band featuring Tracy "Ice-T" Marrow (Ice Oscillator) on keyboards, drums and vocals, Keith "Kool Keith" Thornton (Keith Korg) on bass, strings and vocals, Marc Live (Marc Moog) on drums, violins and vocals, Christopher "Black Silver" Rodgers (Silver Synth) on synthesizer, lazar bell and vocals, and Rex Colonel "Pimpin' Rex" Doby Jr. (Rex Roland JX3P) on keyboards, vocals and production. Music The group's only studio album Pimp to Eat featured guest appearances by various members of Rhyme Syndicate, Odd Oberheim, Jacky Jasper (who appears as Jacky Jasper on the song "We Sleep Days" and H-Bomb on "War"), D.J. Cisco from S.M., Synth-A-Size Sisters and Teflon.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://www.mtv.com/news/1123017/ice-t-kool-keith-unleash-analog-brothers-album/\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171114040803/http://www.mtv.com/news/1123017/ice-t-kool-keith-unleash-analog-brothers-album/\|url-statusdead\|archive-dateNovember 14, 2017\|titleIce-T, Kool Keith Unleash Analog Brothers Album\|workMTV News\|access-date2017-11-13\|languageen}}</ref> Legacy While the group only recorded one album together as the Analog Brothers, a few bootlegs of its live concert performances, including freestyles with original lyrics, have occasionally surfaced online. After Pimp to Eat, the Analog Brothers continued performing together in various line ups. Kool Keith and Marc Live joined with Jacky Jasper to release two albums as KHM. Marc Live rapped with Ice-T's group SMG. Marc also formed a group with Black Silver called Live Black, but while five of their tracks were released on a demo CD sold at concerts, Live Black's first album has yet to be released. In 2008, Ice-T and Black Silver toured together as Black Ice, and released an album together called Urban Legends. In 2013, Black Silver and newest member to Analog Brothers, Kiew Kurzweil (Kiew Nikon of Kinetic) collaborated on the joint album called Slang Banging (Return to Analog) with production by Junkadelic Music. In addition to all this, the Analog Brothers continue to make frequent appearances on each other's solo albums. Discography * 2000 - 2005 A.D. (single), Ground Control Records/Nu Gruv * 2000 - Pimp to Eat (LP), Ground Control Records/Mello Music Group<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://mmg-koolkeith.bandcamp.com/album/pimp-to-eat\|titlePimp To Eat, by Analog Brothers\|websiteBandCamp\|access-date2017-11-13}}</ref> * 2014 - Slang Banging (Return to Analog), Junkadelic Music<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://music.apple.com/us/album/slang-banging-return-to-analog/862514403\|titleSlang Banging (Return to Analog) by Silver Synth on Apple Music\|websiteiTunes\|languageen-us\|access-date2017-11-13}}</ref>References{{Reflist}}External links [https://web.archive.org/web/20041209094446/http://www.koolkeith.co.uk/ Kool Keith's Site] [https://web.archive.org/web/20150509122143/http://ultrakeith.net/ Ultrakeith] {{Allmusic\|classartist\|idp434145\|label=Analog Brothers}} [http://www.discogs.com/artist/Analog+Brothers Analog Brothers] at Discogs {{Ice-T}} {{Kool Keith}} {{Authority control}} Category:Ice-T Category:American hip-hop groups	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_Brothers	2025-04-05T18:25:25.422409
876	Motor neuron diseases	{{short description\|Group of neurological disorders affecting motor neurons}} {{about\|a group of muscle-wasting disorders\|the disease amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, also known as motor neuron(e) disease\|Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=March 2023}} {{Infobox medical condition \| name = Motor neuron disease \| image = Polio spinal diagram-en.svg \| caption = spinal diagram \| field = Neurology \| synonyms \| symptoms \| complications \| onset \| duration \| types \| causes \| risks \| diagnosis \| differential \| prevention \| treatment \| medication \| prognosis \| frequency \| deaths }} Motor neuron diseases or motor neurone diseases (MNDs) are a group of rare neurodegenerative disorders that selectively affect motor neurons, the cells which control voluntary muscles of the body.<ref nameEl2008/><ref name"NINDS2014">{{cite web\|titleMotor Neuron Diseases Fact Sheet: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS)\|urlhttp://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/motor_neuron_diseases/detail_motor_neuron_diseases.htm\|publisherninds.nih.gov\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140413093035/http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/motor_neuron_diseases/detail_motor_neuron_diseases.htm\|archive-date13 April 2014\|access-date7 November 2010}}</ref> They include amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS),<ref name"NHS">{{cite web \|titleMotor neurone disease – NHS \|urlhttps://www.nhs.uk/conditions/motor-neurone-disease/ \|websitenhs.uk \|access-date24 October 2020 \|languageen \|date15 January 2018}}</ref><ref name"healthdirectAU">{{cite web \| author Healthdirect Australia \|titleMotor neurone disease (MND) \|urlhttps://www.healthdirect.gov.au/motor-neurone-disease-mnd \|websitehealthdirect.gov.au \|access-date24 October 2020 \|languageen-AU \|date17 April 2020}}</ref> progressive bulbar palsy (PBP), pseudobulbar palsy, progressive muscular atrophy (PMA), primary lateral sclerosis (PLS), spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) and monomelic amyotrophy (MMA), as well as some rarer variants resembling ALS. Motor neuron diseases affect both children and adults.<ref name":14" /> While each motor neuron disease affects patients differently, they all cause movement-related symptoms, mainly muscle weakness.<ref name":7" /> Most of these diseases seem to occur randomly without known causes, but some forms are inherited.<ref name"NINDS2014" /> Studies into these inherited forms have led to discoveries of various genes (e.g. SOD1) that are thought to be important in understanding how the disease occurs.<ref name":2">{{Cite book\|titleClinical and molecular aspects of motor neuron disease\| vauthors Cooper-Knock J, Jenkins T, Shaw PJ \|isbn9781615044290\|locationSan Rafael, California (1537 Fourth Street, San Rafael, CA 94901 USA)\|oclc860981760\|name-list-stylevanc\|date = 2013-09-01}}</ref> Symptoms of motor neuron diseases can be first seen at birth or can come on slowly later in life. Most of these diseases worsen over time; while some, such as ALS, shorten one's life expectancy, others do not.<ref name"NINDS2014" /> Currently, there are no approved treatments for the majority of motor neuron disorders, and care is mostly symptomatic.<ref name"NINDS2014" /> Signs and symptoms (ALS). (A) He needs assistance to stand. (B) Advanced atrophy of the tongue. (C) There is upper limb and truncal muscle atrophy with a positive Babinski sign. (D) Advanced thenar muscle atrophy.<ref>{{Cite web\|titlePatient with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) (case {{!}} Open-i\|urlhttps://openi.nlm.nih.gov/detailedresult.php?img3996815_bmjopen2013004353f02&queryamyotrophic+lateral+sclerosis&itxg&licby&req4&npos5\|websiteopeni.nlm.nih.gov\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181215225214/https://openi.nlm.nih.gov/detailedresult.php?img3996815_bmjopen2013004353f02&queryamyotrophic+lateral+sclerosis&itxg&licby&req4&npos5\|archive-date15 December 2018\|access-date=2018-12-12}}</ref>]] Signs and symptoms depend on the specific disease, but motor neuron diseases typically manifest as a group of movement-related symptoms.<ref name":7">{{cite journal \| vauthors Statland JM, Barohn RJ, McVey AL, Katz JS, Dimachkie MM \| title Patterns of Weakness, Classification of Motor Neuron Disease, and Clinical Diagnosis of Sporadic Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis \| journal Neurologic Clinics \| volume 33 \| issue 4 \| pages 735–748 \| date November 2015 \| pmid 26515618 \| pmc 4629510 \| doi 10.1016/j.ncl.2015.07.006 }}</ref> They come on slowly, and worsen over the course of more than three months. Various patterns of muscle weakness are seen, and muscle cramps and spasms may occur. One can have difficulty breathing with climbing stairs (exertion), difficulty breathing when lying down (orthopnea), or even respiratory failure if breathing muscles become involved. Bulbar symptoms, including difficulty speaking (dysarthria), difficulty swallowing (dysphagia), and excessive saliva production (sialorrhea), can also occur. Sensation, or the ability to feel, is typically not affected. Emotional disturbance (e.g. pseudobulbar affect) and cognitive and behavioural changes (e.g. problems in word fluency, decision-making, and memory) are also seen.<ref name"NINDS2014" /><ref name":7" /> There can be lower motor neuron findings (e.g. muscle wasting, muscle twitching), upper motor neuron findings (e.g. brisk reflexes, Babinski reflex, Hoffman's reflex, increased muscle tone), or both.<ref name":7" /> Motor neuron diseases are seen both in children and adults.<ref name"NINDS2014" /> Those that affect children tend to be inherited or familial, and their symptoms are either present at birth or appear before learning to walk. Those that affect adults tend to appear after age 40.<ref name"NINDS2014" /> The clinical course depends on the specific disease, but most progress or worsen over the course of months.<ref name":7" /> Some are fatal (e.g. ALS), while others are not (e.g. PLS).<ref name"NINDS2014" /> Patterns of weakness Various patterns of muscle weakness occur in different motor neuron diseases.<ref name":7" /> Weakness can be symmetric or asymmetric, and it can occur in body parts that are distal, proximal, or both. According to Statland et al., there are three main weakness patterns that are seen in motor neuron diseases, which are:<ref name":7" /><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Barohn RJ, Amato AA \| title Pattern-recognition approach to neuropathy and neuronopathy \| journal Neurologic Clinics \| volume 31 \| issue 2 \| pages 343–361 \| date May 2013 \| pmid 23642713 \| pmc 3922643 \| doi 10.1016/j.ncl.2013.02.001 }}</ref> # Asymmetric distal weakness without sensory loss (e.g. ALS, PLS, PMA, MMA) # Symmetric weakness without sensory loss (e.g. PMA, PLS) # Symmetric focal midline proximal weakness (neck, trunk, bulbar involvement; e.g. ALS, PBP, PLS) Lower and upper motor neuron findings Motor neuron diseases are on a spectrum in terms of upper and lower motor neuron involvement.<ref name":7" /> Some have just lower or upper motor neuron findings, while others have a mix of both. Lower motor neuron (LMN) findings include muscle atrophy and fasciculations, and upper motor neuron (UMN) findings include hyperreflexia, spasticity, muscle spasm, and abnormal reflexes.<ref name"NINDS2014" /><ref name=":7" /> Pure upper motor neuron diseases, or those with just UMN findings, include PLS.<ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Emos MC, Agarwal S \| chapter Neuroanatomy, Upper Motor Neuron Lesion \|date2022 \| chapter-urlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537305/ \| title StatPearls \|placeTreasure Island (FL) \|publisherStatPearls Publishing \|pmid30725990 \|access-date=2022-06-24 }}</ref> Pure lower motor neuron diseases, or those with just LMN findings, include PMA.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleProgressive Muscular Atrophy – an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics \|urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/progressive-muscular-atrophy \|access-date2022-06-24 \|websitesciencedirect.com}}</ref> Motor neuron diseases with both UMN and LMN findings include both familial and sporadic ALS.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMotor Neuron Diseases Fact Sheet {{!}} National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke \|urlhttps://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/patient-caregiver-education/fact-sheets/motor-neuron-diseases-fact-sheet \|access-date2022-06-24 \|websiteninds.nih.gov}}</ref> Causes Most cases are sporadic and their causes are usually not known.<ref name"NINDS2014" /> It is thought that environmental, toxic, viral, or genetic factors may be involved.<ref name"NINDS2014" /> DNA damage TAR DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43), is a critical component of the non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) enzymatic pathway that repairs DNA double-strand breaks in pluripotent stem cell-derived motor neurons.<ref name Mitra2019>{{cite journal \| vauthors Mitra J, Guerrero EN, Hegde PM, Liachko NF, Wang H, Vasquez V, Gao J, Pandey A, Taylor JP, Kraemer BC, Wu P, Boldogh I, Garruto RM, Mitra S, Rao KS, Hegde ML \| display-authors 6 \| title Motor neuron disease-associated loss of nuclear TDP-43 is linked to DNA double-strand break repair defects \| journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \| volume 116 \| issue 10 \| pages 4696–4705 \| date March 2019 \| pmid 30770445 \| pmc 6410842 \| doi 10.1073/pnas.1818415116 \| bibcode 2019PNAS..116.4696M \| doi-access free }}</ref> TDP-43 is rapidly recruited to double-strand breaks where it acts as a scaffold for the recruitment of the XRCC4-DNA ligase protein complex that then acts to repair double-strand breaks. About 95% of ALS patients have abnormalities in the nucleus-cytoplasmic localization in spinal motor neurons of TDP43. In TDP-43 depleted human neural stem cell-derived motor neurons, as well as in sporadic ALS patients' spinal cord specimens there is significant double-strand break accumulation and reduced levels of NHEJ.<ref nameMitra2019/> Associated risk factors In adults, men are more commonly affected than women.<ref name"NINDS2014" /> Diagnosis Differential diagnosis can be challenging due to the number of overlapping symptoms, shared between several motor neuron diseases.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Statland \|first1Jeffrey M. \|last2Barohn \|first2Richard J. \|last3McVey \|first3April L. \|last4Katz \|first4Jonathan \|last5Dimachkie \|first5Mazen M. \|date2015 \|titlePatterns of Weakness, Classification of Motor Neuron Disease & Clinical Diagnosis of Sporadic ALS \|journalNeurologic Clinics \|volume33 \|issue4 \|pages735–748 \|doi10.1016/j.ncl.2015.07.006 \|issn0733-8619 \|pmc4629510 \|pmid26515618}}</ref> Frequently, the diagnosis is based on clinical findings (i.e. LMN vs. UMN signs and symptoms, patterns of weakness), family history of MND, and a variation of tests, many of which are used to rule out disease mimics, which can manifest with identical symptoms.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleArchive {{!}} Practical Neurology \|urlhttps://pn.bmj.com/content/by/year \|access-date2022-06-24 \|websitepn.bmj.com}}</ref><ref name":12"/> Classification Motor neuron disease describes a collection of clinical disorders, characterized by progressive muscle weakness and the degeneration of the motor neuron on electrophysiological testing. The term "motor neuron disease" has varying meanings in different countries. Similarly, the literature inconsistently classifies which degenerative motor neuron disorders can be included under the umbrella term "motor neuron disease". The four main types of MND are marked () in the table below.<ref name":8">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.mndnsw.asn.au/about-mnd/what-is-mnd/44-mndforms.html\|titleWhat forms does MND take?\|websitemndnsw.asn.au\|access-date2018-12-11}}</ref> All types of MND can be differentiated by two defining characteristics:<ref name=":7" /> # Is the disease sporadic or inherited? # Is there involvement of the upper motor neurons (UMN), the lower motor neurons (LMN), or both? Sporadic or acquired MNDs occur in patients with no family history of degenerative motor neuron disease. Inherited or genetic MNDs adhere to one of the following inheritance patterns: autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, or X-linked. Some disorders, like ALS, can occur sporadically (85%) or can have a genetic cause (15%) with the same clinical symptoms and progression of disease.<ref name=":7" /> UMNs are motor neurons that project from the cortex down to the brainstem or spinal cord.<ref name":4">{{Cite book\|titleNeuroanatomy through clinical cases\| vauthors Blumenfeld H \|date2002 \|publisherSinauer \|isbn087893060-4\|locationSunderland, Mass.\|oclc44628054}}</ref> LMNs originate in the anterior horns of the spinal cord and synapse on peripheral muscles.<ref name":4" /> Both motor neurons are necessary for the strong contraction of a muscle, but damage to an UMN can be distinguished from damage to a LMN by physical exam.<ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Javed K, Daly DT \| chapter Neuroanatomy, Lower Motor Neuron Lesion \|date2022 \| chapter-urlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK539814/ \|title StatPearls \|placeTreasure Island (FL) \|publisherStatPearls Publishing \|pmid30969636 \|access-date2022-06-24 }}</ref> {\| class="wikitable" ! Type !! UMN degeneration !! LMN degeneration \|- \| colspan="3" \|Sporadic MNDs \|- \| Sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) \|\| Yes<ref name":7" />\|\| Yes<ref name":7" /> \|- \|Primary lateral sclerosis (PLS)* \|\| Yes<ref name":7" />\|\| No<ref name":7" /> \|- \|Progressive muscular atrophy (PMA)* \|\| No<ref name":7" />\|\| Yes<ref name":7" /> \|- \|Progressive bulbar palsy (PBP)* \|\| Yes<ref name":8" />\|\| Yes, bulbar region<ref name":8" /> \|- \|Pseudobulbar palsy\|\| Yes, bulbar region<ref name":7" />\|\| No<ref name":7" /> \|- \|Monomelic amyotrophy (MMA) \|No \|Yes \|- \| colspan="3" \|Inherited MNDs \|- \|Familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)* \|Yes<ref name=":7" /> \|Yes<ref name=":7" /> \|} Tests * Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) tests: Analysis of the fluid from around the brain and spinal cord could reveal signs of an infection or inflammation.<ref name":12">{{cite journal \| vauthors Foster LA, Salajegheh MK \| title Motor Neuron Disease: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management \| journal The American Journal of Medicine \| volume 132 \| issue 1 \| pages 32–37 \| date January 2019 \| pmid 30075105 \| doi 10.1016/j.amjmed.2018.07.012 \| s2cid = 51910723 }}</ref> * Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): An MRI of the brain and spinal cord is recommended in patients with UMN signs and symptoms to explore other causes, such as a tumor, inflammation, or lack of blood supply (stroke).<ref name=":12" /> * Electromyogram (EMG) & nerve conduction study (NCS): The EMG, which evaluates muscle function, and NCS, which evaluates nerve function, are performed together in patients with LMN signs. * For patients with MND affecting the LMNs, the EMG will show evidence of: (1) acute denervation, which is ongoing as motor neurons degenerate, and (2) chronic denervation and reinnervation of the muscle, as the remaining motor neurons attempt to fill in for lost motor neurons.<ref name=":12" /> * By contrast, the NCS in these patients is usually normal. It can show a low compound muscle action potential (CMAP), which results from the loss of motor neurons, but the sensory neurons should remain unaffected.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Duleep A, Shefner J \| title Electrodiagnosis of motor neuron disease \| journal Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America \| volume 24 \| issue 1 \| pages 139–151 \| date February 2013 \| pmid 23177036 \| doi = 10.1016/j.pmr.2012.08.022 }}</ref> * Tissue biopsy: Taking a small sample of a muscle or nerve may be necessary if the EMG/NCS is not specific enough to rule out other causes of progressive muscle weakness, but it is rarely used. Treatment There are no known curative treatments for the majority of motor neuron disorders. Physiotherapy helps maintain movement and function when someone is affected by disability, injury or illness. This is achieved through movement and exercise, manual therapy, education and advice. Although physiotherapy can’t reverse the effects of MND, or Kennedy’s disease, it can help you maintain range of movement and comfort for as long as possible. Prognosis The table below lists life expectancy for patients who are diagnosed with MND. {\| class="wikitable" !Type !Median survival time <br />from start of symptoms \|- \|Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) \|2–5 years<ref name":12" /><ref name":10">{{cite web \|urlhttps://imnda.ie/about-mnd/different-types-of-mnd/ \|titleDifferent types of MND \| work Irish Motor Neurone Disease Association \|access-date2018-12-12}}</ref> \|- \|Primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) \|8–10 years<ref name=":12" /> \|- \|Progressive muscular atrophy (PMA) \|2–4 years<ref name=":12" /> \|- \|Progressive bulbar palsy (PBP) \|6 months – 3 years<ref name=":10" /> \|- \|Pseudobulbar palsy \|No change in survival \|} Terminology In the United States and Canada, the term motor neuron disease usually refers to the group of disorders while amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is frequently called ''Lou Gehrig's disease.<ref nameNINDS2014/><ref name":14">{{Cite book \|titleClinical and molecular aspects of motor neuron disease \| vauthors Cooper-Knock J, Jenkins T, Shaw PJ \|isbn978-1-61504-429-0\|locationSan Rafael, California \|oclc860981760\|date 2013-09-01}}</ref><ref name":3">{{cite journal \| vauthors Shaw PJ \| title Molecular and cellular pathways of neurodegeneration in motor neurone disease \| journal Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry \| volume 76 \| issue 8 \| pages 1046–1057 \| date August 2005 \| pmid 16024877 \| pmc 1739758 \| doi 10.1136/jnnp.2004.048652 \| quote Many doctors use the terms motor neuron disease and ALS interchangeably. }}</ref> In the United Kingdom and Australia, the term motor neuron(e) disease'' is used for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis,<ref name"NHS"/><ref name"healthdirectAU"/> although is not uncommon to refer to the entire group.<ref name":15">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.mndassociation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/an-introduction-to-mnd-booklet.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.mndassociation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/an-introduction-to-mnd-booklet.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|titleAn introduction to motor neurone disease (MND) \|websitemotor neurone disease association\|date 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|titleNeurodegeneration\| vauthors Schapira AH, Wszolek ZK, Dawson TM, Wood NW \|isbn978-1-118-66191-8 \|locationChichester, West Sussex \|oclc958876527 \| date 2017-02-13 }}</ref> While MND refers to a specific subset of similar diseases, there are numerous other diseases of motor neurons that are referred to collectively as "motor neuron disorders", for instance the diseases belonging to the spinal muscular atrophies group.<ref nameEl2008>{{cite book \| vauthors Ince PG, Clark B, Holton J, Revesz T, Wharton SB \| chapter Chapter 13: Diseases of movement and system degenerations \| veditors Greenfield JG, Love S, Louis DN, Ellison DW \|titleGreenfield's neuropathology\|date2008\|publisherHodder Arnold\|locationLondon\|isbn978-0-340-90681-1 \| volume 1 \|page947\|edition8th\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idnrEWkAc7W7IC&pgPA947}}</ref> However, they are not classified as "motor neuron diseases" by the 11th edition of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-11),<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f661720689\|title8B60 Motor neuron disease\|websiteICD-11 for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics\|publisherWorld Health Organisation}}</ref> which is the definition followed in this article. See also * Spinal muscular atrophies * Hereditary motor and sensory neuropathies * Stephen Hawking References {{reflist}} External links * {{Commons-inline}} * {{NINDS\|Motor-Neuron-Diseases\|Motor neuron diseases}} {{Medical resources \| DiseasesDB = 8358 \| ICD11 = {{ICD11\|8B60}} \| ICD10 = {{ICD10\|G12.2}} \| ICD9 = {{ICD9\|335.2}} \| ICDO \| OMIM \| MedlinePlus \| eMedicineSubj \| eMedicineTopic \| MeshID D016472 }} {{CNS diseases of the nervous system}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Motor neuron disease}} Motor neuron diseases Category:Rare diseases Category:Systemic atrophies primarily affecting the central nervous system	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_neuron_diseases	2025-04-05T18:25:25.454449
877	Abjad	{{short description\|Writing system where each symbol stands for a consonant}} {{For\|the traditional ordering of the letters of the Arabic alphabet\|Abjad numerals}} {{verification\|dateSeptember 2022\|reasonthe article relies in large part on Omniglot, an unreliable source}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=April 2023}} An abjad ({{IPAc-en\|'\|æ\|b\|dʒ\|æ\|d}};<ref>{{OED\|abjad}}</ref> {{langx\|ar\|أبجد}}; {{langx\|he\|אבגד}}; also spelled abgad<ref>{{cite book \|last1Boyes \|first1Philip J. \|last2Steele \|first2Philippa M. \|titleUnderstanding Relations Between Scripts II \|date10 October 2019 \|isbn978-1-78925-092-3 \|page24 \|publisherOxbow Books \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgF3JDwAAQBAJ&pgPA24}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|lastLehmann \|firstReinhard G. \|editor1-lastde Voogt \|editor1-firstAlex \|editor2-lastQuack \|editor2-firstJoachim Friedrich \|date2012 \|titleThe Idea of Writing: Writing Across Borders \|publisherBrill \|locationLeiden, Boston \|isbn9789004215450 \|page35 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKTA6MsEjkPIC&pg=PA46}}</ref>) is a writing system in which only consonants are represented, leaving the vowel sounds to be inferred by the reader. This contrasts with alphabets, which provide graphemes for both consonants and vowels. The term was introduced in 1990 by Peter T. Daniels.<ref>Daniels, P. (1990). "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/602899 Fundamentals of Grammatology]". Journal of the American Oriental Society, 110(4), 727-731. {{doi\|10.2307/602899}}. "We must recognize that the West Semitic scripts constitute a third fundamental type of script, the kind that denotes individual consonants only. It cannot be subsumed under either of the other terms. A suitable name for this type would be alephbeth, in honor of its Levantine origin, but this term seems too similar to alphabet to be practical; so I propose to call this type an "abjad," [Footnote: I.e., the alif-ba-jim order familiar from earlier Semitic alphabets, from which the modern order alif-ba-ta-tha is derived by placing together the letters with similar shapes and differing numbers of dots. The abjad is the order in which numerical values are assigned to the letters (as in Hebrew).] from the Arabic word for the traditional order6 of its script, which (unvocalized) of course falls in this category... There is yet a fourth fundamental type of script, a type recognized over forty years ago by James- Germain Fevrier, called by him the "neosyllabary" (1948, 330), and again by Fred Householder thirty years ago, who called it "pseudo-alphabet" (1959, 382). These are the scripts of Ethiopia and "greater India" that use a basic form for the specific syllable consonant + a particular vowel (in practice always the unmarked a) and modify it to denote the syllables with other vowels or with no vowel. Were it not for this existing term, I would propose maintaining the pattern by calling this type an "abugida," from the Ethiopian word for the auxiliary order of consonants in the signary."</ref> Other terms for the same concept include partial phonemic script, segmentally linear defective phonographic script, consonantary, consonant writing, and consonantal alphabet.<ref>Amalia E. Gnanadesikan (2017), "Towards a typology of phonemic scripts", Writing Systems Research, 9:1, 14-35, {{DOI\|10.1080/17586801.2017.1308239}}. "Daniels (1990, 1996a) proposes the name abjad for these scripts, and this term has gained considerable popularity. Other terms include partial phonemic script (Hill, 1967), segmentally linear defective phonographic script (Faber, 1992), consonantary (Trigger, 2004), consonant writing (Coulmas, 1989) and consonantal alphabet (Gnanadesikan, 2009; Healey, 1990). "</ref> Impure abjads represent vowels with either optional diacritics, a limited number of distinct vowel glyphs, or both. Etymology The name abjad is based on the Arabic alphabet's first (in its original order) four {{nowrap\|letters{{hsp}}{{mdash}}{{hsp}}}}corresponding to a, b, j, and {{nowrap\|d{{hsp}}{{mdash}}{{hsp}}}}to replace the more common terms "consonantary" and "consonantal alphabet" in describing the family of scripts classified as "West Semitic". It is similar to other Semitic languages such as Phoenician, Hebrew and Semitic proto-alphabets: specifically, aleph, bet, gimel, dalet. Terminology According to the formulations of Peter T. Daniels,{{sfn\|Daniels\|Bright\|1996}} abjads differ from alphabets in that only consonants, not vowels, are represented among the basic graphemes. Abjads differ from abugidas, another category defined by Daniels, in that in abjads, the vowel sound is implied by phonology, and where vowel marks exist for the system, such as nikkud for Hebrew and ḥarakāt for Arabic, their use is optional and not the dominant (or literate) form. Abugidas mark all vowels (other than the "inherent" vowel) with a diacritic, a minor attachment to the letter, a standalone glyph, or (in Canadian Aboriginal syllabics) by rotation of the letter. Some abugidas use a special symbol to suppress the inherent vowel so that the consonant alone can be properly represented. In a syllabary, a grapheme denotes a complete syllable, that is, either a lone vowel sound or a combination of a vowel sound with one or more consonant sounds. The contrast of abjad versus alphabet has been rejected by other scholars because abjad is also used as a term for the Arabic numeral system. Also, it may be taken as suggesting that consonantal alphabets, in contrast to e.g. the Greek alphabet, were not yet true alphabets.{{sfn\|Lehmann\|2011}} Florian Coulmas, a critic of Daniels and of the abjad terminology, argues that this terminology can confuse alphabets with "transcription systems", and that there is no reason to relegate the Hebrew, Aramaic or Phoenician alphabets to second-class status as an "incomplete alphabet".<ref>{{cite book\|lastCoulmas\|firstFlorian\|titleWriting Systems\|year2004\|publisherCambridge University Press\|page113\|isbn=978-0-521-78737-6}}</ref> However, Daniels's terminology has found acceptance in the linguistic community.<ref name="omniglot"> [http://omniglot.com/writing/alphabetic.htm "Abjads / Consonant alphabets"], Omniglot.com, 2009, quote: "Abjads, or consonant alphabets, represent consonants only, or consonants plus some vowels. Full vowel indication (vocalisation) can be added, usually by means of diacritics, but this is not usually done." Accessed 22 May 2009. </ref><ref> Rogers, Henry (2005): Writing systems: a linguistic approach. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-23464-0, ISBN 978-0-631-23464-7. See esp. [https://books.google.com/books?idvu3lRLVUta8C&dqabjad&pg=PA115 Chap. 7, pp. 115ff]. </ref><ref> [http://www.isca-speech.org/archive/interspeech_2006/i06_1412.html Schone, Patrick (2006)]: "Low-resource autodiacritization of abjads for speech keyword search", In INTERSPEECH-2006, paper 1412-Mon3FoP.13. </ref> Origins script containing a phrase which may mean 'to Baalat'. The line running from the upper left to lower right reads mt l b<sup>c</sup>lt.]] {{See also\|History of the alphabet#Descendants of the Aramaic abjad}} The first abjad to gain widespread usage was the Phoenician abjad. Unlike other contemporary scripts, such as cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs, the Phoenician script consisted of only a few dozen symbols. This made the script easy to learn, and seafaring Phoenician merchants took the script throughout the then-known world. The Phoenician abjad was a radical simplification of phonetic writing, since hieroglyphics required the writer to pick a hieroglyph starting with the same sound that the writer wanted to write in order to write phonetically, much as ''man'yōgana (kanji used solely for phonetic use) was used to represent Japanese phonetically before the invention of kana. Phoenician gave rise to a number of new writing systems, including the widely used Aramaic abjad and the Greek alphabet. The Greek alphabet evolved into the modern western alphabets, such as Latin and Cyrillic, while Aramaic became the ancestor of many modern abjads and abugidas of Asia. Impure abjads Impure abjads have characters for some vowels, optional vowel diacritics, or both. The term pure abjad refers to scripts entirely lacking in vowel indicators.{{sfn\|Daniels\|2013}} However, most modern abjads, such as Arabic, Hebrew, Aramaic, and Pahlavi, are "impure" abjads{{snd}}that is, they also contain symbols for some of the vowel phonemes, although the said non-diacritic vowel letters are also used to write certain consonants, particularly approximants that sound similar to long vowels. A "pure" abjad is exemplified (perhaps) by very early forms of ancient Phoenician, though at some point (at least by the 9th century BC) it and most of the contemporary Semitic abjads had begun to overload a few of the consonant symbols with a secondary function as vowel markers, called matres lectionis.{{sfn\|Lipiński\|1994}} This practice was at first rare and limited in scope but became increasingly common and more developed in later times. Addition of vowels {{Main\|Greek alphabet}} In the 9th century BC the Greeks adapted the Phoenician script for use in their own language. The phonetic structure of the Greek language created too many ambiguities when vowels went unrepresented, so the script was modified. They did not need letters for the guttural sounds represented by aleph, he, heth or ayin, so these symbols were assigned vocalic values. The letters waw and yod were also adapted into vowel signs; along with he, these were already used as matres lectionis'' in Phoenician. The major innovation of Greek was to dedicate these symbols exclusively and unambiguously to vowel sounds that could be combined arbitrarily with consonants (as opposed to syllabaries such as Linear B which usually have vowel symbols but cannot combine them with consonants to form arbitrary syllables). Abugidas developed along a slightly different route. The basic consonantal symbol was considered to have an inherent "a" vowel sound. Hooks or short lines attached to various parts of the basic letter modify the vowel. In this way, the South Arabian abjad evolved into the Ge'ez abugida of Ethiopia between the 5th century BC and the 5th century AD. Similarly, the Brāhmī abugida of the Indian subcontinent developed around the 3rd century BC (from the Aramaic abjad, it has been hypothesized). {{anchor\|Semitic abjad\|Semitic abjads}}Abjads and the structure of Semitic languages {{unreferenced section\|date=March 2024}} The abjad form of writing is well-adapted to the morphological structure of the Semitic languages it was developed to write. This is because words in Semitic languages are formed from a root consisting of (usually) three consonants, the vowels being used to indicate inflectional or derived forms. For instance, according to Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic, from the Arabic root {{lang\|ar\|ك&zwnj;ت&zwnj;ب}} K-T-B (to write) can be derived the forms {{lang\|ar\|كَتَبَ}} {{transl\|ar\|kataba}} (he wrote), {{lang\|ar\|كَتَبْتَ}} {{transl\|ar\|katabta}} (you (masculine singular) wrote), {{lang\|ar\|يَكْتُبُ⁩}} {{transl\|ar\|yaktubu}} (he writes), and {{lang\|ar\|مَكْتَبَة⁩}} {{transl\|ar\|maktabah}} (library). In most cases, the absence of full glyphs for vowels makes the common root clearer, allowing readers to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words from familiar roots (especially in conjunction with context clues) and improving word recognition{{citation needed\|dateAugust 2011}}{{dubious\|dateAugust 2011}} while reading for practiced readers.<!--extremely exaggerated, there are dozens of Arabic words of different roots which are only distinguished by vowels--> By contrast, the Arabic and Hebrew scripts sometimes perform the role of true alphabets rather than abjads when used to write certain Indo-European languages, including Kurdish, Bosnian, Yiddish, and some Romance languages such as Mozarabic, Aragonese, Portuguese, Spanish and Ladino. Comparative chart of Abjads, extinct and extant {\|class="wikitable sortable" \|- ! scope"col" style"font-size:smaller;" \| Name ! scope"col" style"font-size:smaller;" \| In use ! scope"col" style"font-size:smaller;" \| Cursive ! scope"col" style"font-size:smaller;" \| Direction ! scope"col" style"font-size:smaller;" \| # of letters ! scope"col" style"font-size:smaller;" \| Matres lectionis ! scope"col" style"font-size:smaller;" \| Area of origin ! scope"col" style"font-size:smaller;" \| Used by ! scope"col" style"font-size:smaller;" \| Languages ! scope"col" style"font-size:smaller;" data-sort-type=number \| Time period (age) ! scope"col" style"font-size:smaller;" \|Influenced by ! scope"col" style"font-size:smaller;" \| Writing systems influenced \|- \| Syriac \|\| yes \|\| yes \|\| right-left \|\| 22 consonants \|\| 3 \|\| Middle East \|\| Syriac Christianity, Assyrians\|\|Aramaic: Syriac, Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, Turoyo, Mlahso\|\| data-sort-value="-0100" \| {{circa\| 100}} BCE{{sfn\|Ager\|2015}}\|\| Aramaic \|\| Nabatean, Palmyran, Mandaic, Parthian, Pahlavi, Sogdian, Avestan and Manichean{{sfn\|Ager\|2015}} \|- \| Hebrew \|\| yes \|\| yes \|\| right-left \|\| 22 consonants + 5 final letters \|\| 4 \|\|Middle East \|\| Israelis, Jewish diaspora communities, Second Temple Judea \|\|Hebrew, Judeo-Arabic, Judeo-Aramaic, Judeo-Persian, Judeo-Italian, Yiddish, Ladino, many others\|\| data-sort-value="-0200" \| 2nd century BCE \|\| Paleo-Hebrew, Early Aramaic \|\| \|- \| Arabic \|\| yes \|\| yes \|\| right-left \|\| 28 \|\| 3 \|\| Middle East \|\| Over 400 million people \|\| Arabic, Kashmiri, Persian, Pashto, Uyghur, Kurdish, Urdu, many others{{sfn\|Ager\|2015}}\|\| 512 CE{{sfn\|Ekhtiar\|2011\|p=21}}{{sfn\|Ager\|2015}} \|\| Nabataean Aramaic\|\| Thaana \|- \| Aramaic (Imperial) \|\| no \|\| no \|\| right-left \|\| 22 \|\| 3 \|\| Middle East \|\| Achaemenid, Persian, Babylonian, and Assyrian empires \|\| Imperial Aramaic, Hebrew \|\| data-sort-value="-0500" \| {{circa\|500}} BCE{{sfn\|Ager\|2015}} \|\| Phoenician \|\| Late Hebrew, Nabataean, Syriac \|- \| Aramaic (Early) \|\| no \|\| no \|\| right-left \|\| 22 \|\| none \|\| Middle East \|\| Various Semitic Peoples \|\| \|\| data-sort-value"-1000" \| {{circa\|1000\|900}} BCE<br>{{Citation needed\|dateOctober 2018}} \|\| Phoenician \|\| Hebrew, Imperial Aramaic.{{sfn\|Ager\|2015}} \|- \| Nabataean \|\| no \|\| no \|\| right-left \|\| 22 \|\| none \|\| Middle East \|\| Nabataean Kingdom{{sfn\|Lo\|2012}} \|\|Nabataean \|\| data-sort-value="-0200" \| 200 BCE{{sfn\|Lo\|2012}}\|\| Aramaic \|\| Arabic \|- \| Middle Persian, (Pahlavi) \|\| no \|\| no \|\| right-left \|\| 22 \|\| 3 \|\| Middle East \|\| Sassanian Empire \|\| Pahlavi, Middle Persian \|\| data-sort-value="-0200" \| {{circa\|200 BCE \| 700 CE}} \|\| Aramaic \|\| Psalter, Avestan{{sfn\|Ager\|2015}} \|- \| Psalter Pahlavi \|\| no \|\| yes \|\| right-left \|\| 21 \|\| yes \|\| Northwestern China{{sfn\|Ager\|2015}} \|\| Persian Script for Paper Writing{{sfn\|Ager\|2015}} \|\| \|\| {{circa\|400\|sortableyes}} CE<ref name"Encyclopædia Iranica">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/pahlavi-psalter\|titlePAHLAVI PSALTER – Encyclopaedia Iranica\|websiteiranicaonline.org}}</ref>\|\| Syriac<br>{{Citation needed\|dateDecember 2011}} \|\| \|- \| Phoenician \|\| no \|\| no \|\| right-left, boustrophedon \|\| 22 \|\| none \|\| Byblos{{sfn\|Ager\|2015}} \|\| Canaanites \|\| Phoenician, Punic, Hebrew \|\| data-sort-value="-1500" \| {{circa\|1500\|1000}} BCE{{sfn\|Ager\|2015}}\|\| Proto-Canaanite Alphabet{{sfn\|Ager\|2015}} \|\| Punic (variant), Greek, Etruscan, Latin, Arabic and Hebrew \|- \| Parthian \|\| no \|\| no \|\| right-left \|\| 22 \|\| yes \|\| Parthia (modern-day equivalent of Northeastern Iran, Southern Turkmenistan and Northwest Afghanistan){{sfn\|Ager\|2015}}\|\| Parthian & Sassanian periods of Persian Empire{{sfn\|Ager\|2015}} \|\| Parthian \|\| data-sort-value="-0200" \| {{circa\|200}} BCE{{sfn\|Ager\|2015}}\|\| Aramaic \|\| \|- \| Sabaean \|\| no \|\| no \|\| right-left, boustrophedon \|\| 29 \|\| none \|\| Southern Arabia (Sheba) \|\| Southern Arabians \|\| Sabaean\|\| data-sort-value="-0500" \| {{circa\| 500}} BCE{{sfn\|Ager\|2015}}\|\| Byblos{{sfn\|Ager\|2015}} \|\| Ethiopic (Eritrea & Ethiopia){{sfn\|Ager\|2015}} \|- \| Punic \|\| no \|\| no \|\| right-left \|\| 22 \|\| none \|\| Carthage (Tunisia), North Africa, Mediterranean{{sfn\|Ager\|2015}} \|\| Punic Culture \|\| Punic, Neo-Punic \|\| \|\| Phoenician<br>{{Citation needed\|date=December 2011}} \|\| \|- \| Proto-Sinaitic, Proto-Canaanite \|\| no \|\| no \|\| left-right \|\| 24 \|\| none \|\| Egypt, Sinai, Canaan \|\| Canaanites \|\| Canaanite \|\| data-sort-value"-1900" \| {{circa\|1900\|1700}} BCE\|\| In conjunction with Egyptian Hieroglyphs<br>{{Citation needed\|dateDecember 2011}} \|\| Phoenician, Hebrew \|- \| Ugaritic \|\| no \|\| yes \|\| left-right \|\| 30 \|\| none, 3 characters for gs+vowel \|\| Ugarit (modern-day Northern Syria) \|\|Ugarites \|\| Ugaritic, Hurrian \|\| data-sort-value="-1400" \| {{circa\| 1400}} BCE{{sfn\|Ager\|2015}} \|\| Proto-Sinaitic \|\| \|- \| South Arabian \|\| no \|\| yes (Zabūr - cursive form of the South Arabian script) \|\| right-left, Boustrophedon \|\| 29 \|\| yes \|\| South-Arabia (Yemen) \|\| D'mt Kingdom \|\| Amharic, Tigrinya, Tigre, Semitic, Cushitic, Nilo-Saharan<br>{{Citation needed\|dateDecember 2011}} \|\| data-sort-value"-0900" \| 900 BCE<br>{{Citation needed\|date=December 2011}} \|\| Proto-Sinaitic \|\| Ge'ez (Ethiopia and Eritrea) \|- \| Sogdian \|\| no \|\| no (yes in later versions)\|\| right-left, left-right (vertical) \|\| 20 \|\| 3 \|\| parts of China (Xinjiang), Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Pakistan \|\| Buddhists, Manichaens \|\| Sogdian \|\| {{circa\| 400\|sortable=yes}} CE\|\| Syriac \|\| Old Uyghur alphabet{{sfn\|Ager\|2015}} \|- \| Samaritan \|\| yes (700 people) \|\| no \|\| right-left \|\| 22 \|\| none \|\| Levant \|\| Samaritans (Nablus and Holon) \|\| Samaritan Aramaic, Samaritan Hebrew\|\| data-sort-value="-0100" \| {{circa\|100 BCE\|1 CE}}\|\| Paleo-Hebrew Alphabet \|\| \|- \| Tifinagh \|\| yes \|\| no \|\| bottom-top, right-left, left-right,\|\| 31 \|\| yes \|\| North Africa \|\| Berbers \|\| Berber languages \|\| data-sort-value"-2000" \| 2nd millennium BCE<ref>{{Cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-zBwBwAAQBAJ&pgPT127\|titleRock Art Studies - News of the World Volume 3\|last1Franklin\|first1Natalie R.\|last2Strecker\|first2Matthias\|date2008-08-05\|publisherOxbow Books\|isbn9781782975885\|pages127\|languageen}}</ref> \|\| Phoenician, Arabic \|\| Neo-Tifinagh \|} See also * Abjad numerals (Arabic alphanumeric code) * Abugida * Gematria (Hebrew & English system of alphanumeric code) * Numerology * Shorthand (constructed writing systems that are structurally abjads) References {{Reflist\|40em}} Sources {{refbegin\|40em}} * {{cite encyclopedia \| title = Abjads / Consonant alphabets \| encyclopedia = Omniglot \| url = http://www.omniglot.com/writing/alphabetic.htm \| first1 = Simon \| last1 = Ager \| date = 2015 }} * {{cite book\|last1Daniels\|first1Peter T.\|editor1-lastOwens\|editor1-firstJonathan\|titleThe Oxford Handbook of Arabic Linguistics\|date2013\|publisherOxford University Press\|page415\|chapter=The Arabic Writing system}} * {{cite encyclopedia \|editor1-first = Peter T. \|editor1-last = Daniels \|editor-link1 = Peter T. Daniels \|editor2-first = William \|editor2-last = Bright \|title = The World's Writing Systems \|publisher = OUP \|date = 1996 \|page = [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/4 4] \|isbn = 978-0195079937 \|name-list-style = amp \|url-access = registration \|url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/4 }} * {{Cite book\| isbn 9781588394347\| last Ekhtiar\| first Maryam\| title Masterpieces from the Department of Islamic Art in the Metropolitan Museum of Art\|publisherMetropolitan Museum of Art\|locationNew York \|page21 \|date 2011 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvO761l9dgZwC&pg=PA21 }} * {{cite encyclopedia \| first1 = Reinhard G. \| last1 = Lehmann \| title = Ch 2 27-30-22-26. How Many Letters Needs an Alphabet? The Case of Semitic \| encyclopedia = The idea of writing: Writing across borders \| editor1-first = Alex \| editor1-last = de Voogt \| editor2-first = Joachim Friedrich \| editor2-last = Quack \| location = Leiden \| publisher = Brill \| date = 2011 \| pages = 11–52 \| isbn = 978-9004215450 \| name-list-style = amp }} * {{cite book\|last1Lipiński\|first1Edward\|titleStudies in Aramaic Inscriptions and Onomastics II\|date1994\|publisherPeeters Publishers\|locationLeuven, Belgium\|isbn9068316109\|pages29–30}} * {{cite web \|title = Berber \|url = http://www.ancientscripts.com/berber.html \|first1 = Lawrence \|last1 = Lo \|date = 2012 \|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170826045645/http://www.ancientscripts.com/berber.html \|archive-date = 26 August 2017 \|url-status = dead \|df = dmy-all }} * {{Cite book \| last1 = Wright \| first1 = W. \| title = A Grammar of the Arabic Language \| trans-title = transl. from the German of Caspari \| edition = 3rd \| publisher = CUP \| year = 1967 \| isbn = 978-0521094559 \| volume = 1 \| page = 28 }} {{refend}} External links *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z4wKD0uN0NQ The Science of Arabic Letters, Abjad and Geometry, by Jorge Lupin is dead] {{Writing systems \|expanded=Abjads}} {{list of writing systems}} Category:Arabic orthography Category:1990s neologisms	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abjad	2025-04-05T18:25:25.475783
878	Abugida	{{Short description\|Writing system}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=September 2021}} . Sanskrit for, May Śiva protect those who take delight in the language of the gods. (Kalidasa)]] {{Contains special characters\|Ethiopic}} {{Contains special characters\|Indic}} {{Contains special characters\|Canadian}} {{Contains special characters\|Javanese}} An abugida ({{IPAc-en\|ˌ\|ɑː\|b\|uː\|ˈ\|ɡ\|iː\|d\|ə\|,_\|ˌ\|æ\|b\|-\|audio=En-Abugida-pronunciation.ogg}};<ref>{{cite Dictionary.com\|abugida}}</ref> from Geʽez: {{lang\|gez\|አቡጊዳ}}, {{transliteration\|gez\|'äbugīda}}){{snd}}sometimes also called alphasyllabary, neosyllabary, or pseudo-alphabet{{snd}}is a segmental writing system in which consonant–vowel sequences are written as units; each unit is based on a consonant letter, and vowel notation is secondary, similar to a diacritical mark. This contrasts with a full alphabet, in which vowels have status equal to consonants, and with an abjad, in which vowel marking is absent, partial, or optional – in less formal contexts, all three types of the script may be termed "alphabets".{{r\|Bright}} The terms also contrast them with a syllabary, in which a single symbol denotes the combination of one consonant and one vowel. Related concepts were introduced independently in 1948 by James Germain Février (using the term {{Lang\|fr\|néosyllabisme}})<ref name"Février1948">{{cite book\|lastFévrier\|firstJames Germain\|author-linkJames Germain Février\|titleHistoire de l'écriture\|url https://books.google.com/books?idHkhNAQAAIAAJ\|year1948\| publisherPayot\|pages333–83\|chapterLe Néosyllabisme}}</ref> and David Diringer (using the term semisyllabary),<ref name "Diringer1948">{{cite book\|lastDiringer\|firstDavid\|author-linkDavid Diringer\|titleThe Alphabet: A Key to the History of Mankind \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.1287\|year1948 \|publisherPhilosophical Library\|page601 (index)}}</ref> then in 1959 by Fred Householder (introducing the term pseudo-alphabet).<ref>Householder, F. (1959). [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3294984 Review of The Decipherment of Linear B by John Chadwick], The Classical Journal, 54(8), 379–83. Retrieved 30 September 2020.</ref> The Ethiopic term "abugida" was chosen as a designation for the concept in 1990 by Peter T. Daniels.<ref>Daniels, P. (1990). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/602899 Fundamentals of Grammatology]. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 110(4), 727–31. doi:10.2307/602899: "We must recognize that the West Semitic scripts constitute a third fundamental type of script, the kind that denotes individual consonants only. It cannot be subsumed under either of the other terms. A suitable name for this type would be "alephbeth," in honor of its Levantine origin, but this term seems too similar to "alphabet" to be practical; so I propose to call this type an "abjad," [Footnote: I.e., the alif-ba-jim order familiar from earlier Semitic alphabets, from which the modern order alif-ba-ta-tha is derived by placing together the letters with similar shapes and differing numbers of dots. The abjad is the order in which numerical values are assigned to the letters (as in Hebrew).] from the Arabic word for the traditional order of its script, which (unvocalized), of course, falls in this category... There is yet a fourth fundamental type of script, a type recognized over forty years ago by James-Germain Fevrier, called by him the "neosyllabary" (1948, 330), and again by Fred Householder thirty years ago, who called it "pseudo-alphabet" (1959, 382). These are the scripts of Ethiopia and "greater India" that use a basic form for the specific syllable consonant + a particular vowel (in practice always the unmarked a) and modify it to denote the syllables with other vowels or with no vowel. Were it not for this existing term, I would propose maintaining the pattern by calling this type an "abugida," from the Ethiopian word for the auxiliary order of consonants in the signary."</ref><ref name=Bright/> In 1992, Faber suggested "segmentally coded syllabically linear phonographic script", and in 1992 Bright used the term alphasyllabary,<ref>Amalia E. Gnanadesikan (2017) Towards a typology of phonemic scripts, Writing Systems Research, 9:1, 14–35, DOI: 10.1080/17586801.2017.1308239 "The second is that of Bright (1996, 1999) which follows Daniels in abjads and alphabets (Bright, 1999), but identifies instead of abugidas a category of alphasyllabaries. As Bright (1999) points out, the definition of abugida and the definition of alpha-syllabary differ. This fact alone suggests that at least one of the two classifications is either incomplete or inaccurate—or, at the very least, that they have two different purposes. This paper is intended as a (long-delayed) response to Bright (1999) and argues that both of these systems are in fact incomplete."</ref><ref>Peter T. Daniels, [https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/saoc60.pdf Littera ex occidente: Toward a Functional History of Writing], in Studies in Semitic and Afroasiatic Linguistics presented to Gene B. Gragg edited by Cynthia L. Miller pages 53–69: "Alongside the terms I rejected (neosyllabary [Février 1948], pseudo-alphabet [Householder 1959], semisyllabary [Diringer 1948], and alphasyllabary [Bright 1992]) because they imply exactly the notion I am trying to refute – that the abugida is a kind of alphabet or a kind of syllabary – I have just come across semialphabet in the Encyclopœdia Britannica Micropœdia (though what is intended by the distinction "the syllabic KharoœøÏ [sic] and semialphabetic BrΩhmÏ" [s.v. "Indic Writing Systems"] is unfathomable). W. Bright denies having devised the term alphasyllabary, but it has not yet been found to occur earlier than his 1992 encyclopedia (in 1990:136 he approved semisyllabary). Compare Daniels 1996b:4 n. * and Bright 2000 for the different conceptualizations of abugida and alphasyllabary: functional vs. formal, as it happens. The words abjad and abugida are simply words in Arabic and Ethiopic, respectively, for the ancient Northwest Semitic order of letters, which is used in those languages in certain functions alongside the customary orders in Arabic reflecting rearrangement according to shape, and in Ethiopic reflecting an entirely different letter-order tradition"</ref> and Gnanadesikan and Rimzhim, Katz, & Fowler have suggested aksara or āksharik.<ref>Amalia E. Gnanadesikan (2017) Towards a typology of phonemic scripts, Writing Systems Research, 9:1, 14–35, DOI: 10.1080/17586801.2017.1308239 "This type of script has been given many names, among them semi-alphabet (Diringer, 1948, referring to Brāhmī), semi-syllabary (Diringer, 1948, referring to Devanāgarī) or semi-syllabic script (Baker, 1997), syllabic alphabet (Coulmas, 1999), alphasyllabary (Bright, 1996, 1999; Trigger, 2004), neosyllabary (Daniels, 1990), abugida (Daniels, 1996a) and segmentally coded syllabically linear phonographic script (Faber, 1992) as well as the Sanskrit-inspired terms aksara system (Gnanadesikan, 2009) or āksharik script (Rimzhim, Katz, & Fowler, 2014). As is discussed further below, however, there is a considerable degree of typological diversity in this family of scripts."</ref> Abugidas include the extensive Brahmic family of scripts of Tibet, South and Southeast Asia, Semitic Ethiopic scripts, and Canadian Aboriginal syllabics. As is the case for syllabaries, the units of the writing system may consist of the representations both of syllables and of consonants. For scripts of the Brahmic family, the term akshara is used for the units. Etymology In several languages of Ethiopia and Eritrea, abugida traditionally meant letters of the Ethiopic or Geʽez script in which many of these languages are written. The Geʽez script is one of several segmental writing systems in the world, others include Indic/Brahmic scripts and Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics. The word abugida is derived from the four letters, ''{{'}}ä, bu, gi, and da, in much the same way that abecedary is derived from Latin letters a be ce de, abjad is derived from the Arabic a b j d, and alphabet is derived from the names of the two first letters in the Greek alphabet, alpha and beta. Abugida as a term in linguistics was proposed by Peter T. Daniels in his 1990 typology of writing systems.<ref name"Daniels">{{cite journal\|jstor602899\|doi10.2307/602899\|titleFundamentals of Grammatology\|firstPeter T.\|lastDaniels\|dateOct–Dec 1990\|volume119\|issue4\|pages727–731 \|journalJournal of the American Oriental Society}}</ref>TerminologyAs Daniels used the word, an abugida is in contrast with a syllabary, where letters with shared consonant or vowel sounds show no particular resemblance to one another. Furthermore, an abugida is also in contrast with an alphabet proper, where independent letters are used to denote consonants and vowels. The term alphasyllabary was suggested for the Indic scripts in 1997 by William Bright, following South Asian linguistic usage, to convey the idea that, "they share features of both alphabet and syllabary."<ref>He describes this term as "formal," i.e., more concerned with the graphic arrangement of symbols, whereas abugida'' was "functional," putting the focus on sound–symbol correspondence. However, this is not a distinction made in the literature.</ref><ref nameBright/> The formal definitions given by Daniels and Bright for abugida and alphasyllabary differ; some writing systems are abugidas but not alphasyllabaries, and some are alphasyllabaries but not abugidas. An abugida is defined as "a type of writing system whose basic characters denote consonants followed by a particular vowel, and in which diacritics denote other vowels".<ref nameWWS_glossary/> (This 'particular vowel' is referred to as the inherent or implicit vowel, as opposed to the explicit vowels marked by the 'diacritics'.)<ref nameWWS_glossary/> An alphasyllabary is defined as "a type of writing system in which the vowels are denoted by subsidiary symbols, not all of which occur in a linear order (with relation to the consonant symbols) that is congruent with their temporal order in speech".<ref nameWWS_glossary/> Bright did not require that an alphabet explicitly represent all vowels.<ref nameBright/> ʼPhags-pa is an example of an abugida because it has an inherent vowel, but it is not an alphasyllabary because its vowels are written in linear order. Modern Lao is an example of an alphasyllabary that is not an abugida, for there is no inherent vowel and its vowels are always written explicitly and not in accordance to their temporal order in speech, meaning that a vowel can be written before, below or above a consonant letter, while the syllable is still pronounced in the order of a consonant-vowel combination (CV). General description The fundamental principles of an abugida apply to words made up of consonant-vowel (CV) syllables. The syllables are written as letters in a straight line, where each syllable is either a letter that represents the sound of a consonant and its inherent vowel or a letter modified to indicate the vowel. Letters can be modified either by means of diacritics or by changes in the form of the letter itself. If all modifications are by diacritics and all diacritics follow the direction of the writing of the letters, then the abugida is not an alphasyllabary. However, most languages have words that are more complicated than a sequence of CV syllables, even ignoring tone. The first complication is syllables that consist of just a vowel (V). For some languages, a zero consonant letter is used as though every syllable began with a consonant. For other languages, each vowel has a separate letter that is used for each syllable consisting of just the vowel. These letters are known as independent vowels, and are found in most Indic scripts. These letters may be quite different from the corresponding diacritics, which by contrast are known as dependent vowels. As a result of the spread of writing systems, independent vowels may be used to represent syllables beginning with a glottal stop, even for non-initial syllables. The next two complications are consonant clusters before a vowel (CCV) and syllables ending in a consonant (CVC). The simplest solution, which is not always available, is to break with the principle of writing words as a sequence of syllables and use a letter representing just a consonant (C). This final consonant may be represented with: a modification of the final letter that explicitly indicates the lack of a vowel (virama), a lack of vowel marking on the letter (often with ambiguity between no vowel and a default inherent vowel), vowel marking on the letter for a short or neutral vowel such as schwa (with ambiguity between no vowel and that short or neutral vowel), or a visually unrelated letter. In a true abugida, the lack of distinctive vowel marking of the letter may result from the diachronic loss of the inherent vowel, e.g. by syncope and apocope in Hindi. When not separating syllables containing consonant clusters (CCV) into C + CV, these syllables are often written by combining the two consonants. In the Indic scripts, the earliest method was simply to arrange them vertically, writing the second consonant of the cluster below the first one. The two consonants may also merge as conjunct consonant letters, where two or more letters are graphically joined in a ligature, or otherwise change their shapes. Rarely, one of the consonants may be replaced by a gemination mark, e.g. the Gurmukhi addak. When they are arranged vertically, as in Burmese or Khmer, they are said to be 'stacked'. Often there has been a change to writing the two consonants side by side. In the latter case, this combination may be indicated by a diacritic on one of the consonants or a change in the form of one of the consonants, e.g. the half forms of Devanagari. Generally, the reading order of stacked consonants is top to bottom, or the general reading order of the script, but sometimes the reading order can be reversed. The division of a word into syllables for the purposes of writing does not always accord with the natural phonetics of the language. For example, Brahmic scripts commonly handle a phonetic sequence CVC-CV as CV-CCV or CV-C-CV. However, sometimes phonetic CVC syllables are handled as single units, and the final consonant may be represented: in much the same way as the second consonant in CCV, e.g. in the Tibetan{{citation needed\|reasonThis is the condensed, single-stack style, not the usual multi-stack style\|dateJanuary 2016}}, Khmer<ref name"TUS_Khmer_VC"/> and Tai Tham<ref nameTai_Tham_Unicode_Proposal/> scripts. <!-- Full stop is after* reference because the final reference refers only to Tai Tham. The list of names has now been sandwiched by 'the ... scripts' to prevent the reference for Tai Tham being taken to apply to the whole sentence. --> The positioning of the components may be slightly different, as in Khmer and Tai Tham. by a special dependent consonant sign, which may be a smaller or differently placed version of the full consonant letter, or may be a distinct sign altogether. not at all. For example, repeated consonants need not be represented, homorganic nasals may be ignored, and in Baybayin and Makasar script, the syllable-final consonant was traditionally never represented.<ref name=WWS_Insular_SEA/><!-- p476 --> More complicated unit structures (e.g. CC or CCVC) are handled by combining the various techniques above. Examples using the Devanagari script * K /ka/ * Ki /ki/ * K* /k/ (with a Halant under the character) * KM /kma/ İK /ika/ * İK* /ik/ * İKi /iki/ * etc. Family-specific features There are three principal families of abugidas, depending on whether vowels are indicated by modifying consonants by diacritics, distortion, or orientation.<ref>John D. Berry (2002:19) Language Culture Type</ref> The oldest and largest is the Brahmic family of India and Southeast Asia, in which vowels are marked with diacritics and syllable-final consonants, when they occur, are indicated with ligatures, diacritics, or with a special vowel-canceling mark. In the Ethiopic script, vowels are marked by modifying the shapes of the consonants, and one of the vowel-forms serves additionally to indicate final consonants. In Canadian Aboriginal syllabics, vowels are marked by rotating or flipping the consonants, and final consonants are indicated with either special diacritics or superscript forms of the main initial consonants. Lao and Tāna have dependent vowels and a zero vowel sign, but no inherent vowel. {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" !Feature!!North Indic!!South Indic!!Tāna!!Ethiopic!!Canadian Aboriginal \|- \|Vowel representation<br>after consonant\|\|colspan="3"\|Dependent sign (diacritic)<br>in distinct position per vowel\|\|Fused diacritic\|\|Rotate/reflect \|- \|Initial vowel<br>representation\|\|Distinct inline<br>letter per vowel{{efn\|groupexc\|nameIVNI}}\|\|colspan"2"\|Glottal stop or zero consonant<br>plus dependent vowel{{efn\|groupexc\|nameIVSEA\|Pali in the Burmese, Khmer and Tai Tham scripts uses independent vowels instead, and they are also used in loan words in the local languages. The Cham script also uses both independent vowels and glottal stop consonant plus dependent vowel.<ref nameCham_Unicode_Proposal/> In all three cases, the glottal stop letter is the same as the independent vowel letter for the inherent vowel. Conversely, the Lontara script of Sulawesi uses zero consonant plus vowel.}}\|\|Glottal stop<br>plus dependent\|\|Zero consonant<br>plus dependent \|- \|Inherent vowel<br>(value of no vowel sign)\|\|colspan"2"\|{{IPA\|[ə]}}, {{IPA\|[ɔ]}}, {{IPA\|[a]}}, or [[Bengali alphabet\|{{IPA\|[o]\|catno}}]]{{efn\|groupexc\|nameINHSEA}}\|\|No\|\|{{IPA\|[ɐ]<ref name=WWS_Ethiopic/>}}\|\|N/A \|- \|Zero vowel sign<br>(sign for no value)\|\|Often\|\|Colspan"2"\|Always used when<br>no final vowel{{efn\|groupexc\|nameVRMSEA}}\|\|Ambiguous with ə ({{IPA\|[ɨ]}})\|\|Shrunk or separate letter{{efn\|groupexc\|name=VRMCAN}} \|- \|Consonant cluster\|\| Conjunct{{efn\|groupexc\|nameCLUNI}}\|\|Stacked or separate{{clarify\|reason"Does 'separate' allow modification to inidicate the formation of a conjunct?\|dateJanuary 2016}}{{efn\|groupexc\|nameCLUSI}}\|\|colspan="3"\|Separate \|- \|Final consonant (not sign)\|\|colspan"2"\|Inline{{efn\|groupexc\|nameFCI}}\|\|colspan"2"\|Inline\|\|Inline \|- \|Distinct final sign\|\|colspan"2"\|Only for ṃ, ḥ{{efn\|groupexc\|nameDFVAR}}{{efn\|groupexc\|nameDFSI}}\|\|colspan"2"\|No\|\|Only in Western \|- \|Final sign position\|\|Inline or top\|\|Inline, top or occasionally bottom\|\|colspan"2"\|N/A\|\|Raised or inline{{clarify\|reasonIn talk, there is the implication that signs can be lowered. Perhaps best to leave as 'Inline'.\|date=January 2016}} \|- \|colspan="6"\| ; Exceptions {{notelist\|groupexc\|refs <!-- Notes that include formal references must be defined at a referring point, not here! --> {{efn\|groupexc\|nameIVNI\|Tibetan, Róng and Kharoṣṭhī use the glottal stop or zero consonant plus dependent vowel.}} {{efn\|groupexc\|nameINHSEA\|Lao has no inherent vowel – it is an alphasyllabary but not an abugida. There is also a Thai-script Pali orthography which has no inherent vowel.}} {{efn\|groupexc\|nameVRMSEA\|The Thai, Lao, Tai Viet, Tai Tham and Khmer scripts often or always use the plain letter for word-final consonants, and normally do not use a zero vowel sign. However, the Thai script regularly uses it for Pali and Sanskrit.}} {{efn\|groupexc\|nameVRMCAN\|Deviations include omissions{{citation needed\|reasonSole evidence is discussion on Qalam\|dateJanuary 2016}} and systematic use of i-forms{{citation needed\|reasonSole evidence is a claim in the talk page\|dateJanuary 2016}}.}} {{efn\|groupexc\|nameCLUNI\|Often separate and unmodified as a result of syncope. Also, as a legitimate font fall-back, can occur as side-by-side consonants modified only by the inclusion of a virama.}} {{efn\|groupexc\|nameCLUSI\|Tamil and Lao have conjuncts formed from straightforward ligation of side by side consonants. Burmese and Tai Tham have a few conjuncts.}} {{efn\|groupexc\|nameFCI\|Tibetan and Khmer occasionally and Tai Tham regularly write final consonants below the rest of the akshara. This practice is the origin of the Lao letter ຽ U+0EBD LAO SEMIVOWEL SIGN NYO, and a similar sign may be found in Javanese. Tai Tham may also write several final consonants above the rest of the akshara. The Rónɡ script writes final consonants above the rest of the akshara, except that final /ŋ/ precedes the rest. The Philippine scripts do not represent final consonants.}} {{efn\|groupexc\|nameDFVAR\|The symbol for ṃ represents the sound for /m/ or /ŋ/ in some languages, and the symbol for ḥ may represent a ɡlottal stop or even /k/. Not all scripts have these symbols.}} {{efn\|groupexc\|nameDFSI\|Tai Tham has superscript and subscript signs for final /k/. Javanese and related scripts have a superscript symbol for final /r/, though it is ultimately related to the normal letter for /r/.}} }} \|- \|} Indic (Brahmic) {{see also\|Brahmic scripts}} Indic scripts originated in India and spread to Southeast Asia, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet, Mongolia, and Russia. All surviving Indic scripts are descendants of the Brahmi alphabet. Today they are used in most languages of South Asia (although replaced by Perso-Arabic in Urdu, Kashmiri and some other languages of Pakistan and India), mainland Southeast Asia (Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam), Tibet (Tibetan), Indonesian archipelago (Javanese, Balinese, Sundanese, Batak, Lontara, Rejang, Rencong, Makasar, etc.), Philippines (Baybayin, Buhid, Hanunuo, Kulitan, and Aborlan Tagbanwa), Malaysia (Rencong). The primary division is with North Indic scripts, used in Northern India, Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, Mongolia, and Russia; and Southern Indic scripts, used in South India, Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. South Indic letter forms are more rounded than North Indic forms, though Odia, Golmol and Litumol of Nepal script are rounded. Most North Indic scripts' full letters incorporate a horizontal line at the top, with Gujarati and Odia as exceptions; South Indic scripts do not. Indic scripts indicate vowels through dependent vowel signs (diacritics) around the consonants, often including a sign that explicitly indicates the lack of a vowel. If a consonant has no vowel sign, this indicates a default vowel. Vowel diacritics may appear above, below, to the left, to the right, or around the consonant. The most widely used Indic script is Devanagari, shared by Hindi, Bihari, Marathi, Konkani, Nepali, and often Sanskrit. A basic letter such as क in Hindi represents a syllable with the default vowel, in this case ka ({{IPA\|[kə]}}). In some languages, including Hindi, it becomes a final closing consonant at the end of a word, in this case k. The inherent vowel may be changed by adding vowel mark (diacritics), producing syllables such as कि ki, कु ku, के ke, को ko. ]] {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" \|+ Diacritic placement in Brahmic abugidas ! position ! syllable ! pronunciation ! base form ! script \|- \| above \|\| के \|\| {{IPA\|/keː/}} \|\| rowspan4 \| क {{IPA\|/k(a)/}} \|\| rowspan4 \| Devanagari \|- \| below \|\| कु \|\| {{IPA\|/ku/}} \|- \| left \|\| कि \|\| {{IPA\|/ki/}} \|- \| right \|\| को \|\| {{IPA\|/koː/}} \|- \| around \|\| கௌ \|\| {{IPA\|/kau̯/}} \|\| rowspan"2" \| க {{IPA\|/ka/}} \|\| rowspan"2" \| Tamil \|- \|within \|கி \|/ki/ \|- \| surround \|\| កៀ \|\| {{IPA\|/kie/}} \|\| ក {{IPA\|/kɑː/}} \|\| Khmer \|- \| within \|\| ಕಿ \|\| {{IPA\|/ki/}} \|\| ಕ {{IPA\|/ka/}} \|\| Kannada \|- \| within \|\| కి\|\| {{IPA\|/ki/}} \|\| క {{IPA\|/ka/}} \|\| Telugu \|- \| below and extend<br>to the right \|\| ꦏꦾ \|\| {{IPA\|/kja/}} \|\| rowspan"2" \| ꦏ {{IPA\|/ka/}} \|\| rowspan"2" \| Javanese \|- \| below and extend<br>to the left \|\| ꦏꦿꦸ \|\| {{IPA\|/kru/}} \|} In many of the Brahmic scripts, a syllable beginning with a cluster is treated as a single character for purposes of vowel marking, so a vowel marker like ि -i, falling before the character it modifies, may appear several positions before the place where it is pronounced. For example, the game cricket in Hindi is क्रिकेट {{transliteration\|hi\|ISO\|krikeṭ}}; the diacritic for {{IPA\|/i/}} appears before the consonant cluster {{IPA\|/kr/}}, not before the {{IPA\|/r/}}. A more unusual example is seen in the Batak alphabet: Here the syllable bim is written ba-ma-i-(virama). That is, the vowel diacritic and virama are both written after the consonants for the whole syllable. In many abugidas, there is also a diacritic to suppress the inherent vowel, yielding the bare consonant. In Devanagari, प् is p, and फ् is ph. This is called the virāma or halantam in Sanskrit. It may be used to form consonant clusters, or to indicate that a consonant occurs at the end of a word. Thus in Sanskrit, a default vowel consonant such as फ does not take on a final consonant sound. Instead, it keeps its vowel. For writing two consonants without a vowel in between, instead of using diacritics on the first consonant to remove its vowel, another popular method of special conjunct forms is used in which two or more consonant characters are merged to express a cluster, such as Devanagari, as in अप्फ appha. (Some fonts display this as प् followed by फ, rather than forming a conjunct. This expedient is used by ISCII and South Asian scripts of Unicode.) Thus a closed syllable such as phaṣ requires two aksharas to write: फष् phaṣ. The Róng script used for the Lepcha language goes further than other Indic abugidas, in that a single akshara can represent a closed syllable: Not only the vowel, but any final consonant is indicated by a diacritic. For example, the syllable [sok] would be written as something like s̥̽, here with an underring representing {{IPA\|/o/}} and an overcross representing the diacritic for final {{IPA\|/k/}}. Most other Indic abugidas can only indicate a very limited set of final consonants with diacritics, such as {{IPA\|/ŋ/}} or {{IPA\|/r/}}, if they can indicate any at all. Ethiopic and Ethiopia]] In Geʽez script, fidels (individual "letters" of the script) have "diacritics" that are fused with the consonants to the point that they must be considered modifications of the form of the letters. Children learn each modification separately, as in a syllabary; nonetheless, the graphic similarities between syllables with the same consonant are readily apparent, unlike the case in a true syllabary. Though now an abugida, the Geʽez script, until the advent of Christianity (ca. AD 350), had originally been what would now be termed an abjad. In the Geʽez script (or fidel), the base form of the letter (also known as fidel) may be altered. For example, ሀ hä {{IPA\|[hə]}} (base form), ሁ hu (with a right-side diacritic that does not alter the letter), ሂ hi (with a subdiacritic that compresses the consonant, so it is the same height), ህ hə {{IPA\|[hɨ]}} or {{IPA\|[h]}} (where the letter is modified with a kink in the left arm). Canadian Aboriginal syllabics <!-- an inscription of Old Kawi found in the Philippines--> In the family known as Canadian Aboriginal syllabics, which was inspired by the Devanagari script of India, vowels are indicated by changing the orientation of the syllabogram. Each vowel has a consistent orientation; for example, Inuktitut ᐱ pi, ᐳ pu, ᐸ pa; ᑎ ti, ᑐ tu, ᑕ ta. Although there is a vowel inherent in each, all rotations have equal status and none can be identified as basic. Bare consonants are indicated either by separate diacritics, or by superscript versions of the aksharas; there is no vowel-killer mark. Borderline cases Vowelled abjads Abjads are typically written without indication of many vowels. However, in some contexts like teaching materials or scriptures, Arabic and Hebrew are written with full indication of vowels via diacritic marks (harakat, niqqud) making them effectively alphasyllabaries. <!-- Not best place to mention Thaana since not an abjad Thaana is similar, with all vowels marked with diacritics, and no inherent vowel. However, the absence of a vowel is also marked with a diacritic, as in many Indic abugidas. Thaana developed among a population that was already literate in an Indic abugida. --> The Arabic scripts used for Kurdish in Iraq and for Uyghur in Xinjiang, China, as well as the Hebrew script of Yiddish, are fully vowelled, but because the vowels are written with full letters rather than diacritics (with the exception of distinguishing between /a/ and /o/ in the latter) and there are no inherent vowels, these are considered alphabets, not abugidas. The Arabic script used for South Azerbaijani generally writes the vowel /æ/ (written as ə in North Azerbaijani) as a diacritic, but writes all other vowels as full letters (similarly to Kurdish and Uyghur). This means that when no vowel diacritics are present (most of the time), it technically has an inherent vowel. However, like the Phagspa and Meroitic scripts whose status as abugidas is controversial (see below), all other vowels are written in-line. Additionally, the practice of explicitly writing all-but-one vowel does not apply to loanwords from Arabic and Persian, so the script does not have an inherent vowel for Arabic and Persian words. The inconsistency of its vowel notation makes it difficult to categorize.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.azeri.org/Azeri/az_arabic/azturk_standard.pdf\|websiteazeri.org\|titleStandard Azeri\|access-date7 May 2023}}</ref> Phagspa The imperial Mongol script called Phagspa was derived from the Tibetan abugida, but all vowels are written in-line rather than as diacritics. However, it retains the features of having an inherent vowel /a/ and having distinct initial vowel letters. Pahawh Pahawh Hmong is a non-segmental script that indicates syllable onsets and rimes, such as consonant clusters and vowels with final consonants. Thus it is not segmental and cannot be considered an abugida. However, it superficially resembles an abugida with the roles of consonant and vowel reversed. Most syllables are written with two letters in the order rime–onset (typically vowel-consonant), even though they are pronounced as onset-rime (consonant-vowel), rather like the position of the {{IPA\|/i/}} vowel in Devanagari, which is written before the consonant. Pahawh is also unusual in that, while an inherent rime {{IPA\|/āu/}} (with mid tone) is unwritten, it also has an inherent onset {{IPA\|/k/}}. For the syllable {{IPA\|/kau/}}, which requires one or the other of the inherent sounds to be overt, it is {{IPA\|/au/}} that is written. Thus it is the rime (vowel) that is basic to the system.{{citation needed\|dateApril 2021}}MeroiticDrawing a dividing line between abugidas and other segmental scripts can be difficult. For example, the Meroitic script of ancient Sudan did not indicate an inherent a (one symbol stood for both m and ma, for example), and is thus similar to Brahmic family of abugidas. However, the other vowels were indicated with full letters, not diacritics or modification, so the system was essentially an alphabet that did not bother to write the most common vowel.ShorthandSeveral systems of shorthand use diacritics for vowels, but they do not have an inherent vowel, and are thus more similar to Thaana and Kurdish script than to the Brahmic scripts. The Gabelsberger shorthand system and its derivatives modify the following consonant to represent vowels. The Pollard script, which was based on shorthand, also uses diacritics for vowels; the placements of the vowel relative to the consonant indicates tone. Pitman shorthand uses straight strokes and quarter-circle marks in different orientations as the principal "alphabet" of consonants; vowels are shown as light and heavy dots, dashes and other marks in one of 3 possible positions to indicate the various vowel-sounds. However, to increase writing speed, Pitman has rules for "vowel indication"<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://pitmanshorthand.homestead.com\|titleThe Joy of Pitman Shorthand\|websitepitmanshorthand.homestead.com}}</ref> using the positioning or choice of consonant signs so that writing vowel-marks can be dispensed with. Development As the term alphasyllabary suggests, abugidas have been considered <ref>{{cite journal \| lastBright \| firstWilliam \| titleA Matter of Typology: Alphasyllabaries and Abugidas \| journalWritten Language and Literacy \| date1999 \| urlhttps://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/4818937.pdf \| access-date2024-08-06 \| page65}}</ref> an intermediate step between alphabets and syllabaries. Historically, abugidas appear to have evolved from abjads (vowelless alphabets).{{Citation needed\|date=April 2023}} They contrast with syllabaries, where there is a distinct symbol for each syllable or consonant-vowel combination, and where these have no systematic similarity to each other, and typically develop directly from logographic scripts. Compare the examples above to sets of syllables in the Japanese hiragana syllabary: か ka, き ki, く ku, け ke, こ ko have nothing in common to indicate k; while ら ra, り ri, る ru, れ re, ろ ro have neither anything in common for r, nor anything to indicate that they have the same vowels as the k set. Most Indian and Indochinese abugidas appear to have first been developed from abjads with the Kharoṣṭhī and Brāhmī scripts; the abjad in question is usually considered to be the Aramaic one, but while the link between Aramaic and Kharosthi is more or less undisputed, this is not the case with Brahmi. The Kharosthi family does not survive today, but Brahmi's descendants include most of the modern scripts of South and Southeast Asia. Geʽez script derived from a different abjad, the Sabean script of Yemen; the advent of vowels coincided with the introduction or adoption of Christianity about AD 350.<ref name="WWS_Ethiopic" /> The Ethiopic script is the elaboration of an abjad. The Cree syllabary was invented with full knowledge of the Devanagari system. The Meroitic script was developed from Egyptian hieroglyphs, within which various schemes of 'group writing'<ref nameHoch_Semitic/> had been used for showing vowels. List of abugidas {{See also\|List of writing systems}} {{Div col}} Brahmic family, descended from Brāhmī ({{Circa\|4th century BC}}) Ahom Assamese Balinese Batak{{spaced ndash}}Toba and other Batak languages Baybayin{{spaced ndash}}Ilocano, Pangasinan, Tagalog, Bikol languages, Visayan languages, and possibly other Philippine languages Bengali<ref>{{cite web \|titleScriptSource – Bengali (Bangla) \|urlhttps://www.scriptsource.org/cms/scripts/page.php?item_idscript_detail&keyBeng \|websitescriptsource.org \|access-date9 May 2019}}</ref>{{spaced ndash}}Bengali Bhaiksuki Brahmi{{spaced ndash}}Sanskrit, Prakrit Buhid Burmese{{spaced ndash}}Burmese, Karen languages, Mon, and Shan Chakma Cham Devanagari{{spaced ndash}}Hindi, Sanskrit, Marathi, Nepali, Konkani and other languages of northern India Dhives Akuru Grantha{{spaced ndash}}Sanskrit Gujarati{{spaced ndash}}Gujarāti, Kachchi Gurmukhi script{{spaced ndash}}Punjabi Hanunó’o Javanese Kaganga{{spaced ndash}}Lampung, Rencong, Rejang Kaithi{{spaced ndash}}Bhojpuri and other languages of northern and eastern India Kannada{{spaced ndash}}Kannada, Tulu, Konkani, Kodava Kalinga script Kawi Khmer Khojki Khotanese Khudawadi Kolezhuthu{{spaced ndash}}Tamil, Malayalam Kulitan Lao Leke Lepcha Limbu Lontara'{{spaced ndash}}Buginese, Makassar, and Mandar Mahajani Malayalam{{spaced ndash}}Malayalam Malayanma{{spaced ndash}}Malayalam Marchen{{spaced ndash}}Zhang-Zhung Meetei Mayek Modi{{spaced ndash}}Marathi Multani{{spaced ndash}}Saraiki Nandinagari{{spaced ndash}}Sanskrit Newar{{spaced ndash}}Nepal Bhasa, Sanskrit New Tai Lue Odia Pallava script{{spaced ndash}}Tamil, Sanskrit, various Prakrits Phags-pa{{spaced ndash}}Mongolian, Chinese, and other languages of the Yuan dynasty Mongol Empire Ranjana{{spaced ndash}}Nepal Bhasa, Sanskrit Sharada{{spaced ndash}}Sanskrit Siddham{{spaced ndash}}Sanskrit Sinhala Sourashtra Soyombo Sundanese Sylheti Nagri{{spaced ndash}}Sylheti language Tagbanwa{{spaced ndash}}Palawan languages Tai Dam Tai Le Tai Tham{{spaced ndash}}Khün, and Northern Thai Takri Tamil Telugu Thai Tibetan Tigalari{{spaced ndash}}Sanskrit, Tulu Tirhuta{{spaced ndash}}Maithili Tocharian Vatteluttu{{spaced ndash}}Tamil, Malayalam Zanabazar Square *Zhang zhung scripts Kharoṣṭhī, from the 3rd century BC Meroitic Geʽez script, from the 4th century AD Canadian Aboriginal syllabics Cree{{spaced ndash}}Ojibwe syllabics Blackfoot syllabics Carrier syllabics Inuktitut syllabics Pollard script Pitman shorthand Xiao'erjing Fictional Tengwar Ihathvé Sabethired<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.omniglot.com/conscripts/ihavsabeired.htm\|titleIhathvé Sabethired\|websiteomniglot.com}}</ref>Abugida-like scripts Meroitic (an alphabet with an inherent vowel) – Meroitic, Old Nubian (possibly) Thaana (abugida with no inherent vowel) {{div col end}} References {{Reflist\|refs<ref nameCham_Unicode_Proposal>{{cite web \|firstMichael \|lastEverson \|author-linkMichael Everson \|urlhttps://www.unicode.org/L2/L2006/06257-n3120-cham.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2006/06257-n3120-cham.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|titleProposal for encoding the Cham script in the BMP of the UCS\|date2006-08-06 \|publisherUnicode Consortium}}</ref> <ref nameTai_Tham_Unicode_Proposal>{{cite web \|firstMichael \|lastEverson \|author-linkMichael Everson \|author2Hosken, Martin \|urlhttp://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n3121.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n3121.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|titleProposal for encoding the Lanna script in the BMP of the UCS \|date2006-08-06 \|publisherInternational Organization for Standardization \|work=Working Group Document}}</ref> <ref nameTUS_Khmer_VC>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode8.0.0/ch16.pdf#G43687 \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode8.0.0/ch16.pdf#G43687 \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|titleThe Unicode Standard, Version 8.0 \|dateAugust 2015 \| atSection 16.4 Khmer, Subscript Consonants}}</ref> <ref name=WWS_glossary>Glossary of Daniels & Bright (1996) ''The World's Writing Systems</ref> <ref name=WWS_Insular_SEA>Joel C. Kuipers & Ray McDermott, "Insular Southeast Asian Scripts". In Daniels & Bright (1996) The World's Writing Systems</ref> <ref name=WWS_Ethiopic>Getatchew Haile, "Ethiopic Writing". In Daniels & Bright (1996) The World's Writing Systems</ref> <ref nameBright>{{cite journal \|lastBright \|firstWilliam \|year2000 \|titleA Matter of Typology: Alphasyllabaries and Abugidas \|journalStudies in the Linguistic Sciences \|volume30 \|number1 \|pages63–71 \|hdl2142/9638 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> <ref name=Hoch_Semitic>James Hoch (1994) Semitic Words in Egyptian Texts of the New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Periods''</ref> }} {{Writing systems \|expanded=Abugidas}} {{list of writing systems}} Category:1990 neologisms	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abugida	2025-04-05T18:25:25.514661
880	ABBA	{{Short description\|Swedish pop group}} {{Redirect\|Abba}} {{Use British English\|date=March 2025}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=March 2025}} {{Infobox musical artist \| name = ABBA \| image = ABBA - TopPop 1974 5.png \| image_size = 280px \| landscape = yes \| caption = ABBA in 1974; from left: Benny Andersson, Anni-Frid "Frida" Lyngstad, Agnetha Fältskog, and Björn Ulvaeus \| alias = {{flatlist\| * Björn & Benny, Agnetha & Anni-Frid/Frida (1972–1973) }} \| origin = Stockholm, Sweden \| genre = {{flatlist\| * Pop * disco * pop rock<ref>{{cite book \|lastMoskowitz \|firstDavid V. \|date31 October 2015 \|titleThe 100 Greatest Bands of All Time: A Guide to the Legends Who Rocked the World \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8XG9CgAAQBAJ&pgPA1 \|publisherGREENWOOD Publishing Group Incorporated \|page1 \|isbn978-1-4408-0339-0 \|access-date29 March 2016 \|archive-date24 July 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200724202505/https://books.google.com/books?id8XG9CgAAQBAJ&pgPA1 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> * Europop<ref>{{cite book\|titleDisco, Punk, New Wave, Heavy Metal, and More: Music in the 1970s and 1980s \|editor-first Michael \|editor-lastRay \|publisher Britannica Educational Publishing \|quoteThe Swedish Europop quartet ABBA was among the most commercially successful groups in the history of popular music. \|year 2013 \|isbn978-1-6153-0912-2 \|page 175}}</ref> }} \| discography = ABBA discography \| years_active = {{Hlist\|1972–1982\|2016–2022}} \| label = {{flatlist\| * Polar * Polydor * Atlantic * Epic * RCA Victor * Vogue * Sunshine }} \| spinoff_of = {{flatlist\| * Hep Stars * Hootenanny Singers }} \| website = {{URL\|abbasite.com}} \| past_members = * Agnetha Fältskog * Björn Ulvaeus * Benny Andersson * Anni-Frid Lyngstad }} ABBA{{efn\|An acronym of the first letters of the members' first names arranged as a palindrome, usually stylized as A{{css-style\|{{mirrorH}}\|B}}BA. The group was originally named Björn & Benny, Agnetha & Anni-Frid or Björn & Benny, Agnetha & Frida.}} ({{IPAc-en\|ˈ\|æ\|b\|ə}} {{respell\|AB\|ə}}, {{IPA\|sv\|ˈâbːa\|lang}}) were<!-- This Article is written in British English, in which pop rock groups take the plural form of the verb; do not change to "was" --> a Swedish pop group formed in Stockholm in 1972 by Agnetha Fältskog, Björn Ulvaeus, Benny Andersson, and Anni-Frid Lyngstad. They are one of the most popular and successful musical groups of all time,<ref>{{Cite web\|lastHarrison\|firstAndrew\|titleWhy are Abba so popular?\|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20140415-why-are-abba-so-popular\| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211020/https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20140415-why-are-abba-so-popular\| archive-date20 October 2021\|access-date18 October 2021\|publisherBBC\|languageen \|date21 October 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and are one of the best-selling music acts in the history of popular music. In {{Escyr\|1974}}, ABBA became {{Esccnty\|Sweden}}'s first winner of the Eurovision Song Contest with the song "Waterloo", which in 2005 was chosen as the best song in the competition's history as part of the 50th anniversary celebration of the contest.<ref name"50th" /> During the band's main active years, it consisted of two married couples: Fältskog and Ulvaeus, and Lyngstad and Andersson. With the increase of their popularity, their personal lives suffered, which eventually resulted in the collapse of both marriages. The relationship changes were reflected in the group's music, with later songs featuring darker and more introspective lyrics.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vcbf9zlm9tNE \|titleYoutube video \|viaYouTube \|access-date30 September 2016 \|archive-date17 April 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160417155022/https://www.youtube.com/watch?vcbf9zlm9tNE \|url-statusdead \|at1:10 }}</ref> After ABBA disbanded in December 1982, Andersson and Ulvaeus continued their success writing music for multiple audiences including stage, musicals and movies,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.biography.com/people/benny-andersson-17168238\|titleBenny Andersson\|websiteBiography \|date2 April 2014 \|access-date4 July 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180921114915/https://www.biography.com/people/benny-andersson-17168238\|archive-date21 September 2018\|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.biography.com/people/bj%C3%B6rn-ulvaeus-17188976\|titleBjörn Ulvaeus\|websiteBiography.com\|access-date4 July 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170425101949/http://www.biography.com/people/bj%C3%B6rn-ulvaeus-17188976\|archive-date25 April 2017\|url-statusdead}}</ref> while Fältskog and Lyngstad pursued solo careers.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.biography.com/people/agnetha-f%C3%A4ltskog-20631221\|titleAgnetha Fältskog\|websiteBiography.com\|access-date4 July 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170427223846/http://www.biography.com/people/agnetha-f%C3%A4ltskog-20631221\|archive-date27 April 2017\|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.biography.com/people/anni-frid-lyngstad-17178734\|titleAnni-Frid Lyngstad\|websiteBiography.com\|access-date4 July 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190401150722/https://www.biography.com/people/anni-frid-lyngstad-17178734\|archive-date1 April 2019\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Ten years after the group broke up, a compilation, ABBA Gold, was released, becoming a worldwide best-seller. In 1999, ABBA's music was adapted into Mamma Mia!, a stage musical that toured worldwide and, as of October 2024, is still in the top-ten longest running productions on both Broadway (closed in 2015) and the West End (still running). A film of the same name, released in 2008, became the highest-grossing film in the United Kingdom that year. A sequel, Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again, was released in 2018. ABBA have record sales estimated to be between 150 million to 385&nbsp;million sold worldwide<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.times-standard.com/tcw/ci_20060193\|titleABBA music enhances 'Mamma Mia!' at the Van Duzer\|lastTrauth\|firstBeti\|date28 February 2012\|workTimes-Standard\|access-date19 April 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140519061605/http://www.times-standard.com/tcw/ci_20060193\|archive-date19 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/heatherfarmbrough/2018/05/17/new-abba-exhibition-launched-as-abba-sells-more-music-than-ever/\|titleNew Abba Exhibition Launched as Abba Sells More Music than Ever\|lastFarmbrough\|firstHeather\|date17 May 2018\|websiteForbes\|access-date13 December 2019}}</ref> and the group were ranked 3rd best-selling singles artists in the United Kingdom with a total of 11.3&nbsp;million singles sold by 3 November 2012.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.officialcharts.com/chart-news/the-official-top-20-biggest-selling-groups-of-all-time-revealed-__2515/ \|titleThe Official Top 20 biggest selling groups of all time revealed! \|workOfficial Charts \|date3 November 2012 \|access-date9 November 2021 }}</ref> In May 2023, ABBA were awarded the BRIT Billion Award, which celebrates those who have surpassed the milestone of one billion UK streams in their career.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.officialcharts.com/chart-news/lewis-capaldi-mariah-carey-and-more-honoured-with-new-brit-billion-award__39180/\|titleLewis Capaldi, Mariah Carey and more honoured with new BRIT Billion award\|websiteOfficial Charts \|date4 May 2023}}</ref> ABBA were the first group from a non-English-speaking country to achieve consistent success in the charts of English-speaking countries, including the United Kingdom, Australia, United States, Republic of Ireland, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.lifetimetv.co.uk/people/abba\|titleCelebrities\|websiteLifetimtv.co.uk\|access-date10 April 2020\|archive-date10 June 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200610235116/https://www.lifetimetv.co.uk/people/abba\|url-statuslive}}</ref> They are the best-selling Swedish band of all time<ref>{{cite news\|date19 January 2019\|titleABBA Tribute Announced for River Moselle\|workThe Luxembourg Chronicle\|urlhttp://www.chronicle.lu/category/things-to-see-do/27952-abba-tribute-announced-for-river-moselle\|access-date15 July 2020\|archive-date16 January 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200116183758/https://chronicle.lu/category/things-to-see-do/27952-abba-tribute-announced-for-river-moselle\|url-statuslive}}</ref> and the best-selling band originating in continental Europe. ABBA had eight consecutive number-one albums in the UK. The group also enjoyed significant success in Latin America and recorded a collection of their hit songs in Spanish. ABBA were inducted into the Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 2002.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleABBA – Music Inductees\|urlhttp://vocalgroup.org/inductees/abba/\|access-date14 January 2022\|websiteThe Vocal Group Hall of Fame\|languageen-US}}</ref> The group were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2010, the first recording artists to receive this honour from outside an Anglophonic country.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.latimes.com/entertainment/news/la-et-quick16-2009dec16,0,6237547.story \|titleABBA Makes Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Los Angeles Times 16&nbsp;December 2009 \|newspaperLos Angeles Times \|date16 December 2009 \|access-date23 August 2010 \|archive-date20 December 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091220041032/http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/news/la-et-quick16-2009dec16,0,6237547.story \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In 2015, their song "Dancing Queen" was inducted into the Recording Academy's Grammy Hall of Fame.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.grammy.com/news/grammy-hall-of-fame-class-of-2015\|titleGRAMMY Hall Of Fame Class Of 2015\|date16 December 2014\|access-date31 August 2016\|archive-date16 August 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160816230205/http://www.grammy.com/news/grammy-hall-of-fame-class-of-2015\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2024, the United States Library of Congress included the album Arrival (1976) in the National Recording Registry, which recognises works "worthy of preservation for all time based on their cultural, historical or aesthetic importance in the nation’s recorded sound heritage".<ref>{{cite web \|author<!--Not stated--> \|date16 April 2024 \|titleNational Recording Registry Inducts Sounds of ABBA, Blondie, The Cars, The Chicks, Juan Gabriel, Green Day, The Notorious B.I.G. and Lily Tomlin \|urlhttps://newsroom.loc.gov/news/national-recording-registry-inducts-sounds-of-abba--blondie--the-cars--the-chicks--juan-gabriel/s/29ee4224-3060-4247-a7a4-7deea2c2f816 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240416113310/https://newsroom.loc.gov/news/national-recording-registry-inducts-sounds-of-abba--blondie--the-cars--the-chicks--juan-gabriel/s/29ee4224-3060-4247-a7a4-7deea2c2f816 \|archive-date16 April 2024 \|websiteLibrary of Congress \|locationWashington, D. C. \|access-date9 May 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine \|lastGrein \|firstPaul \|date16 April 2024 \|titleThe Notorious B.I.G., The Chicks, Green Day & More Selected for National Recording Registry (Full List) \|urlhttps://www.billboard.com/music/awards/2024-national-recording-registry-full-list-1235655213/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240416140942/https://www.billboard.com/music/awards/2024-national-recording-registry-full-list-1235655213/ \|archive-date16 April 2024 \|magazineBillboard \|locationNew York \|access-date=9 May 2024}}</ref> In 2016, the group reunited and started working on a digital avatar concert tour.<ref name"BBC News">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-37776505\|titleAbba to reunite for 'new entertainment experience'\|date26 October 2016\|workBBC News\|access-date20 June 2018\|archive-date5 May 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180505185458/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-37776505\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Newly recorded songs were announced in 2018.<ref>{{cite web\|titleABBA Reunite, Announce New Songs\|urlhttps://pitchfork.com/news/abba-reunite-announce-new-songs/\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180427181551/https://pitchfork.com/news/abba-reunite-announce-new-songs/amp/\|archive-date27 April 2018\|access-date29 April 2018\|websitePitchfork\|date27 April 2018 }}</ref> Voyage, their first new album in 40 years, was released on 5 November 2021 to positive critical reviews and strong sales.<ref name"Beaumont-Thomas">{{cite web \|last1Beaumont-Thomas \|first1Ben \|last2Brown \|first2Mark \|name-list-styleamp \|date2 September 2021\|titleAbba reunite for Voyage, first new album in 40 years \|urlhttp://www.theguardian.com/music/2021/sep/02/abba-reunite-for-voyage-first-new-album-in-40-years \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210903175208/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2021/sep/02/abba-reunite-for-voyage-first-new-album-in-40-years \|archive-date3 September 2021 \|websiteThe Guardian \|locationLondon \|access-date10 September 2021}}</ref> ABBA Voyage, a concert residency featuring ABBA as virtual avatars, opened in May 2022 in London.<ref name"Hodgkinson">{{cite web \|lastHodgkinson \|firstWill \|date26 May 2022 \|titleAbba Voyage review — Holograms are fine but the real thing is still best \|urlhttps://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/abba-voyage-review-holograms-are-fine-but-the-real-thing-is-still-best-skrzc5nsh \|url-accesssubscription \|websiteThe Times \|locationLondon \|access-date9 May 2024}}</ref> History 1958–1970: before ABBA {{See also\|Hep Stars\|Hootenanny Singers}} Member origins and collaboration {{multiple image \| direction = vertical \| footer \| footer_align center \| align = right \| image1 = Hep Stars, 1965.jpg \| width1 \| caption1 Benny Andersson (second from left) with the Hep Stars \| image2 = Hootenanny singers 1967.jpg \| width2 \| caption2 Björn Ulvaeus (foreground) with the Hootenanny Singers }} Agnetha Fältskog (born 5 April 1950 in Jönköping, Sweden) sang with a local dance band (headed by Bernt Enghardt) who sent a demo recording of their music to Karl-Gerhard Lundkvist. The demo tape featured a song written and sung by Agnetha: "Jag var så kär" ("I Was So in Love"). Lundkvist was so impressed with her voice that he was convinced she would be a star. After going through considerable effort to locate the singer, he arranged for Agnetha to come to Stockholm and to record two of her own songs. This led to Agnetha at the age of 18 having a number-one record in Sweden with a self-composed song, which later went on to sell over 80,000 copies. She was soon noticed by the critics and songwriters as a talented singer/songwriter of schlager style songs. Fältskog's main inspiration in her early years was singers such as Connie Francis. Along with her own compositions, she recorded covers of foreign hits and performed them on tours in Swedish folkparks. Most of her biggest hits were self-composed, which was quite unusual for a female singer in the 1960s. Agnetha released four solo LPs between 1968 and 1971. She had many successful singles in the Swedish charts. Björn Ulvaeus (born 25 April 1945 in Gothenburg, Sweden) also began his musical career at the age of 18 (as a singer and guitarist), when he fronted the Hootenanny Singers, a popular Swedish folk–skiffle group. Ulvaeus started writing English-language songs for his group and even had a brief solo career alongside. The Hootenanny Singers and the Hep Stars sometimes crossed paths while touring. In June 1966, Ulvaeus and Andersson decided to write a song together. Their first attempt was "Isn't It Easy to Say", a song that was later recorded by the Hep Stars. Stig Anderson was the manager of the Hootenanny Singers and founder of the Polar Music label.<ref name="Rees-1991" /> He saw potential in the collaboration, and encouraged them to write more. The two also began playing occasionally with the other's bands on stage and on record, although it was not until 1969 that the pair wrote and produced some of their first real hits together: "Ljuva sextital" ("Sweet Sixties"), recorded by Brita Borg, and the Hep Stars' 1969 hit "Speleman" ("Fiddler"). Benny Andersson (born 16 December 1946 in Stockholm, Sweden) became (at age 18) a member of a popular Swedish pop-rock group, the Hep Stars, that performed, among other things, covers of international hits.<ref name"Rees-1991">{{Cite book\|titleGuinness Book of Rock Stars\|last1Rees\|first1Dafydd\|last2Crampton\|first2Luke\|publisherGuinness Publishing\|year1991\|isbn978-0-85112-971-6\|locationEnfield\|pages1–2}}</ref> The Hep Stars were known as "the Swedish Beatles".<ref>[http://www.virginmedia.com/music/pictures/profiles/ten-things-abba.php?ssid4 10 Things You Never Knew About Abba] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140419025056/http://www.virginmedia.com/music/pictures/profiles/ten-things-abba.php?ssid4 \|date19 April 2014 }}. Virginmedia.com. Retrieved 19 April 2014.</ref> They also set up Hep House, their equivalent of Apple Corps. Andersson played the keyboard and eventually started writing original songs for his band, many of which became major hits, including "No Response", which hit number three in 1965, and "Sunny Girl", "Wedding", and "Consolation", all of which hit number one in 1966.<ref>{{harvnb\|Palm\|2001\|pp86–87}}</ref> Andersson also had a fruitful songwriting collaboration with Lasse Berghagen, with whom he wrote his first Svensktoppen entry, "Sagan om lilla Sofie" ("The tale of Little Sophie") in 1968. Andersson wrote and submitted the song "Hej, Clown" for Melodifestivalen 1969, the national festival to select the Swedish entry to the Eurovision Song Contest.<ref name"Rees-1991" /> The song tied for first place, but re-voting relegated Andersson's song to second place.<ref>{{harvnb\|Palm\|2001\|p110}}</ref> On that occasion Andersson briefly met his future spouse, singer Anni-Frid Lyngstad, who also participated in the contest. A month later, the two had become a couple. As their respective bands began to break up during 1969, Andersson and Ulvaeus teamed up and recorded their first album together in 1970, called Lycka ("Happiness"), which included original songs sung by both men. Their partners were often present in the recording studio, and sometimes added backing vocals; Fältskog even co-wrote a song with the two. Ulvaeus still occasionally recorded and performed with the Hootenanny Singers until the middle of 1974, and Andersson took part in producing their records. Anni-Frid "Frida" Lyngstad (born 15 November 1945 in Bjørkåsen in Ballangen Municipality, Norway) sang from the age of 13 with various dance bands, and worked mainly in a jazz-oriented cabaret style. She also formed her own band, the Anni-Frid Four. In the middle of 1967, she won a national talent competition with "En ledig dag" ("A Day Off"), a Swedish version of the bossa nova song "A Day in Portofino", which is included in the EMI compilation Frida 1967–1972. The first prize was a recording contract with EMI Sweden and to perform live on the most popular TV shows in the country. This TV performance, among many others, is included in the {{frac\|3\|1\|2}}-hour documentary Frida – The DVD. Lyngstad released several schlager style singles on EMI with mixed success. When Benny Andersson started to produce her recordings in 1971, she had her first number-one single, "Min egen stad" ("My Own Town"), written by Benny and featuring all the future ABBA members on backing vocals. Lyngstad toured and performed regularly in the folkpark circuit and made appearances on radio and TV. She had a second number-one single with "Man Vill Ju Leva Lite Dessemellan" in late 1972. She had met Ulvaeus briefly in 1963 during a talent contest, and Fältskog during a TV show in early 1968. Lyngstad linked up with her future bandmates in 1969. On 1 March 1969, she participated in the Melodifestival, where she met Andersson for the first time. A few weeks later they met again during a concert tour in southern Sweden and they soon became a couple. Andersson produced her single "Peter Pan" in September 1969—her first collaboration with Benny & Björn, as they had written the song. Andersson would then produce Lyngstad's debut studio album, Frida, which was released in March 1971. Lyngstad also played in several revues and cabaret shows in Stockholm between 1969 and 1973. After ABBA formed, she recorded another successful album in 1975, Frida ensam, which included the original Swedish rendition of "Fernando", a hit on the Swedish radio charts before the English version was released by ABBA.<ref>{{harvnb\|Palm\|2001\|pp=41–58}}</ref> During filming of a Swedish TV special in May 1969, Fältskog met Ulvaeus and they married on 6 July 1971. Fältskog and Ulvaeus eventually were involved in each other's recording sessions,<ref>{{harvnb\|Palm\|2001\|p162}}</ref> and soon even Andersson and Lyngstad added backing vocals to Fältskog's third studio album, Som jag är ("As I Am") (1970). In 1972, Fältskog starred as Mary Magdalene in the original Swedish production of Jesus Christ Superstar and attracted favourable reviews. Between 1967 and 1975, Fältskog released five studio albums.<ref>{{harvnb\|Palm\|2001\|pp112–129 and 135–136}}</ref> First live performance and the start of "Festfolket" An attempt at combining their talents occurred in April 1970 when the two couples went on holiday together to the island of Cyprus. What started as singing for fun on the beach ended up as an improvised live performance in front of the United Nations soldiers stationed on the island. Andersson and Ulvaeus were at this time recording their first album together, Lycka, which was to be released in September 1970. Fältskog and Lyngstad added backing vocals on several tracks during June, and the idea of their working together saw them launch a stage act, "Festfolket" (which translates from Swedish to "Party People" and in pronunciation also "engaged couples"), on 1 November 1970 in Gothenburg.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://natgeotraveller.in/gothenburg-a-city-built-on-rock-n-roll/\|titleGothenburg: A City Built on Rock 'n' Roll\|websitenatgeotraveller.in\|publisherNational Geographic Traveller India\|date8 March 2019\|access-date7 June 2022\|firstZac\|lastO'Yeah\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190313071556/http://www.natgeotraveller.in/gothenburg-a-city-built-on-rock-n-roll/\|archive-date13 March 2019\|url-status=live}}</ref> The cabaret show attracted generally negative reviews, except for the performance of the Andersson and Ulvaeus hit "Hej, gamle man" ("Hello, Old Man")—the first Björn and Benny recording to feature all four. They also performed solo numbers from respective albums, but the lukewarm reception convinced the foursome to shelve plans for working together for the time being, and each soon concentrated on individual projects again.<ref name"Rees-1991" /> First record together "Hej, gamle man" "Hej, gamle man", a song about an old Salvation Army soldier, became the quartet's first hit. The record was credited to Björn & Benny and reached number five on the sales charts and number one on Svensktoppen, staying on the latter chart (which was not a chart linked to sales or airplay) for 15 weeks. It was during 1971 that the four artists began working together more, adding vocals to the others' recordings. Fältskog, Andersson and Ulvaeus toured together in May, while Lyngstad toured on her own. Frequent recording sessions brought the foursome closer together during the summer.<ref>{{harvnb\|Palm\|2001\|pp163–170}}</ref> 1970–1973: forming the group After the 1970 release of Lycka, two more singles credited to "Björn & Benny" were released in Sweden, "Det kan ingen doktor hjälpa" ("No Doctor Can Help with That") and "Tänk om jorden vore ung" ("Imagine If Earth Was Young"), with more prominent vocals by Fältskog and Lyngstad–and moderate chart success. Fältskog and Ulvaeus, now married, started performing together with Andersson on a regular basis at the Swedish folkparks in the middle of 1971. Stig Anderson, founder and owner of Polar Music, was determined to break into the mainstream international market with music by Andersson and Ulvaeus. "One day the pair of you will write a song that becomes a worldwide hit", he predicted.<ref>{{harvnb\|Palm\|2001\|p150}}</ref> Stig Anderson encouraged Ulvaeus and Andersson to write a song for Melodifestivalen, and after two rejected entries in 1971,<ref>{{harvnb\|Palm\|2001\|p173}}</ref> Andersson and Ulvaeus submitted their new song "Säg det med en sång" ("Say It with a Song") for the 1972 contest, choosing newcomer Lena Anderson to perform. The song came in third place, encouraging Stig Anderson, and became a hit in Sweden.<ref>{{harvnb\|Palm\|2001\|p=174}}</ref> The first signs of foreign success came as a surprise, as the Andersson and Ulvaeus single "She's My Kind of Girl" was released through Epic Records in Japan in March 1972, giving the duo a Top 10 hit.<ref name"Rees-1991" /> Two more singles were released in Japan, "En Carousel"<!-- When the song was released in Japan for the first time, its title was "En Carousel", not "En Karusell". --><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.discogs.com/viewimages?release1149457 \|titleCover Art for Björn and Benny Single "En Carousel"/"Lycka" \|workDiscogs \|access-date23 August 2010}}</ref> ("En Karusell" in Scandinavia, an earlier version of "Merry-Go-Round") and "Love Has Its Ways" (a song they wrote with Kōichi Morita).<ref>{{harvnb\|Palm\|2001\|p182}}</ref> First hit as Björn, Benny, Agnetha and Anni-Frid Ulvaeus and Andersson persevered with their songwriting and experimented with new sounds and vocal arrangements. "People Need Love" was released in June 1972, featuring guest vocals by the women, who were now given much greater prominence. Stig Anderson released it as a single, credited to Björn & Benny, Agnetha & Anni-Frid. The song peaked at number 17 in the Swedish combined single and album charts, enough to convince them they were on to something.<ref>{{harvnb\|Palm\|2001\|p185}}</ref> "People Need Love" also became the first record to chart for the quartet in the United States, where it peaked at number 114 on the Cashbox singles chart and number 117 on the Record World singles chart. Labelled as Björn & Benny (with Svenska Flicka) meaning Swedish Girl, it was released there through Playboy Records. According to Stig Anderson, "People Need Love" could have been a much bigger American hit, but a small label like Playboy Records did not have the distribution resources to meet the demand for the single from retailers and radio programmers.<ref>Interview with Songwriter magazine, 6, 1981, pp.23–25.</ref> "Ring Ring" In 1973, the band and their manager Stig Anderson decided to have another try at Melodifestivalen, this time with the song "Ring Ring".<ref name"Rees-1991" /> The studio sessions were handled by Michael B. Tretow, who experimented with a "wall of sound" production technique that became a distinctive new sound thereafter associated with ABBA. Stig Anderson arranged an English translation of the lyrics by Neil Sedaka and Phil Cody and they thought this would be a success. However, on 10 February 1973, the song came third in Melodifestivalen; thus it never reached the Eurovision Song Contest itself. Nevertheless, the group released their debut studio album, also called Ring Ring. The album did well and the "Ring Ring" single was a hit in many parts of Europe and also in South Africa. However, Stig Anderson felt that the true breakthrough could only come with a UK or US hit.<ref>{{harvnb\|Palm\|2001\|pp191–211}}</ref> When Agnetha Fältskog gave birth to her daughter Linda in 1973,<ref name"Rees-1991" /> she was replaced for a short period by Inger Brundin on a trip to West Germany. Official naming In 1973, Stig Anderson, tired of unwieldy names, started to refer to the group privately and publicly as ABBA (a palindrome). At first, this was a play on words, as Abba is also the name of a well-known fish-canning company in Sweden, and itself an abbreviation. However, since the fish-canners were unknown outside Sweden, Anderson came to believe the name would work in international markets. A competition to find a suitable name for the group was held in a Gothenburg newspaper and it was officially announced in the summer that the group were to be known as "ABBA". The group negotiated with the canners for the rights to the name.<ref>{{harvnb\|Palm\|2001\|p210}}</ref> Fred Bronson reported for Billboard that Fältskog told him in a 1988 interview that "[ABBA] had to ask permission and the factory said, 'O.K., as long as you don't make us feel ashamed for what you're doing{{'"}}.<ref name"Fred Bronson, Billboard">{{cite magazine \|urlhttps://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/pop/8505890/abba-waterloo-global-conquest-eurovision-win \|title45 Years Ago Today, ABBA Started Its Global Conquest With Eurovision Win for 'Waterloo' \|lastBronson \|firstFred \|author-linkFred Bronson \|date6 April 2019 \|magazineBillboard \|access-date21 August 2019 \|archive-date28 April 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190428191721/https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/pop/8505890/abba-waterloo-global-conquest-eurovision-win \|url-statuslive }}</ref> "ABBA" is an acronym formed from the first letters of each group member's first name: Agnetha, Björn, Benny, Anni-Frid, although there has never been any official confirmation of who each letter in the sequence refers to.<ref name"official_bio_2">{{cite web\|titleABBA's biography, page 2 \|websiteAbbasite.com \|urlhttp://www.abbasite.com/people/bio.php?id395&page2 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20030626205305/http://www.abbasite.com/people/bio.php?id395&page2 \|url-statusdead \|archive-date26 June 2003 \|access-date16 January 2008 }}</ref> The earliest known example of "ABBA" written on paper is on a recording session sheet from the Metronome Studio in Stockholm dated 16 October 1973. This was first written as "Björn, Benny, Agnetha & Frida", but was subsequently crossed out with "ABBA" written in large letters on top.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://abbasite.com/story/\|titleThe Story\|access-date23 June 2022}}</ref> Official logo logo for ABBA was designed by Rune Söderqvist in 1976.]] Their official logo, with its distinctive backward "B", was designed by Rune Söderqvist, who designed most of ABBA's record sleeves. The ambigram first appeared on the French compilation album, Golden Double Album, released in May 1976 by Disques Vogue, and would henceforth be used for all official releases.<ref>Abba Fan Club Magazine, Helga van de Kar, "1976 – Year in Review", December 2016, p. 12</ref> The idea for the official logo was made by the German photographer {{ill\|Wolfgang Heilemann\|de\|ltWolfgang "Bubi" Heilemann}} on a velvet jumpsuit photo shoot for the teenage magazine Bravo. In the photo, the ABBA members held giant initial letters of their names. After the pictures were made, Heilemann found out that Benny Andersson reversed his letter "B;" this prompted discussions about the mirrored "B", and the members of ABBA agreed on the mirrored letter. From 1976 onward, the first "B" in the logo version of the name was "mirror-image" reversed on the band's promotional material.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastFoley \|firstJoe \|date2024-05-10 \|titleThe surprising history of the Abba logo \|urlhttps://www.creativebloq.com/features/abba-logo-history \|access-date2024-06-02 \|websiteCreative Bloq \|language=en}}</ref> Following their acquisition of the group's catalogue, PolyGram began using variations of the ABBA logo, employing a different font. In 1992, Polygram added a crown emblem to it for the first release of the ABBA Gold: Greatest Hits compilation. After Universal Music purchased PolyGram (and, thus, ABBA's label Polar Music International), control of the group's catalogue returned to Stockholm. Since then, the original logo has been reinstated on all official products.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080721023557/http://abbamail.com/feature/logo25th.htm ABBA Logo 25th Anniversary] Retrieved from Internet Archive 10 January 2014.</ref> 1973–1976: breakthrough Eurovision Song Contest 1974 , Björn Ulvaeus, Agnetha Fältskog and Anni-Frid Lyngstad]] ABBA entered the Melodifestivalen with "Ring Ring" but did not qualify as the 1973 Swedish entry. Stig Anderson started planning for the 1974 contest. Ulvaeus, Andersson and Stig Anderson saw possibilities in using the Eurovision Song Contest to make the music business aware of them as songwriters, as well as to publicise the band. In late 1973 they were invited by Swedish television to contribute a song for the Melodifestivalen 1974, and the upbeat song "Waterloo" was chosen. The group were now inspired by the growing glam rock scene in England. With this third attempt, ABBA were more experienced and better prepared for the Eurovision Song Contest, and they won the nation's hearts on Swedish television on 9 February 1974. Winning the 1974 Eurovision Song Contest on 6 April 1974, and singing "Waterloo" in English instead of their native language, gave them the chance to tour Europe and perform on major television shows, as a result of which the "Waterloo" single charted in many European countries. After winning the contest, ABBA spent an evening of glory partying in the appropriately named first-floor Napoleon suite of The Grand Brighton Hotel.<ref>{{cite web \|lastGilson \|firstEdwin \|date16 December 2017 \|urlhttps://www.theargus.co.uk/news/15776822.relive-abbas-eurovision-night-of-glory-from-1974/ \|titleRelive Abba's Eurovision night of glory from 1974 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200724204039/https://www.theargus.co.uk/news/15776822.relive-abbas-eurovision-night-of-glory-from-1974/ \|archive-date=24 July 2020 }}</ref> "Waterloo" was ABBA's first major hit and their first number-one single in nine western and northern European countries, including the major markets of the UK and West Germany, and in South Africa. It made the top ten in other countries, rising to number three in Spain, number four in Australia and France, and number seven in Canada. In the United States, the song peaked at number six on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, paving the way for their first album and their first trip to the US as a group. Although only a short promotional visit, this included their first performance on American television, on The Mike Douglas Show. The Waterloo album peaked at only number 145 on the Billboard 200 chart, but received unanimous praise from US critics. The Los Angeles Times said the album was a "compelling and fascinating debut album" that captured the spirit of mainstream pop, and described it as "immensely enjoyable and pleasant", while Creem said it was "a perfect blend of exceptional, lovable compositions".<ref>{{Cite magazine\|urlhttps://www.billboard.com/artist/abba/chart-history/tlp/\| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211020/https://www.billboard.com/music/abba/chart-history/TLP\| archive-date20 October 2021\|titleABBA\| magazineBillboard}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://latimes.newspapers.com/image/385609492/?termsabba%20waterloo&match1 \|titlePop Album Briefs \|newspaperLos Angeles Times \|date1 September 1974 \|access-date9 November 2021 \|page415 \|viaNewspapers.com \|url-access=subscription}}</ref> ABBA's follow-up single, "Honey, Honey", peaked at number 27 on the US Billboard Hot 100, reached the top twenty in several other countries, and was a number-two hit in West Germany, although it only reached the top 30 in Australia and the US. In the UK, ABBA's British record label, Epic, decided to re-release a remixed version of "Ring Ring" instead of "Honey, Honey". A cover version of "Honey, Honey" by Sweet Dreams peaked at number 10, and both records debuted on the UK chart within a week of each other. "Ring Ring" failed to reach the Top 30 in the UK, increasing growing speculation that the group were simply a Eurovision one-hit wonder. Post-Eurovision In November 1974, ABBA embarked on their first European tour, playing dates in Denmark, West Germany and Austria. It was not as successful as the band had hoped, since most of the venues did not sell out. Due to a lack of demand, they were even forced to cancel a few shows, including a sole concert scheduled in Switzerland. The second leg of the tour, which took them through Scandinavia in January 1975, was very different. They played to full houses everywhere and finally got the reception they had aimed for. Live performances continued in the middle of 1975 when ABBA embarked on a fourteen open-air date tour of Sweden and Finland. Their Stockholm show at the Gröna Lund amusement park had an estimated audience of 19,200.<ref>{{harvnb\|Palm\|2001\|p268}}</ref> Björn Ulvaeus later said, "If you look at the singles we released straight after Waterloo, we were trying to be more like The Sweet, a semi-glam rock group, which was stupid because we were always a pop group."<ref nameGuardian2014>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2014/apr/10/abba-interview-bjorn-ulvaeus-frida-lyngstad \|title Abba on Drugs, Eminem and Why Writing Great Pop is a Job for Young People \|firstTim \|last Jonze \|newspaperThe Guardian \|date 10 April 2014 \|access-date10 April 2014 \|archive-date 10 April 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140410191631/http://www.theguardian.com/music/2014/apr/10/abba-interview-bjorn-ulvaeus-frida-lyngstad \|url-status live }}</ref> In late 1974, "So Long" was released as a single in the United Kingdom but it received no airplay from Radio 1 and failed to chart in the UK; the only countries in which it was successful were Austria, Sweden and Germany, reaching the top ten in the first two and number 21 in the latter. In the middle of 1975, ABBA released "I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do", which again received little airplay on Radio 1, but did manage to climb to number 38 on the UK chart, while making top five in several northern and western European countries, and number one in South Africa. Later that year, the release of their self-titled third studio album ABBA and single "SOS" brought back their chart presence in the UK, where the single hit number six and the album peaked at number 13. "SOS" also became ABBA's second number-one single in Germany, their third in Australia and reached number two in several other European countries, including Italy. Success was further solidified with "Mamma Mia" reaching number-one in the United Kingdom, Germany and Australia and the top two in a few other western and northern European countries. In the United States, both "I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do" and "SOS" peaked at number 15 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, with the latter picking up the BMI Award along the way as one of the most played songs on American radio in 1975. "Mamma Mia", however, stalled at number 32. In Canada, the three songs rose to number 12, nine and 18, respectively. The success of the group in the United States had until that time been limited to single releases. By early 1976, the group already had four Top 30 singles on the US charts, but the album market proved to be tough to crack. The eponymous ABBA album generated three American hits, but it only peaked at number 165 on the Cashbox album chart and number 174 on the Billboard 200 chart. Opinions were voiced, by Creem in particular, that in the US ABBA had endured "a very sloppy promotional campaign".{{cn\|dateJune 2024}} Nevertheless, the group enjoyed warm reviews from the American press. Cashbox went as far as saying that "there is a recurrent thread of taste and artistry inherent in Abba's marketing, creativity and presentation that makes it almost embarrassing to critique their efforts",<ref>{{cite web \|last1Love \|first1Bret \|titleTake A Chance On Me \|urlhttps://encoreatlanta.com/2017/05/22/take-a-chance-on-me/ \|websiteEncore Atlanta \|access-date6 June 2024 \|date22 May 2017}}</ref> while Creem wrote: "SOS is surrounded on this LP by so many good tunes that the mind boggles."{{citation needed\|date=July 2023}} In Australia, the airing of the music videos for "I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do" and "Mamma Mia" on the nationally broadcast TV pop show Countdown (which premiered in November 1974) saw the band rapidly gain enormous popularity, and Countdown become a key promoter of the group via their distinctive music videos. This started an immense interest for ABBA in Australia, resulting in "I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do" staying at number one for three weeks, then "SOS" spending a week there, followed by "Mamma Mia" staying there for ten weeks, and the album holding down the number one position for months. The three songs were also successful in nearby New Zealand with the first two topping that chart and the third reaching number two. 1976–1981: superstardom Greatest Hits and Arrival In March 1976, the band released the compilation album Greatest Hits. It became their first UK number-one album, and also took ABBA into the Top 50 on the US album charts for the first time, eventually selling more than a million copies there. Also included on Greatest Hits was a new single, "Fernando", which went to number-one in at least thirteen countries all over the world, including the UK, Germany, France, Australia, South Africa and Mexico, and the top five in most other significant markets, including, at number four, becoming their biggest hit to date in Canada; the single went on to sell over 10&nbsp;million copies worldwide.<ref>{{cite web \|authorCollins, Karen \|urlhttp://www.tagg.org/mmmsp/fernando.html \|titleFernando the Flute&nbsp;– Details \|websiteTagg.org \|date25 August 2009 \|access-date31 January 2010 \|archive-date25 December 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101225163854/http://tagg.org/mmmsp/fernando.html \|url-status=live}}</ref> In Australia, "Fernando" occupied the top position for a then record breaking 14 weeks (and stayed in the chart for 40 weeks), and was the longest-running chart-topper there for over 40 years until it was overtaken by Ed Sheeran's "Shape of You" in May 2017.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.news.com.au/entertainment/music/ed-sheeran-breaks-australian-music-chart-record-with-shape-of-you/news-story/d2d55f5a04b09dab9db04b795b2e9512 \|titleEd Sheeran breaks Australian music chart record with Shape of You \|date2 May 2017 \|publisherNews Corp \|locationAustralia \|firstCameron \|lastAdams \|access-date13 December 2019 \|archive-date14 December 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191214003226/https://www.news.com.au/entertainment/music/ed-sheeran-breaks-australian-music-chart-record-with-shape-of-you/news-story/d2d55f5a04b09dab9db04b795b2e9512 \|url-status=live}}</ref> It still remains as one of the best-selling singles of all time in Australia. Also in 1976, the group received its first international prize, with "Fernando" being chosen as the "Best Studio Recording of 1975". In the United States, "Fernando" reached the Top 10 of the Cashbox Top 100 singles chart and number 13 on the Billboard Hot 100. It topped the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart, ABBA's first American number-one single on any chart. At the same time, a compilation named The Very Best of ABBA was released in Germany, becoming a number-one album there whereas the Greatest Hits compilation which followed a few months later ascended to number two in Germany, despite all similarities with The Very Best album. and Anni-Frid Lyngstad in Amsterdam Airport Schiphol, 1976\|left]] The group's fourth studio album, Arrival, a number-one best-seller in parts of Europe, the UK and Australia, and a number-three hit in Canada and Japan, represented a new level of accomplishment in both songwriting and studio work, prompting rave reviews from more rock-oriented UK music weeklies such as Melody Maker and New Musical Express, and mostly appreciative notices from US critics.{{citation needed\|date=July 2023}} Hit after hit flowed from Arrival: "Money, Money, Money", another number-one in Germany, France, Australia and other countries of western and northern Europe, plus number three in the UK; and, "Knowing Me, Knowing You", ABBA's sixth consecutive German number-one, as well as another UK number-one, plus a top five hit in many other countries, although it was only a number nine hit in Australia and France. The real sensation was the first single, "Dancing Queen", not only topping the charts in loyal markets like the UK, Germany, Sweden, several other western and northern European countries, and Australia, but also reaching number-one in the United States, Canada, the Soviet Union and Japan, and the top ten in France, Spain and Italy. All three songs were number-one hits in Mexico. In South Africa, ABBA had astounding success with each of "Fernando", "Dancing Queen" and "Knowing Me, Knowing You" being among the top 20 best-selling singles for 1976–77. In 1977, Arrival was nominated for the inaugural BRIT Award in the category "Best International Album of the Year". By this time ABBA were popular in the UK, most of Europe, Australia, New Zealand and Canada. In Frida – The DVD, Lyngstad explains how she and Fältskog developed as singers, as ABBA's recordings grew more complex over the years. The band's mainstream popularity in the United States would remain on a comparatively smaller scale, and "Dancing Queen" became the only Billboard Hot 100 number-one single for ABBA (though it immediately became, and remains to this day, a major gay anthem<ref>{{cite encyclopedia \| last =DeAngelis \| first =Michael \| editor-last=Gerstner \| editor-first=David A. \| title =ABBA \| encyclopedia = Routledge International Encyclopedia of Queer Culture \| edition= 1 \| pages =1 \| publisher =Routledge \| language =English \| date =2006 \| url https://books.google.com/books?idXS_SnVPixE8C \| isbn = 9780415306515 \| access-date 8 June 2022}}</ref>) with "Knowing Me, Knowing You" later peaking at number seven; "Money, Money, Money", however, had barely charted there or in Canada (where "Knowing Me, Knowing You" had reached number five). They did, however, get three more singles to the number-one position on other Billboard US charts, including Billboard Adult Contemporary and Hot Dance Club Play). Nevertheless, Arrival finally became a true breakthrough release for ABBA on the US album market where it peaked at number 20 on the Billboard 200 chart and was certified gold by RIAA. European and Australian tour In January 1977, ABBA embarked on their first major tour. They opened their tour in Oslo, Norway, on 28 January, and mounted a spectacle that included a few scenes from their self-written mini-operetta The Girl with the Golden Hair. The concert attracted media attention from across Europe and Australia. They continued the tour through Western Europe, visiting Gothenburg, Copenhagen, Berlin, Cologne, Amsterdam, Antwerp, Essen, Hanover, and Hamburg and ending with shows in the United Kingdom in Manchester, Birmingham, Glasgow and two sold-out concerts at London's Royal Albert Hall. Along with praise ("ABBA turn out to be amazingly successful at reproducing their records", wrote Creem), there were complaints that "ABBA performed slickly...but with a zero personality coming across from a total of 16 people on stage" (Melody Maker).<ref>{{Cite web \|titleABBA hometown, lineup, biography \|urlhttps://www.last.fm/music/ABBA/+wiki \|access-date2024-06-22 \|websiteLast.fm \|language=en}}</ref> One of the Royal Albert Hall concerts was filmed as a reference for the filming of the Australian tour for what became ABBA: The Movie, though it is not exactly known how much of the concert was filmed. at the opening concert of ABBA's European and Australian Tour in Oslo, 28 January 1977]] After the European leg of the tour, in March 1977, ABBA played 11 dates in Australia before a total of 160,000 people. The opening concert in Sydney at the Sydney Showground on 3 March to an audience of 20,000 was marred by torrential rain with Lyngstad slipping on the wet stage during the concert. However, all four members would later recall this concert as the most memorable of their career.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastCharlesworth \|firstChris \|dateMarch 3, 2015 \|titleJust Backdated: ABBA - Their Biggest Ever Show \|urlhttps://justbackdated.blogspot.com/2015/03/abba-their-biggest-ever-show_3.html \|access-date2025-03-11 \|website=Just Backdated}}</ref> Upon their arrival in Melbourne, a civic reception was held at the Melbourne Town Hall and ABBA appeared on the balcony to greet an enthusiastic crowd of 6,000. In Melbourne, the group gave three concerts at the Sidney Myer Music Bowl with 14,500 at each including the Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser and his family. At the first Melbourne concert, an additional 16,000 people gathered outside the fenced-off area to listen to the concert. In Adelaide, the group performed one concert at Football Park in front of 20,000 people, with another 10,000 listening outside. During the first of five concerts in Perth, there was a bomb scare with everyone having to evacuate the Entertainment Centre. The trip was accompanied by mass hysteria and unprecedented media attention ("Swedish ABBA stirs box-office in Down Under tour...and the media coverage of the quartet rivals that set to cover the upcoming Royal tour of Australia", wrote Variety),{{citation needed\|date=July 2023}} and is captured on film in ABBA: The Movie, directed by Lasse Hallström. The Australian tour and its subsequent ABBA: The Movie produced some ABBA lore, as well. Fältskog's blonde good looks had long made her the band's "pin-up girl", a role she disdained. During the Australian tour, she performed in a skin-tight white jumpsuit, causing one Australian newspaper to use the headline "Agnetha's bottom tops dull show". When asked about this at a news conference, she replied: "Don't they have bottoms in Australia?"<ref>DVD documentaries: The Winner Takes It All (2002) and Super Troupers (2004)</ref> ABBA: The Album In December 1977, ABBA followed up Arrival with the more ambitious fifth album, ABBA: The Album, released to coincide with the debut of ABBA: The Movie. Although the album was less well received by UK reviewers, it did spawn more worldwide hits: "The Name of the Game" and "Take a Chance on Me", which both topped the UK charts and racked up impressive sales in most countries, although "The Name of the Game" was generally the more successful in the Nordic countries and Australia, while "Take a Chance on Me" was more successful in North America and the German-speaking countries. "The Name of the Game" was a number two hit in the Netherlands, Belgium and Sweden while also making the Top 5 in Finland, Norway, New Zealand and Australia, while only peaking at numbers 10, 12 and 15 in Mexico, the US and Canada. "Take a Chance on Me" was a number one hit in Austria, Belgium and Mexico, made the Top 3 in the US, Canada, the Netherlands, Germany and Switzerland, while only reaching numbers 12 and 14 in Australia and New Zealand, respectively. Both songs were Top 10 hits in countries as far afield as Rhodesia and South Africa, as well as in France. Although "Take a Chance on Me" did not top the American charts, it proved to be ABBA's biggest hit single there, selling more copies than "Dancing Queen".<ref>{{harvnb\|Palm\|2001\|p382}}</ref> The drop in sales in Australia was felt to be inevitable by industry observers as an "Abba-Fever" that had existed there for almost three years could only last so long as adolescents would naturally begin to move away from a group so deified by both their parents and grandparents.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6CMEAAAAMBAJ&qtake+a+chance+on+me+australia+chart+peak&pgPT30\|titleBillboard\|date8 September 1979\|viaGoogle Books}}</ref> A third single, "Eagle", was released in continental Europe and Australia becoming a number one hit in Belgium and a Top 10 hit in the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland and South Africa, but barely charting in Australia. The B-side of "Eagle" was "Thank You for the Music", and it was belatedly released as an A-side single in both the United Kingdom and Ireland in 1983. "Thank You for the Music" has become one of the best loved and best known ABBA songs without being released as a single during the group's lifetime. ABBA: The Album topped the album charts in the UK, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Sweden, Norway, Switzerland, while ascending to the Top 5 in Australia, Germany, Austria, Finland and Rhodesia, and making the Top 10 in Canada and Japan. Sources also indicate that sales in Poland exceeded 1 million copies and that sales demand in Russia could not be met by the supply available.<ref>Oldham, A, Calder, T & Irvin, C: "ABBA: The Name of the Game", page 201. Sidgwick & Jackson, 1995</ref> The album peaked at number 14 in the US. Polar Music Studio formation By 1978, ABBA were one of the biggest bands in the world. They converted a vacant cinema into the Polar Music Studio, a state-of-the-art studio in Stockholm. The studio was used by several other bands; notably Genesis' Duke, Led Zeppelin's In Through the Out Door and Scorpions's Lovedrive were recorded there. During May 1978, the group went to the United States for a promotional campaign, performing alongside Andy Gibb on Olivia Newton-John's TV show. Recording sessions for the single "Summer Night City" were an uphill struggle,{{citation needed\|dateFebruary 2023}} but upon release the song became another hit for the group. The track would set the stage for ABBA's foray into disco with their next album.<ref>{{harvnb\|Palm\|2001\|pp383–386}}</ref> On 9 January 1979, the group performed "Chiquitita" at the Music for UNICEF Concert held at the United Nations General Assembly to celebrate UNICEF's Year of the Child. ABBA donated the copyright of this worldwide hit to the UNICEF; see Music for UNICEF Concert.<ref>"Bee Gees, Olivia were a hit with the VIPs" (11 January 1979). Courier Mail (Brisbane); p. 30.</ref> The single was released the following week, and reached number-one in ten countries. North American and European tours In mid-January 1979, Ulvaeus and Fältskog announced they were getting divorced. The news caused interest from the media and led to speculation about the band's future. ABBA assured the press and their fan base they were continuing their work as a group and that the divorce would not affect them.<ref>"ABBA divorce&nbsp;– Agnetha moves out" (17 January 1979). The Sun (Sydney); p.&nbsp;1.</ref> Nonetheless, the media continued to confront them with this in interviews. To escape the media swirl and concentrate on their writing, Andersson and Ulvaeus secretly travelled to Compass Point Studios in Nassau, Bahamas, where for two weeks they prepared their next album's songs. The group's sixth studio album, Voulez-Vous, was released in April 1979, with its title track recorded at the famous Criteria Studios in Miami, Florida, with the assistance of recording engineer Tom Dowd among others. The album topped the charts across Europe and in Japan and Mexico, hit the Top 10 in Canada and Australia and the Top 20 in the US. While none of the singles from the album reached number one on the UK chart, the lead single, "Chiquitita", and the fourth single, "I Have a Dream", both ascended to number two, and the other two, "Does Your Mother Know" and "Angeleyes" (with "Voulez-Vous", released as a double A-side) both made the top 5. All four singles reached number one in Belgium, although the last three did not chart in Sweden or Norway. "Chiquitita", which was featured in the Music for UNICEF Concert after which ABBA decided to donate half of the royalties from the song to UNICEF, topped the singles charts in the Netherlands, Switzerland, Finland, Spain, Mexico, South Africa, Rhodesia and New Zealand, rose to number two in Sweden, and made the Top 5 in Germany, Austria, Norway and Australia, although it only reached number 29 in the US. "I Have a Dream" was a sizeable hit reaching number one in the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Austria, number three in South Africa, and number four in Germany, although it only reached number 64 in Australia. In Canada, "I Have a Dream" became ABBA's second number one on the RPM Adult Contemporary chart (after "Fernando" hit the top previously) although it did not chart in the US. "Does Your Mother Know", a rare song in which Ulvaeus sings lead vocals, was a Top 5 hit in the Netherlands and Finland, and a Top 10 hit in Germany, Switzerland, Australia, although it only reached number 27 in New Zealand. It did better in North America than "Chiquitita", reaching number 12 in Canada and number 19 in the US, and made the Top 20 in Japan. "Voulez-Vous" was a Top 10 hit in the Netherlands and Switzerland, a Top 20 hit in Germany and Finland, but only peaked in the 80s in Australia, Canada and the US. Also in 1979, the group released their second compilation album, Greatest Hits Vol. 2, which featured a brand-new track: "Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)", which was a Top 3 hit in the UK, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Finland and Norway, and returned ABBA to the Top 10 in Australia. Greatest Hits Vol. 2 went to number one in the UK, Belgium, Canada and Japan while making the Top 5 in several other countries, but only reaching number 20 in Australia and number 46 in the US. In the Soviet Union during the late 1970s, the group were paid in oil commodities because of an embargo on the rouble.<ref>Rodgers, Peter (16 March 1980). "Pop Goes ABBA's $2m Oil Gamble: ABBA May Lose Enormous Amount of Money Following Venture into Oil Market. " The Sunday Times; Business News, p&nbsp;53</ref> On 13 September 1979, ABBA began ABBA: The Tour at Northlands Coliseum in Edmonton, Canada, with a full house of 14,000. "The voices of the band, Agnetha's high sauciness combined with round, rich lower tones of Anni-Frid, were excellent...Technically perfect, melodically correct and always in perfect pitch...The soft lower voice of Anni-Frid and the high, edgy vocals of Agnetha were stunning", raved Edmonton Journal.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleEdmonton Journal 14 Sep 1979, page 41 \|urlhttps://edmontonjournal.newspapers.com/image/471923969/ \|access-date5 February 2024 \|websiteNewspapers.com \|language=en}}</ref> During the next four weeks they played a total of 17 sold-out dates, 13 in the United States and four in Canada. The last scheduled ABBA concert in the United States in Washington, D.C. was cancelled due to emotional distress Fältskog experienced during the flight from New York to Boston. The group's private plane was subjected to extreme weather conditions and was unable to land for an extended period. They appeared at the Boston Music Hall for the performance 90 minutes late. The tour ended with a show in Toronto, Canada at Maple Leaf Gardens before a capacity crowd of 18,000. "ABBA plays with surprising power and volume; but although they are loud, they're also clear, which does justice to the signature vocal sound... Anyone who's been waiting five years to see Abba will be well satisfied", wrote Record World. On 19 October 1979, the tour resumed in Western Europe where the band played 23 sold-out gigs, including six sold-out nights at London's Wembley Arena. Progression In March 1980, ABBA travelled to Japan where upon their arrival at Narita International Airport, they were besieged by thousands of fans. The group performed eleven concerts to full houses, including six shows at Tokyo's Budokan. This tour was the last "on the road" adventure of their career. In July 1980, ABBA released the single "The Winner Takes It All", the group's eighth UK chart topper (and their first since 1978). The song is widely misunderstood as being written about Ulvaeus and Fältskog's marital tribulations; Ulvaeus wrote the lyrics, but has stated they were not about his own divorce; Fältskog has repeatedly stated she was not the loser in their divorce. In the United States, the single peaked at number-eight on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and became ABBA's second Billboard Adult Contemporary number-one. It was also re-recorded by Andersson and Ulvaeus with a slightly different backing track, by French chanteuse Mireille Mathieu at the end of 1980&nbsp;– as "Bravo tu as gagné", with French lyrics by Alain Boublil. In November 1980, ABBA's seventh album Super Trouper was released, which reflected a certain change in ABBA's style with more prominent use of synthesizers and increasingly personal lyrics. It set a record for the most pre-orders ever received for a UK album after one million copies were ordered before release.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastPop \|firstClassic \|date6 September 2021 \|titleMaking ABBA: Super Trouper \|urlhttps://www.classicpopmag.com/2021/09/abba-super-trouper/ \|access-date6 March 2024 \|websiteClassic Pop Magazine \|languageen-US}}</ref> The second single from the album, "Super Trouper", also hit number-one in the UK, becoming the group's ninth and final UK chart-topper. Another track from the album, "Lay All Your Love on Me", released in 1981 as a Twelve-inch single only in selected territories, managed to top the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart and peaked at number-seven on the UK singles chart becoming, at the time, the highest ever charting 12-inch release in UK chart history. Also in 1980, ABBA recorded a compilation of Spanish-language versions of their hits called Gracias Por La Música. This was released in Spanish-speaking countries as well as in Japan and Australia. The album became a major success, and along with the Spanish version of "Chiquitita", this signalled the group's breakthrough in Latin America. ABBA Oro: Grandes Éxitos, the Spanish equivalent of ABBA Gold: Greatest Hits, was released in 1999. 1981–1982: The Visitors and later performances In January 1981, Ulvaeus married Lena Källersjö, and manager Stig Anderson celebrated his 50th birthday with a party. For this occasion, ABBA recorded the track "Hovas Vittne" (a pun on the Swedish name for Jehovah's Witness and Anderson's birthplace, Hova) as a tribute to him, and released it only on 200 red vinyl copies, to be distributed to the guests attending the party. This single has become a sought-after collectable. In mid-February 1981, Andersson and Lyngstad announced they were filing for divorce. Information surfaced that their marriage had been an uphill struggle for years, and Benny had already met another woman, Mona Nörklit, whom he married in November 1981. Andersson and Ulvaeus had songwriting sessions in early 1981, and recording sessions began in mid-March. At the end of April, the group recorded a TV special, Dick Cavett Meets ABBA with the US talk show host Dick Cavett. The Visitors, ABBA's eighth studio album, showed a songwriting maturity and depth of feeling distinctly lacking from their earlier recordings but still placing the band squarely in the pop genre, with catchy tunes and harmonies. Although not revealed at the time of its release, the album's title track, according to Ulvaeus, refers to the secret meetings held against the approval of totalitarian governments in Soviet-dominated states, while other tracks address topics like failed relationships, the threat of war, ageing, and loss of innocence. The album's only major single release, "One of Us", proved to be the last of ABBA's nine number-one singles in Germany, this being in December 1981; and the swansong of their sixteen Top 5 singles on the South African chart. "One of Us" was also ABBA's final Top 3 hit in the UK, reaching number-three on the UK Singles Chart. Although it topped the album charts across most of Europe, including Ireland, the UK and Germany, The Visitors was not as commercially successful as its predecessors, showing a commercial decline in previously loyal markets such as France, Australia and Japan. A track from the album, "When All Is Said and Done", was released as a single in North America, Australia and New Zealand, and fittingly became ABBA's final Top 40 hit in the US (debuting on the US charts on 31 December 1981), while also reaching the US Adult Contemporary Top 10, and number-four on the RPM Adult Contemporary chart in Canada. The song's lyrics, as with "The Winner Takes It All" and "One of Us", dealt with the painful experience of separating from a long-term partner, though it looked at the trauma more optimistically. With the now publicised story of Andersson and Lyngstad's divorce, speculation increased of tension within the band. Also released in the United States was the title track of The Visitors, which hit the Top Ten on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart. Later recording sessions In the spring of 1982, songwriting sessions had started and the group came together for more recordings. Plans were not completely clear, but a new album was discussed and the prospect of a small tour suggested. The recording sessions in May and June 1982 were a struggle, and only three songs were eventually recorded: "You Owe Me One", "I Am the City" and "Just Like That". Andersson and Ulvaeus were not satisfied with the outcome, so the tapes were shelved and the group took a break for the summer.<ref>{{harvnb\|Palm\|2001\|pp=455–56}}</ref> Back in the studio again in early August, the group had changed plans for the rest of the year: they settled for a Christmas release of a double album compilation of all their past single releases to be named The Singles: The First Ten Years. New songwriting and recording sessions took place,<ref>{{harvnb\|Palm\|2001\|pp=456–57}}</ref> and during October and December, they released the singles "The Day Before You Came"/"Cassandra" and "Under Attack"/"You Owe Me One", the A-sides of which were included on the compilation album. Neither single made the Top 20 in the United Kingdom, though "The Day Before You Came" became a Top 5 hit in many European countries such as Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium. The album went to number one in the UK and Belgium, Top 5 in the Netherlands and Germany and Top 20 in many other countries. "Under Attack", the group's final release before disbanding, was a Top 5 hit in the Netherlands and Belgium. "I Am the City" and "Just Like That" were left unreleased on The Singles: The First Ten Years for possible inclusion on the next projected studio album, though this never came to fruition. "I Am the City" was eventually released on the compilation album More ABBA Gold in 1993, while "Just Like That" has been recycled in new songs with other artists produced by Andersson and Ulvaeus. A reworked version of the verses ended up in the musical Chess.<ref>{{harvnb\|Palm\|2001\|p=490}}</ref> The chorus section of "Just Like That" was eventually released on a retrospective box set in 1994, as well as in the ABBA Undeleted medley featured on disc 9 of The Complete Studio Recordings. Despite a number of requests from fans, Ulvaeus and Andersson are still refusing to release ABBA's version of "Just Like That" in its entirety, even though the complete version has surfaced on bootlegs. The group travelled to London to promote The Singles: The First Ten Years in the first week of November 1982, appearing on Saturday Superstore and The Late, Late Breakfast Show, and also to West Germany in the second week, to perform on Show Express. On 19 November 1982, ABBA appeared for the last time in Sweden on the TV programme Nöjesmaskinen, and on 11 December 1982, they made their last performance ever, transmitted to the UK on Noel Edmonds' The Late, Late Breakfast Show,<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://home.bt.com/news/showbiz-news/abba-together-on-stage-again-but-only-to-open-a-taverna-11364034663670\|titleABBA together on stage again – but only to open a taverna\|firstMichael\|lastMoran\|websiteBt.com\|date21 January 2016\|access-date22 July 2016\|archive-date10 August 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160810114143/http://home.bt.com/news/showbiz-news/abba-together-on-stage-again-but-only-to-open-a-taverna-11364034663670\|url-statuslive}}</ref> through a live link from a TV studio in Stockholm. Later performances Andersson and Ulvaeus began collaborating with Tim Rice in early 1983 on writing songs for the musical project Chess, while Fältskog and Lyngstad both concentrated on international solo careers. While Andersson and Ulvaeus were working on the musical, a further co-operation among the three of them came with the musical Abbacadabra that was produced in France for television. It was a children's musical using 14&nbsp;ABBA songs. Alain and Daniel Boublil, who wrote Les Misérables, had been in touch with Stig Anderson about the project, and the TV musical was aired over Christmas on French TV and later a Dutch version was also broadcast. Boublil previously also wrote the French lyric for Mireille Mathieu's version of "The Winner Takes It All". Lyngstad, who had recently moved to Paris, participated in the French version, and recorded a single, "Belle", a duet with French singer Daniel Balavoine. The song was a cover of ABBA's 1976 instrumental track "Arrival". As the single "Belle" sold well in France, Cameron Mackintosh wanted to stage an English-language version of the show in London, with the French lyrics translated by David Wood and Don Black; Andersson and Ulvaeus got involved in the project, and contributed with one new song, "I Am the Seeker". "Abbacadabra" premiered on 8 December 1983 at the Lyric Hammersmith Theatre in London, to mixed reviews and full houses for eight weeks, closing on 21 January 1984. Lyngstad was also involved in this production, recording "Belle" in English as "Time", a duet with actor and singer B. A. Robertson: the single sold well and was produced and recorded by Mike Batt. In May 1984, Lyngstad performed "I Have a Dream" with a children's choir at the United Nations Organisation Gala, in Geneva, Switzerland.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://abbaontv.com/1984/description-unicef.html\|titleGala de l'ONU (Organisation des Nations Unis) – United Nations Organisation Gala part 1\|access-date11 October 2017\|publisherABBAONTV\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180220022027/http://www.abbaontv.com/1984/description-unicef.html\|archive-date20 February 2018\|url-status=dead}}</ref> All four members made their (at the time, final) public appearance as four friends more than as ABBA in January 1986, when they recorded a video of themselves performing an acoustic version of "Tivedshambo" (which was the first song written by their manager Stig Anderson), for a Swedish TV show honouring Anderson on his 55th birthday. The four had not seen each other for more than two years. That same year they also performed privately at another friend's 40th birthday: their old tour manager, Claes af Geijerstam. They sang a self-written song titled "Der Kleine Franz" that was later to resurface in Chess. Also in 1986, ABBA Live was released, featuring selections of live performances from the group's 1977 and 1979 tours. The four members were guests at the 50th birthday of Görel Hanser in 1999. Hanser was a long-time friend of all four, and also former secretary of Stig Anderson. Honouring Görel, ABBA performed a Swedish birthday song "Med en enkel tulipan" a cappella.<ref>[http://www.raffem.com/BjornUlvaeusBiogr.htm Björn Ulvaeus] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081231204714/http://www.raffem.com/BjornUlvaeusBiogr.htm \|date31 December 2008 }}. raffem.com – ABBA's last known appearance (1999)</ref> Andersson has on several occasions performed ABBA songs. In June 1992, he and Ulvaeus appeared with U2 at a Stockholm concert, singing the chorus of "Dancing Queen", and a few years later during the final performance of the B & B in Concert in Stockholm, Andersson joined the cast for an encore at the piano. Andersson frequently adds an ABBA song to the playlist when he performs with his BAO band. He also played the piano during new recordings of the ABBA songs "Like an Angel Passing Through My Room" with opera singer Anne Sofie von Otter, and "When All Is Said and Done" with Swede Viktoria Tolstoy. In 2002, Andersson and Ulvaeus both performed an a cappella rendition of the first verse of "Fernando" as they accepted their Ivor Novello award in London. Lyngstad performed and recorded an a cappella version of "Dancing Queen" with the Swedish group the Real Group in 1993, and also re-recorded "I Have a Dream" with Swiss singer Dan Daniell in 2003. Break and reunion ABBA never officially announced the end of the group or an indefinite break, but it was long considered dissolved after their final public performance together in 1982. Their final public performance together as ABBA before their 2016 reunion was on the British TV programme The Late, Late Breakfast Show (live from Stockholm) on 11 December 1982. While reminiscing on "The Day Before You Came", Ulvaeus said: "we might have continued for a while longer if that had been a number one".<ref>{{cite news\| viaYouTube\| urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vmBG4H6M8alw\| titleABBA The History 1999 Documentary\| date22 August 2008 \| access-date9 April 2015\| archive-date3 January 2016\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160103201211/https://www.youtube.com/watch?vmBG4H6M8alw\| url-statuslive}}</ref> In January 1983, Fältskog started recording sessions for a solo album, as Lyngstad had successfully released her album ''Something's Going On some months earlier. Ulvaeus and Andersson, meanwhile, started songwriting sessions for the musical Chess. In interviews at the time, Björn and Benny denied the split of ABBA ("Who are we without our ladies? Initials of Brigitte Bardot?"), and Lyngstad and Fältskog kept claiming in interviews that ABBA would come together for a new album repeatedly during 1983 and 1984.{{citation needed\|date=July 2023}} Internal strife between the group and their manager escalated and the band members sold their shares in Polar Music during 1983. Except for a TV appearance in 1986, the foursome did not come together publicly again until they were reunited at the Swedish premiere of the Mamma Mia!'' musical on 14 February 2005. The individual members' endeavours shortly before and after their final public performance coupled with the collapse of both marriages and the lack of significant activity in the following few years after that widely suggested that the group had broken up. In an interview with the Sunday Telegraph following the premiere, Ulvaeus and Andersson said that there was nothing that could entice them back on stage again. Ulvaeus said: "We will never appear on stage again. [...] There is simply no motivation to re-group. Money is not a factor and we would like people to remember us as we were. Young, exuberant, full of energy and ambition. I remember Robert Plant saying Led Zeppelin were a cover band now because they cover all their own stuff. I think that hit the nail on the head."<ref>{{cite news \| urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml/arts/2008/07/05/bmabba105.xml \| locationLondon \| newspaperThe Daily Telegraph \| titleABBA's Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson: We Will Never Reform \| firstChris \| lastHastings \| date5 July 2008 \| access-date9 July 2021 \| archive-date5 December 2008 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081205111139/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml%2Farts%2F2008%2F07%2F05%2Fbmabba105.xml \| url-status=dead }}</ref> However, on 3 January 2011, Fältskog, long considered to be the most reclusive member of the group and a major obstacle to any reunion, raised the possibility of reuniting for a one-off engagement. She admitted that she has not yet brought the idea up to the other three members. In April 2013, she reiterated her hopes for reunion during an interview with Die Zeit, stating: "If they ask me, I'll say yes."<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.vg.no/musikk/artikkel.php?artid10102871 \|titleAgnetha åpner for ABBA-gjenforening – VG Nett \|websiteVg.no \|date26 April 2013 \|access-date18 September 2013 \|archive-date29 October 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131029202459/http://www.vg.no/musikk/artikkel.php?artid10102871 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In a May 2013 interview, Fältskog, aged 63 at the time, stated that an ABBA reunion would never occur: "I think we have to accept that it will not happen, because we are too old and each one of us has their own life. Too many years have gone by since we stopped, and there's really no meaning in putting us together again". Fältskog further explained that the band members remained on amicable terms: "It's always nice to see each other now and then and to talk a little and to be a little nostalgic."<ref name"Dave">{{cite news\|authorItzkoff, Dave\|date5 May 2013\|titleA Dancing Queen Extends Her Reign\|newspaperThe New York Times\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/06/arts/music/agnetha-faltskog-of-abba-back-with-a-new-album.html\|url-statuslive\|access-date17 February 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140828191655/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/06/arts/music/agnetha-faltskog-of-abba-back-with-a-new-album.html\|archive-date28 August 2014}}</ref> In an April 2014 interview, Fältskog, when asked about whether the band might reunite for a new recording said: "It's difficult to talk about this because then all the news stories will be: 'ABBA is going to record another song!' But as long as we can sing and play, then why not? I would love to, but it's up to Björn and Benny."<ref nameGuardian2014 /> Resurgence of public interest The same year the members of ABBA went their separate ways, the French production of a "tribute" show (a children's TV musical named Abbacadabra using 14 ABBA songs) spawned new interest in the group's music. After receiving little attention during the mid-to-late-1980s, ABBA's music experienced a resurgence in the early 1990s due to the UK synth-pop duo Erasure, who released Abba-esque, a four track extended play release featuring cover versions of ABBA songs which topped several European charts in 1992. As U2 arrived in Stockholm for a concert in June of that year, the band paid homage to ABBA by inviting Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson to join them on stage for a rendition of "Dancing Queen", playing guitar and keyboards. September 1992 saw the release of ABBA Gold: Greatest Hits, a new compilation album. The single "Dancing Queen" received radio airplay in the UK in the middle of 1992 to promote the album. The song returned to the Top 20 of the UK singles chart in August that year, this time peaking at number 16. With sales of 30 million,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://entertainment.ie/competitions/display.asp?CompID7471\|titleWin an ABBA GOLD 40th Anniversary Edition + The Singles CD Boxset – entertainment.ie\|lastEntertainment.ie\|access-date18 September 2019\|archive-date27 September 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180927234028/http://entertainment.ie/competitions/display.asp?CompID7471\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Gold is the best-selling ABBA album, as well as one of the best-selling albums worldwide. With sales of 5.5&nbsp;million copies it is the second-highest selling album of all time in the UK, after Queen's Greatest Hits.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.officialcharts.com/chart-news/the-best-selling-albums-of-all-time-on-the-official-uk-chart__15551/\|titleThe best-selling albums of all time on the Official UK Chart\|authorRob Copsey\|workOfficial Charts\|date11 April 2019\|access-date18 September 2019\|archive-date2 October 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191002091415/https://www.officialcharts.com/chart-news/the-best-selling-albums-of-all-time-on-the-official-uk-chart__15551/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> More ABBA Gold: More ABBA Hits, a follow-up to Gold, was released in 1993. In 1994, two Australian cult films caught the attention of the world's media, both focusing on admiration for ABBA: The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert and ''Muriel's Wedding. The same year, Thank You for the Music'', a four-disc box set comprising all the group's hits and stand-out album tracks, was released with the involvement of all four members. "By the end of the twentieth century," American critic Chuck Klosterman wrote a decade later, "it was far more contrarian to hate ABBA than to love them."<ref name"Klosterman quote">{{cite book\|lastKlosterman\|firstChuck\|titleEating the Dinosaur\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/eatingdinosaur00klos\|url-accessregistration\|year2009\|publisherScribner\|locationNew York\|isbn978-1-4165-4421-0\|page[https://archive.org/details/eatingdinosaur00klos/page/172 172]\|author-linkChuck Klosterman}} ([https://books.google.com/books?idT6cFBs1TU9gC&pgPT203 online copy] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160516080545/https://books.google.com/books?idT6cFBs1TU9gC&pgPT203 \|date16 May 2016 }})</ref> Two different compilation albums of ABBA songs have been released. ABBA: A Tribute coincided with the 25th anniversary celebration and featured 17 songs, some of which were recorded especially for this release. Notable tracks include Go West's "One of Us", Army of Lovers "Hasta Mañana", Information Society's "Lay All Your Love on Me", Erasure's "Take a Chance on Me" (with MC Kinky), and Lyngstad's a cappella duet with the Real Group of "Dancing Queen". A second 12-track album was released in 1999, titled ABBAmania, with proceeds going to the Youth Music charity in England. It featured all new cover versions: notable tracks were by Madness ("Money, Money, Money"), Culture Club ("Voulez-Vous"), the Corrs ("The Winner Takes It All"), Steps ("Lay All Your Love on Me", "I Know Him So Well"), and a medley titled "Thank ABBA for the Music" performed by several artists and as featured on the Brits Awards that same year. In 1998, an ABBA tribute group was formed, the ABBA Teens, which was subsequently renamed the A-Teens to allow the group some independence. The group's first album, The ABBA Generation, consisting solely of ABBA covers reimagined as 1990s pop songs, was a worldwide success and so were subsequent albums. The group disbanded in 2004 due to a gruelling schedule and intentions to go solo. In Sweden, the growing recognition of the legacy of Andersson and Ulvaeus resulted in the 1998 B & B Concerts, a tribute concert (with Swedish singers who had worked with the songwriters through the years) showcasing not only their ABBA years, but hits both before and after ABBA. The concert was a success and was ultimately released on CD. It later toured Scandinavia and even went to Beijing in the People's Republic of China for two concerts. In 2000 ABBA were reported to have turned down an offer of approximately one billion US dollars to do a reunion tour consisting of 100 concerts.<ref>{{cite news \|lastBasham \|firstDavid \|date2 February 2000 \|urlhttp://www.mtv.com/news/1424667/abba-nixes-billion-dollar-offer-to-reunite/ \|titleABBA Nixes Billion-Dollar Offer To Reunite \|publisherMTV News \|access-date16 December 2019 \|archive-date12 September 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190912210222/http://www.mtv.com/news/1424667/abba-nixes-billion-dollar-offer-to-reunite/ \|url-statusdead }}</ref> For the semi-final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2004, staged in Istanbul 30 years after ABBA had won the contest in Brighton, all four members made cameo appearances in a special comedy video made for the interval act, titled Our Last Video Ever. Other well-known stars such as Rik Mayall, Cher and Iron Maiden's Eddie also made appearances in the video. It was not included in the official DVD release of the 2004 Eurovision contest, but was issued as a separate DVD release, retitled The Last Video at the request of the former ABBA members. The video was made using puppet models of the members of the band. The video has surpassed 13 million views on YouTube as of November 2020. In 2005, all four members of ABBA appeared at the Stockholm premiere of the musical Mamma Mia!.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/4263745.stm\|title Abba Reunite for Musical Premiere\|access-date16 July 2008\|date 14 February 2005\|workBBC News\|location London\|archive-date12 October 2021\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20211012121232/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/4263745.stm\|url-statuslive}}</ref> On 22 October 2005, at the 50th anniversary celebration of the Eurovision Song Contest, "Waterloo" was chosen as the best song in the competition's history.<ref name50th>{{cite news\| workBBC News\| date 23 October 2005\| urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/4366574.stm\| title Abba win 'Eurovision 50th' vote \| access-date20 July 2006\| archive-date 19 October 2006\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061019212102/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/4366574.stm\| url-status live}}</ref> In the same month, American singer Madonna released the single "Hung Up", which contains a sample of the keyboard melody from ABBA's 1979 song "Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)"; the song was a smash hit, peaking at number one in at least 50 countries.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/4354028.stm\|titleMadonna 'begged' Abba for sample\|lastBones\|firstSusan\|date18 October 2005\|publisherBBC\|access-date23 June 2009}}</ref> On 4 July 2008, all four ABBA members were reunited at the Swedish premiere of the film Mamma Mia!. It was only the second time all of them had appeared together in public since 1986.<ref>{{cite news\|url http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/7491246.stm\|titleAbba Quartet at Mamma Mia Showing\|access-date 16 July 2008\|date5 July 2008\|work BBC News\|locationLondon\|archive-date 23 September 2008\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080923035251/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/7491246.stm\|url-status live}}</ref> During the appearance, they re-emphasised that they intended never to officially reunite, citing the opinion of Robert Plant that the re-formed Led Zeppelin was more like a cover band of itself than the original band. Ulvaeus stated that he wanted the band to be remembered as they were during the peak years of their success.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/7491908.stm\|title Abba Will 'Never' Perform Again\|access-date7 August 2008\|date 6 July 2008\|workBBC News\|location London\|archive-date5 November 2008\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20081105112453/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/7491908.stm\|url-status= live}}</ref> '' on 4 July 2008, are the original ABBA members. Far left, Benny Andersson. Fifth from left, Agnetha Fältskog, with her hand on Anni-Frid Lyngstad's shoulder. Second from right, Björn Ulvaeus.]] Gold returned to number-one in the UK album charts for the fifth time on 3 August 2008.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/6music/news/20080804_abba.shtml\|title Abba are No. 1\|access-date7 August 2008\|date 4 August 2008\|publisherBBC Radio 6 Music\|archive-date 28 December 2008\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081228060620/http://www.bbc.co.uk/6music/news/20080804_abba.shtml\|url-status live}}</ref> On 14 August 2008, the Mamma Mia! The Movie film soundtrack went to number-one on the US Billboard charts, ABBA's first US chart-topping album. During the band's heyday, the highest album chart position they had ever achieved in America was number 14. In November 2008, all eight studio albums, together with a ninth of rare tracks, were released as The Albums.<ref>Thomas, Stephen. (11-24-2008) [http://www.allmusic.com/album/r1453355 The Albums – ABBA] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210709211433/https://www.allmusic.com/album/the-albums-mw0000805352 \|date9 July 2021 }}. AllMusic. Retrieved 30 April 2012.</ref> It hit several charts, peaking at number-four in Sweden and reaching the Top 10 in several other European territories. In 2008, Sony Computer Entertainment Europe, in collaboration with Universal Music Group Sweden AB, released SingStar ABBA on both the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation 3 games consoles, as part of the SingStar music video games. The PS2 version features 20 ABBA songs, while 25 songs feature on the PS3 version. On 22 January 2009, Fältskog and Lyngstad appeared together on stage to receive the Swedish music award "Rockbjörnen" (for "lifetime achievement"). In an interview, the two women expressed their gratitude for the honorary award and thanked their fans. On 25 November 2009, PRS for Music announced that the British public voted ABBA as the band they would most like to see re-form.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/music-news/6646768/Abba-is-the-band-most-people-want-to-see-reform.html \|titleABBA is the Band Most People Want to See Reform \|newspaperThe Daily Telegraph \|date25 November 2009 \|access-date31 January 2010 \|locationLondon \|archive-date28 November 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091128054854/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/music-news/6646768/Abba-is-the-band-most-people-want-to-see-reform.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> On 27 January 2010, ABBAWORLD, a 25-room touring exhibition featuring interactive and audiovisual activities, debuted at Earls Court Exhibition Centre in London. According to the exhibition's website, ABBAWORLD is "approved and fully supported" by the band members.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://intransit.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/12/23/mamma-mia-thats-a-lot-of-abba/ \|titleMamma Mia, That's a Lot of ABBA New York Times 23&nbsp;December 2010 \|websiteIntransit.blogs.nytimes.com \|date23 December 2009 \|access-date23 August 2010 \|archive-date28 December 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091228133838/http://intransit.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/12/23/mamma-mia-thats-a-lot-of-abba/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.abbaworld.com/ \|titleABBAWORLD website \|websiteAbbaworld.com \|access-date23 August 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100811014528/http://www.abbaworld.com/ \|archive-date11 August 2010 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> "Mamma Mia" was released as one of the first few non-premium song selections for the online RPG game Bandmaster. On 17 May 2011, "Gimme! Gimme! Gimme!" was added as a non-premium song selection for the Bandmaster Philippines server. On 15 November 2011, Ubisoft released a dancing game called ABBA: You Can Dance for the Wii.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.nintendo.com/games/detail/5YiHiKvwW_DHzJGfYt8cNAUTDsDjaqvY\|titleABBA You Can Dance\|websiteNintendo.com\|access-date17 January 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190119134416/https://www.nintendo.com/games/detail/5YiHiKvwW_DHzJGfYt8cNAUTDsDjaqvY\|archive-date19 January 2019\|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://royalflushmagazine.com/gaming/uber-first-impressions-preview-just-dance-kids-just-dance-3-abba-the-black-eyed-peas-experience/\|titleUber First Impressions Preview – Just Dance Kids, Just Dance 3, Abba, The Black Eyed Peas Experience\|date25 September 2011\|workRoyal Flush Magazine\|access-date6 February 2018\|archive-date6 February 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180206161652/http://royalflushmagazine.com/gaming/uber-first-impressions-preview-just-dance-kids-just-dance-3-abba-the-black-eyed-peas-experience/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In January 2012, Universal Music announced the re-release of ABBA's final album The Visitors, featuring a previously unheard track "From a Twinkling Star to a Passing Angel".<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/entertainment/abba-rebjorn-from-a-twinkling-star-to-a-passing-angel-with-new-deluxe-edition-of-the-visitors/story-e6frewyr-1226257614950\|titleABBA Rebjorn – From a Twinkling Star to a Passing Angel with new Deluxe Edition of The Visitors\|newspaperThe Daily Telegraph\|date30 January 2012\|access-date30 January 2012\|archive-date18 November 2012\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121118101709/http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/entertainment/abba-rebjorn-from-a-twinkling-star-to-a-passing-angel-with-new-deluxe-edition-of-the-visitors/story-e6frewyr-1226257614950\|url-status=live}}</ref> A book titled ABBA: The Official Photo Book was published in early 2014 to mark the 40th anniversary of the band's Eurovision victory. The book reveals that part of the reason for the band's outrageous costumes was that Swedish tax laws at the time allowed the cost of garish outfits that were not suitable for daily wear to be tax deductible. 2016–2024: Reunion, Voyage, and ABBAtars On 20 January 2016, all four members of ABBA made a public appearance at Mamma Mia! The Party in Stockholm.<ref>[http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/music/abba-have-finally-reunited-in-sweden-for-the-opening-of-a-mamma-miathemed-restaurant/news-story/4abab91390a7c78bb93aacf26d659808 ABBA pictured together for first time in 34 years] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160126020133/http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/music/abba-have-finally-reunited-in-sweden-for-the-opening-of-a-mamma-miathemed-restaurant/news-story/4abab91390a7c78bb93aacf26d659808 \|date26 January 2016 }}, ABBA have finally reunited in Sweden, for the opening of a Mamma Mia-themed restaurant, 2016-01-21, Cameron Adams, News Corp Australia Network</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/06/abba-sing-together-for-first-time-in-more-than-30-years/\|titleABBA sing together for first time in more than 30 years\|lastOrange\|firstRichard\|date6 June 2016\|newspaperThe Daily Telegraph\|access-date5 March 2018\|issn0307-1235\|archive-date6 March 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180306031359/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/06/abba-sing-together-for-first-time-in-more-than-30-years/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> On 6 June 2016, the quartet appeared together at a private party at Berns Salonger in Stockholm, which was held to celebrate the 50th anniversary of Andersson and Ulvaeus's first meeting. Fältskog and Lyngstad performed live, singing "The Way Old Friends Do"<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.expressen.se/noje/abba-together-on-stage-again/\|titleAbba together on stage again\|websiteExpressen\|date6 June 2016 \|access-date10 April 2020\|archive-date24 July 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200724201410/https://www.expressen.se/noje/abba-together-on-stage-again/\|url-status=live}}</ref> before they were joined on stage by Andersson and Ulvaeus. British manager Simon Fuller announced in a statement in October 2016 that the group would be reuniting to work on a new "digital entertainment experience".<ref name"BBC News" /> The project would feature the members in their "life-like" avatar form, called ABBAtars, based on their late 1970s tour and would be set to launch by the spring of 2019.<ref name"heraldgram">{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.heraldsun.com.au/news/70s-pop-stars-abba-to-be-digitally-recreated-for-virtual-reality-world-tour/news-story/be146a18ca86a3ef7c58d53923512074\| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211020/http://www.heraldsun.com.au/news/70s-pop-stars-abba-to-be-digitally-recreated-for-virtual-reality-world-tour/news-story/be146a18ca86a3ef7c58d53923512074\| archive-date20 October 2021\|title'70s pop stars ABBA to be digitally recreated for virtual reality world tour\|newspaperHerald Sun\|date16 September 2017\|firstCameron\|lastAdams\|access-date=11 October 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref> win]] In May 2017, a sequel to the 2008 movie Mamma Mia!, titled Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again, was announced; the film was released on 20 July 2018.<ref nameabbausatoday>{{cite news\| url https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/news/mamma-mia-2-here-we-go-again-confirmed-release-date-meryl-streep-pierce-brosnan-a7746071.html\| title Mamma Mia 2: Meryl Streep returning to sing more ABBA in 'Here We Go Again!'\| last Stolworthy\| first Jacob\| date 20 May 2017\| website The Independent\| publisher The Independent UK\| access-date 20 May 2017\| archive-date 20 May 2017\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20170520181405/http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/news/mamma-mia-2-here-we-go-again-confirmed-release-date-meryl-streep-pierce-brosnan-a7746071.html\| url-status live}}</ref> Cher, who appeared in the movie, also released Dancing Queen, an ABBA cover album, in September 2018. In June 2017, a blue plaque outside Brighton Dome was set to commemorate their 1974 Eurovision win.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.brightonandhoveindependent.co.uk/news/abba-to-be-honoured-with-blue-plaque-outside-brighton-dome-1-8007294\|titleAbba to be honoured with Blue Plaque outside Brighton Dome\|websiteBrightonandhoveindependent.co.uk\|date14 June 2017 \|access-date17 June 2017\|archive-date27 October 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171027024739/http://www.brightonandhoveindependent.co.uk/news/abba-to-be-honoured-with-blue-plaque-outside-brighton-dome-1-8007294\|url-statuslive}}</ref> On 27 April 2018, all four original members of ABBA made a joint announcement that they had recorded two new songs, titled "I Still Have Faith in You" and "Don't Shut Me Down", to feature in a TV special set to air later that year.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2018/apr/27/abba-announce-first-new-songs-for-35-years\|titleAbba announce first new songs for 35 years\|lastNeedham\|firstAlex\|date27 April 2018\|websiteThe Guardian\|access-date27 April 2018\|archive-date1 May 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180501190612/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2018/apr/27/abba-announce-first-new-songs-for-35-years\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|titleMamma Mia! ABBA make new music after 35 years\|urlhttps://www.afp.com/de/news/155857464452265/mamma-mia-abba-make-new-music-after-35-years-doc-14d6zd3\|agencyAgence France-Presse\|access-date27 April 2018\|date27 April 2018\|archive-date28 April 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180428180847/https://www.afp.com/de/news/155857464452265/mamma-mia-abba-make-new-music-after-35-years-doc-14d6zd3\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.aftonbladet.se/nojesbladet/a/MgBVpR/abba-reunited--has-recorded-new-music\|titleAbba reunited – has recorded new music\|workAftonbladet\|lastEk\|firstTorbjörn\|date27 April 2018\|access-date27 April 2018\|archive-date27 April 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180427184419/https://www.aftonbladet.se/nojesbladet/a/MgBVpR/abba-reunited--has-recorded-new-music\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In September 2018, Ulvaeus stated that the two new songs, as well as the TV special, now called ABBA: Thank You for the Music, An All-Star Tribute, would not be released until 2019. The TV special was later revealed to be scrapped by 2018, as Andersson and Ulvaeus rejected Fuller's project, and instead partnered with visual effects company Industrial Light and Magic to prepare the ABBAtars for a music video and a concert.<ref name"PetridisGuardian2021">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2021/oct/27/abba-reunion-interview-voyage-younger-selves\|titleSuper troupers! Abba on fame, divorce, ageing backwards – and why they've returned to rescue 2021\|lastPetridis\|firstAlexis \|date27 October 2021\|websiteThe Guardian\|access-date28 October 2021}}</ref><ref name "VincentelliNYT2021">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/27/arts/music/abba-reunion-voyage.html\|titleAfter 40 Years, Abba Takes a Chance With Its Legacy\|last Vincentelli\|firstElisabeth \|date27 October 2021\|websiteThe New York Times\|access-date28 October 2021}}</ref> In January 2019, it was revealed that neither song would be released before the summer. Andersson hinted at the possibility of a third song.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Aswad \|first1Jem \|titleAbba's New Music Delayed Until Later This Year \|urlhttps://variety.com/2019/music/news/abba-new-music-delayed-1203113415/ \|access-date6 January 2021 \|workVariety \|date21 January 2019 \|archive-date28 October 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201028125013/https://variety.com/2019/music/news/abba-new-music-delayed-1203113415/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In June 2019, Ulvaeus announced that the first new song and video containing the ABBAtars would be released in November 2019. In September, he stated in an interview that there were now five new ABBA songs<ref>{{cite web \|last1Cashmere \|first1Paul \|titleBjörn Ulvaeus Confirms There Are Now Five New Abba songs \|urlhttp://www.noise11.com/news/bjorn-ulvaeus-confirms-there-are-now-five-new-abba-songs-20190922 \|websiteNoise11.com \|date22 September 2019 \|access-date2 October 2019 \|archive-date5 December 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191205074855/http://www.noise11.com/news/bjorn-ulvaeus-confirms-there-are-now-five-new-abba-songs-20190922 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> to be released in 2020. In early 2020, Andersson confirmed that he was aiming for the songs to be released in September 2020.<ref>{{Cite news\|titleWhatever Happened To That New ABBA Music We Were Promised?\|urlhttps://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/abba-new-album-music-i-still-have-faith-in-you-dont-shut-me-down_uk_5ea81990c5b6dd3f908aee93/\|lastBagwell\|firstMatt\|date28 April 2020\|access-date1 May 2020\|workHuffPost\|archive-date8 March 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210308123726/https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/amp/entry/abba-new-album-music-i-still-have-faith-in-you-dont-shut-me-down_uk_5ea81990c5b6dd3f908aee93/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In April 2020, Ulvaeus gave an interview saying that in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, the avatar project had been delayed. Five out of the eight original songs written by Benny for the new album had been recorded by the two female members, and the release of a new £15&nbsp;million music video with new unseen technology was under consideration.<ref>{{Cite news\|titleBjörn Ulvaeus: We still trust each other 100 percent\|urlhttps://www.dn.se/kultur-noje/bjorn-ulvaeus-we-still-trust-each-other-to-100-percent/\|date30 April 2020\|websiteDagens Nyheter\|access-date21 May 2020\|archive-date28 May 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200528181505/https://www.dn.se/kultur-noje/bjorn-ulvaeus-we-still-trust-each-other-to-100-percent/\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|titleABBA new music: Björn Ulvaeus on 'EXTRAORDINARY' reunion and release – 'It was so strange'\|urlhttps://www.express.co.uk/entertainment/music/1286244/ABBA-new-music-Bjorn-Ulvaeus-ABBA-reunion-Benny-Andersson\|lastSimpson\|firstGeorge\|date23 May 2020\|access-date24 May 2020\|workExpress\|archive-date25 May 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200525030327/https://www.express.co.uk/entertainment/music/1286244/ABBA-new-music-Bjorn-Ulvaeus-ABBA-reunion-Benny-Andersson\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In May 2020, it was announced that ABBA's entire studio discography would be released on coloured vinyl for the first time, in a box set titled ABBA: The Studio Albums.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastSodomsky \|firstSam \|date13 May 2020 \|titleABBA Announce Studio Albums Vinyl Box Set \|urlhttps://pitchfork.com/news/abba-announce-studio-albums-vinyl-box-set/ \|access-date10 July 2020 \|websitePitchfork \|archive-date10 July 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200710013732/https://pitchfork.com/news/abba-announce-studio-albums-vinyl-box-set/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In July 2020, Ulvaeus revealed that the release of the new ABBA recordings had been delayed until 2021.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Lewis \|first1Isobel \|titleAbba to release five new songs in 2021 \|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/abba-reunion-new-songs-name-release-date-a9631431.html \|websiteThe Independent \|access-date31 July 2020 \|date22 July 2020 \|archive-date24 July 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200724104924/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/abba-reunion-new-songs-name-release-date-a9631431.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> On 22 September 2020, all four ABBA members reunited at Ealing Studios in London to continue working on the avatar project and filming for the tour. Ulvaeus confirmed that the avatar tour would be scheduled for 2022.<ref>{{Cite news\|titleABBA reunite in London to film for 2022 hologram tour\|urlhttps://dothaneagle.com/people/abba-reunite-in-london-to-film-for-2022-hologram-tour/article_4adec0a2-bd22-537e-925e-f0e94af4bf4c.html\|date22 September 2020\|access-date5 October 2020\|workDothan Eagle\|archive-date6 October 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201006203615/https://dothaneagle.com/people/abba-reunite-in-london-to-film-for-2022-hologram-tour/article_4adec0a2-bd22-537e-925e-f0e94af4bf4c.html\|url-statusdead}}</ref> When questioned if the new recordings were definitely coming out in 2021, Björn said "There will be new music this year, that is definite, it's not a case anymore of it might happen, it will happen."<ref>{{Cite news\|titleBjörn Ulvaeus says new music from ABBA is "definitely" on the way this year\|lastAubrey\|firstElizabeth\|date11 May 2021\|access-date13 August 2021\|workNME\|urlhttps://www.nme.com/news/music/bjorn-ulvaeus-says-new-music-from-abba-is-definitely-on-the-way-this-year-2938095\| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211020/https://www.nme.com/news/music/bjorn-ulvaeus-says-new-music-from-abba-is-definitely-on-the-way-this-year-2938095\| archive-date=20 October 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref> at the end of a ABBA Voyage concert]] On 26 August 2021, a new website was launched, with the title ABBA Voyage.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleABBA Voyage – The wait is nearly over...\|urlhttps://abbavoyage.com/\|access-date28 August 2021\|websiteabbavoyage.com}}</ref> On the page, visitors were prompted to subscribe "to be the first in line to hear more about ABBA Voyage". Simultaneously with the launch of the webpage, new ABBA Voyage social media accounts were launched,<ref>{{Cite web\|titleABBA Voyage\|urlhttps://twitter.com/abbavoyage\|access-date28 August 2021\|viaTwitter}}</ref>{{Primary source inline\|dateOctober 2023}}<ref>{{Cite web\|titleABBA Voyage\|urlhttps://www.instagram.com/abbavoyage/\| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211020/https://www.instagram.com/abbavoyage/\| archive-date20 October 2021\|url-statuslive\|access-date28 August 2021\|websiteinstagram.com}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|titleABBA Voyage\|urlhttps://www.facebook.com/ABBAVoyage/\| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211020/https://www.facebook.com/ABBAVoyage/\| archive-date20 October 2021\|url-statuslive\|access-date28 August 2021\|viaFacebook}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.nme.com/news/music/abba-tease-mystery-new-project-voyage-with-cryptic-post-3029607\|titleABBA tease mystery new project "Voyage" with cryptic post\|websiteNME\|lastSkinner\|firstTom\|date26 August 2021\|access-date25 May 2022}}</ref> and billboards around London started to appear,<ref>{{Cite web\|titleLondon 👀🇬🇧\|urlhttps://twitter.com/ABBAVoyage/status/1430960266997547011\| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211020/https://twitter.com/ABBAVoyage/status/1430960266997547011\| archive-date20 October 2021\|url-statuslive\|access-date28 August 2021\|viaTwitter}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|titleYou can tell this is London because of how slow the traffic is moving.\|urlhttps://twitter.com/abbavoyage/status/1431211495011065860\| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211020/https://twitter.com/abbavoyage/status/1431211495011065860\| archive-date20 October 2021\|url-statuslive\|access-date28 August 2021\|viaTwitter}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.guardian-series.co.uk/news/national/uk-today/19541718.abba-voyage-know-2022-abba-tour/\|titleABBA Voyage: What we know about a 2022 ABBA tour\|websiteGuardian-series.com\|lastMackenzie\|firstLois\|date27 August 2021\|access-date25 May 2022}}</ref> all showing the date "02.09.21", leading to expectation of what was to be revealed on that date.<ref>{{Cite news\|titleAfter decades, ABBA has something coming\|urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2021/08/27/entertainment/abba-new-project-trnd/index.html\| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211020/https://www.cnn.com/2021/08/27/entertainment/abba-new-project-trnd/index.html\| archive-date20 October 2021\|lastFrance\|firstLisa\|date27 August 2021\|access-date29 August 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref> On 29 August, the band officially joined TikTok with a video of Benny Andersson playing "Dancing Queen" on the piano,<ref>{{Cite magazine\|urlhttps://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/pop/9621901/abba-join-tiktok-dancing-queen\| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211020/https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/pop/9621901/abba-join-tiktok-dancing-queen\| archive-date20 October 2021\|title ABBA Join TikTok with Piano Version of 'Dancing Queen'\|firstGil \|lastKaufman\|date30 August 2021\| magazineBillboard}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and media reported on a new album to be announced on 2 September.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.noise11.com/news/abba-leak-expected-to-announce-full-album-of-10-songs-and-release-two-this-week-20210901\| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211020/http://www.noise11.com/news/abba-leak-expected-to-announce-full-album-of-10-songs-and-release-two-this-week-20210901\| archive-date20 October 2021\|titleABBA Leak Expected To Announce Full Album Of 10 Songs And Release Two This Week\|websiteNoise11\|lastCashmere\|firstPaul\|author-linkPaul Cashmere\|date1 September 2021\|access-date2 September 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref> On that date, Voyage, their first new album in 40 years, was announced to be released on 5 November 2021, along with ABBA Voyage, a concert residency in a custom-built venue at Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park in London featuring the motion capture digital avatars of the four band members alongside a 10-piece live band, starting 27 May 2022.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2021/sep/02/abba-reunite-for-voyage-first-new-album-in-40-years\| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211020/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2021/sep/02/abba-reunite-for-voyage-first-new-album-in-40-years\| archive-date20 October 2021\|titleAbba reunite for Voyage, first new album in 40 years\|websiteThe Guardian\|lastBeaumont-Thomas\|firstBen\|date2 September 2021\|access-date2 September 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.express.co.uk/entertainment/music/1485596/ABBA-holograms-for-2022-Voyage-Tour-Benny-Bjorn-Frida-Agnetha\| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211020/https://www.express.co.uk/entertainment/music/1485596/ABBA-holograms-for-2022-Voyage-Tour-Benny-Bjorn-Frida-Agnetha\| archive-date20 October 2021\|titleABBA: Incredible 'first look' at 2022 Voyage Tour as ABBATAR holograms revealed today\|websiteDaily Express\|lastKyriazis\|firstStefan\|date2 September 2021\|access-date2 September 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Fältskog stated that the Voyage album and concert residency are likely to be their last activity as a group.<ref>{{Cite news\|titleABBA's Agnetha Fältskog says 'Voyage' tour is likely to be their last\|urlhttps://www.nme.com/news/music/abbas-agnetha-faltskog-says-voyage-tour-is-likely-to-be-their-last-3049805\| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211020/https://www.nme.com/news/music/abbas-agnetha-faltskog-says-voyage-tour-is-likely-to-be-their-last-3049805\| archive-date20 October 2021\|lastJones\|firstDamian\|date20 September 2021\|access-date21 September 2021\|workNME}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The announcement of the new album was accompanied by the release of the singles "I Still Have Faith in You" and "Don't Shut Me Down".<ref>{{cite web \|last1Breihan \|first1Tom \|titleABBA Announce Reunion Album Voyage & Share Two New Songs, Their First In 39 Years \|urlhttps://www.stereogum.com/2159447/abba-announce-reunion-album-voyage-share-two-new-songs-their-first-in-39-years/music/\| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211020/https://www.stereogum.com/2159447/abba-announce-reunion-album-voyage-share-two-new-songs-their-first-in-39-years/music/\| archive-date20 October 2021 \|websiteStereogum \|access-date2 September 2021 \|date2 September 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The music video for "I Still Have Faith in You", featuring footage of the band during their performing years and a first look at the ABBAtars, earned over a million views in its first three hours.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.cnet.com/news/mamma-mia-hear-abbas-first-two-new-songs-in-nearly-40-years/\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210902220014/https://www.cnet.com/news/mamma-mia-hear-abbas-first-two-new-songs-in-nearly-40-years/\| archive-date2 September 2021\|titleMamma mia! Hear ABBA's first two new songs in nearly 40 years\|publisherCNET\|lastCooper\|firstGael\|date2 September 2021\|access-date2 September 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref> "Don't Shut Me Down" became the first ABBA release since October 1978 to top the singles chart in Sweden.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.sverigetopplistan.se/search?queryabba \|titleSverigetopplistan ABBA \|publisherIFPI Sweden\|date11 September 2021\|access-date11 September 2021}}</ref> In October 2021, the third single "Just a Notion" was released, and it was announced that ABBA would split for good after the release of Voyage.<ref>{{Cite web\|date22 October 2021\|titleAbba fans react as 'sublime' new single 'Just a Notion' is released\|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/abba-voyage-just-a-notion-b1943372.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211022110911/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/abba-voyage-just-a-notion-b1943372.html \|archive-date22 October 2021 \|url-accesslimited \|url-statuslive\|access-date31 October 2021\|websiteThe Independent\|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|date28 October 2021\|titleAbba confirm they're breaking up for good after Voyage album: 'This is it'\|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/abba-voyage-breakup-interview-b1946798.html\|lastO'Connor\|firstRoisin \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211028072132/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/abba-voyage-breakup-interview-b1946798.html \|archive-date28 October 2021 \|url-accesslimited \|url-statuslive\|access-date31 October 2021\|websiteThe Independent\|languageen}}</ref> However, in an interview with BBC Radio 2 on 11 November, Lyngstad stated "don't be too sure" that Voyage is the final ABBA album.<ref>{{Cite web\|date11 November 2021\|titleAbba's Anni-Frid Lyngstad: Don't be too sure the band have ended\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-59246014\|access-date11 November 2021\|websiteBBC News\|languageen}}</ref> Also, in an interview with BBC News on 5 November, Andersson stated "if they [the ladies] twist my arm I might change my mind."<ref>{{Cite web\|date5 November 2021\|titleABBA on new album Voyage: We don't need to prove anything\|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/av/entertainment-arts-59174876\|access-date17 November 2021\|websiteBBC News\|languageen}}</ref> The fourth single from the album, "Little Things", was released on 3 December.<ref>{{Cite magazine\|lastKaufman\|firstGil\|titleABBA Releasing First-Ever Christmas Single, 'Little Things'\|urlhttps://www.billboard.com/music/pop/abba-christmas-single-little-things-10140049/\|date16 November 2021\|access-date16 November 2021\|magazine=Billboard}}</ref> In May 2022, after the premiere of ABBA Voyage, Andersson stated in an interview with Variety that "nothing is going to happen after this", confirming the residency as ABBA's final group collaboration.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://variety.com/2022/music/news/abba-voyage-teicket-sales-benny-andersson-interview-1235278346/\|titleABBA's Live 'Voyage' Show Is Doing Big Numbers in London: 'We've Sold 380,000 Tickets,' Benny Andersson Reveals\|websiteVariety\|lastBronson\|firstFred\|date26 May 2022\|access-date4 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.dw.com/en/abba-launch-new-virtual-concert-in-london/a-61929976\|titleABBA launch new virtual concert in London\|publisherDeutsche Welle\|lastWünsch\|firstSilke\|date25 May 2022\|access-date4 June 2022}}</ref> In April 2023, longtime ABBA guitarist Lasse Wellander died at the age of 70; Wellander played on seven of the group's nine studio albums, including Voyage.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.thedailybeast.com/longtime-abba-guitarist-lasse-wellander-dies-of-cancer-at-70\|titleLasse Wellander, Longtime ABBA Guitarist, Dies at 70\|firstA.J.\|lastMcDougall\|workDaily Beast\|date9 April 2023\|access-date=9 April 2023}}</ref> On 21 March 2024, all four members of ABBA were appointed Commander, First Class, of the Royal Order of Vasa by King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden. This was the first time in almost 50 years that the Swedish Royal Orders of Knighthood was bestowed on Swedes, also the 50th anniversary of ABBA winning the Eurovision Song Contest. ABBA shared the honour with nine other persons.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://kungligmajestatsorden.se/nyhetsarkiv/nyheter/2024-03-21-ordnar-till-tretton-exceptionella-svenskar\|titleOrdnar till tretton exceptionella svenskar\|websiteKungligmajestatsorden.se\|languagesv\|access-date21 March 2024}}</ref> They ruled out a reunion at the Eurovision Song Contest 2024, held in their native Sweden;<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-65688927\|titleAbba rule out 2024 Eurovision reunion on 50th anniversary of win\|date2023-05-25\|access-date2024-05-28\|websiteBBC News\|publisherBBC\|lastDerbyshire\|firstVictoria}}</ref> however, during the grand final of the contest, a clip from ABBA Voyage was shown, combined with archival footage of their 1974 performance of "Waterloo" at the contest and with Charlotte Perrelli, Carola and Conchita Wurst performing "Waterloo" on the stage as part of the interval.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://eurovoix.com/2024/05/11/eurovision-2024-abba-voyage-appear-during-grand-final/\|title🇸🇪 Eurovision 2024: ABBA Voyage to Appear During Grand Final\|date2024-05-11\|access-date2024-05-28\|websiteEurovoix}}</ref> Artistry Recording process ABBA were perfectionists in the studio, working on tracks until they got them right rather than leaving them to come back to later on.<ref name"Their Own Words 1981, pp 57">ABBA – In Their Own Words, compiled by Rosemary York, 1981, pp 57–65. Omnibus Press {{ISBN\|0-86001-950-0}}</ref> They spent the bulk of their time within the studio; in separate 2021 interviews Ulvaeus stated they may have toured for only 6 months<ref>{{cite web \|last1Aswad \|first1Jem \|titleABBA's Bjorn Ulvaeus Talks Reunion, New Album, Writing 'The Winner Takes It All' and More \|urlhttps://variety.com/2021/music/news/abba-bjorn-ulvaeus-reunion-new-album-winner-takes-it-all-1235099065/ \|websiteVariety \|access-date31 October 2021 \|date28 October 2021}}</ref> while Andersson said they played fewer than 100 shows during the band's career.<ref name"PetridisGuardian2021" /> Although, counting shorter 30 to 60 minute concerts during their Folkpark tours, the group in fact played over 200 shows.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleABBA The Concerts \|urlhttps://www.abba-theconcerts.de/ \|access-date13 November 2023 \|websiteABBA The Concerts \|archive-date9 November 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231109181450/https://www.abba-theconcerts.de/ \|url-statusdead }}</ref> The band created a basic rhythm track with a drummer, guitarist and bass player, and overlaid other arrangements and instruments. Vocals were then added, and orchestra overdubs were usually left until last.<ref name="Their Own Words 1981, pp 57" /> Fältskog and Lyngstad contributed ideas at the studio stage. Andersson and Ulvaeus played them the backing tracks and they made comments and suggestions. According to Fältskog, she and Lyngstad had the final say in how the lyrics were shaped. {{blockquote\|When we gather around the piano to get our voices tuned up, we often come up with things we can use in the backing vocals.\|Agnetha Fältskog<ref name"Their Own Words 1981, pp 57" />}} After vocals and overdubs were done, the band took up to five days to mix a song.<ref name"Their Own Words 1981, pp 57" /> Fashion, style, videos, advertising campaigns ABBA was widely noted for the colourful and trend-setting costumes its members wore.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://wwwc.aftonbladet.se/puls/0002/04/abba.html\|titleAftonbladet puls: ABBA: 'Vi har kläderna att tacka för mycket'\|websiteAftonbladet\|access-date5 April 2014\|archive-date3 March 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160303182625/http://wwwc.aftonbladet.se/puls/0002/04/abba.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The reason for the wild costumes was Swedish tax law: the cost of the clothes was deductible only if they could not be worn other than for performances.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2014/feb/16/abba-outfits-tax-deduction-bjorn-ulvaeus\|titleAbba admit outrageous outfits were worn to avoid tax\|newspaperThe Guardian\|lastBowers\|firstSimon\|date16 February 2014\|access-date13 February 2017\|archive-date14 February 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170214004904/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2014/feb/16/abba-outfits-tax-deduction-bjorn-ulvaeus\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In their early years, group member Anni-Frid Lyngstad designed and even hand sewed the outfits. Later, as their success grew, they used professional theatrical clothes designer Owe Sandström together with tailor Lars Wigenius with Lyngstad continuing to suggest ideas while co-ordinating the outfits with concert set designs.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.abbarevival.co.uk/article/15/the-costumes\|title = RËVIVAL // The Tribute – All About ABBA – THE COSTUMES}}</ref> Choreography by Graham Tainton also contributed to their performance style. The videos that accompanied some of the band's biggest hits are often cited as being among the earliest examples of the genre. Most of ABBA's videos (and ABBA: The Movie) were directed by Lasse Hallström, who would later direct the films My Life as a Dog, The Cider House Rules and Chocolat.<ref>ABBA: Bang a Boomerang. Australian Broadcasting Corporation, January 2013 (documentary, 57 mins), see 6:00–12:00 min ([https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2642740/ IMDB entry] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170211231143/http://www.imdb.com/title/tt2642740/ \|date11 February 2017 }})</ref> ABBA made videos because their songs were hits in many different countries and personal appearances were not always possible. This was also done in an effort to minimise travelling, particularly to countries that would have required extremely long flights. Fältskog and Ulvaeus had two young children and Fältskog, who was also afraid of flying, was very reluctant to leave her children for such a long time. ABBA's manager, Stig Anderson, realised the potential of showing a simple video clip on television to publicise a single or album, thereby allowing easier and quicker exposure than a concert tour. Some of these videos have become classics because of the 1970s-era costumes and early video effects, such as the grouping of the band members in different combinations of pairs, overlapping one singer's profile with the other's full face, and the contrasting of one member against another. In 1976, ABBA participated in an advertising campaign to promote the Matsushita Electric Industrial Co.'s brand, National, in Australia. The campaign was also broadcast in Japan. Five commercial spots, each of approximately one minute, were produced, each presenting the "National Song" performed by ABBA using the melody and instrumental arrangements of "Fernando" and revised lyrics.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.abba-world.net/phenomenon/national/national.htm \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120302102624/http://www.abba-world.net/phenomenon/national/national.htm \|archive-date2 March 2012 \|titleABBA: The National Commercial \|websiteAbba-world.net \|access-date23 August 2010}}</ref> Political use of ABBA's music John McCain used the song "Take a Chance on Me" for his 2008 presidential campaign.<ref>{{cite news \|titleCandidates' Theme Songs Set Campaign Tone \|urlhttps://abcnews.go.com/Politics/Vote2008/story?id4215545&page1 \|workABC News \|date30 January 2008}}</ref> McCain publicly expressed his liking of the band.<ref>{{cite magazine \|last1Suddath \|first1Claire \|titleA Brief History of Campaign Songs - TIME \|urlhttps://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1840981_1840998_1840943,00.html \|magazineTime \|date18 September 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine \|last1Widdicombe \|first1Lizzie \|titleBuddy Song \|urlhttps://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2008/08/11/buddy-song \|magazineThe New Yorker \|date4 August 2008}}</ref> In September 2010, band members Andersson and Ulvaeus criticised the right-wing Danish People's Party (DF) for using the ABBA song "Mamma Mia" (with modified lyrics referencing Pia Kjærsgaard) at rallies. The band threatened to file a lawsuit against the DF, saying they never allowed their music to be used politically and that they had absolutely no interest in supporting the party. Their record label Universal Music later stated that no legal action would be taken because an agreement had been reached.<ref>{{cite news\|titleAbba Anger Over Danish Far-right's Use of Mamma Mia\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11403230\|access-date5 May 2011\|workBBC News\|date24 September 2010\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110409010233/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11403230\| archive-date9 April 2011 \| url-status live}}</ref> In August 2024 after Donald Trump played several of their songs and used footage of the group at a campaign rally, ABBA demanded he stop using their music. Their record company, Universal Music, said they had not been asked for permission to use ABBA music or videos by the Trump campaign and that footage from the event must be "immediately taken down and removed".<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Bryant \|first1Miranda \|last2Salam \|first2Erum \|date29 August 2024 \|titleAbba demand Trump campaign stop using their music at rallies \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/us-news/article/2024/aug/29/abba-demands-trump-campaign-stop-using-their-music-at-campaign-rallies \|access-date29 August 2024 \|workThe Guardian \|languageen-GB}}</ref> Success in the United States During their active career, from 1972 to 1982, 20 of ABBA's singles entered the Billboard Hot 100; 14 of these made the Top 40 (13 on the Cashbox Top 100), with 10 making the Top 20 on both charts. A total of four of those singles reached the Top 10, including "Dancing Queen", which reached number one in April 1977. While "Fernando" and "SOS" did not break the Top 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 (reaching number 13 and 15 respectively), they did reach the Top 10 on Cashbox ("Fernando") and Record World ("SOS") charts. Both "Dancing Queen" and "Take a Chance on Me" were certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America for sales of over one million copies each.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130104132513/http://www.riaa.com/goldandplatinumdata.php?content_selector=gold-platinum-searchable-database Gold & Platinum Searchable Database – 19 April 2014]. Record Industry Association of America. Retrieved 19 April 2014.</ref> The group also had 12 Top 20 singles on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart with two of them, "Fernando" and "The Winner Takes It All", reaching number one. "Lay All Your Love on Me" was ABBA's fourth number-one single on a Billboard chart, topping the Hot Dance Club Play chart. Ten ABBA albums have made their way into the top half of the Billboard 200 album chart, with eight reaching the Top 50, five reaching the Top 20 and one reaching the Top 10. In November 2021, Voyage became ABBA's highest-charting album on the Billboard 200 peaking at No. 2. Five albums received RIAA gold certification (more than 500,000 copies sold), while three acquired platinum status (selling more than one million copies). The compilation album ABBA Gold: Greatest Hits topped the Billboard Top Pop Catalog Albums chart in August 2008 (15 years after it was first released in the US in 1993), becoming the group's first number-one album ever on any of the Billboard album charts. It has sold 6 million copies there.<ref>Abba Fan Club Magazine, Helga van de Kar, "Abba's Gold Medal", September 2012, p. 3.</ref> On 15 March 2010, ABBA was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame by Bee Gees members Barry Gibb and Robin Gibb. The ceremony was held at the Waldorf Astoria Hotel in New York City. The group were represented by Anni-Frid Lyngstad and Benny Andersson.<ref>{{Cite news\| url http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/8570059.stm\| title ABBA and Genesis Join Rock and Roll Hall of Fame\| access-date 17 March 2010 \| workBBC News \| date16 March 2010 \| locationLondon\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100417200431/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/8570059.stm\| archive-date 17 April 2010 \| url-status= live}}</ref> In November 2021, the group received a Grammy nomination for Record of the Year. The single, "I Still Have Faith in You", from the album, Voyage, was their first ever nomination.<ref>{{Cite web\|lastGriffin\|firstLouise\|date24 November 2021\|titleAbba nominated for first ever Grammy in 48 years and how did this happen?\|urlhttps://metro.co.uk/2021/11/24/grammy-nominations-abba-nominated-for-first-ever-award-in-2022-ceremony-15655699/\|access-date28 November 2021\|websiteMetro\|languageen}}</ref> In November 2022, "Don't Shut Me Down", also from Voyage, was nominated for Best Pop Duo/Group Performance.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://pitchfork.com/news/grammy-nominations-2023-see-the-full-list-here/\|titleGrammy Nominations 2023: See the Full List Here\|lastMonroe\|firstJazz\|date15 November 2022\|websitePitchfork\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221115182547/https://pitchfork.com/news/grammy-nominations-2023-see-the-full-list-here/\|archive-date15 November 2022\|url-statuslive\|access-date15 November 2022}}</ref> Saturday Night Live featured a sketch that promoted a fictional ABBA album, which took pre-existing songs and reworked their lyrics to reference common Christmas traditions in the United States. Episode host Kate McKinnon and cast member Bowen Yang were joined by Maya Rudolph and Kristin Wiig, both former cast members on the show. The episode aired on 16 December 2023.<ref>{{cite magazine \|last1Iasimone \|first1Ashley \|title'SNL': Kate McKinnon, Kristen Wiig, Maya Rudolph & Bowen Yang Star in 'ABBA Christmas' Commercial \|urlhttps://www.billboard.com/music/music-news/snl-abba-christmas-1235560639/ \|magazineBillboard \|date18 December 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|last1Rosenbloom \|first1Alli \|titleMaya Rudolph and Kristen Wiig help Kate McKinnon spoof ABBA in hilarious 'SNL' sketch \|urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2023/12/17/entertainment/maya-rudolph-kristen-wiig-snl/index.html \|workCNN \|date17 December 2023 \|languageen}}</ref> Members * Agnetha Fältskog – lead and backing vocals * Anni-Frid "Frida" Lyngstad – lead and backing vocals * Björn Ulvaeus – guitars, backing and lead vocals * Benny Andersson – keyboards, synthesizers, piano, accordion, backing and lead vocals The members of ABBA were married as follows: Agnetha Fältskog and Björn Ulvaeus from 1971 to 1979; Benny Andersson and Anni-Frid Lyngstad from 1978 to 1981.<ref>{{cite magazine \|urlhttps://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/making-sweet-music-15-groups-with-famous-relationships-10946/abba-2-92784/ \|titleMaking Sweet Music: 15 Groups With Famous Relationships \|magazineRolling Stone \|date14 February 2014 \|access-date31 January 2020 \|archive-date31 January 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200131105141/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/making-sweet-music-15-groups-with-famous-relationships-10946/abba-2-92784/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> For their subsequent marriages, see their articles. In addition to the four members of ABBA, other musicians regularly played on their studio recordings, live appearances and concert performances. These include:<ref>{{cite web \|titleTHE ABBA SESSION BAND \|urlhttps://felpin80.tripod.com/ata/id41.html \|websitefelpin80.tripod.com \|access-date13 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleAbba musicians {{!}} Arrival from Sweden \|urlhttps://www.themusicofabba.com/abba-musicians/ \|websitewww.themusicofabba.com \|access-date13 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|last1Vincentelli \|first1Elisabeth \|titleAfter 40 Years, Abba Takes a Chance With Its Legacy \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/27/arts/music/abba-reunion-voyage.html \|websiteThe New York Times \|access-date13 November 2021 \|date27 October 2021 \|url-accesslimited}}</ref> * Rutger Gunnarsson – bass guitar, string arrangements (1972–1982; died 2015) * Ola Brunkert – drums (1972–1981; died 2008) * {{ill\|Mike Watson (musician)\|lt=Mike Watson\|sv\|Mike Watson}} – bass guitar (1972–1980) * Janne Schaffer – electric lead guitar (1972–1982) * {{ill\|Roger Palm\|sv}} – drums (1972–1979; died 2024) * Malando Gassama – percussion (1973–1979; died 1999) * Lasse Wellander – electric lead guitar (1974–1982, 2017–2021; died 2023) * Anders Eljas – keyboards, orchestration (1977)<ref>{{cite web \|date15 January 2013 \|titleAbbas turnè ändrade hans liv \|trans-titleAbba's tour changed his life \|languageSV \|urlhttps://www.dn.se/arkiv/familj/abbas-turne-andrade-hans-liv/ \|url-accesssubscription \|websiteDagens Nyheter \|locationStockholm}}</ref> * {{ill\|Åke Sundqvist\|sv\|Åke Sundqvist (musiker)\|lt=Åke Sundqvist}} – percussion (1978–1982) * {{ill\|Per Lindvall\|sv}} – drums (1980–1982, 2017–2021) Discography {{Main\|ABBA discography\|List of songs recorded by ABBA\|l2songs\|List of unreleased songs recorded by ABBA\|l3unreleased songs}} Studio albums {{col div}} * Ring Ring (1973) * Waterloo (1974) * ABBA (1975) * Arrival (1976) * 'The Album' (1977) * Voulez-Vous (1979) * Super Trouper (1980) * The Visitors (1981) * Voyage (2021) {{col div end}} Tours ; Concert tours * Swedish Folkpark Tour (1973) * European Tour (1974–1975) * European & Australian Tour (1977) * ABBA: The Tour (1979–1980) ; Concert residencies * ABBA Voyage (2022–2026) Awards and nominations {{Main\|List of awards and nominations received by ABBA}} Documentaries * Eaton, Andrew (producer) A for ABBA. BBC, 20 July 1993<ref>{{cite magazine \|author<!--Not stated--> \|date15 July 1993 \|titleA for ABBA \|urlhttps://genome.ch.bbc.co.uk/schedules/service_bbc_one_london/1993-07-20 \|magazineRadio Times \|issue3628 \|locationLondon \|publisherBBC Magazines \|page60 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|lastSoave \|firstDaniela \|date17 July 1993 \|titleAn abbatizing abbraisal of Abba \|departmentTelevision & Radio \|newspaperThe Daily Telegraph \|issue42923 \|locationLondon \|page14}}</ref> * Thierry Lecuyer, Jean-Marie Potiez: Thank You ABBA. Willow Wil Studios/A2C Video, 1993 * Barry Barnes: ABBA − The History. Polar Music International AB, 1999 * Chris Hunt: The Winner Takes it All − The ABBA Story. Littlestar Services/lambic Productions, 1999 * Steve Cole, Chris Hunt: Super Troupers − Thirty Years of ABBA. BBC, 2004 * The Joy of ABBA. BBC 4, 27 December 2013<ref>{{cite news \|lastPettie \|firstAndrew \|date21 December 2013 \|titleThe Joy of Abba \|departmentReview \|newspaperThe Daily Telegraph \|issue49321 \|locationLondon \|pageR41}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|lastClay \|firstJoe \|date21 December 2013 \|titleThe Joy of Abba \|departmentSaturday Review \|newspaperThe Times \|issue71074 \|locationLondon \|page44}}</ref> * Carl Magnus Palm, Roger Backlund: ABBA – When Four Became One. SVT, 2 January 2012 * Carl Magnus Palm, Roger Backlund: ABBA – Absolute Image. SVT, 2 January 2012 * Crocker, Matthew & McElroy, Rebecca (directors) ABBA: Bang A Boomerang. Gulliver Media Australia/Bright Films, 2012<ref>{{cite web \|author<!--Not stated--> \|date<!--Not stated--> \|titleABBA: Bang-A-Boomerang \|urlhttps://www.screenaustralia.gov.au/the-screen-guide/t/abba--bang-a-boomerang-2012/28096/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220627150137/https://www.screenaustralia.gov.au/the-screen-guide/t/abba--bang-a-boomerang-2012/28096/ \|archive-date27 June 2022 \|websiteScreen Australia \|locationSydney \|access-date10 May 2024}}</ref> * ABBA: When All Is Said and Done, Channel 5, 2017 * {{YouTube\|idOnOca2yLVXQ\|titleThank you for the music }}. Sunday Night (7 News), 1 October 2019 * Chetty, Dhivya Kate (producer/director) When Abba Came to Britain. BBC/Wise Owl Films, 6 April 2024<ref>{{cite press release \|author<!--Not stated--> \|date<!--Not stated--> \|titleWhen Abba Came To Britain \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/proginfo/2024/15/when-abba-came-to-britain \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240423214116/https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/proginfo/2024/15/when-abba-came-to-britain \|archive-date23 April 2024 \|locationLondon \|publisherBBC \|access-date8 May 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|lastCreamer \|firstJohn \|date18 March 2024 \|titleWise Owl preps Abba doc for BBC \|urlhttps://www.televisual.com/news/wise-owl-preps-abba-doc-for-bbc/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240318133657/https://www.televisual.com/news/wise-owl-preps-abba-doc-for-bbc/ \|archive-date18 March 2024 \|websiteTelevisual \|locationTunbridge Wells \|access-date10 May 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|lastPaine \|firstAndre \|date18 March 2024 \|titleABBA set for catalogue boost with BBC programming to mark 50th anniversary of Eurovision win \|urlhttps://www.musicweek.com/media/read/abba-set-for-catalogue-boost-with-bbc-programming-to-mark-50th-anniversary-of-eurovision-win/089460 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240319181243/https://www.musicweek.com/media/read/abba-set-for-catalogue-boost-with-bbc-programming-to-mark-50th-anniversary-of-eurovision-win/089460 \|archive-date19 March 2024 \|websiteMusic Week \|locationLondon \|access-date8 May 2024}}</ref> * McLaughlin, Luke & Griffin, Stan (producers/directors) ABBA: How They Won Eurovision. Channel 5/Viacom International, 2024 * Rogan, James (director) ABBA: Against The Odds. Rogan Productions, 2024<ref>{{cite web \|author<!--Not stated--> \|date<!--Not stated--> \|titleABBA: Against The Odds \|urlhttps://roganproductions.co.uk/project/abba-against-the-odds/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240509042602/https://roganproductions.co.uk/project/abba-against-the-odds/ \|archive-date9 May 2024 \|websiteRogan Productions \|locationLondon \|access-date9 May 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release \|author<!--Not stated--> \|date14 February 2024 \|titleBBC Studios secure distribution rights for feature documentary ABBA: Against the Odds \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/bbcstudios/2024/bbc-studios-secures-distribution-rights-for-feature-length-documentary-abba-against-the-odds \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240225205702/https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/bbcstudios/2024/bbc-studios-secures-distribution-rights-for-feature-length-documentary-abba-against-the-odds \|archive-date25 February 2024 \|locationLondon \|publisherBBC \|access-date8 May 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|lastJessop \|firstVicky \|date4 May 2024 \|titleAbba: Against the Odds on BBC One review: a slick retelling of how pop's pioneers rose to the top \|urlhttps://www.standard.co.uk/culture/tvfilm/abba-against-the-odds-review-a-slick-retelling-of-pops-pioneers-b1155228.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240504050914/https://www.standard.co.uk/culture/tvfilm/abba-against-the-odds-review-a-slick-retelling-of-pops-pioneers-b1155228.html \|archive-date4 May 2024 \|websiteThe Standard \|locationLondon \|access-date=8 May 2024}}</ref> Documentaries often profess to show the "real ABBA" and may employ several methods of legitimising such claims, such as the use of archival documents, testimonies from "music and cultural 'experts'", and interviews with the group members and fans.<ref name"Mazierska">{{cite journal \|lastMazierska \|firstEwa \|date2021 \|titleBetween Sweden and the world: Documentary films about ABBA's international success \|journalJournal of Scandinavian Cinema \|volume11 \|issue3 \|pages317–325 \|doi10.1386/jsca_00057_1\|urlhttps://clok.uclan.ac.uk/47539/1/AbbaFinal.pdf \| issn 2042-7891 }}</ref> See also {{Portal\|Music\|Sweden}} * ABBA: The Museum * ABBA City Walks – Stockholm City Museum * ABBAMAIL * List of ABBA tribute albums * List of best-selling music artists * List of Swedes in music * Music of Sweden * Popular music in Sweden References Notes {{Notelist}} Citations {{Reflist}} Bibliography * {{cite book \|lastPalm \|firstCarl Magnus \|author-linkCarl Magnus Palm \|date2001 \|titleBright Lights, Dark Shadows: The Real Story of ABBA \|locationLondon \|publisherOmnibus \|isbn978-0-7119-8389-2}} Further reading * {{cite book \|pages23–46 \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6CMEAAAAMBAJ&pgPT23 \|chapterABBA – 5 Years \|title Billboard\|date = 8 September 1979}} * Benny Andersson, Björn Ulvaeus, Judy Craymer: Mamma Mia! How Can I Resist You?: The Inside Story of Mamma Mia! and the Songs of ABBA. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2006 * Carl Magnus Palm. ABBA – The Complete Recording Sessions (1994) * Carl Magnus Palm (2000). From "ABBA" to "Mamma Mia!" {{ISBN\|1-85227-864-1}} * Elisabeth Vincentelli: ABBA Treasures: A Celebration of the Ultimate Pop Group. Omnibus Press, 2010, {{ISBN\|9781849386463}} * Oldham, Andrew, Calder, Tony & Irvin, Colin (1995) "ABBA: The Name of the Game", {{ISBN\|0-283-06232-0}} * Potiez, Jean-Marie (2000). ABBA&nbsp;– The Book {{ISBN\|1-85410-928-6}} * Simon Sheridan: The Complete ABBA. Titan Books, 2012, {{ISBN\|9781781164983}} * Anna Henker (ed.), Astrid Heyde (ed.): [https://web.archive.org/web/20170325013726/https://www.ni.hu-berlin.de/de/np/abba_lexikon.pdf Abba – Das Lexikon]. Northern Europe Institut, Humboldt-University Berlin, 2015 (German) * Steve Harnell (ed.): Classic Pop Presents Abba: A Celebration. Classic Pop Magazine (special edition), November 2016 * Emma De Schrijver (ed.): Classic Pop Presents "An Abba-Inspired Artistic Odyssey," November 2022. Celebrating Emma's storytelling prowess and creative journey. External links <!-- Per WP:ELMINOFFICIAL, choose one official website only --> {{Commons and category\|ABBA}} * {{Official website}} * {{Rockhall}} * [https://variety.com/2018/film/columns/abba-were-the-feminine-pop-opera-of-their-time-1202880565/ The Secret Majesty of ABBA]. Variety, 22 July 2018 * [https://www.npr.org/sections/therecord/2015/05/23/408844375/abbas-essential-influential-melancholy ABBA's Essential, Influential Melancholy]. NPR, 23 May 2015 * [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/whats-behind-abbas-staying-power-180969709/ What's Behind ABBA's Staying Power?]. Smithsonian, 20 July 2018 * [http://abbaarticles.blogspot.com/ ABBA – The Articles] – ABBA news from throughout the world * {{IMDb name\|1755868}} {{ABBA}} {{ABBA songs}} {{Navboxes \|title=Articles and topics related to ABBA \|state=collapsed \|list1= {{S-start}} {{S-ach}} {{s-bef\|before={{flagicon\|Luxembourg}} Anne-Marie David<br />with "Tu te reconnaîtras"}} {{s-ttl\|titleWinner of the Eurovision Song Contest\|years1974}} {{s-aft\|after= Teach-In<br />with "Ding-a-dong"}} {{s-bef\|before=Nova<br />with "You're Summer"}} {{s-ttl\|titleSweden in the Eurovision Song Contest\|years1974}} {{s-aft\|after=Lars Berghagen <br />with "Jennie, Jennie"}} {{S-end}} {{List of Eurovision Song Contest winners\|performers}} {{Sweden in the Eurovision Song Contest\|state=collapsed}} {{Eurovision Song Contest 1974\|state=collapsed}} {{UK best-selling albums (by year) 1970–1989}} {{Congratulations (Eurovision)}} {{Agnetha Fältskog}} {{Anni-Frid Lyngstad}} {{2010 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame}} {{World Music Award for Best Selling Scandinavian Artist}} {{Mamma Mia!}} }} {{Authority control}} <!--Do not add Category Swedish boy bands--> <!--Do not add Category Swedish girl groups--> Category:1972 establishments in Sweden Category:Atlantic Records artists Category:English-language musical groups from Sweden Category:Epic Records artists Category:Eurodisco groups Category:Eurovision Song Contest entrants Category:Eurovision Song Contest winners Category:Melodifestivalen winners Category:Musical groups disestablished in 1982 Category:Musical groups established in 1972 Category:Musical groups from Stockholm Category:Musical groups reestablished in 2016 Category:Swedish musical quartets Category:Palindromes Category:RCA Records artists Category:Schlager groups Category:Swedish dance music groups Category:Swedish pop music groups Category:Swedish pop rock music groups Category:Swedish-language musical groups Category:Swedish co-ed groups Category:German-language musical groups from Sweden Category:French-language musical groups from Sweden Category:Spanish-language musical groups of Sweden Category:Mixed-gender bands Category:Virtual avatar acts	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABBA	2025-04-05T18:25:25.602211
881	Allegiance	{{Short description\|Duty of fidelity, typically to a country}} {{Other uses}} {{Multiple issues \| {{More citations needed\|date=February 2015}} {{Research paper \|date=October 2016}} }} {{Use mdy dates\|date=June 2013}} {{Nationalism sidebar\|core}} An allegiance is a duty of fidelity said to be owed, or freely committed, by the people, subjects or citizens to their state or sovereign.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAllegiance \|urlhttps://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/allegiance \|websiteMerriam-Webster.com Dictionary \|publisherMerriam-Webster}}</ref> Etymology The word allegiance comes from Middle English {{Lang\|enm\|ligeaunce}} (see Medieval Latin {{Lang\|la\|ligeantia}}, "a liegance"). The al- prefix was probably added through confusion with another legal term, allegiance, an "allegation" (the French {{Lang\|fr\|allegeance}} comes from the English). Allegiance is formed from "liege," from Old French {{Lang\|ang\|liege}}, "liege, free", of Germanic origin. The connection with Latin {{Lang\|la\|ligare}}, "to bind," is erroneous.<ref name"Chisholm1911">{{EB1911\|inline1\|wstitleAllegiance}}</ref>UsageTraditionally, English legal commentators used the term allegiance in two ways. In one sense, it referred to the deference which anyone, even a foreigner, was expected to pay to the institutions of the country where one lived. In the other sense, it meant national character{{clarify\|dateOctober 2016}} and the subjection{{clarify\|dateOctober 2016}} due to that character.<ref name"Chisholm1911"/> Types * Local allegiance<ref>{{cite web \|titleLocal allegiance \|urlhttps://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/local+allegiance \|websiteMerriam-Webster.com Dictionary \|publisherMerriam-Webster}}</ref> * Natural allegiance<ref>{{cite web \|titleNatural allegiance \|urlhttps://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/natural+allegiance \|websiteMerriam-Webster.com Dictionary \|publisherMerriam-Webster}}</ref> United Kingdom The English doctrine, which was at one time adopted in the United States, asserted that allegiance was indelible: "Nemo potest exuere patriam". As the law stood prior to 1870, every person who by birth or naturalisation satisfied the conditions set forth, even if removed in infancy to another country where their family resided, owed an allegiance to the British crown which they could never resign or lose, except by act of parliament or by the recognition of the independence or the cession of the portion of British territory in which they resided.<ref name="Chisholm1911"/> This refusal to accept any renunciation of allegiance to the Crown led to conflict with the United States over impressment, which led to further conflicts during the War of 1812, when thirteen Irish American prisoners of war were executed as traitors after the Battle of Queenston Heights; Winfield Scott urged American reprisal, but none was carried out.<ref>John Eisenhower (1997), Agent of Destiny: The Life and Times of Winfield Scott, New York: Free Press.</ref> Allegiance was the tie which bound the subject to the sovereign, in return for that protection which the sovereign afforded the subject. It was the mutual bond and obligation between monarch and subjects, whereby subjects were called their liege subjects, because they are bound to obey and serve them; and the monarch was called their liege lord, because they should maintain and defend them (Ex parte Anderson (1861) 3 El & El 487; 121 ER 525; China Navigation Co v Attorney-General (1932) 48 TLR 375; Attorney-General v Nissan [1969] 1 All ER 629; Oppenheimer v Cattermole [1972] 3 All ER 1106). The duty of the crown towards its subjects was to govern and protect them. The reciprocal duty of the subject towards the crown was that of allegiance. At common law, allegiance was a true and faithful obedience of the subject due to their sovereign. As the subject owed to their sovereign their true and faithful allegiance and obedience, so the sovereign * {{lang\|la\|duplex et reciprocum ligamen; quia sicut subditus regi tenetur ad obedientiam, ita rex subdito tenetur ad protectionem; merito igitur ligeantia dicitur a ligando, quia continet in se duplex ligamen}} (''Calvin's Case'' (1608) 7 Co Rep 1a; Jenk 306; 2 State Tr 559; 77 ER 377). Natural allegiance and obedience is an incident inseparable to every subject, for parte Anderson (1861) 3 El & El 487; 121 ER 525). Natural-born subjects owe allegiance wherever they may be. Where territory is occupied in the course of hostilities by an enemy's force, even if the annexation of the occupied country is proclaimed by the enemy, there can be no change of allegiance during the progress of hostilities on the part of a citizen of the occupied country (R v Vermaak (1900) 21 NLR 204 (South Africa)). Allegiance is owed both to the sovereign as a natural person and to the sovereign in the political capacity (Re Stepney Election Petition, Isaacson v Durant (1886) 17 QBD 54 (per Lord Coleridge CJ)). Attachment to the person of the reigning sovereign is not sufficient. Loyalty requires affection also to the office of the sovereign, attachment to royalty, attachment to the law and to the constitution of the realm, and he who would, by force or by fraud, endeavour to prostrate that law and constitution, though he may retain his affection for its head, can boast but an imperfect and spurious species of loyalty (''R v O'Connell (1844) 7 ILR 261). There were four kinds of allegiances (Rittson v Stordy (1855) 3 Sm & G 230; De Geer v Stone (1882) 22 Ch D 243; Isaacson v Durant (1886) 54 LT 684; Gibson, Gavin v Gibson [1913] 3 KB 379; Joyce v DPP [1946] AC 347; Collingwood v Pace (1661) O Bridg 410; Lane v Bennett (1836) 1 M & W 70; Lyons Corp v East India Co (1836) 1 Moo PCC 175; Birtwhistle v Vardill (1840) 7 Cl & Fin 895; R v Lopez, R v Sattler (1858) Dears & B 525; Ex p Brown (1864) 5 B & S 280): * (a) Ligeantia naturalis, absoluta, pura et indefinita, and this originally is due by nature and birthright, and is called alta ligeantia, and those that owe this are called subditus natus; * (b) Ligeantia acquisita, not by nature but by acquisition or denization, being called a denizen, or rather denizon, because they are subditus datus; * (c) Ligeantia localis'', by operation of law, when a friendly alien enters the country, because so long as they are in the country they are within the sovereign's protection, therefore they owe the sovereign a local obedience or allegiance (R v Cowle (1759) 2 Burr 834; Low v Routledge (1865) 1 Ch App 42; Re Johnson, Roberts v Attorney-General [1903] 1 Ch 821; Tingley v Muller [1917] 2 Ch 144; Rodriguez v Speyer [1919] AC 59; Johnstone v Pedlar [1921] 2 AC 262; R v Tucker (1694) Show Parl Cas 186; R v Keyn (1876) 2 Ex D 63; Re Stepney Election Petn, Isaacson v Durant (1886) 17 QBD 54); * (d) A legal obedience, where a particular law requires the taking of an oath of allegiance by subject or alien alike. Natural allegiance was acquired by birth within the sovereign's dominions (except for the issue of diplomats or of invading forces or of an alien in an enemy occupied territory). The natural allegiance and obedience are an incident inseparable from every subject, for as soon as they are born they owe by birthright allegiance and obedience to the Sovereign (Ex p. Anderson (1861) 3 E & E 487). A natural-born subject owes allegiance wherever they may be, so that where territory is occupied in the course of hostilities by an enemy's force, even if the annexation of the occupied country is proclaimed by the enemy, there can be no change of allegiance during the progress of hostilities on the part of a citizen of the occupied country (R v Vermaak (1900) 21 NLR 204 (South Africa)). Acquired allegiance was acquired by naturalisation or denization. Denization, or ligeantia acquisita, appears to be threefold (Thomas v Sorrel (1673) 3 Keb 143): * (a) absolute, as the common denization, without any limitation or restraint; * (b) limited, as when the sovereign grants letters of denization to an alien, and the alien's male heirs, or to an alien for the term of their life; * (c) It may be granted upon condition, cujus est dare, ejus est disponere, and this denization of an alien may come about three ways: by parliament; by letters patent, which was the usual manner; and by conquest. Local allegiance was due by an alien while in the protection of the crown. All friendly resident aliens incurred all the obligations of subjects (The Angelique (1801) 3 Ch Rob App 7). An alien, coming into a colony, also became, temporarily, a subject of the crown, and acquired rights both within and beyond the colony, and these latter rights could not be affected by the laws of that colony (Routledge v Low (1868) LR 3 HL 100; 37 LJ Ch 454; 18 LT 874; 16 WR 1081, HL; Reid v Maxwell (1886) 2 TLR 790; Falcon v Famous Players Film Co [1926] 2 KB 474). A resident alien owed allegiance even when the protection of the crown was withdrawn owing to the occupation of an enemy, because the absence of the crown's protection was temporary and involuntary (de Jager v Attorney-General of Natal [1907] AC 326). Legal allegiance was due when an alien took an oath of allegiance required for a particular office under the crown. By the Naturalization Act 1870 (33 & 34 Vict. c. 14), it was made possible for British subjects to renounce their nationality and allegiance, and the ways in which that nationality is lost were defined. So British subjects voluntarily naturalized in a foreign state are deemed aliens from the time of such naturalization, unless, in the case of persons naturalized before the passing of the act, they had declared their desire to remain British subjects within two years from the passing of the act. Persons who, from having been born within British territory, are British subjects, but who, at birth, came under the law of any foreign state or of subjects of such state, and, also, persons who, though born abroad, are British subjects by reason of parentage, may, by declarations of alienage, get rid of British nationality. Emigration to an uncivilized country left British nationality unaffected: indeed the right claimed by all states to follow with their authority their subjects so emigrating was one of the usual and recognized means of colonial expansion.<ref name"Chisholm1911"/>United StatesThe doctrine that no man can cast off his native allegiance without the consent of his sovereign was early abandoned in the United States, and Chief Justice John Rutledge also declared in Talbot v. Janson, "a man may, at the same time, enjoy the rights of citizenship under two governments."<ref>3 U.S. 133, www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0003_Z04.html .</ref> On July 27, 1868, the day before the Fourteenth Amendment was adopted, U.S. Congress declared in the preamble of the Expatriation Act that "the right of expatriation is a natural and inherent right of all people, indispensable to the enjoyment of the rights of life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness," and (Section I) one of "the fundamental principles of this government" (United States Revised Statutes, sec. 1999). Every natural-born citizen of a foreign state who is also an American citizen, and every natural-born American citizen who is also a citizen of a foreign land, owes a double allegiance, one to the United States, and one to their homeland (in the event of an immigrant becoming a citizen of the US) or to their adopted land (in the event of an emigrant natural-born citizen of the US becoming a citizen of another nation). If these allegiances come into conflict, the person may be guilty of treason against one or both. If the demands of these two sovereigns upon their duty of allegiance come into conflict, those of the United States have the paramount authority in American law;<ref name"Chisholm1911"/> likewise, those of the foreign land have paramount authority in their legal system. In such a situation, it may be incumbent on the individual to renounce one of their citizenships, to avoid possibly being forced into situations where countervailing duties are required of them, such as might occur in the event of war. Oath of allegiance {{main\|Oath of allegiance}} The oath of allegiance is an oath of fidelity to the sovereign taken by all persons holding important public office and as a condition of naturalization. By ancient common law, it was required of all persons above the age of 12, and it was repeatedly used as a test for the disaffected. In England, it was first imposed by statute in the reign of Elizabeth I (1558), and its form has, more than once, been altered since. Up to the time of the revolution, the promise was "to be true and faithful to the king and his heirs, and truth and faith to bear of life and limb and terrene honour, and not to know or hear of any ill or damage intended him without defending him therefrom." This was thought to favour the doctrine of absolute non-resistance, and, accordingly, the Convention Parliament enacted the form that has been in use since that time—"I do sincerely promise and swear that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to His Majesty ..."<ref name="Chisholm1911"/> In the United States and some other republics, the oath is known as the Pledge of Allegiance. Instead of declaring fidelity to a monarch, the pledge is made to the flag, the republic, and to the core values of the country, specifically liberty and justice. The reciting of the pledge in the United States is voluntary because of the rights guaranteed to the people under the First Amendment to the United States Constitution—specifically, the guarantee of freedom of speech, which inherently includes the freedom not to speak.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/319/624\|titleWest Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette\|websiteLII / Legal Information Institute\|languageen\|access-date2018-05-08}}</ref>In Islam<span class"anchor" id"Bayat"></span> {{main\|Bay'ah}} The word used in the Arabic language for allegiance is ''bay'at'' (Arabic: بيعة), which means "taking hand". The practice is sanctioned in the Quran by Surah 48:10: "Verily, those who give thee their allegiance, they give it but to Allah Himself".<ref>{{cite book\| last Whitehouse\| first Bill\| title Reality Without A Name\| url https://books.google.com/books?idyVUCCnhTiHcC&pgPA266\| format PDF: Google Books\| access-date 2008-03-31\| publisher Bilquees Press\| isbn 0-9680995-6-4\| page 266 }}</ref> The word is used for the oath of allegiance to an emir. It is also used for the initiation ceremony specific to many Sufi orders.See also * Legitimacy (political) * Mandate of Heaven * Usurpation References {{Reflist}} Further reading * {{Cite journal \|lastSalmond \|firstJohn W. \|dateJuly 1901 \|titleCitizenship and Allegiance I \|url\|url-access \|url-status\|archive-url \|archive-date\|journalLaw Quarterly Review \|volumeXVII \|issue \|pages270–282? \|doi \|jstor\|pmc \|pmid\|ssrn \|access-date=}} * {{Cite journal \|lastSalmond \|firstJohn W. \|dateJanuary 1902 \|titleCitizenship and Allegiance II \|url\|url-access \|url-status\|archive-url \|archive-date\|journalLaw Quarterly Review \|volumeXVIII \|issue \|pages49–63 \|doi \|jstor\|pmc \|pmid\|ssrn \|access-date=}} * {{Cite journal \|lastWilloughby \|firstW. W. \|dateOctober 1907 \|titleCitizenship and Allegiance in Constitutional and International Law \|journalThe American Journal of International Law \|volume1 \|issue4 \|pages914–929 \|doi10.2307/2186498 \|jstor2186498}} External links * {{Cite EB1911\|wstitle=Allegiance}} Category:Nationalism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegiance	2025-04-05T18:25:25.612715
885	Altenberg	Altenberg (German for "old mountain" or "mountain of the old") may refer to: Places Austria Altenberg, a town in Sankt Andrä-Wördern, Tulln District Altenberg bei Linz, in Upper Austria Altenberg an der Rax, in Styria Germany Altenberg (Bergisches Land), an area in Odenthal, North Rhine-Westphalia Altenberg Abbey, Cistercian monastery in Altenberg (Bergisches Land) Altenberger Dom, sometimes called Altenberg Cathedral, the former church of this Cistercian monastery Altenberg (Hohenahr), hill in Hesse Altenberg (Limpurg Hills), highest summit in the Limpurg Hills Altenberg, Saxony, a town Altenberga, a municipality in the Saale-Holzfeld district, Thuringia Altenberg Abbey, Solms, a former Premonstratensian nunnery near Wetzlar in Hesse Zinkfabrik Altenberg, a former zinc factory, now a branch of the LVR Industrial Museum, Oberhausen, North Rhine-Westphalia Grube Altenberg, a show mine near Kreuztal, North Rhine-Westphalia Other places Altenberg, the German name for Vieille Montagne (old mountain in French), a former zinc mine in Kelmis, Moresnet, Belgium Altenberg, a district in the city of Bern, Switzerland Other uses Altenberg Lieder (Five Orchestral Songs), composed by Alban Berg in 1911/12 Altenberg Publishing (1880–1934), a former Polish publishing house Altenberg Trio, a Viennese piano trio People with the surname Alfred Altenberg (1878–1924), Polish bookseller and publisher Jakob Altenberg (1875–1944), Austrian businessman Lee Altenberg, theoretical biologist Peter Altenberg (1859–1919), nom de plume of Austrian writer and poet Richard Engländer See also Altenburg (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altenberg	2025-04-05T18:25:25.618241
887	MessagePad	{{Short description\|1993 personal digital assistant}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=October 2013}} {{Infobox information appliance \| name = MessagePad \| image = Apple Newton-IMG 0454-cropped.jpg \| caption = Apple Newton MessagePad 100 \| manufacturer = Apple Computer \| type \| releasedate {{Start date and age\|1993}} \| discontinued = {{End date and age\|1998}} \| price = <!-- this is price at initial release, not the current price --> \| connectivity \| lifespan \| unitssold \| media \| os = Newton OS \| input \| camera \| power \| cpu ARM 610 RISC \| storage \| memory 4-8 MB (ROM)<br>640 KB-4 MB (RAM)<br>0-4 MB (Flash) (varies with model) \| display \| audio \| service = <!-- online service/s offered --> \| dimensions \| weight{{convert\|1.4\|lb\|g\|abbr=on}} with battery \| touchpad \| successor iPad (1st generation)<br> \| related = }} The MessagePad is a series of personal digital assistant devices developed by Apple Computer for the Newton platform, first released in 1993. <!--Development was started in 1989 (as Walter Smith, one of the original developers, said on the Worldwide Newton Conference 2006 - the video can be found on YouTube.) and officially ended on February 27, 1998.--> Some electronic engineering and the manufacture of Apple's MessagePad devices was undertaken in Japan by Sharp. The devices are based on the ARM 610 RISC processor, run Newton OS, and all feature handwriting recognition software.<!--(this includes the whole MessagePad line and the eMate 300), however other companies, notably Sharp, Motorola and Digital Ocean, also released their own. People say, this was a prototype for iPad.None of them was as successful as Apple's devices.--> Alongside the MessagePad series, Apple also developed and released the eMate 300 Newton device. History The development of the Newton MessagePad first began with Apple's former senior vice president of research and development, Jean-Louis Gassée; his team included Steve Capps, co-writer of Mac OS Finder, and an employed engineer named Steve Sakoman. The development of the Newton MessagePad operated in secret until it was eventually revealed to the Apple Board of Directors in late 1990.<ref name"Ai">{{cite web \|lastGallagher \|firstWilliam \|dateAugust 3, 2023 \|titleNewton launched August 2, 1993 setting the stage for what would become the iPad and iPhone \|urlhttps://appleinsider.com/articles/18/08/02/newton-launched-august-2-1993-setting-the-stage-for-what-would-become-the-ipad-and-iphone \|url-statuslive \|archiveurlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210503053544/https://appleinsider.com/articles/18/08/02/newton-launched-august-2-1993-setting-the-stage-for-what-would-become-the-ipad-and-iphone \|archivedate2021-05-03 \|accessdate2021-05-16 \|websiteAppleInsider \|publisherQuiller Media, Inc.}}</ref> When Gassée resigned from his position due to a significant disagreement with the board, seeing how his employer was treated, Sakoman also stopped developing the MessagePad on March 2, 1990.<ref name"MW">{{cite web \|lastEdwards \|firstBenj \|dateAugust 26, 2013 \|titleRemembering the Newton MessagePad, 20 years later \|urlhttps://www.macworld.com/article/221736/remembering-the-newton-messagepad-20-years-later.html \|url-statuslive \|archiveurlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210503171926/https://www.macworld.com/article/221736/remembering-the-newton-messagepad-20-years-later.html \|archivedate2021-05-03 \|accessdate2021-05-16 \|websiteMacworld \|publisherIDG Consumer & Small Business Publishing (CSMB), IDG Communications Inc. (d.b.a. Foundry), International Data Group}}</ref> Bill Atkinson, an Apple Executive responsible for the company's Lisa graphical interface, invited Steve Capps, John Sculley, Andy Hertzfeld, Susan Kare, and Marc Porat to a meeting on March 11, 1990. There, they brainstormed a way of saving the MessagePad. Sculley suggested adding new features, including libraries, museums, databases, or institutional archives features, allowing customers to navigate through various window tabs or opened galleries/stacks. The Board later approved his suggestion; he then gave the Newton his official and full backing.<ref name="MW" /> The first MessagePad was unveiled by Sculley on the 29th of May 1992 at the summer Consumer Electronics Show (CES) in Chicago.<ref name"iMore">{{cite web \|lastCohen \|firstPeter \|dateMarch 3, 2018 \|orig-dateAugust 6, 2013 \|titleFrom MessagePad to iPad: 20 years on, the Newton's impact can still be felt. \|urlhttps://www.imore.com/messagepad-ipad-20-years-newtons-impact-can-still-be-felt \|url-statuslive \|archiveurlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210127172232/https://www.imore.com/messagepad-ipad-20-years-newtons-impact-can-still-be-felt \|archivedate2021-01-27 \|accessdate2021-05-16 \|websiteiMore \|publisherFuture US, Inc. \|publication-placeNew York, NY}}</ref> Sculley caved in to pressure to unveil the product early because the Newton did not officially ship until 14 months later on the 2nd of August 1993, starting at a price of {{val\|p$\|699\|fmtcommas}}.<ref name"Ai" /><ref>{{Cite news \|lastCary \|firstLu \|dateSeptember 1, 1993 \|titleA Small Revelation. Newton has arrived - at long last \|pages102 \|workMacworld \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/MacWorld_9309_September_1993/page/n103/mode/2up \|access-dateSeptember 26, 2023}}</ref> Over 50,000 units were sold by late November 1993.<ref name"Ai" /> Details Screen and input With the MessagePad 120 with Newton OS 2.0, the Newton Keyboard by Apple became available, which can also be used via the dongle on Newton devices with a Newton InterConnect port, most notably the Apple MessagePad 2000/2100 series, as well as the Apple eMate 300. Newton devices featuring Newton OS 2.1 or higher can be used with the screen turned horizontally ("landscape") as well as vertically ("portrait"). A change of a setting rotates the contents of the display by 90, 180 or 270 degrees. Handwriting recognition still works properly with the display rotated, although display calibration is needed when rotation in any direction is used for the first time or when the Newton device is reset. Handwriting recognition {{Main\|Newton OS}} In initial versions (Newton OS 1.x) the handwriting recognition gave extremely mixed results for users and was sometimes inaccurate. The original handwriting recognition engine was called Calligrapher, and was licensed from a Russian company called Paragraph International. Calligrapher's design was quite sophisticated; it attempted to learn the user's natural handwriting, using a database of known words to make guesses as to what the user was writing, and could interpret writing anywhere on the screen, whether hand-printed, in cursive, or a mix of the two. By contrast, Palm Pilot's Graffiti had a less sophisticated design than Calligrapher, but was sometimes found to be more accurate and precise due to its reliance on a fixed, predefined stroke alphabet. The stroke alphabet used letter shapes which resembled standard handwriting, but which were modified to be both simple and very easy to differentiate.<ref>{{cite web \|lastMiller \|firstJack \|dateSeptember 19, 1994 \|titleGraffiti Arrives! -- Press Release enclosed: Palm Computing Delivers Major Advance in Handwriting RecognitionTechnology. \|urlhttp://www.grot.com/zoomer/zoomer-list/zoomer-list-3Q1994/0048.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160627002502/http://www.grot.com/zoomer/zoomer-list/zoomer-list-3Q1994/0048.html \|archive-dateJune 27, 2016 \|access-dateApril 10, 2008 \|website3Q1994 Zoomer-List Archives, Zoomer mailing list archives, Zoomer PDA WWW Information Service \|publisherPalm Computing, Inc. \|placeLOS ALTOS, Calif.}}</ref> Palm Computing also released two versions of Graffiti for Newton devices. The Newton version sometimes performed better and could also show strokes as they were being written as input was done on the display itself, rather than on a silkscreen area. For editing text, Newton had a very intuitive system for handwritten editing, such as scratching out words to be deleted, circling text to be selected, or using written carets to mark inserts.<ref>{{Cite web \|date1995 \|othersPDF file created by Kady Ingham on July 16, 2001 using Acrobat Distiller 5.00 for Macintosh \|titleNewton: Apple MessagePad Handbook \|urlhttps://download.info.apple.com/Apple_Support_Area/Manuals/newton/0307258ANEWTONMP.PDF \|website\|publisherApple Computer, Inc. \|publication-placeCupertino, CA \|idPart No. 030-7258 (listed in https://web.archive.org/web/20080406215949/http://docs.info.apple.com/article.html?artnum=50092)}}</ref> Later releases of the Newton operating system retained the original recognizer for compatibility, but added a hand-printed-text-only (not cursive) recognizer, called "Rosetta", which was developed by Apple, included in version 2.0 of the Newton operating system, and refined in Newton 2.1. Rosetta is generally considered a significant improvement and many reviewers, testers, and most users consider the Newton 2.1 handwriting recognition software better than any of the alternatives even 10 years after it was introduced.<ref>HWR accuracy: * See comments in Wired's Apple Newton Just Won't Drop: {{Cite magazine \|lastKahney \|firstLeander \|dateAugust 29, 2002 \|titleApple's Newton Just Won't Drop \|magazineWIRED \|urlhttps://www.wired.com/2002/08/apples-newton-just-wont-drop-2/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070305034333/http://www.wired.com/news/mac/0,2125,54580,00.html \|archive-date=March 5, 2007}} * See text under "Handwriting Recognition" in [http://www.pencomputing.com/developer/newton_20.html Pen Computing's First Look at Newton OS 2.0]: {{Cite magazine \|lastHuang \|firstVernon \|dateDecember 1995 \|titleFirst Look: Newton OS 2.0 \|urlhttp://www.pencomputing.com/developer/newton_20.html \|url-statuslive \|magazinePen Computing Magazine \|issue7 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220330084907/http://www.pencomputing.com/developer/newton_20.html \|archive-dateMarch 30, 2022}} * See "Opportunity Squandered" in Pen Computing's Why did Apple kill the Newton?: {{Cite magazine \|lastMacNeill \|firstDavid \|dateJune 1998 \|titleWhy did Apple kill the Newton? \|urlhttp://www.pencomputing.com/frames/newton_obituary.html \|url-statuslive \|magazinePen Computing Magazine \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061212155656/http://pencomputing.com/frames/newton_obituary.html \|archive-date=December 12, 2006}} * See comments under "Software" in MacTech's MessagePad 2000 review: {{Cite magazine \|lastRingel \|firstEdward \|date1997 \|titleNewton? Get Serious! \|urlhttp://preserve.mactech.com/articles/mactech/Vol.13/13.04/NewtonGetSerious/index.html \|url-statuslive \|departmentTools Of The Trade \|journalMacTech Magazine \|publisherXplain Corporation \|volume13 \|issue4 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061020113709/http://www.mactech.com/articles/mactech/Vol.13/13.04/NewtonGetSerious/index.html \|archive-date=October 20, 2006}} * Comments by Pen Computing's editor: {{Cite magazine \|lastBlickenstorfer \|firstConrad H. \|dateJune 2000 \|titleFrom the editor: Commentary by Pen Computing Magazine's editor-in-chief \|urlhttp://www.pencomputing.com/editor/editor_34.html \|url-statuslive \|magazinePen Computing Magazine \|issue34 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061016131338/http://pencomputing.com/editor/editor_34.html \|archive-dateOctober 16, 2006}} * See user testing results discussed in part 6 of this A.I. Magazine article on Newton HWR: {{Cite journal \|last1Yaeger \|first1Larry S. \|last2Webb \|first2Brandyn J. \|last3Lyon \|first3Richard F. \|date1998-03-15 \|titleCombining Neural Networks and Context-Driven Search for Online, Printed Handwriting Recognition in the NEWTON \|urlhttps://ojs.aaai.org/aimagazine/index.php/aimagazine/article/view/1355 \|journalAI Magazine \|languageen \|publisherAmerican Association for Artificial Intelligence \|volume19 \|issue1 \|page86 \|doi10.1609/aimag.v19i1.1355 \|issn2371-9621 \|id0738-4602-1998}} * MessagePad 2000 review at Small Dog Electronics: {{Cite web \|lastMayer \|firstDon \|dateJuly 1, 1997 \|titleKibbles &Bytes; #29: Don's Review of the Newton Message Pad 2000 \|urlhttp://www.smalldog.com/newsarchive/kibbles_display.php?id29 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080416113926/http://www.smalldog.com/newsarchive/kibbles_display.php?id29 \|archive-dateApril 16, 2008 \|access-date\|websiteKibbles&Bytes; weekly E-Mailing \|publisherSmall Dog Electronics \|publication-placeWarren, Vermont, USA}} * See comments under "Note-taking" in MessagePad 2000 review at "The History and Macintosh Society": {{Cite web \|lastKlingsporn \|firstGeoffrey \|dateMay 1997 \|titleThe Postgraduate Newton: a month in academia with Apple's new handheld computer \|urlhttp://www.h-net.msu.edu/~mac/mp2000.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060920125747/http://www.h-net.msu.edu/~mac/mp2000.html \|archive-dateSeptember 20, 2006 \|access-date\|websiteH-Mac Discussion Network, H-Net: Humanities and Social Sciences Online \|publisher=The History and Macintosh Society (H-MAC), Michigan State University}} * What's Right With The Newton: HWR: {{Cite web \|lastWittmann \|firstMichael C. \|titleWhat's Right With The Newton \|urlhttp://perlnet.umephy.maine.edu/bio/wittmann/pooter/newtuse/hwr.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20060908164609/http://perlnet.umephy.maine.edu/bio/wittmann/pooter/newtuse/hwr.html \|archive-dateSeptember 8, 2006 \|websiteMichael C. Wittmann: Personal pages: Random Interests I: Computing \|publisher=Physics Education Research Laboratory, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Maine}} * Assessment by Apple developer: {{Cite web \|lastYaeger \|firstLarry \|dateFebruary 13, 2006 \|titleApple-Newton Handwriting Recognition \|urlhttp://shinyverse.org/larryy/ANHR.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120717074702/http://www.beanblossom.in.us/larryy/ANHR.html \|archive-dateJuly 17, 2012 \|websiteShinyVerse \|publisherIndiana University}} * [http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/TESL-EJ/ej07/mr1.html Prof. Warden's MessagePad 130 review]: {{Cite journal \|lastWarden \|firstClyde A. \|dateJanuary 1997 \|titleMessagePad 130 \|urlhttps://tesl-ej.org/wordpress/issues/volume2/ej07/ej07m1/ \|url-statuslive \|departmentHardware Review \|journalThe Electronic Journal for English as a Second Language (TESL-EJ) \|publisherUniversity of California, Berkeley \|publication-placeBerkeley, CA \|volume2 \|issue3 \|eissn1072-4303 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061231035454/http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/tesl-ej/ej07/mr1.html \|archive-dateDecember 31, 2006}}</ref> Recognition and computation of handwritten horizontal and vertical formulas such as "1 + 2" was also under development but never released.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastSharp \|firstMaurice \|dateNovember 6, 2006 \|title[NTLK] Random historical thoughts... \|urlhttps://www.newtontalk.net/archive/newtontalk/2006-November/0127.html \|websiteThe NewtonTalk Mailing List \|publisherNewtonTalk & Friends \|postscript. Also archived at https://marc.info/?lnewtontalk&m116284333623124.}}</ref> However, users wrote similar programs which could evaluate mathematical formulas using the Newton OS Intelligent Assistant, a unique part of every Newton device. The handwriting recognition and parts of the user interface for the Newton are best understood in the context of the broad history of pen computing, which is quite extensive.<ref>{{cite web \|lastWard \|firstJean Renard \|date2020 \|orig-date1992 \|titleNotes on the (relatively unknown) History of Pen-based Computing \|urlhttp://users.erols.com/rwservices/pens/penhist.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170418162718/http://users.erols.com/rwservices/pens/penhist.html \|archive-dateApril 18, 2017 \|access-dateMarch 21, 2010 \|websiteAnnotated Bibliography in Touch/Pen Computing and Handwriting Recognition by Jean Renard Ward \|quoteThis is a short outline of a presentation on the history of "pen computing" I gave for the Pen Computing group of the Boston Computer Society, March 11, 1992. Unfortunately, I did not keep the full set of slides, which had pictures of the products and systems. However, Dan Bricklin (CTO at Slate Corporation at the time) has posted a video of the same presentation on youtube, which does show all the pictures and slides: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4xnqKdWMa_8.}}</ref> A vital feature of the Newton handwriting recognition system is the modeless error correction. That is, correction done in situ without using a separate window or widget, using a minimum of gestures. If a word is recognized improperly, the user could double-tap the word and a list of alternatives would pop up in a menu under the stylus. Most of the time, the correct word will be in the list. If not, a button at the bottom of the list allows the user to edit individual characters in that word. Other pen gestures could do such things as transpose letters (also in situ). The correction popup also allowed the user to revert to the original, un-recognized letter shapes - this would be useful in note-taking scenarios if there was insufficient time to make corrections immediately. To conserve memory and storage space, alternative recognition hypotheses would not be saved indefinitely. If the user returned to a note a week later, for example, they would only see the best match. Error correction in many current handwriting systems provides such functionality but adds more steps to the process, greatly increasing the interruption to a user's workflow that a given correction requires.{{Citation needed\|dateFebruary 2008}}User interface <!-- Deleted image removed: shapes]] --> Text could also be entered by tapping with the stylus on a small on-screen pop-up QWERTY virtual keyboard, although more layouts were developed by users. Newton devices could also accept free-hand "Sketches", "Shapes", and "Ink Text", much like a desktop computer graphics tablet. With "Shapes", Newton could recognize that the user was attempting to draw a circle, a line, a polygon, etc., and it would clean them up into perfect vector representations (with modifiable control points and defined vertices) of what the user was attempting to draw. "Shapes" and "Sketches" could be scaled or deformed once drawn. "Ink text" captured the user's free-hand writing but allowed it to be treated somewhat like recognized text when manipulating for later editing purposes ("ink text" supported word wrap, could be formatted to be bold, italic, etc.).<ref name":2">{{Cite magazine \|lastHuang \|firstVernon \|dateDecember 1995 \|titleFirst Look: Newton OS 2.0 \|urlhttp://www.pencomputing.com/developer/newton_20.html \|url-statuslive \|magazinePen Computing Magazine \|issue7 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220330084907/http://www.pencomputing.com/developer/newton_20.html \|archive-dateMarch 30, 2022 \|access-dateJanuary 27, 2007}}</ref> At any time a user could also direct their Newton device to recognize selected "ink text" and turn it into recognized text (deferred recognition). A Newton note (or the notes attached to each contact in Names and each Dates calendar or to-do event) could contain any mix of interleaved text, Ink Text, Shapes, and Sketches. While the Newton offered handwriting recognition training and would clean up sketches into vector shapes, both were unreliable and required much rewriting and redrawing. The most reliable application of the Newton was collecting and organizing address and phone numbers. While handwritten messages could be stored, they could not be easily filed, sorted or searched. While the technology was a probable cause for the failure of the device (which otherwise met or exceeded expectations), the technology has been instrumental in producing the future generation of handwriting software that realizes the potential and promise that began in the development of Newton-Apple's Ink Handwriting Recognition.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateJune 27, 2017 \|orig-dateDecember 6, 2007 \|titleInk: Handwriting Recognition \|urlhttps://resources.oreilly.com/examples/9780596529529/-/blob/master/ink_handwriting_recognition.pdf \|access-date2023-09-19 \|websiteSupplemental Content for Mac OS X Leopard: The Missing Manual by David Pogue \|publisherO'Reilly Media, Inc. \|languageen \|viaGitLab}}</ref>ConnectivityThe MessagePad 100 series of devices used Macintosh's proprietary serial ports&mdash;round Mini-DIN 8 connectors. The MessagePad 2000/2100 models (as well as the eMate 300) have a small, proprietary Newton InterConnect port. However, the development of the Newton hardware/software platform was canceled by Steve Jobs on February 27, 1998, so the InterConnect port, while itself very advanced, can only be used to connect a serial dongle. A prototype multi-purpose InterConnect device containing serial, audio in, audio out, and other ports was also discovered. In addition, all Newton devices have infrared connectivity, initially only the Sharp ASK protocol, but later also IrDA, though the Sharp ASK protocol was kept in for compatibility reasons. Unlike the Palm Pilot, all Newton devices are equipped with a standard PC Card expansion slot (two on the 2000/2100). This allows native modem and even Ethernet connectivity; Newton users have also written drivers for 802.11b wireless networking cards and ATA-type flash memory cards (including the popular CompactFlash format), as well as for Bluetooth cards. Newton can also dial a phone number through the built-in speaker of the Newton device by simply holding a telephone handset up to the speaker and transmitting the appropriate tones. Fax and printing support is also built in at the operating system level, although it requires peripherals such as parallel adapters, PCMCIA cards, or serial modems, the most notable of which is the lightweight Newton Fax Modem released by Apple in 1993. It is powered by 2 AA batteries, and can also be used with a power adapter. It provides data transfer at 2,400 bit/s, and can also send and receive fax messages at 9,600 and 4,800 bit/s respectively.Power options The original Apple MessagePad and MessagePad 100 used four AAA batteries. They were eventually replaced by AA batteries with the release of the Apple MessagePad 110. The use of 4 AA NiCd (MessagePad 110, 120 and 130) and 4x AA NiMH cells (MP2x00 series, eMate 300) give a runtime of up to 30 hours (MP2100 with two 20&nbsp;MB Linear Flash memory PC Cards, no backlight usage) and up to 24 hours with backlight on. While adding more weight to the handheld Newton devices than AAA batteries or custom battery packs, the choice of an easily replaceable/rechargeable cell format gives the user a still unsurpassed runtime and flexibility of power supply. This, together with the flash memory used as internal storage starting with the Apple MessagePad 120 (if all cells lost their power, no data was lost due to the non-volatility of this storage), gave birth to the slogan "Newton never dies, it only gets new batteries". Later efforts and improvements The Apple MessagePad 2000/2100, with a vastly improved handwriting recognition system, 162&nbsp;MHz StrongARM SA-110 RISC processor, Newton OS 2.1, and a better, clearer, backlit screen, attracted critical plaudits.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleSMU {{!}} World Changers Shaped Here!\|urlhttps://www.smu.edu/\|access-date2020-10-20\|websitewww.smu.edu\|archive-dateOctober 20, 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201020053132/https://www.smu.edu/\|url-statuslive}}</ref>{{Failed verification\|dateSeptember 2023 <!-- create a separate line so pinging should work --> \|reasonThis is just a university's homepage???? I searched their website for "MessagePad"; the only thing I found was a newspaper advertising Camp Macintosh. The citation in question was added in https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?diff984519698&oldid983376085&titleMessagePad by User:HolSegel.}} eMate 300 {{main\|eMate 300}} '']] The eMate 300 was a Newton device in a laptop form factor offered to schools in 1997 as an inexpensive ($799 US, originally sold to education markets only) and durable computer for classroom use. However, in order to achieve its low price, the eMate 300 did not have all the speed and features of the contemporary MessagePad equivalent, the MessagePad 2000. The eMate was cancelled along with the rest of the Newton products in 1998. It is the only Newton device to use the ARM710 microprocessor (running at 25&nbsp;MHz), have an integrated keyboard, use Newton OS 2.2 (officially numbered 2.1), and its batteries are officially irreplaceable, although several users replaced them with longer-lasting ones without any damage to the eMate hardware whatsoever. Prototypes Many prototypes of additional Newton devices were spotted. Most notable was a Newton tablet or "slate", a large, flat screen that could be written on. Others included a "Kids Newton" with side handgrips and buttons, "VideoPads" which would have incorporated a video camera and screen on their flip-top covers for two-way communications, the "Mini 2000" which would have been very similar to a Palm Pilot, and the NewtonPhone developed by Siemens, which incorporated a handset and a keyboard. Market reception Fourteen months after Sculley demoed it at the May 1992, Chicago CES, the MessagePad was first offered for sale on August 2, 1993, at the Boston Macworld Expo.<ref name"HMcC-NR">{{cite magazine \|last1McCracken \|first1Harry \|dateJune 1, 2012 \|titleNewton, Reconsidered / Apple's Newton MessagePad PDA at Twenty \|urlhttps://techland.time.com/2012/06/01/newton-reconsidered/ \|url-statuslive \|departmentTechnologizer \|magazineTime \|publisherTIME USA, LLC \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140715005844/http://techland.time.com/2012/06/01/newton-reconsidered/ \|archive-dateJuly 15, 2014 \|access-date5 July 2014}}</ref> The hottest item at the show, it cost $900.<ref name"BSsun-steals">{{cite news \|dateAugust 9, 1993 \|titleNewton steals the show at Boston Macworld Expo \|newspaperBaltimore Sun \|publisherTribune Publishing \|agencyKnight-Ridder \|urlhttps://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1993-08-09-1993221046-story.html \|url-statuslive \|access-dateSeptember 19, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140714133644/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1993-08-09/business/1993221046_1_newton-booth-messagepad \|archive-dateJuly 14, 2014}}</ref> 50,000 MessagePads were sold in the device's first three months on the market.<ref name=HMcC-NR/> <!--Although the Newton platform was developed and marketed for six years, it was never as successful in the marketplace as Apple had hoped. This was because the technology was too advanced for the time, as the concept of soups, stores, and packages shows. -->The original Apple MessagePad and MessagePad 100 were limited by the very short lifetime of their inadequate AAA batteries. '' episode "Lisa on Ice".]] {{citation needed span \|textAnother factor which limited the early Newton devices' appeal was that desktop connectivity was not included in the basic retail package, a problem that was later solved with 2.x Newton devices - these were bundled with a serial cable and the appropriate Newton Connection Utilities software. \|dateSeptember 2023}} Later versions of Newton OS offered improved handwriting recognition, quite possibly a leading reason for the continued popularity of the devices among Newton users. Even given the age of the hardware and software, Newtons still demand a sale price on the used market far greater than that of comparatively aged PDAs produced by other companies. In 2006, CNET compared an Apple MessagePad 2000 to a Samsung Q1, and the Newton was declared better.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastStevens \|firstChris \|dateSeptember 21, 2011 \|orig-dateJuly 27, 2006 \|titleApple Newton vs Samsung Q1 UMPC \|urlhttps://www.cnet.com/tech/computing/apple-newton-vs-samsung-q1-umpc/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100804160720/http://crave.cnet.co.uk/laptops/apple-newton-vs-samsung-q1-umpc-49282099/ \|archive-dateAugust 4, 2010 \|access-dateAugust 18, 2011 \|websiteCNET \|publisherCNET Networks}}</ref> In 2009, CNET compared an Apple MessagePad 2000 to an iPhone 3GS, and the Newton was declared more innovative at its time of release.<ref name"cnet-reid-1109">{{cite web \|last1Reid \|first1Rory \|last2Graham \|first2Flora \|dateNovember 26, 2009 \|titleApple Newton vs Apple iPhone \|urlhttp://www.cnet.com/news/apple-newton-vs-apple-iphone/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140714142850/http://www.cnet.com/news/apple-newton-vs-apple-iphone/ \|archive-dateJuly 14, 2014 \|access-date7 July 2014 \|websiteCNET \|publisherCBS Interactive}}</ref> A chain of dedicated Newton-only stores called Newton Source, independently run by Stephen Elms, existed from 1994 until 1998{{Citation needed\|dateSeptember 2023\|reasonThis year is when production of the Newton ended; are there any sources that explicitly say when the Newton Source stores closed?}}. Locations included New York, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Chicago and Boston. The Westwood Village, California, near UCLA featured the trademark red and yellow light bulb Newton logo in neon. The stores provided an informative educational venue to learn about the Newton platform in a hands on relaxed fashion. The stores had no traditional computer retail counters and featured oval desktops where interested users could become intimately involved with the Newton product range. The stores were a model for the later Apple Stores.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastFitzpatrick \|firstJason \|dateJanuary 25, 2016 \|titleBefore The Apple Store, There Was A Chain Of Unofficial Apple Retail Locations Known As? \|urlhttps://www.howtogeek.com/trivia/before-the-apple-store-there-was-a-chain-of-unofficial-apple-retail-locations-known-as/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180130013850/https://www.howtogeek.com/trivia/before-the-apple-store-there-was-a-chain-of-unofficial-apple-retail-locations-known-as/ \|archive-dateJanuary 30, 2018 \|access-dateJanuary 29, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastRamstad \|firstEvan \|date1994-04-16 \|titleN.Y. Store Picks Apple's Newton as Its Specialty: Retail: Newton Source's owner wants his outlet to be a relaxed place for consumers to learn about the hand-held computer. \|languageen-US \|websiteLos Angeles Times \|agencyAssociated Press \|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1994-04-16-fi-46763-story.html \|access-date2023-09-19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastSande \|firstSteve \|date2020-08-21 \|titleRetro Apple: The Apple Newton MessagePad Was Well Ahead of Its Time \|urlhttps://eshop.macsales.com/blog/64664-apple-newton-messagepad/ \|access-date2023-09-20 \|websiteRocket Yard \|publisherOWC \|languageen-US \|publication-placeWoodstock, IL}}</ref> Newton device models {{See also\|Timeline of Apple Inc. products}} <!-- Note: the question marks should be replaced with real information that I am unable to provide. -HorvatM -->{\| class="wikitable" \|+ !Brand \| colspan="2" \|Apple Computer \|Sharp \|Siemens \| colspan="2" \|Apple \|Sharp \|Apple Computer \|Digital Ocean \|Motorola \|Harris \|Digital Ocean \| colspan="4" \|Apple \| colspan="3" \|Harris \|Siemens \|Schlumberger \|- !Device \|OMP (Original Newton MessagePad)<ref name":0">{{Cite web \|lastPilet \|firstSylvain \|dateAugust 2, 2020 \|orig-dateApril 4, 2019 \|titleApple Newton H1000 & MessagePad 100 – Specifications \|urlhttp://message-pad.net/apple-newton-h1000-messagepad-100/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210120203210/http://message-pad.net/apple-newton-h1000-messagepad-100/ \|archive-dateJanuary 20, 2021 \|access-date2021-01-16 \|websiteMessage-Pad.net \|language=}}</ref> \|Newton "Dummy" \|ExpertPad PI-7000<ref name":1">{{Cite web \|lastPilet \|firstSylvain \|date2016-09-02 \|titleSharp Expert Pad PI-7x00: Sharp Expert Pad a Apple Newton Clone \|urlhttp://message-pad.net/sharp-expert-pad-pi-7x00/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210120203301/http://message-pad.net/sharp-expert-pad-pi-7x00/ \|archive-dateJanuary 20, 2021 \|access-date2021-01-16 \|websiteMessage-Pad.net \|language}}</ref> \|Notephone.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastGenghis7777 \|dateApril 19, 2012 \|titleSiemens NotePhone \|urlhttp://myapplenewton.blogspot.com/2012/04/siemens-notephone.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210122184801/http://myapplenewton.blogspot.com/2012/04/siemens-notephone.html \|archive-dateJanuary 22, 2021 \|access-date2021-01-18 \|websiteMy Apple Newton \|languageen-GB \|publication-place=Christchurch, New Zealand}}</ref><sup>[better source needed]</sup> \|MessagePad 100<ref name=":0" /> \|MessagePad 110 \|Sharp ExpertPad PI-7100<ref name=":1" /> \|MessagePad 120 \|Tarpon \|Marco<ref>{{Cite web \|lastWireless Data Group \|orig-date \|titleSpecifications \|urlhttp://unna.applenewton.co.uk/apple/documentation/MarcoInfo/MarcoSpecs.txt \|website\|publisherMotorola \|publication-placeSchaumburg, Illinois \|viaNEWTON SOFTWARE BACKUP SERVER, run by Pawel (AKA AppleNewtonFan), living in Scotland, UK; uploaded March 30, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite press release \|titleMotorola Rings in 1995 With the Launch of the Marco¨ Wireless Communicator: MACWORLD Attendees Get First Look at the World's Only Newton¨-Based Integrated Wireless Hand-Held Device \|locationSAN FRANCISCO, Calif. \|dateJanuary 4, 1995 \|last1Beck-Ruff \|first1Cheryl \|last2Magill \|first2Karen \|viaNEWTON SOFTWARE BACKUP SERVER, run by Pawel (AKA AppleNewtonFan), living in Scotland, UK; uploaded March 30, 2007}}</ref> \|SuperTech 2000<ref>{{Cite web \|last\|first \|dateSeptember 27, 1995 \|titleThe SuperTech 2000 Mobile Communications & Information System: SPECIFICATIONS \|urlhttp://www.dracon.harris.com/products/st2k_specs.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/19980205141651/http://www.dracon.harris.com/products/st2k_specs.html \|archive-date1998-02-05 \|access-date\|websiteHarris Network Support Systems \|publisherHarris Corporation \|publication-placeCamarillo, California, USA}}</ref> \|Seahorse<ref>{{Cite web \|date\|titleSeahorse Spec Sheet \|urlhttp://digitalocean.com/seahorse.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/19970124001314/http://digitalocean.com/seahorse.html \|archive-date1997-01-24 \|access-date=2021-01-16}}</ref> \|MessagePad 130 \|eMate 300 \|MessagePad 2000 \|MessagePad 2100 \|Access Device 2000 \|Access Device, GPS \|Access Device, Wireline \|Online Terminal, also known as Online Access Device(OAD) \|Watson \|- !Introduced \|August 3, 1993 (US) December 1993 (Germany) \|? \|August 3, 1993 (US and Japan) \|1993? \| colspan="2" \|March 1994 \|April 1994 \|October 1994 (Germany), January 1995 (US) \| colspan="2" \|January 1995 (US) \|August 1995 (US) \|January 1996 (US) \|March 1996 \| colspan="2" \|March 1997 \|November 1997 \| colspan="3" \|1998 \|Announced 1997 \|? \|- !Discontinued \| colspan="3" \|March 1994 \|? \| colspan="2" \|April 1995 \|late 1994 \|June 1996 \|? \|? \|? \|? \|April 1997 \| colspan="3" \|February 1998 \| \| \| \| \| \|- !Code name \|Junior \| \|? \|? \|Junior \|Lindy \|? \|Gelato \|? \|? \|? \|? \|Dante \|? \|Q \|? \| \| \| \| \| \|- !Model No. \|H1000 \| \|? \|? \|H1000 \|H0059 \|? \|H0131 \|? \|? \|? \|? \|H0196 \|H0208 \|H0136 \|H0149 \| \| \| \| \| \|- !Processor \| colspan="13" \|ARM 610 (20&nbsp;MHz) \|ARM 710a (25&nbsp;MHz) \| colspan="7" \|StrongARM SA-110 (162&nbsp;MHz) \|- !ROM \| colspan="7" \|4 MB \| colspan="2" \|4 MB (OS 1.3) or 8 MB (OS 2.0) \|5 MB \|4 MB \| colspan="5" \|8 MB \| \| \| \| \| \|- !System Memory (RAM) \| colspan="5" \|490 KB* SRAM \|544 KB SRAM \|490 KB* SRAM \| colspan="2" \|639/687 KB DRAM \|544 KB SRAM \|639 KB DRAM \| colspan="2" \|1199 KB DRAM \|1 MB DRAM (Upgradable) \|1 MB DRAM \|4 MB DRAM \| colspan="3" \|1 MB DRAM \|? \|1 MB DRAM \|- !User Storage \| colspan="5" \|150 KB* SRAM \|480 KB SRAM \|150 KB* SRAM \| colspan="2" \|385/1361 KB Flash RAM \|480 KB SRAM \|385 KB Flash RAM \| colspan="2" \|1361 KB Flash RAM \|2 MB Flash RAM(Upgradable) \| colspan="5" \|4 MB Flash RAM \|? \|4 MB Flash RAM \|- !Total RAM \| colspan="5" \|640&nbsp;KB \|1&nbsp;MB \|640&nbsp;KB \| colspan="2" \|1.0/2.0 MB \| colspan="2" \|1&nbsp;MB \| colspan="2" \|2.5&nbsp;MB \|3&nbsp;MB (Upgradable via Internal Expansion) \|5 MB \|8 MB \| colspan="3" \|5 MB \|? \|5 MB \|- !Display \| colspan="5" \|336 × 240 (B&W) \|320 × 240 (B&W) \|336 × 240 (B&W) \|320 × 240 (B&W) \|320 × 240 (B&W) w/ backlight \|320 × 240 (B&W) \| colspan="3" \|320 × 240 (B&W) w/ backlight \| colspan="6" \|480 × 320 grayscale (16 shades) w/ backlight \| \|480 × 320 greyscale (16 shades) w/ backlight \|- !Newton OS version \| colspan="3" \|1.0 to 1.05, or 1.10 to 1.11 \|1.11 \| colspan="2" \|1.2 or 1.3 \|1.3 \| colspan="2" \|1.3 or 2.0 \| colspan="2" \|1.3 \| colspan="2" \|2.0 \|2.1 (2.2) \| colspan="2" \|2.1 \| colspan="5" \|2.1 \|- !Newton OS languages \|English or German \| \|English or Japanese \|German \|English, German or French \|English or French \|English or Japanese \|English, German or French \| colspan="4" \|English \|English or German \| colspan="2" \|English \|English or German \| colspan="3" \|English \|German \|French \|- !Connectivity \| colspan="3" \|RS-422, LocalTalk & SHARP ASK Infrared \|Modem and Telephone dock Attachment \| colspan="4" \|RS-422, LocalTalk & SHARP ASK Infrared \|RS-422, LocalTalk & SHARP ASK Infrared \|RS-422, LocalTalk, Infrared, ARDIS Network \|RS-232, LocalTalk WLAN, V.22bis modem, Analog/Digital Cellular, CDPD, RAM, ARDIS, Trunk Radio \|RS-232, LocalTalk, CDPD, WLAN, Optional dGPS, GSM, or IR via modular attachments \|RS-422, LocalTalk & SHARP ASK Infrared \|IrDA, headphone port, Interconnect port, LocalTalk, Audio I/O, Autodock \|Dual-mode IR;IrDA & SHARP ASK, LocalTalk, Audio I/O, Autodock, Phone I/O \|Dual-mode IR; IrDA & SHARP ASK, LocalTalk, Audio I/O, Autodock \| colspan="3" \|Dual-mode IR;IrDA & SHARP ASK, LocalTalk, Audio I/O, Autodock, Phone I/O \|? \|Dual-mode IR;IrDA & SHARP ASK, LocalTalk, Audio I/O, Autodock, Phone I/O \|- !PCMCIA \| colspan="13" \|1 PCMCIA-slot II, 5v or 12v \|1 PCMCIA-slot I/II/III, 5v \| colspan="2" \|2 PCMCIA-slot II, 5v or 12v \| colspan="2" \|1 PCMCIA-slot II, 5v or 12v \|1 PCMCIA-slot II, 5v or 12v, 2nd slot Propriety Rado Card \| colspan="2" \|1 PCMCIA-slot II, 5v or 12v, 1 Smart Card Reader \|- !Power \| colspan="5" \|4 AAA or NiCd rechargeable or external power supply \|4 AA or NiCd rechargeable or external power supply \|4 AAA or NiCd rechargeable or external power supply \|4 AA or NiCd rechargeable or external power supply \| colspan="2" \|NiCd battery pack or external power supply \|4 AA or NiCd rechargeable or external power supply \|NiCd battery pack or external power supply \|4 AA or NiCd rechargeable or external power supply \|NiMH battery pack (built-in) or external power supply \| colspan="2" \|4 AA or NiMH rechargeable or external power supply \| colspan="3" \|Custom NiMH rechargeable or external power supply \|? Unknown, but likely external power supply \|4 AA or NiMH rechargeable or external power supply \|- !Dimensions (HxWxD) \|{{convert\|184.75\|x\|114.3\|x\|19.05\|mm\|in\|abbr=on}} \| \|{{convert\|182\|x\|112\|x\|28\|mm\|in\|abbr=on}} (lid open) \| colspan"2" \|{{convert\|184.75\|x\|114.3\|x\|19.05\|mm\|in\|abbron}} \|{{convert\|203.2\|x\|101.6\|x\|30\|mm\|in\|abbr=on}} \|{{convert\|182\|x\|112\|x\|28\|mm\|in\|abbr=on}} (lid open) \|{{convert\|203.2\|x\|101.6\|x\|30\|mm\|in\|abbr=on}} \|{{convert\|254\|x\|114.3\|x\|63.5\|mm\|in\|abbr=on}} \|{{convert\|190.5\|x\|147.32\|x\|35.56\|mm\|in\|abbr=on}} \|? \|{{convert\|241.3\|x\|114.3\|x\|63.5\|mm\|in\|abbr=on}} \|{{convert\|203.2\|x\|101.6\|x\|30\|mm\|in\|abbr=on}} \|{{convert\|305\|x\|290\|x\|53.3\|mm\|in\|abbr=on}} \| colspan"2" \|{{convert\|211\|x\|119.4\|x\|27.9\|mm\|in\|abbron}} \|? \|? \|? \|9 x 14.5 x 5.1 inches <small>(23 x 37 x 13&nbsp;cm)</small> \|? \|- !Weight \|{{convert\|0.4\|kg\|lb\|abbr=on}} \| \|{{convert\|0.44\|kg\|lb\|abbr=on}} with batteries installed \| \|{{convert\|0.4\|kg\|lb\|abbr=on}} \|{{convert\|0.475\|or\|0.58\|kg\|lb\|abbr=on}} with batteries installed \|{{convert\|0.44\|kg\|lb\|abbr=on}} with batteries installed \|{{convert\|0.475\|or\|0.58\|kg\|lb\|abbr=on}}with batteries installed \|{{convert\|1.45\|kg\|lboz\|abbr=on}} \|{{convert\|0.82\|kg\|lboz\|abbr=on}} \|? \|{{convert\|1.36\|kg\|lb\|abbr=on}} \|{{convert\|0.475\|or\|0.58\|kg\|lb\|abbr=on}} with batteries installed \|{{convert\|1.81\|kg\|lb\|abbr=on}} \| colspan"2" \|{{convert\|0.64\|kg\|lb\|abbron}} \|? \|? \|? \|? \|? \|} <nowiki></nowiki> Varies with installed OS Notes: The eMate 300 actually has ROM chips silk screened with 2.2 on them. Stephanie Mak on her website discusses this:<ref>{{cite web \|lastMaksylewich \|firstStephanie \|date2001–2005 \|titleOther Homebrew eMate Hacks \|urlhttp://www.felesmagus.com/newton/otheremate.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090312101901/http://www.felesmagus.com/newton/otheremate.html \|archive-date2009-03-12}}</ref> If one removes all patches to the eMate 300 (by replacing the ROM chip, and then putting in the original one again, as the eMate and the MessagePad 2000/2100 devices erase their memory completely after replacing the chip), the result will be the Newton OS saying that this is version 2.2.00. Also, the Original MessagePad and the MessagePad 100 share the same model number, as they only differ in the ROM chip version. (The OMP has OS versions 1.0 to 1.05, or 1.10 to 1.11, while the MP100 has 1.3 that can be upgraded with various patches.) Timeline {{Timeline of Newton models}} Third party licenses The Newton OS was also licensed to a number of third-party developers including Sharp and Motorola who developed additional PDA devices based on the Newton platform. Motorola added wireless connectivity, as well as made a unique two-part design, and shipped additional software with its Newton device, called the Marco.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastLuckie \|firstDouglas \|dateApril 4, 1997 \|titleMotorola's 'Marco' Wireless Communicator \|urlhttp://cf.psl.msu.edu/gallery/marco.htm \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051225020251/http://www.msu.edu/~luckie/gallery/marco.htm \|archive-dateDecember 25, 2005 \|access-dateJanuary 19, 2006 \|websiteMichigan State Newton SIG (MSNUG), Michigan State Palmtop User Group (MSPUG) \|viaMichigan State University (MSU) Cystic Fibrosis (CF) Research Laboratory}}</ref> Sharp developed a line of Newton devices called the ExpertPad PI-7000/7100; those were the same as Apple's MessagePad and MessagePad 100, the only difference is the physical design (the ExpertPads feature a screen lid, which Apple added in 1994 with the release of the MessagePad 110) and the naming.Other usesThere were a number of projects that used the Newton as a portable information device in cultural settings such as museums. For example, Visible Interactive created a walking tour in San Francisco's Chinatown but the most significant effort took place in Malaysia at the Petronas Discovery Center, known as Petrosains.<ref>{{cite web \|titlePETROSAINS: The Discovery Centre \|urlhttp://www.petrosains.com.my/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051207030343/http://www.petrosains.com.my/ \|archive-dateDecember 7, 2005 \|access-date=December 10, 2005}}</ref> In 1995, an exhibit design firm, DMCD Inc., was awarded the contract to design a new {{convert\|100,000\|sqft\|m2\|adj=on}} science museum in the Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur. A major factor in the award was the concept that visitors would use a Newton device to access additional information, find out where they were in the museum, listen to audio, see animations, control robots and other media, and to bookmark information for printout at the end of the exhibit. The device became known as the ARIF, a Malay word for "wise man" or "seer" and it was also an acronym for A Resourceful Informative Friend. Some 400 ARIFS were installed and over 300 are still in use today. The development of the ARIF system was extremely complex and required a team of hardware and software engineers, designers, and writers. ARIF is an ancestor of the PDA systems used in museums today and it boasted features that have not been attempted since. Anyway & Company firm was involved with the Petronas Discovery Center project back in 1998 and NDAs were signed which prevents getting to know more information about this project. It was confirmed that they purchased of MP2000u or MP2100's by this firm on the behalf of the project under the name of "Petrosains Project Account". By 1998 they had invested heavily into the R&D of this project with the Newton at the center. After Apple officially cancelled the Newton in 1998 they had to acquire as many Newtons as possible for this project. It was estimated initially 1000 Newtons, but later readjusted the figure to possibly 750 Newtons. They placed an “Internet Call” for Newtons. They purchased them in large and small quantities.{{Citation needed\|dateSeptember 2023\|reasonThe only citation for these 4 paragraphs is the home page of the museum, despite making many non-trivial claims.}} The Newton was also used in healthcare applications, for example in collecting data directly from patients. Newtons were used as electronic diaries, with patients entering their symptoms and other information concerning their health status on a daily basis. The compact size of the device and its ease of use made it possible for the electronic diaries to be carried around and used in the patients' everyday life setting. This was an early example of electronic patient-reported outcomes (ePRO).<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Tiplady \|first1B. \|last2Crompton \|first2G. K. \|last3Dewar \|first3M. H. \|last4Böllert \|first4F. G. E. \|last5Matusiewicz \|first5S. P. \|last6Campbell \|first6L. M. \|last7Brackenridge \|first7D. \|date30 December 1997 \|orig-dateIssue Date: July 1997 \|titleThe use of electronic diaries in respiratory studies \|urlhttps://link.springer.com/article/10.1177/009286159703100317 \|journalDrug Information Journal \|publisherSpringer Nature \|volume31 \|issue3 \|pages759–764 \|doi10.1177/009286159703100317 \|issn0092-8615 \|s2cid55963529 \|quoteElectronic diary cards have advantages over paper diaries for daily collection of data on lung function and symptoms in patients with respiratory disorders. The suitability of a pen-based electronic diary (Apple MessagePad) for this purpose was assessed in a clinical trial setting.}}</ref>See also Newton (platform) * Newton OS * eMate 300 * NewtonScript * Orphaned technology * Pen computing References {{Reflist\|30em}} Bibliography * Apple's press release on the debut of the MessagePad 2100: {{Cite press release \|dateOctober 20, 1997 \|titleApple's New MessagePad 2100 Offers Enhanced Performance For Today's Mobile, Information-Centric Users: Newest Member of MessagePad Family Features Increased System Memory, Higher Performance, Upgraded Communications Software \|urlhttps://www.apple.com/ca/press/1997/10/MP2100.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100304112558/https://www.apple.com/ca/press/1997/10/MP2100.html \|archive-dateMarch 4, 2010 \|publisherApple Canada \|locationMARKHAM, Ontario}} * Apple's overview of features & limitations of Newton Connection Utilities: {{Cite web \|dateDecember 22, 1997 \|titleNewton Connection Utilities 1.0 for Windows - ReadMe \|urlhttp://docs.info.apple.com/article.html?artnum38006 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071215144351/http://docs.info.apple.com/article.html?artnum38006 \|archive-dateDecember 15, 2007 \|publisher=Apple Inc.}} * Newton overview at Newton Source archived from Apple: {{Cite web \|dateFebruary 1996 \|titleMessagePad 130: The entry-level handheld computer. \|urlhttp://www.oldschool.net/newton/papers/index130.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070128125654/http://www.oldschool.net/newton/papers/index130.html \|archive-dateJanuary 28, 2007 \|publisherApple Computer, Inc. \|viaoldschool.net \|id=L01722A}} * Newton FAQ: {{Cite web \|last1Weyer \|first1Steve \|last2Rand \|first2Peter \|last3Luke \|first3Sean \|last4Guyot \|first4Paul \|last5Padilla \|first5Daniel \|dateMarch 20, 2003 \|titleFAQ for the Newton Community \|urlhttp://old.chuma.org/newton/faq/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20030408173039/http://www.chuma.org/newton/faq/ \|archive-dateApril 8, 2003 \|via=Victor Rehorst from Newton Resources}} * Newton Gallery: {{Cite web \|lastLuckie \|firstDouglass \|dateJune 8, 2020 \|titleNewton Gallery! \|urlhttp://cf.psl.msu.edu/newtgal.htm \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201126080259/http://www.msu.edu/~luckie/newtgal.htm \|archive-dateNovember 26, 2020 \|websiteMichigan State Newton SIG (MSNUG), Michigan State Palmtop User Group (MSPUG) \|viaMichigan State University (MSU) Cystic Fibrosis (CF) Research Laboratory \|access-date=September 19, 2023 }} * Birth of the Newton: {{Cite web \|lastHormby \|firstTom \|dateAugust 6, 2013 \|titleThe Story Behind Apple's Newton \|urlhttps://lowendmac.com/2013/the-story-behind-apples-newton/ \|websiteLow End Mac \|id=<nowiki>http://goo.gl/YKSx9L</nowiki>}} * The Newton Hall of Fame: People behind the Newton: {{Cite web \|lastLuckie \|firstDouglass \|dateMay 13, 2020 \|titleNewton Hall of Fame \|urlhttp://cf.psl.msu.edu/hallofame.htm \|websiteMichigan State Newton SIG (MSNUG), Michigan State Palmtop User Group (MSPUG) \|via=Michigan State University (MSU) Cystic Fibrosis (CF) Research Laboratory}} * Pen Computing's Why did Apple kill the Newton?: {{Cite magazine \|lastMacNeill \|firstDavid \|dateJune 1998 \|titleWhy did Apple kill the Newton? \|urlhttp://www.pencomputing.com/frames/newton_obituary.html \|magazinePen Computing Magazine}} * Pen Computing's Newton Notes column archive: {{Cite magazine \|lastMacNeill \|firstDavid \|dateApril 5, 2008 \|titleNewton Notes Archive \|urlhttp://www.pencomputing.com/Newton/ \|magazinePen Computing Magazine}} * A.I. Magazine article by Yaeger on Newton HWR design, algorithms, & quality: {{Cite journal \|last1Yaeger \|first1Larry S. \|last2Webb \|first2Brandyn J. \|last3Lyon \|first3Richard F. \|date1998-03-15 \|titleCombining Neural Networks and Context-Driven Search for Online, Printed Handwriting Recognition in the NEWTON \|urlhttps://ojs.aaai.org/aimagazine/index.php/aimagazine/article/view/1355 \|journalAI Magazine \|languageen \|publisherAmerican Association for Artificial Intelligence \|volume19 \|issue1 \|pages73–90 \|doi10.1609/aimag.v19i1.1355 \|issn2371-9621 \|id0738-4602-1998}} ** Associated slides: {{Cite conference \|lastYaeger \|firstLarry \|date4–5 September 2004 \|titleHandwriting Recognition Technology in the Newton's Second Generation "Print Recognizer" (The One That Worked) \|urlhttp://wwnc.newtontalk.net/2004/program/larryyaeger/slides-larryyaeger.pdf \|conferenceWorld Wide Newton Conference 2004 \|websiteWorldwide Newton Conference \|locationParis, France \|publisher\|publication-place}} * Info on Newton HWR from Apple's HWR Technical Lead: {{Cite web \|lastYaeger \|firstLarry \|dateFebruary 13, 2006 \|titleApple-Newton Handwriting Recognition \|urlhttp://shinyverse.org/larryy/ANHR.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120717074702/http://www.beanblossom.in.us/larryy/ANHR.html \|archive-dateJuly 17, 2012 \|websiteShinyVerse \|publisherIndiana University}} * Notes on the History of Pen-based Computing: {{Cite AV media \|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v4xnqKdWMa_8 \|titleNotes on the History of Pen-based Computing \|dateMarch 11, 1992 \|lastWard \|firstJean Renard \|typeVideotape \|publisherState Corporation / East \|othersUploaded to YouTube by Dan Bricklin (@danbcast) on March 31, 2013; the video is titled "History of Pen-Based Computing - March 1992, Jean Renard Ward". \|orig-date \|quote=A video of Jean Renard Ward re-creating a talk he gave to a Boston Computer Society special interest group two days before in 1992. This covers many, many devices and approaches in the years before that time. For more info from him, see: http://users.erols.com/rwservices/biblio.html}} ** This links to: {{Cite journal \|lastWard \|firstJean Renard \|dateSeptember 11, 2023 \|titleHistory of Pen and Gesture Computing: Annotated Bibliography in On-line Character Recognition, Pen Computing, Gesture User Interfaces and Tablet and Touch Computers \|urlhttp://users.erols.com/rwservices/biblio.html \|access-date2023-09-19 \|websiteRueters-Ward / Zurück zur Heimatseite Rüters-Ward \|doi10.13140/2.1.3018.8322 \|quoteMirrors of this page can be found at: http://ruetersward/biblio.html, http://users.rcn.com/rwservices/biblio.html, http://users.erols.com/rwservices/biblio.html, <nowiki>http://rwservices.no-ip.info:81/biblio.html</nowiki>}}External links{{Commons\|Apple Newton}}Additional resources and information * [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0941831949/ Defying Gravity: The Making of Newton, by Kounalakis & Menuez] (Hardcover) Hardcover: 192 pages Publisher: Beyond Words Publishing (October 1993) {{ISBN\|0941831949}} {{ISBN\|978-0941831949}} * [http://empeg.org.uk/info/sa1100/sa1100DevMan.pdf Complete Developer's manual for the StrongARM SA-110] * [http://www.egr.msu.edu/classes/ece809/rover/coursework/00spr/procg7.pdf Beginner's overview of the StrongARM SA-110 Microprocessor] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070604223028/http://www.egr.msu.edu/classes/ece809/rover/coursework/00spr/procg7.pdf \|dateJune 4, 2007 }} Reviews * [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/~mac/mp2000.html MessagePad 2000 review at "The History and Macintosh Society"] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20101208053412/http://perlnet.umephy.maine.edu/bio/wittmann/pooter/newton.htm Prof. Wittmann's collection of Newton & MessagePad reviews] {{Apple hardware before 1998}} Category:Apple Newton Category:Products introduced in 1993 Category:Apple Inc. personal digital assistants	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MessagePad	2025-04-05T18:25:25.653992
888	A. E. van Vogt	{{Short description\|Canadian-American science fiction writer (1912–2000)}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=July 2014}} {{Infobox writer \| image = <noinclude>VanVogt1963.jpg</noinclude> \| caption = Van Vogt {{circa\|1963}} \| pseudonym \| birth_name Alfred Vogt \| birth_date {{birth date\|1912\|4\|26\|mfy}} \| birth_place = Edenburg, near Gretna, Manitoba, Canada \| death_date {{death date and age\|2000\|1\|26\|1912\|4\|26\|mfy}} \| death_place = Los Angeles, California, US \| occupation = Writer \| period = 1939–1986 (science fiction) \| genre = Science fiction \| movement = Golden Age of Science Fiction \| spouse = {{plainlist\| * {{Marriage\|Edna Mayne Hull\|1939\|1975\|end=d}} * {{Marriage\|Lydia Bereginsky\|1979<!--Do not put "his death" per manual of style-->}} }} \| signature = A.E. van Vogt (signature).svg }} Alfred Elton van Vogt ({{IPAc-en\|v\|æ\|n\|_\|v\|oʊ\|k\|t}} {{Respell\|VAN\|_\|VOHKT}};<ref>{{Cite Dictionary.com\|Van Vogt}}</ref> April 26, 1912&nbsp;– January 26, 2000) was a Canadian-born American science fiction writer. His fragmented, bizarre narrative style influenced later science fiction writers, notably Philip K. Dick. He was one of the most popular and influential practitioners of science fiction in the mid-twentieth century, the genre's so-called Golden Age, and one of the most complex.<ref>"Although [van Vogt] catered for the pulps, he intensified the emotional impact and complexity of the stories they would bear". {{cite book \| editorClute, John \| editor-link John Clute \| editor2Nicholls, Peter \| editor2-link Peter Nicholls (writer) \|titleThe Encyclopedia of Science Fiction \|date 1995 \|publisherSt. Martin's Press \|location New York \|page1268 \|isbn 978-0-312-13486-0}}</ref> The Science Fiction Writers of America named him their 14th Grand Master in 1995 (presented 1996).<ref nameSFWA/>Early lifeAlfred Vogt (both "Elton" and "van" were added much later) was born on April 26, 1912, on his grandparents' farm in Edenburg, Manitoba, a tiny (and now defunct) Russian Mennonite community east of Gretna, Manitoba, Canada, in the Mennonite West Reserve. He was the third of six children born to Heinrich "Henry" Vogt and Aganetha "Agnes" Vogt (née Buhr), both of whom were born in Manitoba and grew up in heavily immigrant communities. Until he was four, van Vogt spoke only Plautdietsch at home.<ref namepanshin>Panshin, Alexei [http://www.panshin.com/articles/vanvogt/vanvogt1.html "Man Beyond Man. The Early Stories of A. E. van Vogt" (page 1)]. Retrieved August 29, 2010.</ref> For the first dozen or so years of his life, van Vogt's father, Henry Vogt, a lawyer, moved his family several times within central Canada, moving to Neville, Saskatchewan; Morden, Manitoba; and finally Winnipeg, Manitoba. Alfred Vogt found these moves difficult, later remarking: {{blockquote\|Childhood was a terrible period for me. I was like a ship without anchor being swept along through darkness in a storm. Again and again I sought shelter, only to be forced out of it by something new.<ref name=panshin/>}} By the 1920s, living in Winnipeg, father Henry worked as an agent for a steamship company, but the stock market crash of 1929 proved financially disastrous, and the family could not afford to send Alfred to college. During his teen years, Alfred worked as a farmhand and a truck driver, and by the age of 19, he was working in Ottawa for the Canadian Census Bureau.{{citation needed\|date=January 2025}} In "the dark days of '31 and '32," van Vogt took a correspondence course in writing from the Palmer Institute of Authorship. He sold his first story in fall 1932.<ref>"Palmer Graduate Now Leading Author of Science Fiction," Palmer ad, The Author & Journalist, October 1949, p. 19.</ref> His early published works were stories in the true confession style of magazines such as True Story. Most of these stories were published anonymously, with the first-person narratives allegedly being written by people (often women) in extraordinary, emotional, and life-changing circumstances.{{citation needed\|date=January 2025}} After a year in Ottawa, he moved back to Winnipeg, where he sold newspaper advertising space and continued to write. While continuing to pen melodramatic "true confessions" stories through 1937, he also began writing short radio dramas for local radio station CKY, as well as conducting interviews published in trade magazines. He added the middle name "Elton" at some point in the mid-1930s, and at least one confessional story (1937's "To Be His Keeper") was sold to the Toronto Star, who misspelled his name "Alfred Alton Bogt" in the byline.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.icshi.net/sevagram/stories/keeper.php#top\|titleTo Be His Keeper by A. E. van Vogt – Sevagram\|websitewww.icshi.net}}</ref> Shortly thereafter, he added the "van" to his surname, and from that point forward he used the name "A. E. van Vogt" both personally and professionally.CareerBy 1938, van Vogt decided to switch to writing science fiction, a genre he enjoyed reading.<ref>Elliot, Jeffery: "An Interview with A. E. Van Vogt", Science Fiction Review #23, 1977. Available online https://www.angelfire.com/art/megathink/vanvogt/vanvogt_interview.html Retrieved on August 29, 2010</ref> He was inspired by the August 1938 issue of Astounding Science Fiction, which he picked up at a newsstand. John W. Campbell's novelette "Who Goes There?" (later adapted into The Thing from Another World and The Thing) inspired van Vogt to write "Vault of the Beast", which he submitted to that same magazine. Campbell, who edited Astounding (and had written the story under a pseudonym), sent van Vogt a rejection letter in which Campbell encouraged van Vogt to try again. Van Vogt sent another story, entitled "Black Destroyer", which was accepted. It featured a fierce, carnivorous alien stalking the crew of a spaceship, and served as the inspiration for multiple science fiction movies, including Alien (1979).{{efn\|namemovies}} A revised version of "Vault of the Beast" was published in 1940. While still living in Winnipeg, in 1939 van Vogt married Edna Mayne Hull, a fellow Manitoban. Hull, who had previously worked as a private secretary, went on to act as van Vogt's typist, and was credited with writing several SF stories of her own throughout the early 1940s. The outbreak of World War II in September 1939 caused a change in van Vogt's circumstances. Ineligible for military service due to his poor eyesight, he accepted a clerking job with the Canadian Department of National Defence. This necessitated a move back to Ottawa, where he and his wife stayed for the next year and a half. Meanwhile, his writing career continued. "Discord in Scarlet" was van Vogt's second story to be published, also appearing as the cover story.<ref>[http://www.icshi.net/worlds/voyageof.htm "The Voyage of the Space Beagle"] (cover images for numerous editions and adaptations of "The Black Destroyer" and its series). The Weird Worlds of A. E. van Vogt. Magnus Axelsson (pre-2000 to 2009). Now hosted by icshi.net. Retrieved April 4, 2013.</ref> It was accompanied by interior illustrations created by Frank Kramer{{efn \|namekramer \|According to ISFDB, writer van Vogt<ref nameisfdb/> and illustrator Kramer both made their debuts, at least in speculative fiction, with "The Black Destroyer".<br /> [http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/ea.cgi?116623 "Frank Kramer – Summary Bibliography"]. ISFDB. Retrieved 2013-04-04.}} and Paul Orban.<ref nameisfdb/><ref><!-- not [ref namepanshin] --> Panshin, Alexei (1994). [http://www.icshi.net/worlds/intoslan.htm "Introduction to Slan"]. Connecticut: The Easton Press.<!-- Easton is copyright holder. What is the publication? --><br /> Quote: "His first published SF story was "Black Destroyer" in the July 1939 Astounding. Not only was "Black Destroyer" pictured on the cover of the magazine, but it would be recognized as one of the most significant stories published in Astounding that year".</ref> (Van Vogt and Kramer{{efn\|namekramer}} thus debuted in the issue of Astounding that is sometimes identified as the start of the Golden Age of Science Fiction.<ref name"earlyyears79_82">{{Cite book \|urlhttps://archive.org/stream/earlyasimovorele00asim#page/78/mode/2up \|titleThe early Asimov; or, Eleven years of trying \|lastAsimov \|firstIsaac \|date1972 \|publisherDoubleday \|locationGarden City NY \|pages79–82}}</ref><ref>For example, Peter Nicholls ({{cite book \| editorClute, John \| editor-link John Clute \| editor2Nicholls, Peter \| editor2-link Peter Nicholls (writer)\| titleThe Encyclopedia of Science Fiction\| date 1993\| publisherSt. Martin's Press, Inc.\| location New York\| page199\|isbn 978-0-312-09618-2 \|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idduySQgAACAAJ\|page199}}}}) says "The beginning of Campbell's particular Golden Age of SF can be pinpointed as the summer of 1939" and goes on to begin the discussion with the July 1939 issue. Lester del Rey ({{cite book \| firstLester \| lastdel Rey \| author-linkLester del Rey \| titleThe World of Science Fiction and Fantasy: The History of a Subculture \| publisherBallantine Books \| locationNew York \| date1979 \| page[https://archive.org/details/worldofsciencefi00delr/page/94 94] \| isbn978-0-345-25452-8 \| urlhttps://archive.org/details/worldofsciencefi00delr/page/94 }}) comments that "July was the turning point".</ref>) Among his most famous works of this era, "Far Centaurus" appeared in the January 1944 edition of Astounding. Van Vogt's first completed novel, and one of his most famous, is Slan (Arkham House, 1946), which Campbell serialized in Astounding (September to December 1940).<ref name=isfdb/> Using what became one of van Vogt's recurring themes, it told the story of a nine-year-old superman living in a world in which his kind are slain by Homo sapiens. Others saw van Vogt's talent from his first story,{{r\|earlyyears79_82}} and in May 1941 van Vogt decided to become a full-time writer, quitting his job at the Canadian Department of National Defence. Freed from the necessity of living in Ottawa, he and his wife lived for a time in the Gatineau region of Quebec before moving to Toronto in the fall of 1941.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://nationalpost.com/opinion/scott-van-wynsberghe-on-a-e-van-vogt-a-home-grown-science-fiction-king\|titleA.E. van Vogt: A home-grown science-fiction king - National Post\|firstFull\|lastComment\|newspaperNational Post \|dateSeptember 11, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.icshi.net/sevagram/interviews/weinberg.php#top\|titleA.E. van Vogt Interviewed by Robert Weinberg (1980) - Sevagram\|website=www.icshi.net}}</ref> Prolific throughout this period, van Vogt wrote many of his more famous short stories and novels in the years from 1941 through 1944. The novels The Book of Ptath and The Weapon Makers both appeared in magazines in serial form during this period; they were later published in book form after World War II. As well, several (though not all) of the stories that were compiled to make up the novels The Weapon Shops of Isher, The Mixed Men and The War Against the Rull were published during this time. California and post-war writing (1944–1950) In November 1944, van Vogt and Hull moved to Hollywood; van Vogt would spend the rest of his life in California. He had been using the name "A. E. van Vogt" in his public life for several years, and as part of the process of obtaining American citizenship in 1945 he finally and formally changed his legal name from Alfred Vogt to Alfred Elton van Vogt. To his friends in the California science fiction community, he was known as "Van". Method and themes Van Vogt systematized his writing method, using scenes of 800 words or so where a new complication was added or something resolved. Several of his stories hinge on temporal conundra, a favorite theme. He stated that he acquired many of his writing techniques from three books: Narrative Technique by Thomas Uzzell, The Only Two Ways to Write a Story by John Gallishaw, and Twenty Problems of the Fiction Writer by Gallishaw.<ref namepanshin/> He also claimed many of his ideas came from dreams; throughout his writing life he arranged to be awakened every 90&nbsp;minutes during his sleep period so he could write down his dreams.<ref nameplatt>Platt, Charles, [http://www.icshi.net/worlds/Plattprofile.htm "A. E. van Vogt – A Profile"]. From Who Writes Science Fiction? (London: Savoy Books, 1980); Dream Makers: The Uncommon People Who Write Science Fiction (Berkeley Books, 1980).</ref> Van Vogt was also always interested in the idea of all-encompassing systems of knowledge (akin to modern meta-systems). The characters in his very first story used a system called "Nexialism" to analyze the alien's behavior. Around this time, he became particularly interested in the general semantics of Alfred Korzybski.{{citation needed\|date=January 2025}} He subsequently wrote a novel merging these overarching themes, The World of Ā, originally serialized in Astounding in 1945. Ā (often rendered as Null-A), or non-Aristotelian logic, refers to the capacity for, and practice of, using intuitive, inductive reasoning (compare fuzzy logic), rather than reflexive, or conditioned, deductive reasoning. The novel recounts the adventures of an individual living in an apparent Utopia, where those with superior brainpower make up the ruling class... though all is not as it seems. A sequel, The Players of Ā (later re-titled The Pawns of Null-A) was serialized in 1948–49. At the same time, in his fiction, van Vogt was consistently sympathetic to absolute monarchy as a form of government.<ref name"DK">{{cite book\|lastKnight\|firstDamon\|author-linkDamon Knight\|date1967\|titleIn Search of Wonder\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/insearchofwonder0000knig\|url-accessregistration\|locationChicago\|publisherAdvent\|isbn=9780911682076}}</ref> This was the case, for instance, in the Weapon Shop series, the Mixed Men series, and in single stories such as "Heir Apparent" (1945), whose protagonist was described as a "benevolent dictator". These sympathies were the subject of much critical discussion during van Vogt's career, and afterwards. Van Vogt published "Enchanted Village" in the July 1950 issue of Other Worlds Science Stories. It was reprinted in over 20 collections or anthologies, and appeared many times in translation.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/title.cgi?56655 \|titleTitle: Enchanted Village \|websitewww.isfdb.org \|access-date10 March 2017}}</ref> Dianetics and fix-ups (1950–1961) In 1950, van Vogt was briefly appointed as head of L. Ron Hubbard's Dianetics operation in California. Van Vogt had first met Hubbard in 1945, and became interested in his theories, which were published shortly thereafter. Dianetics was the secular precursor to Hubbard's Church of Scientology; van Vogt would have no association with Scientology, as he did not approve of its mysticism. The California Dianetics operation went broke nine months later, but never went bankrupt, due to van Vogt's arrangements with creditors. Shortly afterward, van Vogt and his wife opened their own Dianetics center, partly financed by his writings, until he "signed off" around 1961. From 1951 until 1961, van Vogt's focus was on Dianetics, and no new story ideas flowed from his typewriter. Fix-ups However, during the 1950s, van Vogt retrospectively patched together many of his previously published stories into novels, sometimes creating new interstitial material to help bridge gaps in the narrative. Van Vogt referred to the resulting books as "fix-ups", a term that entered the vocabulary of science-fiction criticism. When the original stories were closely related this was often successful, although some van Vogt fix-ups featured disparate stories thrown together that bore little relation to each other, generally making for a less coherent plot. One of his best-known (and well-regarded) novels, The Voyage of the Space Beagle (1950) was a fix-up of four short stories including "Discord in Scarlet"; it was published in at least five European languages by 1955.<ref name=isfdb/> Although Van Vogt averaged a new book title every ten months from 1951 to 1961, none of them were entirely new content; they were all fix-ups, collections of previously published stories, expansions of previously published short stories to novel length, or republications of previous books under new titles and all based on story material written and originally published between 1939 and 1950. Examples include The Weapon Shops of Isher (1951), The Mixed Men (1952), The War Against the Rull (1959), and the two "Clane" novels, Empire of the Atom (1957) and The Wizard of Linn (1962), which were inspired (like Asimov's Foundation series) by Roman imperial history; specifically, as Damon Knight wrote, the plot of Empire of the Atom was "lifted almost bodily" from that of Robert Graves' I, Claudius.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Knight \|first1Damon \|author-link1Damon Knight \|titleIn Search of Wonder \|edition2nd \|dateMarch 1967 \|orig-yearFirst Edition 1956 \|publisherAdvent \|isbn0-911682-15-5 \|oclc489853415 \|page62 \|chapterCosmic Jerrybuilder: A. E. Van Vogt \|lccn=67-4260 }}</ref> (Also, one non-fiction work, The Hypnotism Handbook, appeared in 1956, though it had apparently been written much earlier.) After more than a decade of running their Dianetics center, Hull and van Vogt closed it in 1961. Nevertheless, van Vogt maintained his association with the organization and was still president of the Californian Association of Dianetic Auditors into the 1980s.<ref nameplatt/>Return to writing and later career (1962–1986) Though the constant re-packaging of his older work meant that he had never really been away from the book publishing world, van Vogt had not published any wholly new fiction for almost 12 years when he decided to return to writing in 1962. He did not return immediately to science fiction, but instead wrote the only mainstream, non-sf novel of his career. Van Vogt was profoundly affected by revelations of totalitarian police states that emerged after World War II. Accordingly, he wrote a mainstream novel that he set in Communist China, The Violent Man (1962). Van Vogt explained that to research this book he had read 100 books about China. Into this book he incorporated his view of "the violent male type", which he described as a "man who had to be right", a man who "instantly attracts women" and who he said were the men who "run the world".<ref name"HLDrake" /> Contemporary reviews were lukewarm at best,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/aa-van-vogt/the-violent-man/\|titleTHE VIOLENT MAN by A.A. Van Vogt\|viawww.kirkusreviews.com}}</ref> and van Vogt thereafter returned to science fiction. From 1963 through the mid-1980s, van Vogt once again published new material on a regular basis, though fix-ups and reworked material also appeared relatively often. His later novels included fix-ups such as The Beast (also known as Moonbeast) (1963), Rogue Ship (1965), Quest for the Future (1970) and Supermind (1977). He also wrote novels by expanding previously published short stories; works of this type include The Darkness on Diamondia (1972) and Future Glitter (also known as Tyranopolis; 1973). Novels that were written simply as novels, and not serialized magazine pieces or fix-ups, had been very rare in van Vogt's oeuvre, but began to appear regularly beginning in the 1970s. Van Vogt's original novels included Children of Tomorrow (1970), The Battle of Forever (1971) and The Anarchistic Colossus (1977). Over the years, many sequels to his classic works were promised, but only one appeared: Null-A Three (1984; originally published in French). Several later books were initially published in Europe, and at least one novel only ever appeared in foreign language editions and was never published in its original English. Final years When the 1979 film Alien appeared, it was noted that the plot closely matched the plots of both Black Destroyer and Discord in Scarlet, both published in Astounding magazine in 1939, and then later published in the 1950 book Voyage of the Space Beagle. Van Vogt sued the production company for plagiarism, and eventually collected an out-of-court settlement of $50,000 from 20th Century Fox.{{sfn\|Ketterer\|1992\|p47}}{{sfn\|Decker\|2016\|p31}} In increasingly frail health, van Vogt published his final short story in 1986. Personal life Van Vogt's first wife, Edna Mayne Hull, died in 1975. Van Vogt married Lydia Bereginsky in 1979; they remained together until his death. Death On January 26, 2000, A. E. van Vogt died in Los Angeles from Alzheimer's disease. He was survived by his second wife.<ref>{{cite web \|titleA E van Vogt \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2000/feb/01/news.obituaries \|websiteThe Guardian \|access-date14 February 2022 \|languageen \|date31 January 2000}}</ref> Critical reception Critical opinion about the quality of van Vogt's work is sharply divided. An early and articulate critic was Damon Knight. In a 1945<ref>Van Vogt, A E (1970). Introduction to The World Of Null-A (London: Sphere Science Fiction, 1976), p. viii</ref> chapter-long essay reprinted in In Search of Wonder,<ref name=DK/> entitled "Cosmic Jerrybuilder: A. E. van Vogt", Knight described van Vogt as "no giant; he is a pygmy who has learned to operate an overgrown typewriter". Knight described The World of Null-A as "one of the worst allegedly adult science fiction stories ever published". Concerning van Vogt's writing, Knight said: {{blockquote\|In general van Vogt seems to me to fail consistently as a writer in these elementary ways: 1. His plots do not bear examination. 2. His choice of words and his sentence-structure are fumbling and insensitive. 3. He is unable either to visualize a scene or to make a character seem real.}} About Empire of the Atom Knight wrote: {{blockquote\|If you can only throw your reasoning powers out of gear—something many van Vogt fans find easy to do—you'll enjoy this one.}} Knight also expressed misgivings about van Vogt's politics. He noted that van Vogt's stories almost invariably present absolute monarchy in a favorable light. In 1974, Knight retracted some of his criticism after finding out about Vogt's writing down his dreams as a part of his working methods:<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.depauw.edu/sfs/backissues/3/notes3.htm\|titleNotes, Reports, and Correspondence: Spring 1974\|access-date=March 15, 2016}}</ref> {{blockquote\|This explains a good deal about the stories, and suggests that it is really useless to attack them by conventional standards. If the stories have a dream consistency which affects readers powerfully, it is probably irrelevant that they lack ordinary consistency.}} Knight's criticism greatly damaged van Vogt's reputation.<ref name"latham2009">{{Cite book \|titleThe Routledge Companion to Science Fiction \|lastLatham \|firstRob \|publisherRoutledge \|year2009 \|isbn9781135228361 \|editor-lastBould \|editor-firstMark \|pages80–89 \|chapterFiction, 1950-1963 \|editor2-lastButler \|editor2-firstAndrew M. \|editor3-lastRoberts \|editor3-firstAdam \|editor4-lastVint \|editor4-firstSherryl \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idy7CNAgAAQBAJ&pgPA80}}</ref> On the other hand, when science fiction author Philip K. Dick was asked<ref namevertex>[http://www.philipkdick.com/media_vertex.html "Vertex Interviews Philip K. Dick"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101012062459/http://www.philipkdick.com/media_vertex.html \|date=October 12, 2010 }} . Vertex, Vol. 1, No. 6, February 1974.</ref> which science fiction writers had influenced his work the most, he replied: {{blockquote\|I started reading [science fiction] when I was about twelve and I read all I could, so any author who was writing about that time, I read. But there's no doubt who got me off originally and that was A. E. van Vogt. There was in van Vogt's writing a mysterious quality, and this was especially true in The World of Null-A. All the parts of that book did not add up; all the ingredients did not make a coherency. Now some people are put off by that. They think that's sloppy and wrong, but the thing that fascinated me so much was that this resembled reality more than anybody else's writing inside or outside science fiction.\|author\|title\|source=}} Dick also defended van Vogt against Damon Knight's criticisms: {{blockquote\|Damon feels that it's bad artistry when you build those funky universes where people fall through the floor. It's like he's viewing a story the way a building inspector would when he's building your house. But reality really is a mess, and yet it's exciting. The basic thing is, how frightened are you of chaos? And how happy are you with order? Van Vogt influenced me so much because he made me appreciate a mysterious chaotic quality in the universe which is not to be feared.}} In a review of Transfinite: The Essential A. E. van Vogt, science fiction writer Paul Di Filippo said: {{blockquote\|Van Vogt knew precisely what he was doing in all areas of his fiction writing. There's hardly a wasted word in his stories. ... His plots are marvels of interlocking pieces, often ending in real surprises and shocks, genuine paradigm shifts, which are among the hardest conceptions to depict. And the intellectual material of his fictions, the conceits and tossed-off observations on culture and human and alien behavior, reflect a probing mind. ... Each tale contains a new angle, a unique slant, that makes it stand out.<ref>DiFilippo, Paul: [http://www.scifi.com/sfw/issue326/books2.html "Off The Shelf"]. Retrieved January 19, 2003. {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050403090307/http://www.scifi.com/sfw/issue326/books2.html \|dateApril 3, 2005 }}</ref>}} In The John W. Campbell Letters, Campbell says, "The son-of-a-gun gets hold of you in the first paragraph, ties a knot around you, and keeps it tied in every paragraph thereafter—including the ultimate last one".<ref name"HLDrake">{{cite book \| last Drake\| first Harold L. \| title The Null-A Worlds of A. E. van Vogt \| publisher C. Drumm Books \| date 1989 \| isbn 093605543X}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \| last Campbell \| first John W.\| author-link John W. Campbell \| title The John W. Campbell Letters With Isaac Asimov and A. E. van Vogt \| volume 2 \| publisher A.C.Projects \| date 1991\| isbn = 978-0-931150-19-7 }}</ref> Harlan Ellison (who had begun reading van Vogt as a teenager)<ref name"harlan">Ellison, Harlan (June 1999), [http://www.sfrevu.com/ISSUES/2000/ARTICLES/20000128-03.htm "Van is Here, But Van is Gone"]. Introduction to Futures Past: The Best Short Fiction of A. E. van Vogt (Kilimanjaro Corp., 1999). Reprinted in "A. E. van Vogt, 1912–2000" (SFRevu 2001-01-28). Retrieved 2001-08-31.<br /> Quote: "Van is still with us, as I write this, in June of 1999, slightly less than fifty years since I first encountered van Vogt prose in a January 1950 issue of Startling Stories{{nbsp}}..."</ref> wrote, "Van was the first writer to shine light on the restricted ways in which I had been taught to view the universe and the human condition".<ref name"HLDrake" /> Writing in 1984, David Hartwell said:<ref name"Hartwell1984">{{cite book\|firstDavid G. \|lastHartwell\|titleAge of Wonders: Exploring the World of Science\|url{{google books \|plainurly \|id5GpIPgAACAAJ\|page131}}\|date1 June 1984\|publisherWashington Ave Books Incorporated\|isbn978-0-89366-163-2\|pages131–32}}</ref> {{blockquote\|No one has taken van Vogt seriously as a writer for a long time. Yet he has been read and still is. What no one seems to have noticed is that van Vogt, more than any other single SF writer, is the conduit through which the energy of Gernsbackian, primitive wonder stories have been transmitted through the Campbellian age, when earlier styles of SF were otherwise rejected, and on into SF of the present.}} The literary critic Leslie A. Fiedler said something similar:<ref name"SlusserRabkin1983">{{cite book\|firstLeslie A. \|lastFiedler\|editor1-firstGeorge Edgar \|editor1-lastSlusser\|editor2-firstEric S.\|editor2-lastRabkin\|editor3-firstRobert E. \|editor3-lastScholes\|titleCoordinates: placing science fiction and fantasy\|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idfX9ZAAAAMAAJ\|page10}}\|date1 August 1983\|publisherSouthern Illinois University Press\|isbn978-0-8093-1105-7\|pages10–11}}</ref> {{blockquote\|Van Vogt is a test case ... since an apology for or analysis of science fiction which fails to come to terms with his appeal and major importance, defends or defines the genre by falsifying it.}} American literary critic Fredric Jameson says of van Vogt: {{blockquote\|that van Vogt's work clearly prepares the way for that of the greatest of all Science Fiction writers, Philip K. Dick, whose extraordinary novels and stories are inconceivable without the opening onto that play of unconscious materials and fantasy dynamics released by van Vogt, and very different from the more hard-science aesthetic ideologies of his contemporaries (from Campbell to Heinlein).<ref>Jameson, Fredric. "The Space of Science Fiction: Narrative in Van Vogt", Archaeologies of the Future. The Desire Called Utopia and Other Science Fictions (New York: Verso, 2005).</ref>{{rp\|315}}}} Van Vogt still has his critics. For example, Darrell Schweitzer, writing to The New York Review of Science Fiction in 1999,<ref>Schweitzer, Darrell (1999), "Letters of Comment", The New York Review of Science Fiction, May 1999, Number 129, Vol. 11, No. 9.</ref> quoted a passage from the original van Vogt novelette "The Mixed Men", which he was then reading, and remarked: {{blockquote\|This is the realism, and logic, of a small boy playing with toy soldiers in a sandbox. I'm tougher than you. I've got a billion spaceships! They're brand-new. They only took 800 years to develop. And this is a story in which most of the cast either have two brains or are really robots ... and even the emotions of the human characters are programmed or deprogrammed as part of plots within counter plots. Next to this, Doc Smith was an icy realist. There is no intersection with adult reality at any point, for all van Vogt was able to write was that small boy's sandbox game with an adult level of intensity. This is, I think, the secret of van Vogt's bizarre fascination, as awful as his actual writing might be, and why he appealed so strongly to Philip K. Dick, who managed to put more adult characters and emotions into equally crazy situations. It's ultimately very strange to find this sort of writing so prominently sponsored by supposedly rational and scientifically minded John W. Campbell, when it seems to contravene everything the Golden Age stood for.}} Recognition In 1946, van Vogt and his first wife, Edna Mayne Hull, were Guests of Honor at the fourth World Science Fiction Convention.<ref name"Beetz1996">{{cite book\|firstKirk H. \|lastBeetz\|titleEncyclopedia of popular fiction\|url{{google books \|plainurly \|idMn4YAAAAIAAJ}}\|year1996\|publisherBeacham Pub.\|isbn978-0-933833-38-8}}</ref> In 1980, van Vogt received a "Casper Award" (precursor to the Canadian Prix Aurora Awards) for Lifetime Achievement.<ref>{{cite web \| lastMullin \| firstDennis \| dateOctober 27, 2007 \| urlhttp://www.sentex.net/~dmullin/aurora/hist_dat.html \| titlePrix AURORA Awards \| publisherCanadian Science Fiction and Fantasy Association \| access-dateMay 2, 2008 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080509122152/http://www.sentex.net/~dmullin/aurora/hist_dat.html \| archive-dateMay 9, 2008 \| url-statusdead \| dfmdy-all }}</ref><ref nameSFAwards/> The Science Fiction Writers of America (SFWA) named him its 14th Grand Master in 1995 (presented 1996).<ref name"SFWA" /> Great controversy within SFWA accompanied its long wait in bestowing its highest honor (limited to living writers, no more than one annually<ref name"SFWA" />). Writing an obituary of van Vogt, Robert J. Sawyer, a fellow Canadian writer of science fiction, remarked: {{blockquote\|There was no doubt that van Vogt should have received this honor much earlier—the injustice of him being overlooked, at least in part because of damnable SFWA politics, had so incensed Harlan Ellison, a man with an impeccable moral compass, that he'd lobbied hard on the Sci-Fi Channel and elsewhere on van Vogt's behalf.<ref>Sawyer, Robert J. [http://www.sfwriter.com/vanvogt.htm "Remembering A. E. van Vogt"]. Retrieved August 31, 2010.</ref>}} It is generally held that a key factor in the delay was "damnable SFWA politics" reflecting the concerns of Damon Knight, the founder of the SFWA, who abhorred van Vogt's style and politics and thoroughly demolished his literary reputation in the 1950s.<ref>Hartwell, David: "The Way We Were: A. E. van Vogt, 1912-2000", The New York Review of Science Fiction, March 2000, Number 139, Vol. 12, No. 7, page 24.</ref> Harlan Ellison was more explicit in 1999 introduction to Futures Past: The Best Short Fiction of A. E. van Vogt:<ref name="harlan"/> {{blockquote\|[A]t least I was able to make enough noise to get Van the Science Fiction Writers of America Grand Master Award, which was presented to him in full ceremony during one of the last moments when he was cogent and clearheaded enough to understand that finally, at last, dragged kicking and screaming to honor him, the generation that learned from what he did and what he had created had, at last, 'fessed up to his importance. ... were the same ones who assured me that Van would never get the Grand Master until Damon Knight had gotten it first, because Damon had loathed Van's work and had, in fact written the essay that ridiculed Van and held him up to opprobrium for decades thereafter, and Damon having founded SFWA it would be an affront to him if Van got it first. Well, I don't know if that's true or not, though it was common coin in the field for years; but Damon got the Grand Master award in 1994. And Van got it in 1995.{{efn\|The award was presented to Knight and van Vogt in 1995 and 1996 respectively, the years following selection. It is restricted to living authors, no more than one annually. It was renamed the Damon Knight Memorial Grand Master (Award) after Knight's death in 2002.<ref name=SFWA/>}} As they say during sweeps week on television: coincidence or conspiracy?}} In 1996, van Vogt received a Special Award from the World Science Fiction Convention "for six decades of golden age science fiction".<ref nameSFAwards/> That same year, the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame inducted him in its inaugural class of two deceased and two living persons, along with writer Jack Williamson (also living) and editors Hugo Gernsback and John W. Campbell.<ref namesfhof-old/> The works of van Vogt were translated into French by the surrealist Boris Vian (The World of Null-A as Le Monde des Å in 1958), and van Vogt's works were "viewed as great literature of the surrealist school".<ref>Watson, Ian (1999), "Science Fiction, Surrealism, and Shamanism", The New York Review of Science Fiction, June 1999, Number 130, Vol. 11, No. 10, page 9.</ref> In addition, Slan was published in French, translated by Jean Rosenthal, under the title À la poursuite des Slans, as part of the paperback series 'Editions J'ai Lu: Romans-Texte Integral' in 1973. This edition also listing the following works by van Vogt as having been published in French as part of this series: Le Monde des Å, ''La faune de l'espace, Les joueurs du Å, L'empire de l'atome, Le sorcier de Linn, Les armureries d'Isher, Les fabricants d'armes, and Le livre de Ptath.<ref>À la poursuite des Slans'', A. E. Van Vogt, Editions J'ai Lu, 31, rue de Tournon, Paris-VIe, 1973</ref> Van Vogt's last novel, 1985's To Conquer Kiber, has only been released in French (as À la conquête de Kiber.) Works <!-- is this intended to be complete at least for books? if not use "Selected works" --> Novels and novellas {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+ The following table can be sorted to show van Vogt's novels in chronological order,<br />or arranged alphabetically by title, or by series. Primary dates list first publication in book form.<br /> ! Year !! Title !! Series !! Notes !! Alternate titles \|- \|1946 \|Slan \| \|Originally serialized in Astounding Science Fiction, September – December 1940. \| \|- \|1947 \|The Weapon Makers \| Isher \|Significantly revised version of a novel serialized in Astounding Science Fiction, February – April 1943 It was revised again in 1952. \|One Against Eternity (1964) \|- \|1947 \|The Book of Ptath \| \|Originally appeared (complete) in Unknown, October 1943. \|Two Hundred Million A.D. (1964)<br /> Ptath (1976) \|- \|1948 \|The World of Ā \| Null-A \|Revised and shortened version of a novel originally serialized in Astounding Science Fiction, August – October 1945. It was revised again in 1970. \|The World of Null-A (all editions from 1953 forward) \|- \|1950 \|The House That Stood Still \| \| \|The Mating Cry (1960, revised)<br /> The Undercover Aliens (1976) \|- \|1950 \|The Voyage of the Space Beagle \| \|Fix-up of four short stories, originally published 1939 – 1950. \|Mission: Interplanetary (1952) \|- \|1951 \|The Weapon Shops of Isher \| Isher \|Fix-up of three short stories, originally published from 1941 to 1949. \| \|- \|1952 \|The Mixed Men \| \|Fix-up of three short stories, originally published 1943 to 1945. Significant modifications to the second story and a new 18,000 word section inserted between it and the first one, plus a new chapter-length epilogue. \|Mission to the Stars (1955) \|- \|1953 \|The Universe Maker \| \|Extensively rewritten and expanded version of the short story "The Shadow Men" (1950). \| \|- \|1954 \|The Pawns of Null-A \|Null-A \|Originally serialized (as The Players of Ā) in Astounding Science Fiction, October 1948–January 1949. \|The Players of Null-A (1966) \|- \|1957 \|The Mind Cage \| \|Extensively rewritten and expanded version of the short story "The Great Judge" (1948]. \| \|- \|1957 \|Empire of the Atom \|Clane \|Fix-up of five short stories, originally published 1946 to 1947. \| \|- \|1959 \|Siege of the Unseen \| \|Originally serialized (as The Chronicler) in Astounding Science Fiction, October – November 1946. \|The Three Eyes of Evil (1973) \|- \|1959 \|The War Against the Rull \| \|Fix-up of six short stories, originally published 1940 – 1950. \| \|- \|1960 \|''Earth's Last Fortress \| \|Novella. Originally appeared (complete, as "Recruiting Station") in Astounding Science Fiction, March 1942. \|Collected as "Masters Of Time" in the van Vogt collection Masters Of Time (1950). \|- \|1962 \|The Wizard of Linn \|Clane \|Originally serialized in Astounding Science Fiction, April–June 1950. \| \|- \|1962 \|The Violent Man \| \|Non-sf political thriller. \| \|- \|1963 \|The Beast \| \|Substantially revised fix-up of three short stories, originally published from 1943 to 1944. \|Moonbeast (1969) \|- \|1965 \|Rogue Ship \| \|Fix-up of three short stories, originally published 1947 to 1963. \| \|- \|1966 \|The Winged Man (with E. Mayne Hull) \| \|Originally serialized (and credited solely to E. Mayne Hull) in Astounding Science Fiction, May–June 1944. Greatly expanded (from 35,000 to 60,000 words) by van Vogt for book publication. \| \|- \|1967 \|The Changeling \| \|Novella, originally appeared (complete) in Astounding Science Fiction, April 1944. Previously collected in the van Vogt collection Masters Of Time (1950). \| \|- \|1969 \|The Silkie \| \|Fix-up of three short stories originally published 1964 to 1967. \| \|- \|1970 \|Children of Tomorrow \| \| \| \|- \|1970 \|Quest for the Future \| \|Fix-up of three short stories originally published 1943 to 1946. \| \|- \|1971 \|The Battle of Forever \| \| \| \|- \|1972 \|The Darkness on Diamondia \| \| \| \|- \|1973 \|Future Glitter \| \| \|Tyranopolis (1977) \|- \|1974 \|The Man with a Thousand Names \| \| \| \|- \|1974 \|The Secret Galactics \| \| \|Earth Factor X (1976) \|- \|1977 \|Supermind \| \|Fix-up of three short stories, originally published 1942 to 1968. The 1965 story "Research Alpha", minimally revised to form chapters 23-36 of this novel, was credited on its original publication to van Vogt and James H. Schmitz. \| \|- \|1977 \|The Anarchistic Colossus \| \| \| \|- \|1979 \|Renaissance \| \| \| \|- \|1979 \|Cosmic Encounter \| \| \| \|- \|1983 \|Computerworld \| \| \|Computer Eye (1985) \|- \|1984 \|Null-A Three \|Null-A \| \| \|- \|1985 \|To Conquer Kiber \| \|Unpublished in English. It was published in French as A la conquête de Kiber and in Romanian as Cucerirea Kiberului<ref>{{cite web\| last1Dubé\| first1Denis\| titlePlot Summary: To Conquer Kiber by A.E. van Vogt\| url http://www.icshi.net/sevagram/summaries/kiber.php\| websiteSevagram\| access-date12 June 2016}}</ref> \| \|} Special works published as books * Planets for Sale by E. Mayne Hull (1954). A fix-up of five stories by Hull, originally published 1942 to 1946. Certain later editions (from 1965) credit both authors. * The Enchanted Village (1979). A 25-page chapbook of a short story originally published in 1950. * Slan Hunter by Kevin J. Anderson (2007). A sequel to Slan, based an unfinished draft by van Vogt. * Null-A Continuum by John C. Wright (2008). An authorized continuation of the Null-A series which ignored the events of Null-A Three. Collections * Out of the Unknown (1948), with Edna Mayne Hull * Masters of Time (1950) (a.k.a. Recruiting Station) [also includes The Changeling, both works were later published separately] * Triad (1951) omnibus of The World of Null A, The Voyage of the Space Beagle, Slan. * Away and Beyond (1952) (abridged in paperback in 1959; abridged (differently) in paperback in 1963) * Destination: Universe! (1952) * The Twisted Men (1964) * Monsters (1965) (later as SF Monsters (1967)) abridged as The Blal (1976) * A Van Vogt Omnibus (1967), omnibus of Planets for Sale (with Edna Mayne Hull), The Beast, The Book of Ptath * The Far Out Worlds of Van Vogt (1968) * The Sea Thing and Other Stories (1970) (expanded from Out of the Unknown by adding an original story by Hull; later abridged in paperback as Out of the Unknown by removing 2 of the stories) * M33 in Andromeda (1971) * More Than Superhuman (1971) * The Proxy Intelligence and Other Mind Benders, ), with Edna Mayne Hull (1971), revised as The Gryb (1976) * Van Vogt Omnibus 2 (1971), omnibus of The Mind Cage, The Winged Man (with Edna Mayne Hull), Slan. * The Book of Van Vogt (1972), also published as Lost: Fifty Suns (1979) * The Three Eyes of Evil Including Earth's Last Fortress (1973) * The Best of A. E. van Vogt (1974) later split into 2 volumes * The Worlds of A. E. van Vogt (1974) (expanded from The Far Out Worlds of Van Vogt by adding 3 stories) * The Best of A. E. van Vogt (1976) [differs to 1974 edition] * Away and Beyond (1977) * Pendulum (1978) (almost all original stories and articles) * Tales from the Vulgar Unicorn (1980) (one short story by Van Vogt in a fantasy anthology by various authors) * Futures Past: The Best Short Fiction of A.E. Van Vogt (1999) * Transfinite: The Essential A.E. van Vogt (2002) * Transgalactic (2006) Nonfiction * The Hypnotism Handbook (1956, Griffin Publishing Company, with Charles Edward Cooke) * The Money Personality (1972, Parker Publishing Company Inc., West Nyack, NY, {{ISBN\|978-0-13-600676-3}}) * Reflections of A. E. Van Vogt: The Autobiography of a Science Fiction Giant (1979, Fictioneer Books Ltd., Lakemont, GA) * A Report on the Violent Male'' (1992, Paupers' Press, UK, {{ISBN\|978-0-946650-40-8}}) See also * {{Portal-inline\|Science fiction }} Explanatory notes {{notelist \|notes{{efn\|namemovies \|1= {{blockquote\|This [The voyage of the Space Beagle] is the classic 'bug-eyed monster' novel, the unacknowledged inspiration for the film Alien and scores of similar \|David Pringle\|(1990) "The Ultimate Guide to Science Fiction", Grafton Books, page 346.}} {{blockquote\|The stories collected in The Voyage of the Space Beagle were perhaps the first to chronicle the adventures of the crew of a large, military-style starship exploring the universe, and doubtless influenced Gene Roddenberry strongly when he created Star Trek. ... One of the Space Beagle stories purportedly inspired the movie Alien - the resemblance was great enough that van Vogt brought a lawsuit against the filmmakers, which reportedly settled for a $50,000 payment.\|Aaron Hughes\|[http://fantasticreviews.com/weapon_shops_of_isher.htm "Neglected Masters Book Review"] retrieved 2010-09-09}} {{blockquote\|... The Voyage Of The Space Beagle (1950), later inspired the original Star Trek series and the movie Alien.\|Trent Walters\|[http://www.zone-sf.com/vanvogtmethod.html "Oh, the Humanity of A.E. van Vogt's Monsters: Reorienting Critics and Readers to the van Vogt Method"] retrieved 2010-09-09}}. {{blockquote\|'Black Destroyer' has been cited as the inspiration for the movie Alien and its many sequels and imitations\|Gerald Jonas\|(2000) "A. E. van Vogt, 87, Forceful Science-Fiction Voice", New York Times obituary, 2000-02-04}} {{blockquote\|Alien is thus virtually a film version or translation of "Black Destroyer". (Van Vogt is not credited, and as it turns out he sued the film-makers for plagiarism; the latter settling out of court.\|Fredric Jameson\|Archaeologies of the Future. The Desire Called Utopia and Other Science Fictions (New York: Verso, 2005, pp. 325)}} }} }} Citations {{Reflist \|refs<ref nameisfdb> {{isfdb name \|58}} (ISFDB). Retrieved April 4, 2013.</ref> <!-- some awards refs --> <ref name=SFAwards> [http://www.locusmag.com/SFAwards/Db/NomLit140.html#5341 "van Vogt, A. E."] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121016201749/http://www.locusmag.com/SFAwards/Db/NomLit140.html#5341 \|dateOctober 16, 2012 }}. The Locus Index to SF Awards: Index to Literary Nominees. Locus Publications. Retrieved March 25, 2013.</ref> <ref name=SFWA> [http://www.sfwa.org/nebula-awards/nebula-weekend/events-program/grandmaster/ "Damon Knight Memorial Grand Master"] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110701114233/http://www.sfwa.org/nebula-awards/nebula-weekend/events-program/grandmaster/ \|dateJuly 1, 2011 }}. Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America (SFWA). Retrieved March 25, 2013.</ref> <ref name=sfhof-old> [http://www.midamericon.org/halloffame/ "Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame"] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130521070009/http://www.midamericon.org/halloffame/ \|dateMay 21, 2013 }}. Mid American Science Fiction and Fantasy Conventions, Inc. Retrieved March 25, 2013. This was the official website of the hall of fame to 2004.</ref> }} References * {{cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlii6CwAAQBAJ \|titleIndustrial Society and the Science Fiction Blockbuster: Social Critique in Films of Lucas, Scott and Cameron \|firstMark \|lastDecker \|publisherMcFarland \|year2016 \|isbn9781476623870 }} * {{cite book \|titleCanadian Science Fiction and Fantasy \|firstDavid \|lastKetterer \|publisherIndiana University Press \|year1992 \|isbn9780253331229 \|url-accessregistration \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/canadiansciencef00davi }} External links {{wikiquote}} * {{sfhof \|959 \| A. E. van Vogt}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20200114143142/http://www.icshi.net/sevagram/ Sevagram], the A.E. van Vogt information site * [http://www.locusmag.com/2000/News/News01e.html Obituary] at Locus * [https://web.archive.org/web/19990827065504/http://scifan.com/writers/vv/VanVogt.asp "Writers: A. E. van Vogt (1912–2000, Canada)"] – bibliography at SciFan * [http://hdl.handle.net/10407/6587030761 A. E. van Vogt Papers] (MS 322) at the [https://spencer.lib.ku.edu Kenneth Spencer Research Library], University of Kansas * {{isfdb name\|58}} * {{IBList\|typeauthor\|id649\|name=A. E. van Vogt}} * [https://www.freesfonline.net/authors/A.%20E._van%20Vogt.html A. E. van Vogt's fiction] at Free Speculative Fiction Online * {{OL author}} {{A. E. van Vogt}} {{Damon Knight Memorial Grand Master Awards}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Van Vogt, A. E.}} Category:1912 births Category:2000 deaths Category:20th-century American male writers Category:20th-century American novelists Category:20th-century American short story writers Category:American Mennonites Category:American male novelists Category:American male short story writers Category:American science fiction writers Category:Analog Science Fiction and Fact people Category:Canadian emigrants to the United States Category:Hugo Award–winning writers Category:Mennonite writers Category:Pulp fiction writers Category:SFWA Grand Masters Category:Science Fiction Hall of Fame inductees Category:Weird fiction writers Category:Writers from Winnipeg Category:Deaths from Alzheimer's disease in California Category:Deaths from dementia in California	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._E._van_Vogt	2025-04-05T18:25:25.685037
890	Anna Kournikova	{{Short description\|Russian tennis player and model (born 1981)}} {{for\|the computer virus\|Anna Kournikova (computer virus)}} {{pp-blp\|small=yes}} {{family name hatnote\|Sergeyevna\|Kournikova\|lang=Eastern Slavic}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=March 2024}} {{Infobox person \|name = Anna Kournikova \|image = Anna Kournikova-Bagram Airfield 2009.jpg \|caption = Kournikova at Bagram Air Base during a 2009 USO tour \|native_name = {{nobold\|Анна Курникова}} \|native_name_lang = ru \|birth_date {{birth date and age\|dfy\|1981\|06\|07}} \|birth_place = Moscow, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union \|height {{convert\|1.73\|m\|ftin\|abbron}} \|partner = Enrique Iglesias (2001–present) \|module {{Infobox tennis biography \| embedyes \|fullname \|country Russia \|residence = Miami Beach, Florida, U.S. \|turnedpro = October 1995 \|retired = May 2003 \|plays = Right-handed (two-handed backhand) \|careerprizemoney = US$3,584,662 \|singlesrecord {{tennis record\|won209\|lost=129}} \|singlestitles = 0 \|highestsinglesranking = No. 8 (20 November 2000) \|AustralianOpenresult = QF (2001) \|FrenchOpenresult = 4R (1998, 1999) \|Wimbledonresult = SF (1997) \|USOpenresult = 4R (1996, 1998) \|Othertournaments = yes \|WTAChampionshipsresult = SF (2000) \|Olympicsresult = 1R (1996) \|doublesrecord = 200–71 \|doublestitles = 16 \|highestdoublesranking = No. 1 (22 November 1999) \|AustralianOpenDoublesresult = W (1999, 2002) \|FrenchOpenDoublesresult = F (1999) \|WimbledonDoublesresult = SF (2000, 2002) \|USOpenDoublesresult = QF (1996, 2002) \|OthertournamentsDoubles = yes \|WTAChampionshipsDoublesresult = W (1999, 2000) \|Mixed = yes \|mixedrecord = 24–14 \|mixedtitles \|AustralianOpenMixedresult SF (1997, 2000) \|FrenchOpenMixedresult = QF (1997) \|WimbledonMixedresult = F (1999) \|USOpenMixedresult = F (2000) }} }} Anna Sergeyevna Kournikova Iglesias (née Kournikova; {{lang-rus\|Анна Сергеевна Курникова\|pˈanːə sʲɪrˈɡʲejɪvnə ˈkurnʲɪkəvə\|aAnna_kournikova.ogg}}; born 7 June 1981) is a Russian model and television personality, and former professional tennis player. Her appearance <!-- Per WP:NPOV, do not label her appearance as "beauty" or anything else --> and celebrity status made her one of the best known tennis stars worldwide. At the peak of her fame, fans looking for images of Kournikova made her name one of the most common search strings on Google Search.<ref name2001EOY>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.google.com/press/zeitgeist2001.html\|title2001 Year-End Google Zeitgeist: Search patterns, trends, and surprises\|access-date8 July 2009}}</ref><ref name2002EOY>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.google.com/press/zeitgeist2002.html\|title2002 Year-End Google Zeitgeist: Search patterns, trends, and surprises\|access-date8 July 2009}}</ref><ref name2003EOY>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.google.com/intl/en/press/zeitgeist2003.html\|title2003 Year-End Google Zeitgeist: Search patterns, trends, and surprises\|access-date9 July 2009}}</ref> Despite never winning a singles title, she reached No.&nbsp;8 in the world in 2000. She achieved greater success playing doubles, where she was at times the world No.&nbsp;1 player. With Martina Hingis as her partner, she won Grand Slam titles in Australia in 1999 and 2002, and the WTA Championships in 1999 and 2000. They referred to themselves as the "Spice Girls of Tennis".<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/sports/tennis/longterm/1999/ausopen/articles/doubles29.htm\|titleHingis-Kournikova Win Australian Open Doubles\|newspaperThe Washington Post \|date29 January 1999\|access-date10 March 2017\|firstTony\|lastHarper}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/tennis/wimbledon/7862258/Wimbledon-2010-Anna-Kournikova-and-Martina-Hingis-lend-some-spice-to-Court-Two.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/tennis/wimbledon/7862258/Wimbledon-2010-Anna-Kournikova-and-Martina-Hingis-lend-some-spice-to-Court-Two.html \|archive-date11 January 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive \|titleWimbledon 2010: Anna Kournikova and Martina Hingis lend some spice to Court Two\|workThe Daily Telegraph \|locationUK\|date29 June 2010\|access-date5 May 2016\|firstBrendan\|last=Gallagher}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Kournikova retired from professional tennis in 2003 due to serious back and spinal problems, including a herniated disk.<ref name"pre">{{cite web\|urlhttp://blogs.montrealgazette.com/2010/02/18/alla-kournikova-not-mother-of-the-year/\|titleAlla Kournikova – not mother of the year\|lastMyles\|firstStephanie\|date18 February 2010\|workThe Gazette\|access-date10 August 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140906110120/http://blogs.montrealgazette.com/2010/02/18/alla-kournikova-not-mother-of-the-year/\|archive-date6 September 2014\|url-statusdead}}</ref> She lives in Miami Beach, Florida, and played in occasional exhibitions and in doubles for the St.&nbsp;Louis Aces of World TeamTennis before the team folded in 2011.<ref name"WTA">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.sonyericssonwtatour.com/page/Player/Info/0,,12781~4285,00.html \|titlePlayers – Info – Anna Kournikova \|publisherSony Ericsson WTA Tour \|access-date10 March 2012 \|archive-date30 August 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090830164131/http://www.sonyericssonwtatour.com/page/Player/Info/0,,12781~4285,00.html \|url-statusdead }}</ref> She was a new trainer for season 12 of the television show The Biggest Loser, replacing Jillian Michaels, but did not return for season 13. In addition to her tennis and television work, Kournikova serves as a Global Ambassador for Population Services International's "Five & Alive" program, which addresses health crises facing children under the age of five and their families.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.concierge.com/cntraveler/blogs/80days/2009/02/day-one-child-s.html \|titleAnna Kournikova in Haiti, Day One: Child Survival \|workThe Daily Traveler \|date27 February 2009 \|access-date25 August 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111020112223/http://www.concierge.com/cntraveler/blogs/80days/2009/02/day-one-child-s.html \|archive-date20 October 2011 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Early life Kournikova was born in Moscow, Russia, on 7 June 1981. Her father, Sergei Kournikov (born 1961),<ref name"community.kournikova.com">{{cite web \|urlhttp://community.kournikova.com/showthread.php?t32375 \|titleAnna's official discussion forum \|publisherCommunity.kournikova.com \|access-date10 March 2012 \|archive-date21 November 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111121022848/http://community.kournikova.com/showthread.php?t32375 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> a former Greco-Roman wrestling champion, eventually earned a PhD and was a professor at the University of Physical Culture and Sport in Moscow. As of 2001, he was still a part-time martial arts instructor there. Her mother Alla (born 1963) had been a 400-metre runner.<ref name"sportsmates.com"/> Her younger half-brother, Allan, is a youth golf world champion who was featured in the 2013 documentary film The Short Game.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.pga.com/news/golf-buzz/anna-kournikova-little-brother-allan-blossoming-golf-champion\|titleAnna Kournikova's Little Brother is a Blossoming Golf Champion\|authorHolmes, John\|websitePGA.com\|publisherProfessional Golfers Association\|access-date22 June 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130619160742/http://www.pga.com/news/golf-buzz/anna-kournikova-little-brother-allan-blossoming-golf-champion\|archive-date19 June 2013\|url-status=dead}}</ref> Sergei Kournikov has said, "We were young and we liked the clean, physical life, so Anna was in a good environment for sport from the beginning".<ref name="sportsmates.com"/> Kournikova received her first tennis racquet as a New Year gift in 1986 at the age of five. Describing her early regimen, she said, "I played two times a week from age six. It was a children's program. And it was just for fun; my parents didn't know I was going to play professionally, they just wanted me to do something because I had lots of energy. It was only when I started playing well at seven that I went to a professional academy. I would go to school, and then my parents would take me to the club, and I'd spend the rest of the day there just having fun with the kids."<ref name"sportsmates.com">{{cite web\|titleAnna Kournikova: Description\|urlhttp://www.sportsmates.com/index.php?cmdview_gallery&gal_id380&image_id5975&page1&club_id2461\|websiteSportsmates\|access-date10 March 2012\|url-statususurped\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081206065346/http://www.sportsmates.com/index.php?cmdview_gallery&gal_id380&image_id5975&page1&club_id2461\|archive-date6 December 2008}}</ref> In 1986, Kournikova became a member of the Spartak Tennis Club, coached by Larissa Preobrazhenskaya.<ref name"kournikova.com">{{cite web\|titleAbout Me: Biography\|urlhttp://www.kournikova.com/about/bio\|websiteKournikova.com – The Official Website of Anna Kournikova\|access-date10 March 2012\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120323181546/http://www.kournikova.com/about/bio\|archive-date23 March 2012}} Original redirects to Facebook.</ref> In 1989, at the age of eight, Kournikova began appearing in junior tournaments, and by the following year, was attracting attention from tennis scouts across the world. She signed a management deal at age ten and went to Bradenton, Florida, to train at Nick Bollettieri's celebrated tennis academy.<ref name"kournikova.com"/> Tennis career 1989–1997: early years and breakthrough Following her arrival in the United States, she became prominent on the tennis scene.<ref name"kournikova.com"/> At the age of 14, she won the European Championships and the Italian Open Junior tournament. In December 1995, she became the youngest player to win the 18-and-under division of the Junior Orange Bowl tennis tournament.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.itftennis.com/juniors/tournaments/tournament/info.aspx?tournamentid1030000669\|titleITF Tennis – JUNIORS – 49th Rolex Orange Bowl International Championships – 17 December – 24 December 1995\|access-date20 October 2018\|archive-date20 October 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181020223911/https://www.itftennis.com/juniors/tournaments/tournament/info.aspx?tournamentid1030000669\|url-statusdead}}</ref> By the end of the year, Kournikova was crowned the ITF Junior World Champion U-18<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.itftennis.com/juniors/rankings/world-champions.aspx\|titleITF Tennis – JUNIORS\|access-date20 October 2018\|archive-date3 October 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181003080555/https://www.itftennis.com/juniors/rankings/world-champions.aspx\|url-statusdead}}</ref> and Junior European Champion U-18.<ref name="kournikova.com"/> Earlier, in September 1995, Kournikova, still only 14 years of age, debuted in the WTA Tour,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.sport-express.ru/newspaper/1998-10-19/15_1/\|titleОт Мейджерс до Новотной. Краткая история турниров WTA Tour в России\|date19 October 1998\|publisherSport Express\|access-date10 November 2019\|languageru}}</ref> when she received a wildcard into the qualifications at the WTA tournament in Moscow, the Moscow Ladies Open, and qualified before losing in the second round of the main draw to third-seeded Sabine Appelmans. She also reached her first WTA Tour doubles final in that debut appearance – partnering with 1995 Wimbledon girls' champion in both singles and doubles Aleksandra Olsza, she lost the title match to Meredith McGrath and Larisa Savchenko-Neiland. In February–March 1996, Kournikova won two ITF titles, in Midland, Michigan and Rockford, Illinois. Still only 14 years of age, in April 1996 she debuted at the Fed Cup for Russia,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.fedcup.com/en/players/player.aspx?id800192149\|titleAnna Kpournikova Fed Cup profile (Fed Cup – Players)\|access-date20 October 2018\|archive-date20 October 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181020223845/https://www.fedcup.com/en/players/player.aspx?id800192149\|url-statusdead}}</ref> the youngest player ever to participate and win a match.<ref name="kournikova.com"/> In 1996, she started playing under a new coach, Ed Nagel. Her six-year association with Nagel was successful. At 15, she made her Grand Slam debut, reaching the fourth round of the 1996 US Open, losing to Steffi Graf, the eventual champion. After this tournament, Kournikova's ranking jumped from No.&nbsp;144 to debut in the Top 100 at&nbsp;No. 69.<ref name"WTA Review">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.sonyericssonwtatour.com/page/Player/Info/0,,12781~4285,00.html \|titlePlayers &#124; Info (Career in Review) &#124; Anna Kournikova \|publisherSony Ericsson WTA Tour \|access-date10 March 2012 \|archive-date30 August 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090830164131/http://www.sonyericssonwtatour.com/page/Player/Info/0,,12781~4285,00.html \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Kournikova was a member of the Russian delegation to the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta, Georgia. In 1996, she was named WTA Newcomer of the Year,<ref name"kournikova.com"/> and she was ranked No. 57 in the end of the season.<ref name"WTA"/> Kournikova entered the 1997 Australian Open as world No. 67,<ref name"WTA Activity">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.sonyericssonwtatour.com/page/Player/Activity/0,,12781~4285,00.html \|titlePlayers &#124; Anna Kournikova \|publisherSony Ericsson WTA Tour \|access-date10 March 2012 \|archive-date5 September 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100905050144/http://www.sonyericssonwtatour.com/page/Player/Activity/0,,12781~4285,00.html \|url-statusdead }}</ref> where she lost in the first round to world No. 12, Amanda Coetzer. At the Italian Open, Kournikova lost to Amanda Coetzer in the second round. She reached the semi-finals in the doubles partnering with Elena Likhovtseva, before losing to the sixth seeds Mary Joe Fernández and Patricia Tarabini.<ref name="WTA Activity"/> At the French Open, Kournikova made it to the third round before losing to world No. 1, Martina Hingis. She also reached the third round in doubles with Likhovtseva. At the Wimbledon Championships, Kournikova became only the second woman in the open era to reach the semi-finals in her Wimbledon debut, the first being Chris Evert in 1972.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.wtatennis.com/players/player/110375/title/anna-kournikova#bio\|titleAnna Kournikova bio\|websiteWTA Tennis\|date7 April 2017 \|access-date20 October 2018 \|author1Admin }}</ref> There she lost to eventual champion Martina Hingis. At the US Open, she lost in the second round to the eleventh seed Irina Spîrlea. Partnering with Likhovtseva, she reached the third round of the women's doubles event.<ref name"WTA Activity"/> Kournikova played her last WTA Tour event of 1997 at Porsche Tennis Grand Prix in Filderstadt, losing to Amanda Coetzer in the second round of singles, and in the first round of doubles to Lindsay Davenport and Jana Novotná partnering with Likhovtseva. She broke into the top 50 on 19 May, and was ranked No. 32 in singles and No. 41 in doubles at the end of the season.<ref name"Official Website – Tennis Stats">{{cite web\|titleAbout Me: Tennis Stats\|urlhttp://www.kournikova.com/about/stats\|websiteKournikova.com – The Official Website of Anna Kournikova\|access-date10 March 2012\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120517191733/http://www.kournikova.com/about/stats\|archive-date17 May 2012}} Original redirects to Facebook.</ref> 1998–2000: success and stardom In 1998, Kournikova broke into the WTA's top 20 rankings for the first time, when she was ranked No. 16. At the Australian Open, Kournikova lost in the third round to world No. 1 player, Martina Hingis. She also partnered with Larisa Savchenko-Neiland in women's doubles, and they lost to eventual champions Hingis and Mirjana Lučić in the second round.<ref name"WTA Activity"/> Although she lost in the second round of the Paris Open to Anke Huber in singles, Kournikova reached her second doubles WTA Tour final, partnering with Larisa Savchenko-Neiland. They lost to Sabine Appelmans and Miriam Oremans. Kournikova and Savchenko-Neiland reached their second consecutive final at the Linz Open, losing to Alexandra Fusai and Nathalie Tauziat. At the Miami Open, Kournikova reached her first WTA Tour singles final, before losing to Venus Williams in the final.<ref name="WTA Review"/> for a match at the Family Circle Cup in Charleston, South Carolina, in 2002]] Kournikova then reached two consecutive quarterfinals, at Amelia Island and the Italian Open, losing respectively to Lindsay Davenport and Martina Hingis. At the German Open, she reached the semi-finals in both singles and doubles, partnering with Larisa Savchenko-Neiland. At the French Open Kournikova had her best result at this tournament, making it to the fourth round before losing to Jana Novotná. She also reached her first Grand Slam doubles semi-finals, losing with Savchenko-Neiland to Lindsay Davenport and Natasha Zvereva. During her quarterfinals match at the grass-court Eastbourne Open versus Steffi Graf, Kournikova injured her thumb, which would eventually force her to withdraw from the 1998 Wimbledon Championships.<ref name"WTA Review"/> However, she won that match, but then withdrew from her semi-finals match against Arantxa Sánchez Vicario.<ref name"WTA Review"/> Kournikova returned for the Du Maurier Open and made it to the third round, before losing to Conchita Martínez. At the US Open Kournikova reached the fourth round before losing to Arantxa Sánchez Vicario. Her strong year qualified her for the year-end 1998 WTA Tour Championships, but she lost to Monica Seles in the first round. However, with Seles, she won her first WTA doubles title, in Tokyo, beating Mary Joe Fernández and Arantxa Sánchez Vicario in the final. At the end of the season, she was ranked No. 10 in doubles.<ref name="Official Website – Tennis Stats"/> At the start of the 1999 season, Kournikova advanced to the fourth round in singles at the Australian Open before losing to Mary Pierce. In the doubles Kournikova won her first Grand Slam title, partnering with Martina Hingis to defeat Lindsay Davenport and Natasha Zvereva in the final. At the Tier I Family Circle Cup, Kournikova reached her second WTA Tour final, but lost to Martina Hingis.<ref name"Official Website – Tennis Stats"/> She then defeated Jennifer Capriati, Lindsay Davenport and Patty Schnyder on her route to the Bausch & Lomb Championships semi-finals, losing to Ruxandra Dragomir. At The French Open, Kournikova reached the fourth round before losing to eventual champion Steffi Graf.<ref name"Official Website – Tennis Stats"/> Once the grass-court season commenced in England, Kournikova lost to Nathalie Tauziat in the semi-finals in Eastbourne. At Wimbledon, Kournikova lost to Venus Williams in the fourth round. She also reached the final in mixed doubles, partnering with Jonas Björkman, but they lost to Leander Paes and Lisa Raymond. Kournikova again qualified for year-end WTA Tour Championships, but lost to Mary Pierce in the first round, and ended the season as World No. 12.<ref name="Official Website – Tennis Stats"/> While Kournikova had a successful singles season, she was even more successful in doubles. After their victory at the Australian Open, she and Martina Hingis won tournaments in Indian Wells, Rome, Eastbourne and the WTA Tour Championships, and reached the final of The French Open where they lost to Serena and Venus Williams. Partnering with Elena Likhovtseva, Kournikova also reached the final in Stanford. On 22 November 1999 she reached the world No. 1 ranking in doubles, and ended the season at this ranking. Kournikova and Hingis were presented with the WTA Award for Doubles Team of the Year. Kournikova opened her 2000 season winning the Gold Coast Open doubles tournament partnering with Julie Halard. She then reached the singles semi-finals at the Medibank International Sydney, losing to Lindsay Davenport. At the Australian Open, she reached the fourth round in singles and the semi-finals in doubles. That season, Kournikova reached eight semi-finals (Sydney, Scottsdale, Stanford, San Diego, Luxembourg, Leipzig and Tour Championships), seven quarterfinals (Gold Coast, Tokyo, Amelia Island, Hamburg, Eastbourne, Zürich and Philadelphia) and one final. On 20 November 2000 she broke into top 10 for the first time, reaching No. 8.<ref name"Official Website – Tennis Stats"/> She was also ranked No. 4 in doubles at the end of the season.<ref name"Official Website – Tennis Stats"/> Kournikova was once again, more successful in doubles. She reached the final of the US Open in mixed doubles, partnering with Max Mirnyi, but they lost to Jared Palmer and Arantxa Sánchez Vicario. She also won six doubles titles – Gold Coast (with Julie Halard), Hamburg (with Natasha Zvereva), Filderstadt, Zürich, Philadelphia and the Tour Championships (with Martina Hingis). 2001–2003: injuries and final years Her 2001 season was plagued by injuries, including a left foot stress fracture which made her withdraw from 12 tournaments, including the French Open and Wimbledon.<ref name"WTA Review"/> She underwent surgery in April.<ref name"WTA Review"/> She reached her second career grand slam quarterfinals, at the Australian Open. Kournikova then withdrew from several events due to continuing problems with her left foot and did not return until Leipzig. With Barbara Schett, she won the doubles title in Sydney. She then lost in the finals in Tokyo, partnering with Iroda Tulyaganova, and at San Diego, partnering with Martina Hingis. Hingis and Kournikova also won the Kremlin Cup. At the end of the 2001 season, she was ranked No. 74 in singles and No. 26 in doubles.<ref name="Official Website – Tennis Stats"/> Kournikova regained some success in 2002. She reached the semi-finals of Auckland, Tokyo, Acapulco and San Diego, and the final of the China Open, losing to Anna Smashnova. This was Kournikova's last singles final. With Martina Hingis, she lost in the final at Sydney, but they won their second Grand Slam title together, the Australian Open. They also lost in the quarterfinals of the US Open. With Chanda Rubin, Kournikova played the semi-finals of Wimbledon, but they lost to Serena and Venus Williams. Partnering with Janet Lee, she won the Shanghai title. At the end of 2002 season, she was ranked No. 35 in singles and No. 11 in doubles.<ref name="Official Website – Tennis Stats"/> In 2003, Anna Kournikova achieved her first Grand Slam match victory in two years at the Australian Open. She defeated Henrieta Nagyová in the first round, and then lost to Justine Henin-Hardenne in the 2nd round. She withdrew from Tokyo due to a sprained back suffered at the Australian Open and did not return to Tour until Miami. On 9 April, in what would be the final WTA match of her career, Kournikova dropped out in the first round of the Family Circle Cup in Charleston, due to a left adductor strain. Her singles world ranking was 67. She reached the semi-finals at the ITF tournament in Sea Island, before withdrawing from a match versus Maria Sharapova due to the adductor injury. She lost in the first round of the ITF tournament in Charlottesville. She did not compete for the rest of the season due to a continuing back injury. At the end of the 2003 season and her professional career, she was ranked No. 305 in singles and No. 176 in doubles.<ref name="Official Website – Tennis Stats"/> Kournikova's two Grand Slam doubles titles came in 1999 and 2002, both at the Australian Open in the Women's Doubles event with partner Martina Hingis. Kournikova proved a successful doubles player on the professional circuit, winning 16 tournament doubles titles, including two Australian Opens and being a finalist in mixed doubles at the US Open and at Wimbledon, and reaching the No. 1 ranking in doubles in the WTA Tour rankings. Her pro career doubles record was 200–71. However, her singles career plateaued after 1999. For the most part, she managed to retain her ranking between 10 and 15 (her career high singles ranking was No.8), but her expected finals breakthrough failed to occur; she only reached four finals out of 130 singles tournaments, never in a Grand Slam event, and never won one. Her singles record is 209–129. Her final playing years were marred by a string of injuries, especially back injuries, which caused her ranking to erode gradually. As a personality Kournikova was among the most common search strings for both articles and images in her prime.<ref name2001EOY/><ref name2002EOY/><ref name2003EOY/> 2004–present: exhibitions and World Team Tennis Sharana on 15 December 2009]] Kournikova has not played on the WTA Tour since 2003, but still plays exhibition matches for charitable causes. In late 2004, she participated in three events organized by Elton John and by fellow tennis players Serena Williams and Andy Roddick. In January 2005, she played in a doubles charity event for the Indian Ocean tsunami with John McEnroe, Andy Roddick, and Chris Evert. In November 2005, she teamed up with Martina Hingis, playing against Lisa Raymond and Samantha Stosur in the WTT finals for charity. Kournikova is also a member of the St. Louis Aces in the World Team Tennis (WTT), playing doubles only. In September 2008, Kournikova showed up for the 2008 Nautica Malibu Triathlon held at Zuma Beach in Malibu, California.<ref name"2008 Nautica Malibu Triathlon">{{cite web\|titleGallery Page – Anna Kournikova showed up yesterday for the 2008 Nautica Malibu Triathlon held at Zuma Beach in Malibu. The Race raised funds for children's Hospital Los Angeles. Good work!\|urlhttp://www.sportsmates.com/index.php?cmdview_gallery&gal_id408&club_id2461\|websiteSportsmates\|url-statususurped\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081206065352/http://www.sportsmates.com/index.php?cmdview_gallery&gal_id408&club_id2461\|archive-date6 December 2008}}</ref> The Race raised funds for children's Hospital Los Angeles. She won that race for women's K-Swiss team.<ref name"2008 Nautica Malibu Triathlon"/> On 27 September 2008, Kournikova played exhibition mixed doubles matches in Charlotte, North Carolina, partnering with Tim Wilkison and Karel Nováček.<ref name"Mixed Doubles Exhibition in Charlotte">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.sportsmates.com/index.php?cmdview_gallery&gal_id465&club_id2461\|titleSport Mates Gallery: Mixed Doubles Exhibition in Charlotte, North Carolina\|websiteSportsmates\|url-statusdead\|access-date28 September 2008\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181107013455/http://www.sportsmates.com/index.php?cmdview_gallery&gal_id465&club_id2461\|archive-date7 November 2018}}</ref> Kournikova and Wilkison defeated Jimmy Arias and Chanda Rubin, and then Kournikova and Novacek defeated Rubin and Wilkison.<ref name="Mixed Doubles Exhibition in Charlotte"/> On 12 October 2008, Anna Kournikova played one exhibition match for the annual charity event, hosted by Billie Jean King and Elton John, and raised more than $400,000 for the Elton John AIDS Foundation and Atlanta AIDS Partnership Fund.<ref name"Elton John AIDS Foundation">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.sportsmates.com/index.php?cmdview_gallery&gal_id538&club_id2461\|titleThe annual charity event raised more than $400,000 for the Elton John AIDS Foundation and Atlanta AIDS Partnership Fund\|websiteSportsmates\|url-statusdead\|access-date13 October 2008\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181107013451/http://www.sportsmates.com/index.php?cmdview_gallery&gal_id538&club_id2461\|archive-date7 November 2018}}</ref> She played doubles with Andy Roddick (they were coached by David Chang) versus Martina Navratilova and Jesse Levine (coached by Billie Jean King); Kournikova and Roddick won.<ref name="Elton John AIDS Foundation"/> Kournikova was one of "four former world No. 1 players" who participated in "Legendary Night", held on 2 May 2009, at the Turning Stone Event Center in Verona, New York, the others being John McEnroe (who had been No. 1 in both singles and doubles), Tracy Austin and Jim Courier (both of whom who had been No. 1 in singles but not doubles).<ref name="Big Time Tennis Names to CNY"> [http://www.cnycentral.com/sports/sports_story.aspx?id274916 Big Time Tennis Names to CNY] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100716074244/http://www.cnycentral.com/sports/sports_story.aspx?id274916 \|date16 July 2010 }} CNY Central, 17 March 2009 </ref> The exhibition included a mixed doubles match in which McEnroe and Kournikova defeated Courier and Austin. In 2008, she was named a spokesperson for K-Swiss.<ref>{{cite press release \|urlhttp://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT104&STORY/www/story/02-22-2007/0004532708&EDATE \|titleK-Swiss Announces Anna Kournikova As New Spokesperson for the Brand \|access-date9 April 2008 \|date22 February 2008 \|publisherK-Swiss \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080509064358/http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT104&STORY%2Fwww%2Fstory%2F02-22-2007%2F0004532708&EDATE \|archive-date9 May 2008 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> In 2005, Kournikova stated that if she were 100% fit, she would like to come back and compete again.<ref>Elle July 2005, page #?</ref> In June 2010, Kournikova reunited with her doubles partner Martina Hingis to participate in competitive tennis for the first time in seven years in the Invitational Ladies Doubles event at Wimbledon.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/8661576.stm\|titleHingis and Kournikova to return to Wimbledon\|publisherBBC Sport\|date5 May 2010\|access-date5 May 2010\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20100508084023/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/8661576.stm\| archive-date8 May 2010 \| url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/tennis/wtatour/7680950/Martina-Hingis-and-Anna-Kournikova-to-be-reunited-for-double-act-at-Wimbledon.html\|titleMartina Hingis and Anna Kournikova to be reunited\|workThe Daily Telegraph \|locationUK\|date5 May 2010\|access-date5 May 2010\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100508115632/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/tennis/wtatour/7680950/Martina-Hingis-and-Anna-Kournikova-to-be-reunited-for-double-act-at-Wimbledon.html\| archive-date 8 May 2010 \| url-statuslive}}</ref> On 29 June 2010 they defeated the British pair Samantha Smith and Anne Hobbs.<ref>{{cite news \|titleAnna Kournikova and Martina Hingis turn on the old charm at Wimbledon \|firstAndy \|lastBull \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/sport/2010/jun/29/anna-kournikova-martina-hingis-wimbledon \|newspaperThe Guardian \|locationLondon \|issn0261-3077 \|oclc60623878 \|date30 June 2010\|access-date=20 June 2011}} </ref> Playing style Kournikova plays right-handed with a two-handed backhand.<ref name"WTA"/> She is a great player at the net.<ref>{{cite news \| url https://www.nytimes.com/1996/08/27/sports/substance-behind-those-shades.html \| title Substance Behind Those Shades \| access-date7 July 2008 \| date 27 August 1996\| first Selena \| last Roberts \| work The New York Times }}</ref> She can hit forceful groundstrokes and also drop shots.<ref>{{cite news \| url https://www.nytimes.com/1997/07/21/sports/rubin-defeats-kournikova-in-exhibition-final.html \| work The New York Times \| access-date 7 July 2008 \| date 21 July 1997 \| first Ron \| last Dicker \| title = Rubin Defeats Kournikova in Exhibition Final }}</ref> Her playing style fits the profile for a doubles player, and is complemented by her height.<ref name"sweetannakournikova.com">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.sweetannakournikova.com/bio.php \|titleSweet Anna Kournikova – Biography \|publisherSweetannakournikova.com \|date7 June 1981 \|access-date10 March 2012 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120316175548/http://www.sweetannakournikova.com/bio.php \|archive-date16 March 2012 }}</ref> She has been compared to such doubles specialists as Pam Shriver and Peter Fleming.<ref name"sweetannakournikova.com"/> Personal life Kournikova was in a relationship with fellow Russian, Pavel Bure, an NHL ice hockey player. The two met in 1999, when Kournikova was still linked to Bure's former Russian teammate Sergei Fedorov.<ref namearbat>{{cite news \|titlePeople: Courtney Love, Scissor Sisters, Antonio Moral \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/11/arts/11iht-peepsat.html \|access-date12 July 2009 \|date11 February 2005 \|workThe New York Times}}</ref> Bure and Kournikova were reported to have been engaged in 2000 after a reporter took a photo of them together in a Florida restaurant where Bure supposedly asked Kournikova to marry him. As the story made headlines in Russia, where they were both heavily followed in the media as celebrities, Bure and Kournikova both denied any engagement. Kournikova, 10 years younger than Bure, was 18 years old at the time.<ref>{{cite news \|titleKournikova and Bure wedding may be off \|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/sport/tennis/kournikova-and-bure-wedding-may-be-off-720494.html \|access-date24 June 2009 \|date6 April 2000 \|workThe Independent \|locationLondon \|archive-date26 January 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110126022400/http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/tennis/kournikova-and-bure-wedding-may-be-off-720494.html \|url-status=dead }}</ref> Fedorov claimed that he and Kournikova were married in 2001, and divorced in 2003.<ref name"Marriage">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.cbc.ca/sports/hockey/fedorov-married-divorced-kournikova-1.384775\|titleFedorov married, divorced Kournikova\|access-date26 January 2007\|publisherCBC Sports\| date3 March 2003\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071024155440/https://www.cbc.ca/sports/story/2003/03/03/fedorov030303.html\|archive-date24 October 2007}}</ref> Kournikova's representatives deny any marriage to Fedorov; however, Fedorov's agent Pat Brisson claims that although he does not know when they got married, he knew "Fedorov was married".<ref name"Marriage"/> Kournikova started dating singer Enrique Iglesias in late 2001 after she had appeared in his music video for "Escape".<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1451681/20020107/iglesias_enrique.jhtml \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20020111063023/http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1451681/20020107/iglesias_enrique.jhtml \|url-statusdead \|archive-date11 January 2002 \|titleEnrique Iglesias Serves Up Anna Kournikovca for Latest Video \|access-date27 February 2020 \|date1 July 2002 \|firstCorey \|lastMoss\|websiteMTV }}</ref> The couple have three children together, fraternal twins, a son and daughter, born on 16 December 2017,<ref name"twins">{{cite web\|urlhttp://people.com/babies/enrique-iglesias-girlfriend-kept-their-pregnancy-completely-secret/\|titleEnrique Iglesias & Anna Kournikova Kept Pregnancy Secret by Staying 'Very Undercover': Source\|workPeople}}</ref> and another daughter born on 30 January 2020.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://people.com/parents/enrique-iglesias-daughter-name-mary-masha-exclusive/\|titleEnrique Iglesias Reveals 5-Week-Old Daughter's Name — and Her Sweet Russian Nickname!\|workPeople\|access-date8 March 2020}}</ref><ref name"girl">{{cite web\|urlhttps://people.com/parents/enrique-iglesias-anna-kournikova-welcome-daughter-third-child/ \|titleIt's a Girl! Enrique Iglesias and Anna Kournikova Welcome daughter: 'My Sunshine' \|workPeople \|access-date=13 February 2020}}</ref> It was reported in 2010 that Kournikova had become an American citizen.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://tucsoncitizen.com/usa-today-sports/2010/11/17/video-five-questions-with-tennis-star-anna-kournikova/\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111009002457/http://tucsoncitizen.com/usa-today-sports/2010/11/17/video-five-questions-with-tennis-star-anna-kournikova/\|archive-date 9 October 2011\|titleVideo: Five questions with tennis star Anna Kournikova\|access-date 28 November 2010\|date17 November 2010\|work USA Today\|viaTucson Citizen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|url http://www.tennis.com/pro-game/2010/09/russian-born-kournikova-now-an-american-citizen/24777/\|titleRussian-born Kournikova Now An American Citizen\|date 23 September 2010\|workTennis\|access-date 31 August 2019}}</ref> Media publicity In 2000, Kournikova became the new face for Berlei's shock absorber sports bras, and appeared in the "only the ball should bounce" billboard campaign.<ref>{{cite news\|titleAnna Kournikova turns 30 \|urlhttp://www.seattlepi.com/sports/gallery/Anna-Kournikova-turns-30-15347/photo-1036579.php\|access-date27 February 2020 \|date6 June 2011 \|workSeattle Post-Intelligencer}}</ref> Following that, she was cast by the Farrelly brothers for a minor role in the 2000 film Me, Myself & Irene starring Jim Carrey and Renée Zellweger.<ref name"Farrelly">{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.espn.com/blog/afceast/post/_/id/26228/farrelly-brothers-talk-athletes-as-actors \| titleFarrelly brothers talk athletes as actors \|workESPN \| date23 February 2011 \| access-date6 March 2012 \| authorGraham, Tim}}</ref> Photographs of her have appeared on covers of various publications, including men's magazines, such as one in the much-publicized 2004 Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue,<ref>{{cite web \|last1O’Bleness \|first1Cara \|titleAnna Kournikova's Top 5 SI Swimsuit Photos in Puerto Rico \|urlhttps://swimsuit.si.com/swimnews/6-amazing-photos-of-russian-tennis-player-anna-kournikova-in-puerto-rico \|websiteSports Illustrated Swimsuit \|date25 April 2023 \|publisherSports Illustrated Media Group \|access-date28 June 2023}}</ref> where she posed in bikinis and swimsuits, as well as in FHM<ref name"FHM">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.fhm.com/girls/covergirls/anna-kournikova\|titleAnna Kournikova – Courting attention\|access-date21 September 2011\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111102164208/http://www.fhm.com/girls/covergirls/anna-kournikova\|archive-date2 November 2011}}</ref> and Maxim.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.maxim.com/amg/girls/todays-girl/44929/anna-kournikova.html\|titleAnna Kournikova She's grand slammin'.\|access-date21 September 2011\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110903200508/http://www.maxim.com/amg/girls/todays-girl/44929/anna-kournikova.html\|archive-date=3 September 2011}}</ref> Kournikova was named one of People{{'}}s 50 Most Beautiful People in 1998<ref>{{cite magazine\|urlhttp://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20125205,00.html\|titleOur Fabulous 50 Most Beautiful\|magazineTime\|access-date21 September 2011\|archive-date14 December 2011\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111214054738/http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20125205,00.html\|url-statusdead}}</ref> and was voted "hottest female athlete" on ESPN.com.<ref>{{cite web\|url https://www.espn.com/espn/page2/story?pagehottest/female/group3 \|title Page 2's Hottest Female Athlete \|workESPN\|access-date21 September 2011}}</ref> In 2002, she also placed first in ''FHM's 100 Sexiest Women in the World'' in US and UK editions.<ref name"FHM" /> By contrast, ESPN – citing the degree of hype as compared to actual accomplishments as a singles player – ranked Kournikova 18th in its "25 Biggest Sports Flops of the Past 25 Years".<ref>{{cite news \| urlhttps://www.espn.com/espn/espn25/story?pagelistranker/25biggestflops \| titleBiggest Sports Flop \| publisherESPN }}</ref> Kournikova was also ranked No.&nbsp;1 in the ESPN Classic series "Who's number 1?" when the series featured sport's most overrated athletes.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleIs Dale Jr. more like Paris Hilton or Kyle Petty?\|urlhttps://www.carolinacoastonline.com/news_times/sports/article_6c5a0f87-1593-56f4-882a-1a7f78301b63.html\|access-date28 October 2021\|websiteCarolina Coast Online\|date15 April 2009 }}</ref> She continued to be the most searched athlete on the Internet through 2008 even though she had retired from the professional tennis circuit years earlier.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_verz39.88-2004&rft_idinfo:sid/iw.newsbank.com:NewsBank:ZFBS&rft_val_formatinfo:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft_dat12527D6CD9CB7460&svc_datInfoWeb:aggregated5&req_dat0D0CB579A3BDA420\|url-accesssubscription\|titleWireless News: Lycos Reveals Its Most Popular Internet Search Terms of 2008\|access-date22 July 2009\|date17 December 2008\|publisherWireless News}}</ref> After slipping from first to sixth among athletes in 2009,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.yearinreview.yahoo.com/2009/blog/22\|titleTiger Woods, Most Searched Athlete\|access-date9 December 2010\|date24 December 2009\|publisherYahoo!}}{{dead link\|dateDecember 2017\|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> she moved back up to third place among athletes in terms of search popularity in 2010.<ref>{{cite web\|firstBill\|lastSanders\|date1 December 2010\|titleYahoo Top 10 Lists\|websiteIcon Marketing Guy\|urlhttp://sportsmarketingblog.net/2010/12/01/yahoo-top-10-lists/\|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20120715162553/http://sportsmarketingblog.net/2010/12/01/yahoo-top-10-lists/\|url-statusdead\|archive-date15 July 2012\|access-date9 December 2010}}</ref> In October 2010, Kournikova headed to NBC's The Biggest Loser where she led the contestants in a tennis-workout challenge.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.tvguide.com/News/Biggest-Loser-Kournikova-1023826.aspx \|title Exclusive: Anna Kournikova Heads to Biggest Loser Campus\|workTV Guide\|access-date27 February 2020 \|firstRobyn \|lastRoss}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.peoplestar.co.uk/index.html?news395\|titleAnna Kournikova Making Appearance on 'The Biggest Loser'\|url-statusdead\|websitepeoplestar.co.uk\|access-date1 October 2010\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120726025248/http://www.peoplestar.co.uk/index.html?news395\|archive-date26 July 2012}}</ref> In May 2011, it was announced that Kournikova would join The Biggest Loser as a regular celebrity trainer in season 12.<ref>{{cite magazine\|firstDan\|lastSnierson\|date24 May 2011\|titleAnna Kournikova joins 'Biggest Loser' as celebrity trainer for next season\|magazineEntertainment Weekly\|url http://insidetv.ew.com/2011/05/24/biggest-loser-hires-anna-kournikova/\|access-date24 May 2011\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110525052447/http://insidetv.ew.com/2011/05/24/biggest-loser-hires-anna-kournikova/\|archive-date 25 May 2011}}</ref> She did not return for season 13.<ref>{{cite web\|firstRichard\|lastLawson\|date14 November 2011\|titleAnna Kournikova Gets Dumped\|urlhttps://news.yahoo.com/anna-kournikova-gets-dumped-223432223.html\|workThe Atlantic Wire\|vianews.yahoo.com}}</ref> Legacy and influence on popular culture * A variation of a White Russian made with skim milk is known as an Anna Kournikova.<ref nameAKTG/><ref>{{cite web \| title The Snows of Revolution \| work Boise Weekly \| year 2006 \| url http://www.boiseweekly.com/boise/the-snows-of-revolution/Content?oid930015 \| access-date 27 February 2020 \|firstBingo \|lastBarnes \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20120407050339/http://www.boiseweekly.com/boise/the-snows-of-revolution/Content?oid930015 \| archive-date 7 April 2012 \| url-status dead }}</ref> * A video game featuring Kournikova's licensed appearance, titled ''Anna Kournikova's Smash Court Tennis'', was developed by Namco and released for the PlayStation in Japan and Europe in November 1998.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttp://www.giantbomb.com/anna-kournikovas-smash-court-tennis/3030-15769/ \| titleAnna Kournikova's Smash Court Tennis \| publisherGiant Bomb \| authorDeathawk \| date5 August 2013 \| access-date2 May 2016 }}</ref> * A computer virus named after her spread worldwide beginning on 12 February 2001 infecting computers through email in a matter of hours.<ref nameAKTG>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.tvguide.com/celebrities/anna-kournikova/bio/196062\|titleAnna Kournikova\|workTV Guide}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlT5Pmcmr574C&pgPA92\|titleComputer network security\|firstJoseph \|lastMigga Kissa\|date7 April 2005\|publisherSpringer\|isbn0-387-20473-3\|pages92–94}}</ref> Career statistics and awards {{Main\|Anna Kournikova career statistics}} Doubles performance timeline {{Performance key\|shortyes\|activeno}} {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;font-size:97%" \|- ! width"140" \|Tournament!! width"40" \|1995!! width"40" \|1996!! width"40" \|1997!! width"40" \|1998!! width"40" \|1999!! width"40" \|2000!! width"40" \|2001!! width"40" \|2002!! width"40" \|2003!! width"50" \|SR!! width"50" \|W–L \|- \| colspan"12" style"text-align:left;" \|Grand Slam tournaments \|- \| align="left" \|Australian Open \|A \|A \| bgcolor="afeeee" \|1R \| bgcolor="afeeee" \|2R \| bgcolor="lime" \|W \| bgcolor="yellow" \|SF \| bgcolor="ffebcd" \|QF \| bgcolor="lime" \|W \| bgcolor="afeeee" \|3R \|2 / 7 \|22–5 \|- \| align="left" \|French Open \|A \|A \| bgcolor="afeeee" \|3R \| bgcolor="yellow" \|SF \| bgcolor="d8bfd8" \|F \| bgcolor="afeeee" \|3R \|A \|A \|A \|0 / 4 \|13–4 \|- \| align="left" \|Wimbledon \|A \|A \| bgcolor="afeeee" \|2R \|A \|A \| bgcolor="yellow" \|SF \|A \| bgcolor="yellow" \|SF \|A \|0 / 3 \|9–3 \|- \| align="left" \|US Open \|A \| bgcolor="ffebcd" \|QF \| bgcolor="afeeee" \|3R \| bgcolor="afeeee" \|2R \|A \| bgcolor="afeeee" \|2R \|A \| bgcolor="ffebcd" \|QF \|A \|0 / 5 \|10–5 \|- ! style="text-align:left;" \|Win–loss !0–0 !3–1 !5–4 !6–3 !11–1 !11–4 !3–1 !13–2 !2–1 !2 / 19 !54–17 \|- \| colspan"12" align"left" \|Year-end championship \|- \| style"white-space:nowrap" align"left" \|Tour Championships \|A \|A \|A \| bgcolor="ffebcd" \|QF \| bgcolor="lime" \|W \| bgcolor="lime" \|W \|A \|A \|A \|2 / 3 \|6–1 \|- \| colspan"12" align"left" \|Career statistics \|- \| align="left" \|Year-end ranking \|{{n/a}} \|70 \|40 \| bgcolor="EEE8AA" \|10 \| bgcolor="lime" \|1 \| bgcolor="99ccff" \|4 \|26 \|11 \|176 \| colspan="2" \| \|} Grand Slam tournament finals Doubles: 3 (2–1) {\| class="sortable wikitable" !Result !Year !style="width:130px"\|Championship !Surface !style="width:170px"\|Partner !style="width:170px"\|Opponents !style"width:120px" class"unsortable"\|Score \|- \|- bgcolor="#FFFFCC" \| style="background:#98fb98;"\|Win \| 1999 \| Australian Open \| Hard \| Martina Hingis \| Lindsay Davenport<br>Natasha Zvereva \| 7–5, 6–3 \|- \|- bgcolor="#EBC2AF" \| style="background:#ffa07a;"\|Loss \| 1999 \| French Open \| Clay \| Martina Hingis \| Serena Williams<br>Venus Williams \| 3–6, 7–6<sup>(7–2)</sup>, 6–8 \|- \|- bgcolor="#FFFFCC" \| style="background:#98fb98;"\|Win \| 2002 \| Australian Open <small>(2)</small> \| Hard \| Martina Hingis \| Daniela Hantuchová<br>Arantxa Sánchez Vicario \| 6–2, 6–7<sup>(4–7)</sup>, 6–1 \|} Mixed doubles: 2 (0–2) {\| class="sortable wikitable" !Result !Year !style="width:130px"\|Championship !Surface !style="width:170px"\|Partner !style="width:170px"\|Opponents !style"width:120px" class"unsortable"\|Score \|- \|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" \| style="background:#ffa07a;"\|Loss \| 1999 \| Wimbledon \| Grass \| Jonas Björkman \| Leander Paes<br>Lisa Raymond \| 4–6, 6–3, 3–6 \|- \|- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" \| style="background:#ffa07a;"\|Loss \| 2000 \| US Open \| Hard \| Max Mirnyi \| Jared Palmer<br>Arantxa Sánchez Vicario \| 4–6, 3–6 \|} Awards * 1996: WTA Newcomer of the Year * 1999: WTA Doubles Team of the Year (with Martina Hingis) Books * Anna Kournikova by Susan Holden (2001) ({{ISBN\|978-1-84222-416-8}} / {{ISBN\|978-1-84222-416-8}}) * Anna Kournikova by Connie Berman (2001) (Women Who Win) ({{ISBN\|978-0-7910-6529-7}} / {{ISBN\|978-0-7910-6529-7}}) References {{Reflist}} External links {{commons category}} * {{official website}} * {{WTA}} * {{ITF}} * {{Fed Cup player}} * {{Wimbledon}} * {{Olympedia}} * {{Olympics.com profile}} * {{IMDb name}} {{S-start}} {{S-ach}} {{s-bef\|before = Martina Hingis}} {{s-ttl\|title ITF Junior World Champion\|years 1995}} {{s-aft\|after = Amélie Mauresmo}} {{s-bef\|before = Martina Hingis}} {{s-ttl\|title WTA Newcomer of the Year\|years 1996}} {{s-aft\|after = Venus Williams}} {{s-bef\|before = Martina Hingis &<br />Jana Novotná}} {{s-ttl\|title WTA Doubles Team of the Year<br />(with Martina Hingis)\|years 1999}} {{s-aft\|after = Serena Williams &<br />Venus Williams}} {{s-bef\|before = Jillian Michaels}} {{s-ttl\|title Trainer on The Biggest Loser\|years 2011}} {{s-aft\|after = TBA}} {{s-sports}} {{succession box \| before = Mariam Ramón \| after = Ana Alcázar \| title = Orange Bowl Girls' Singles Champion <br/><small>Category: 18 and under</small> \| with \| years 1995 }} {{s-end}} {{Navboxes \|title=Articles and topics related to Anna Kournikova \|state=collapsed \|list1= {{Australian Open women's doubles champions}} {{WTA Year-end championships winners doubles}} {{WTA World No.1 doubles players}} {{Russian Cup Female Tennis Player of the Year}} {{Russian Cup Tennis Triumph of the Year}} }} {{Portal bar\|Tennis}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Kournikova, Anna}} Category:1981 births Category:Australian Open (tennis) champions Category:Grand Slam (tennis) champions in women's doubles Category:Iglesias family Category:ITF World Champions Category:Living people Category:Olympic tennis players for Russia Category:Participants in American reality television series Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States Category:Russian emigrants to the United States Category:Russian female models Category:Russian female tennis players Category:Russian socialites Category:Sportspeople from Miami-Dade County, Florida Category:Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics Category:Tennis players from Moscow Category:WTA number 1 ranked doubles tennis players Category:21st-century Russian sportswomen	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Kournikova	2025-04-05T18:25:25.738238
892	Alfons Maria Jakob	{{Short description\|German neurologist}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=November 2020}} {{Infobox scientist \|name = Alfons Maria Jakob \|image = Alfons Maria Jakob.JPG \|image_size = 150px \|caption \|birth_date {{birth-date\|2 July 1884}} \|birth_place = Aschaffenburg, Kingdom of Bavaria, German Empire \|death_date = {{death-date and age\|17 October 1931\|2 July 1884}} \|death_place = Hamburg, Weimar Republic \|residence \|citizenship \|nationality = German \|ethnicity \|field Neurology \|work_institutions \|alma_mater \|doctoral_advisor \|doctoral_students \|known_for = Neuropathology \|author_abbrev_bot \|author_abbrev_zoo \|influences \|influenced \|prizes \|religion \|footnotes \|signature }}Alfons Maria Jakob (2 July 1884 &ndash; 17 October 1931) was a German neurologist who worked in the field of neuropathology. He was born in Aschaffenburg, Bavaria and educated in medicine at the universities of Munich, Berlin, and Strasbourg, where he received his doctorate in 1908. During the following year, he began clinical work under the psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin and did laboratory work with Franz Nissl and Alois Alzheimer in Munich.<ref name=WN>[http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/738.html Alfons Maria Jakob] at Who Named It</ref> In 1911, by way of an invitation from Wilhelm Weygandt,<ref nameNE>[https://books.google.com/books?idJIkqCwAAQBAJ&dq%22Alfons+Maria+Jakob%22+1884&pgPT422 Neurological Eponyms] edited by Peter J. Koehler, George W. Bruyn, John M. S. Pearce</ref> he relocated to Hamburg, where he worked with Theodor Kaes and eventually became head of the laboratory of anatomical pathology at the psychiatric State Hospital Hamburg-Friedrichsberg. Following the death of Kaes in 1913, Jakob succeeded him as prosector.<ref nameWN/> During World War I he served as an army physician in Belgium,<ref nameNE/> and afterwards returned to Hamburg. In 1919, he obtained his habilitation for neurology and in 1924 became a professor of neurology. Under Jakob's guidance the department grew rapidly. He made significant contributions to knowledge on concussion and secondary nerve degeneration and became a doyen of neuropathology.<ref nameWH>[https://books.google.com/books?id-TGgBQAAQBAJ&dq%22Alfons+Maria+Jakob%22+1884&pgPA87 The Man Behind the Syndrome] by Greta Beighton</ref> Jakob was the author of five monographs and nearly 80 scientific papers.<ref nameNE/> His neuropathological research contributed greatly to the delineation of several diseases, including multiple sclerosis and Friedreich's ataxia. He first recognised and described Alper's disease and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (named along with Munich neuropathologist Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt).<ref nameWN/> He gained experience in neurosyphilis, having a 200-bed ward devoted entirely to that disorder. Jakob made a lecture tour of the United States (1924) and South America (1928), of which, he wrote a paper on the neuropathology of yellow fever.<ref nameNE/><ref nameWH/> He suffered from chronic osteomyelitis for the last seven years of his life. This eventually caused a retroperitoneal abscess and paralytic ileus from which he died following operation.<ref nameWN/>Associated eponym* Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease: A very rare and incurable degenerative neurological disease. It is the most common form of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies caused by prions. Eponym introduced by Walther Spielmeyer in 1922.<ref>[http://www.whonamedit.com/synd.cfm/696.html Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease] at Who Named It</ref>Bibliography * Die extrapyramidalen Erkrankungen. In: Monographien aus dem Gesamtgebiete der Neurologie und Psychiatry, Berlin, 1923 * Normale und pathologische Anatomie und Histologie des Grosshirns. Separate printing of Handbuch der Psychiatry. Leipzig, 1927–1928 * Das Kleinhirn. In: Handbuch der mikroskopischen Anatomie, Berlin, 1928 * Die Syphilis des Gehirns und seiner Häute. In: Oswald Bumke (edit.): Handbuch der Geisteskrankheiten, Berlin, 1930.<ref>[http://www.whonamedit.com/person_bibliography/738/ Alfons Maria Jakob - bibliography] at Who Named It</ref> References {{reflist}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Jakob, Alfons Maria}} Category:People from Aschaffenburg Category:Academic staff of the University of Hamburg Category:German neurologists Category:German neuroscientists Category:1884 births Category:1931 deaths	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfons_Maria_Jakob	2025-04-05T18:25:25.755470
894	Agnosticism	{{Short description\|View that the existence of God or the supernatural are unknown or unknowable}} {{Distinguish\|Gnosticism}} {{Redirect\|Agnostic\|platform-agnostic data schemas and ontologies\|Cross-platform software}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=June 2014}} {{Irreligion sidebar \|agnosticism}} Agnosticism is the view or belief that the existence of God, the divine, or the supernatural is either unknowable in principle or unknown in fact.<ref name"Hepburn">{{cite encyclopedia \|year2005 \|titleAgnosticism \|encyclopediaThe Encyclopedia of Philosophy \|publisherMacMillan Reference USA (Gale) \|lastHepburn \|firstRonald W. \|orig-date1967 \|editorDonald M. Borchert \|edition2nd \|volume1 \|page92 \|isbn0-02-865780-2 \|quoteIn the most general use of the term, agnosticism is the view that we do not know whether there is a God or not.}} (page 56 in 1967 edition)</ref><ref name":2">{{cite encyclopedia \|entryagnostic, agnosticism \|dictionaryOED Online, 3rd ed. \|publisherOxford University Press \|dateSeptember 2012 <!--\|access-dateJuly 22, 2013--> \|quoteagnostic. : A. n[oun]. :# A person who believes that nothing is known or can be known of immaterial things, especially of the existence or nature of God. :# In extended use: a person who is not persuaded by or committed to a particular point of view; a sceptic. Also: person of indeterminate ideology or conviction; an equivocator. : B. adj[ective]. :# Of or relating to the belief that the existence of anything beyond and behind material phenomena is unknown and (as far as can be judged) unknowable. Also: holding this belief. :# a. In extended use: not committed to or persuaded by a particular point of view; sceptical. Also: politically or ideologically unaligned; non-partisan, equivocal. agnosticism n. The doctrine or tenets of agnostics with regard to the existence of anything beyond and behind material phenomena or to knowledge of a First Cause or God.}}</ref><ref>{{Citation \|lastDraper \|firstPaul \|titleAtheism and Agnosticism \|date2022 \|encyclopediaThe Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy \|editor-lastZalta \|editor-firstEdward N. \|urlhttps://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2022/entries/atheism-agnosticism/#DefiAgno \|access-date2024-05-30 \|editionSummer 2022 \|publisherMetaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University}}"When used in this epistemological sense, the term “agnosticism” can very naturally be extended beyond the issue of what is or can be known to cover a large family of positions, depending on what sort of “positive epistemic status” is at issue. For example, it might be identified with any of the following positions: that neither theistic belief nor atheistic belief is justified, that neither theistic belief nor atheistic belief is rationally required, that neither belief is rationally permissible, that neither has warrant, that neither is reasonable, or that neither is probable."</ref> It can also mean an apathy towards such religious belief and refer to personal limitations rather than a worldview.<ref name":2" /><ref>{{cite book \|lastPoidevin \|firstRobin \|titleAgnosticism: A Very Short Introduction \|quoteIt stands, it seems, for lack of belief or commitment, for indecision, for non-engagement. \|year2010 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-19-957526-8 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlFesDAAAQBAJ&dqagnosticism&pgPR11}}</ref><ref name"plato_stanford_edu">{{cite web \|titleStanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy \| dateAugust 2, 2017 \|urlhttps://plato.stanford.edu/entries/atheism-agnosticism/?refwhcolony.com#DefiAgno \|access-date23 May 2024 \|quoteThe terms “agnostic” and “agnosticism” were famously coined in the late nineteenth century by the English biologist, T.H. Huxley. He said that he originally invented the word “Agnostic” to denote people who, like [himself], confess themselves to be hopelessly ignorant concerning a variety of matters [including of course the matter of God’s existence], about which metaphysicians and theologians, both orthodox and heterodox, dogmatise with the utmost confidence. (1884) \| last1Draper \| first1Paul }}</ref> Another definition is the view that "human reason is incapable of providing sufficient rational grounds to justify either the belief that God exists or the belief that God does not exist."<ref name"RoweRoutledge">{{cite encyclopedia \|year1998 \|titleAgnosticism \|encyclopediaRoutledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy \|publisherTaylor & Francis \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVQ-GhVWTH84C&qagnosticism+routledge&pgPA122 \|lastRowe \|firstWilliam L. \|author-linkWilliam L. Rowe \|editorEdward Craig \|isbn978-0-415-07310-3 \|quoteIn the popular sense, an agnostic is someone who neither believes nor disbelieves in God, whereas an atheist disbelieves in God. In the strict sense, however, agnosticism is the view that human reason is incapable of providing sufficient rational grounds to justify either the belief that God exists or the belief that God does not exist. In so far as one holds that our beliefs are rational only if they are sufficiently supported by the human reason, the person who accepts the philosophical position of agnosticism will hold that neither the belief that God exists nor the belief that God does not exist is rational.}}</ref> The English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley said that he originally coined the word agnostic in 1869 "to denote people who, like [himself], confess themselves to be hopelessly ignorant concerning a variety of matters [including the matter of God's existence], about which metaphysicians and theologians, both orthodox and heterodox, dogmatise with the utmost confidence."<ref name"plato_stanford_edu" /> Earlier thinkers had written works that promoted agnostic points of view, such as Sanjaya Belatthiputta, a 5th-century BCE Indian philosopher who expressed agnosticism about any afterlife;<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.02.0.than.html \|titleSamaññaphala Sutta: The Fruits of the Contemplative Life \|translator-lastBhikkhu \|translator-firstThanissaro \|workDigha Nikaya \|date1997 \|quoteIf you ask me if there exists another world (after death),&nbsp;... I don't think so. I don't think in that way. I don't think otherwise. I don't think not. I don't think not not. \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140209063536/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.02.0.than.html \|archive-dateFebruary 9, 2014 \|url-statuslive \|dfmdy }}</ref><ref name"Bhaskar 1972">Bhaskar (1972).</ref><ref name"Ridgeon2003">{{cite book \|authorLloyd Ridgeon \|titleMajor World Religions: From Their Origins To The Present \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAubFD0B-a7AC&pgPA63 \|dateMarch 13, 2003 \|publisherTaylor & Francis \|isbn978-0-203-42313-4 \|pages63–}}</ref> and Protagoras, a 5th-century BCE Greek philosopher who expressed agnosticism about the existence of "the gods".<ref name"Protagoras">{{cite encyclopedia\|urlhttp://www.iep.utm.edu/protagor/ \|titleThe Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy&nbsp;– Protagoras (c. 490&nbsp;– c. 420 BCE) \|access-dateJuly 22, 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140210135808/http://www.iep.utm.edu/protagor/ \|archive-dateFebruary 10, 2014 \|quoteWhile the pious might wish to look to the gods to provide absolute moral guidance in the relativistic universe of the Sophistic Enlightenment, that certainty also was cast into doubt by philosophic and sophistic thinkers, who pointed out the absurdity and immorality of the conventional epic accounts of the gods. Protagoras' prose treatise about the gods began "Concerning the gods, I have no means of knowing whether they exist or not or of what sort they may be. Many things prevent knowledge including the obscurity of the subject and the brevity of human life." \|url-statuslive \|dfmdy }}</ref><ref name"patri">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.positiveatheism.org/india/s1990a22.htm \|titleProgress of Atheism in India: A Historical Perspective \|publisherAtheist Centre 1940–1990 Golden Jubilee \|dateFebruary 1990 \|access-dateJune 29, 2014 \|authorPatri, Umesh and Prativa Devi \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130925145643/http://www.positiveatheism.org/india/s1990a22.htm \|archive-dateSeptember 25, 2013 \|url-statusdead \|dfmdy }}</ref><ref name"Treharne2012">{{cite book \|authorTrevor Treharne \|titleHow to Prove God Does Not Exist: The Complete Guide to Validating Atheism \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJtOzmf_5zLcC&pgPA34 \|year2012 \|publisherUniversal-Publishers \|isbn978-1-61233-118-8 \|pages=34 ff}}</ref> {{TOC limit\|4}} Defining agnosticism {{blockquote\|[The agnostic] principle may be stated in various ways, but they all amount to this: that it is wrong for a man to say that he is certain of the objective truth of any proposition unless he can produce evidence which logically justifies that certainty. This is what Agnosticism asserts; and, in my opinion, it is all that is essential to Agnosticism.<ref name="auto">Thomas Huxley, [http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/CE5/Agn-X.html "Agnosticism and Christianity"], Collected Essays V, 1899</ref>\|Thomas Henry Huxley}} {{blockquote\|Agnosticism, in fact, is not a creed, but a method, the essence of which lies in the rigorous application of a single principle&nbsp;... Positively the principle may be expressed: In matters of the intellect, follow your reason as far as it will take you, without regard to any other consideration. And negatively: In matters of the intellect do not pretend that conclusions are certain which are not demonstrated or demonstrable.<ref>Thomas Huxley, [http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/CE5/Agn.html "Agnosticism"], Collected Essays V, 1889</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|lastHuxley\|firstThomas Henry\|dateApril 1889\|titleAgnosticism\|journalThe Popular Science Monthly\|publisherD. Appleton & Company\|locationNew York\|volume34\|issue46\|page768}} Wikisource has the full text of the article here. </ref><ref name"Dawkins2008">{{cite book\|authorRichard Dawkins\|titleThe God Delusion\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyq1xDpicghkC&pgPA72\|dateJanuary 16, 2008\|publisherHoughton Mifflin Harcourt\|isbn978-0-547-34866-7\|pages72–}}</ref>\|Thomas Henry Huxley}} {{blockquote\|That which Agnostics deny and repudiate, as immoral, is the contrary doctrine, that there are propositions which men ought to believe, without logically satisfactory evidence; and that reprobation ought to attach to the profession of disbelief in such inadequately supported propositions.<ref name="auto"/>\|Thomas Henry Huxley}} {{blockquote\|Consequently, agnosticism puts aside not only the greater part of popular theology, but also the greater part of anti-theology. On the whole, the "bosh" of heterodoxy is more offensive to me than that of orthodoxy, because heterodoxy professes to be guided by reason and science, and orthodoxy does not.<ref>Thomas Huxley [http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/UnColl/Rdetc/AgnAnn.html "Agnosticism: A Symposium"], The Agnostic Annual. 1884</ref>\|Thomas Henry Huxley}} Being a scientist, above all else, Huxley presented agnosticism as a form of demarcation. A hypothesis with no supporting, objective, testable evidence is not an objective, scientific claim. As such, there would be no way to test said hypotheses, leaving the results inconclusive. His agnosticism was not compatible with forming a belief as to the truth, or falsehood, of the claim at hand. Karl Popper would also describe himself as an agnostic.<ref name"Edward Zerin 1998">Edward Zerin: Karl Popper On God: The Lost Interview. Skeptic 6:2 (1998)</ref> According to philosopher William L. Rowe, in this strict sense, agnosticism is the view that human reason is incapable of providing sufficient rational grounds to justify either the belief that God exists or the belief that God does not exist.<ref name"RoweRoutledge"/> George H. Smith, while admitting that the narrow definition of atheist was the common usage definition of that word,<ref>George H. Smith, Atheism: The Case Against God, pg. 9</ref> and admitting that the broad definition of agnostic was the common usage definition of that word,<ref>George H. Smith, Atheism: The Case Against God, pg. 12</ref> promoted broadening the definition of atheist and narrowing the definition of agnostic. Smith rejects agnosticism as a third alternative to theism and atheism and promotes terms such as agnostic atheism (the view of those who do not hold a belief in the existence of any deity but claim that the existence of a deity is unknown or inherently unknowable) and agnostic theism (the view of those who believe in the existence of a deity(s) but claim that the existence of a deity is unknown or inherently unknowable).<ref nameSmith1979>{{cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idFI7ZAAAAMAAJ&qagnostic+theist \|titleAtheism: The Case Against God \|firstGeorge H \|lastSmith \|author-linkGeorge H. Smith \|pages10–11 \|quoteProperly considered, agnosticism is not a third alternative to theism and atheism because it is concerned with a different aspect of religious belief. Theism and atheism refer to the presence or absence of belief in a god; agnosticism refers to the impossibility of knowledge with regard to a god or supernatural being. The term agnostic does not, in itself, indicate whether or not one believes in a god. Agnosticism can be either theistic or atheistic. \|year1979 \|publisherPrometheus Books \|isbn978-0-87975-124-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|titleThe Ascent of Faith: or, the Grounds of Certainty in Science and Religion\|year1894\|firstAlexander James\|lastHarrison\|publisherHodder and Stroughton\|locationLondon\|page21\|oclc7234849\|ol21834002M\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idc3QrAAAAYAAJ&pgPA21\|quoteLet Agnostic Theism stand for that kind of Agnosticism which admits a Divine existence; Agnostic Atheism for that kind of Agnosticism which thinks it does not.}} </ref><ref name"barker-agnostic-atheism">{{cite book\|lastBarker\|firstDan\|author-linkDan Barker\|titleGodless: How an Evangelical Preacher Became One of America's Leading Atheists\|year2008\|locationNew York\|publisherUlysses Press\|isbn978-1-56975-677-5\|ol24313839M\|page96\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idfAjPWYgIfCoC&pgPA96\|quotePeople are invariably surprised to hear me say I am both an atheist and an agnostic, as if this somehow weakens my certainty. I usually reply with a question like, "Well, are you a Republican or an American?" The two words serve different concepts and are not mutually exclusive. Agnosticism addresses knowledge; atheism addresses belief. The agnostic says, "I don't have a knowledge that God exists." The atheist says, "I don't have a belief that God exists." You can say both things at the same time. Some agnostics are atheistic and some are theistic.}}</ref>EtymologyAgnostic ({{ety\|grc\|ἀ- (a-)\|without\|\|γνῶσις (gnōsis)\|knowledge}}) was used by Thomas Henry Huxley in a speech at a meeting of the Metaphysical Society in 1869 to describe his philosophy, which rejects all claims of spiritual or mystical knowledge.<ref>{{Cite book\| last Dixon\| first Thomas\| title Science and Religion: A Very Short Introduction\| publisher Oxford University Press\| year 2008\| location Oxford\| page 63\| isbn = 978-0-19-929551-7}} </ref><ref name"EB-Agnosticism">{{cite encyclopedia \|lastAntony \|firstFlew \|titleAgnosticism \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/9356/agnosticism \|encyclopedia Encyclopædia Britannica \|access-date=December 15, 2011}}</ref> Early Christian church leaders used the Greek word gnosis (knowledge) to describe "spiritual knowledge". Agnosticism is not to be confused with religious views opposing the ancient religious movement of Gnosticism in particular; Huxley used the term in a broader, more abstract sense.<ref name"nknxjx">{{cite web \|titleag·nos·tic \|websiteThe American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language \|publisherHoughton Mifflin Harcourt \|year2011 \|url http://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?qagnostic&submit.x20&submit.y28 \|access-date November 15, 2013}}</ref> Huxley identified agnosticism not as a creed but rather as a method of skeptical, evidence-based inquiry.<ref>{{cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id97DaE6BzKTsC&pgPA41 \|titleAphorisms and Reflections \|firstHenrietta A.\| lastHuxley \|publisherKessinger Publishing \|year2004 \|editionreprint \|pages41–42 \|isbn=978-1-4191-0730-6}}</ref> The term agnostic is also cognate with the Sanskrit word ajñasi, which translates literally to "not knowable", and relates to the ancient Indian philosophical school of Ajñana, which proposes that it is impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or ascertain the truth value of philosophical propositions; and even if knowledge were possible, it is useless and disadvantageous for final salvation. In recent years, scientific literature dealing with neuroscience and psychology has used the word to mean "not knowable".<ref>Oxford English Dictionary, Additions Series, 1993</ref> In technical and marketing literature, "agnostic" can also mean independence from some parameters—for example, "platform agnostic" (referring to cross-platform software),<ref nameSparkSheet>{{cite web \|title What Does Platform Agnostic Mean? \|last1= Woodrooffe \|first1=Sophie \|last2Levy \|first2 Dan \|website=Sparksheet \|url= http://sparksheet.com/what-does-platform-agnostic-mean/ \|date=September 9, 2012 \|access-date=November 15, 2013 \|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140714153217/http://sparksheet.com/what-does-platform-agnostic-mean/ \|archive-date=July 14, 2014 \|url-status=dead \|df=mdy }}</ref> or "hardware-agnostic".<ref nameDatacenterdynamics>{{cite web \|websiteDatacenter Dynamics \|titleEMC and NetApp – a software-defined storage battle \|urlhttp://www.datacenterdynamics.com/focus/archive/2013/07/emc-and-netapp-%E2%80%93-software-defined-storage-battle \|firstYevgeniy\|last Sverdlik \|dateJuly 31, 2013 \|access-date \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140620131749/http://www.datacenterdynamics.com/focus/archive/2013/07/emc-and-netapp-%E2%80%93-software-defined-storage-battle \|archive-dateJune 20, 2014 \|url-statusdead \|dfmdy }}</ref> Qualifying agnosticism Scottish Enlightenment philosopher David Hume contended that meaningful statements about the universe are always qualified by some degree of doubt. He asserted that the fallibility of human beings means that they cannot obtain absolute certainty except in trivial cases where a statement is true by definition (e.g. tautologies such as "all bachelors are unmarried" or "all triangles have three corners").<ref>Hume, David, "An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding" (1748)</ref> Types Strong agnosticism Also called "hard", "closed", "strict", or "permanent agnosticism", strong agnosticism is the view that the question of the existence or nonexistence of a deity or deities, and the nature of ultimate reality is unknowable by reason of our natural inability to verify any subjective experience with anything but another subjective experience. A strong agnostic would say, "I cannot know whether a deity exists or not, and neither can you."<ref name"Oppy2006">{{cite book\|lastOppy \|firstGraham\|titleArguing about Gods\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDlVtfUxPD14C&pgPA15\|dateSeptember 4, 2006\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn978-1-139-45889-4\|pages=15–}} </ref><ref name"Barnes2003">{{cite book\|authorMichael H. Barnes\|titleIn The Presence of Mystery: An Introduction To The Story Of Human Religiousness\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbhtb2_NYnpoC&pgPA3\|year2003\|publisherTwenty-Third Publications\|isbn978-1-58595-259-5\|pages3–}} </ref><ref name"Poidevin2010">{{cite book\|authorRobin Le Poidevin\|titleAgnosticism: A Very Short Introduction\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8DKg5MeJtmIC&pgPT32\|dateOctober 28, 2010\|publisherOxford University Press\|isbn978-0-19-161454-5\|pages32–}}</ref> Weak agnosticism Also called "soft", "open", "empirical", "hopeful", or "temporal agnosticism", weak agnosticism is the view that the existence or nonexistence of any deities is currently unknown but is not necessarily unknowable; therefore, one will withhold judgement until evidence, if any, becomes available. A weak agnostic would say, "I don't know whether any deities exist or not, but maybe one day, if there is evidence, we can find something out."<ref name"Oppy2006" /><ref name"Barnes2003" /><ref name"Poidevin2010" />Apathetic agnosticismThe view that no amount of debate can prove or disprove the existence of one or more deities, and if one or more deities exist, they do not appear to be concerned about the fate of humans. Therefore, their existence has little to no impact on personal human affairs and should be of little interest. An apathetic agnostic would say, "I don't know whether any deity exists or not, and I don't care if any deity exists or not."<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.apatheticagnostic.com/ourchurch/faith.html\|titleCommentary on the Articles of Faith\|authorJohn Tyrrell\|year1996\|quoteTo believe in the existence of a god is an act of faith. To believe in the nonexistence of a god is likewise an act of faith. There is no verifiable evidence that there is a Supreme Being nor is there verifiable evidence there is not a Supreme Being. Faith is not knowledge. We can only state with assurance that we do not know.\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070807021506/http://www.apatheticagnostic.com/ourchurch/faith.html\|archive-date2007-08-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Rahim \|first1Abdur \|titleThinking Outside the Box: The Most Realistic Way of Thinking, Adopting, and Leading Life \|date31 January 2017 \|publisherXlibris Corporation \|isbn978-1-5245-7387-4 \|page89 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idf-NPDgAAQBAJ \|languageen}}</ref><ref>Rauch, Jonathan, Let It Be: Three Cheers for Apatheism, The Atlantic Monthly, May 2003</ref> History Hindu philosophy {{See also\|Sanjaya Belatthaputta\|Ajñana}} Throughout the history of Hinduism there has been a strong tradition of philosophic speculation and skepticism.<ref name="Kramer1986" /><ref>{{cite web \|author=Subodh Varma \|urlhttp://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/spirituality/vintage-wisdom/The-gods-came-afterwards/articleshow/6014217.cms?referralPM \|title=The gods came afterwards \|work=The Times of India \|date=May 6, 2011 \|access-date=June 9, 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151105235331/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/spirituality/vintage-wisdom/The-gods-came-afterwards/articleshow/6014217.cms?referralPM \|archive-date=November 5, 2015 \|url-status=live \|df=mdy }}</ref> The Rig Veda takes an agnostic view on the fundamental question of how the universe and the gods were created. Nasadiya Sukta (Creation Hymn) in the tenth chapter of the Rig Veda says:<ref name"Kramer1986">{{cite book\|authorKenneth Kramer\|titleWorld Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Religions\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRzUAu-43W5oC&pgPA34\|dateJanuary 1986\|publisherPaulist Press\|isbn978-0-8091-2781-8\|pages34–}} </ref><ref name="Christian2011"> {{cite book\|lastChristian \|firstDavid\|titleMaps of Time: An Introduction to Big History\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7RdVmDjwTtQC&pgPA18\|dateSeptember 1, 2011\|publisherUniversity of California Press\|isbn978-0-520-95067-2\|pages18–}} </ref><ref name="Singh2008"> {{cite book\|authorUpinder Singh\|titleA History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idH3lUIIYxWkEC&pgPA206\|year2008\|publisherPearson Education India\|isbn978-81-317-1120-0\|pages=206–}}</ref> {{blockquote\|<poem>But, after all, who knows, and who can say Whence it all came, and how creation happened? The gods themselves are later than creation, so who knows truly whence it has arisen? Whence all creation had its origin, He, whether he fashioned it or whether he did not, He, who surveys it all from highest heaven, He knows – or maybe even he does not know.</poem>}} Hume, Kant, and Kierkegaard Aristotle,<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.logicmuseum.com/ontological/aristotleontological.htm \|title=Aristotle on the existence of God \|publisher=Logicmuseum.com \|access-date=February 9, 2014 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140530101819/http://www.logicmuseum.com/ontological/aristotleontological.htm \|archive-date=May 30, 2014 \|url-status=live \|df=mdy }} </ref> Anselm,<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/anselm.asp \|work=Internet History Sourcebooks Project \|publisher=Fordham.edu \|access-date\|titleAnselm on God's Existence \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531202448/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/anselm.asp \|archive-date=May 31, 2014 \|url-status=live \|df=mdy }} </ref><ref namewilliams>{{cite encyclopedia\|urlhttp://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2013/entries/anselm/ \|titleSaint Anselm \|encyclopediaStanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy \|access-dateJune 29, 2014 \|authorWilliams, Thomas \|year2013 \|editionSpring 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131202055456/http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2013/entries/anselm/ \|archive-dateDecember 2, 2013 \|url-statuslive \|dfmdy }}</ref> Aquinas,<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/aquinas3.asp \|title=Internet History Sourcebooks Project \|publisher=Fordham.edu \|access-date=February 9, 2014 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814182225/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/aquinas3.asp \|archive-date=August 14, 2014 \|url-status=live \|df=mdy }} </ref><ref name="Owens1980"> {{cite book\|lastOwens \|firstJoseph\|titleSaint Thomas Aquinas on the Existence of God: The Collected Papers of Joseph Owens\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8tLl5gnW5TMC\|year1980\|publisherSUNY Press\|isbn978-0-87395-401-3}} </ref> Descartes,<ref>{{cite web \|url = http://oregonstate.edu/instruction/phl302/philosophers/descartes-god.html \|title = Descartes' Proof for the Existence of God \|publisher = Oregonstate.edu \|access-date = February 9, 2014 \|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140222062837/http://oregonstate.edu/instruction/phl302/philosophers/descartes-god.html \|archive-date = February 22, 2014 \|url-status = dead \|df = mdy }} </ref> and Gödel presented arguments attempting to rationally prove the existence of God. The skeptical empiricism of David Hume, the antinomies of Immanuel Kant, and the existential philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard convinced many later philosophers to abandon these attempts, regarding it impossible to construct any unassailable proof for the existence or non-existence of God.<ref name"RoweRoutledge-online">{{cite encyclopedia \|urlhttp://www.texttribe.com/routledge/A/Agnosticism.html \|titleAgnosticism \|firstWilliam L. \|lastRowe \|author-linkWilliam L. Rowe \|encyclopediaRoutledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy \|isbn978-0-415-07310-3 \|publisherTaylor & Francis \|year1998 \|editorEdward Craig \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110722184326/http://www.texttribe.com/routledge/A/Agnosticism.html \|archive-dateJuly 22, 2011 \|access-date=April 17, 2012}}</ref> In his 1844 book Philosophical Fragments, Kierkegaard writes:<ref>Kierkegaard, Søren. Philosophical Fragments. Ch. 3 </ref> {{blockquote\|Let us call this unknown something: God. It is nothing more than a name we assign to it. The idea of demonstrating that this unknown something (God) exists, could scarcely suggest itself to Reason. For if God does not exist it would of course be impossible to prove it; and if he does exist it would be folly to attempt it. For at the very outset, in beginning my proof, I would have presupposed it, not as doubtful but as certain (a presupposition is never doubtful, for the very reason that it is a presupposition), since otherwise I would not begin, readily understanding that the whole would be impossible if he did not exist. But if when I speak of proving God's existence I mean that I propose to prove that the Unknown, which exists, is God, then I express myself unfortunately. For in that case I do not prove anything, least of all an existence, but merely develop the content of a conception.}} Hume was Huxley's favourite philosopher, calling him "the Prince of Agnostics".<ref>{{cite book\|titleA Hundred Years of British Philosophy\|first Rudolf\|lastMetz \|page 111\|publisher G. Allen & Unwin Limited\|date 1938\|isbn = 9780598425171}}</ref> Diderot wrote to his mistress, telling of a visit by Hume to the Baron D'Holbach, and describing how a word for the position that Huxley would later describe as agnosticism did not seem to exist, or at least was not common knowledge, at the time. {{blockquote\|The first time that M. Hume found himself at the table of the Baron, he was seated beside him. I don't know for what purpose the English philosopher took it into his head to remark to the Baron that he did not believe in atheists, that he had never seen any. The Baron said to him: "Count how many we are here." We are eighteen. The Baron added: "It isn't too bad a showing to be able to point out to you fifteen at once: the three others haven't made up their minds."<ref>Ernest Campbell Mossner, The Life of David Hume, 2014, pg.483</ref>\|Denis Diderot}} United Kingdom Charles Darwin in 1854]] Raised in a religious environment, Charles Darwin (1809–1882) studied to be an Anglican clergyman. While eventually doubting parts of his faith, Darwin continued to help in church affairs, even while avoiding church attendance. Darwin stated that it would be "absurd to doubt that a man might be an ardent theist and an evolutionist".<ref nameFordyce>[http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-12041 Letter 12041] – Darwin, C. R. to Fordyce, John, May 7, 1879. [https://web.archive.org/web/20140618112333/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-12041 Archived] from the original on June 29, 2014.</ref><ref namespencer>[https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2009/sep/17/darwin-evolution-religion Darwin's Complex loss of Faith] The Guardian September 17, 2009. [https://web.archive.org/web/20141006221012/http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2009/sep/17/darwin-evolution-religion Archived] from the original on June 29, 2014</ref> Although reticent about his religious views, in 1879 he wrote that "I have never been an atheist in the sense of denying the existence of a God. – I think that generally ... an agnostic would be the most correct description of my state of mind."<ref nameFordyce/><ref nameBelief>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/130/125/\|titleDarwin Correspondence Project – Belief: historical essay\|access-dateNovember 25, 2008 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090225124103/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/130/125/ \|archive-dateFebruary 25, 2009 }}</ref>Thomas Henry Huxley in the 1860s. He was the first to decisively coin the term agnosticism.]] Agnostic views are as old as philosophical skepticism, but the terms agnostic and agnosticism were created by Huxley (1825–1895) to sum up his thoughts on contemporary developments of metaphysics about the "unconditioned" (William Hamilton) and the "unknowable" (Herbert Spencer). Though Huxley began to use the term agnostic in 1869, his opinions had taken shape some time before that date. In a letter of September 23, 1860, to Charles Kingsley, Huxley discussed his views extensively:<ref name"Huxley1997">{{cite book\|authorThomas Henry Huxley\|author-linkThomas Henry Huxley\|titleThe Major Prose of Thomas Henry Huxley\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/majorproseofthom00huxl\|url-accessregistration\|year1997\|publisherUniversity of Georgia Press\|isbn978-0-8203-1864-6\|pages[https://archive.org/details/majorproseofthom00huxl/page/357 357]–}} </ref><ref name="Huxley2012"> {{cite book\|authorLeonard Huxley\|titleThomas Henry Huxley A Character Sketch\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYKNj1u0R4JcC&pgPT41\|dateFebruary 7, 2012\|publishertredition\|isbn978-3-8472-0297-4\|pages=41–}}</ref> {{blockquote\|I neither affirm nor deny the immortality of man. I see no reason for believing it, but, on the other hand, I have no means of disproving it. I have no a priori objections to the doctrine. No man who has to deal daily and hourly with nature can trouble himself about a priori difficulties. Give me such evidence as would justify me in believing in anything else, and I will believe that. Why should I not? It is not half so wonderful as the conservation of force or the indestructibility of matter&nbsp;... It is no use to talk to me of analogies and probabilities. I know what I mean when I say I believe in the law of the inverse squares, and I will not rest my life and my hopes upon weaker convictions&nbsp;... That my personality is the surest thing I know may be true. But the attempt to conceive what it is leads me into mere verbal subtleties. I have champed up all that chaff about the ego and the non-ego, noumena and phenomena, and all the rest of it, too often not to know that in attempting even to think of these questions, the human intellect flounders at once out of its depth.}} And again, to the same correspondent, May 6, 1863:<ref name"HuxleyHuxley2011">{{cite book\|author1Leonard Huxley\|author2Thomas Henry Huxley\|titleLife and Letters of Thomas Henry Huxley\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-azeZXAf6MMC&pgPA347\|dateDecember 22, 2011\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn978-1-108-04045-7\|pages=347–}}</ref> {{blockquote\|I have never had the least sympathy with the a priori reasons against orthodoxy, and I have by nature and disposition the greatest possible antipathy to all the atheistic and infidel school. Nevertheless I know that I am, in spite of myself, exactly what the Christian would call, and, so far as I can see, is justified in calling, atheist and infidel. I cannot see one shadow or tittle of evidence that the great unknown underlying the phenomenon of the universe stands to us in the relation of a Father [who] loves us and cares for us as Christianity asserts. So with regard to the other great Christian dogmas, immortality of soul and future state of rewards and punishments, what possible objection can I—who am compelled perforce to believe in the immortality of what we call Matter and Force, and in a very unmistakable present state of rewards and punishments for our deeds—have to these doctrines? Give me a scintilla of evidence, and I am ready to jump at them.}} Of the origin of the name agnostic to describe this attitude, Huxley gave the following account:<ref>{{cite book\| titleCollected Essays, Vol. V: Science and Christian Tradition\| firstThomas\| lastHuxley\| isbn 1-85506-922-9\| publisherMacmillan and Co 1893\| pages237–239}}</ref> {{blockquote\|When I reached intellectual maturity and began to ask myself whether I was an atheist, a theist, or a pantheist; a materialist or an idealist; Christian or a freethinker; I found that the more I learned and reflected, the less ready was the answer; until, at last, I came to the conclusion that I had neither art nor part with any of these denominations, except the last. The one thing in which most of these good people were agreed was the one thing in which I differed from them. They were quite sure they had attained a certain "gnosis"{{mdash}}had, more or less successfully, solved the problem of existence; while I was quite sure I had not, and had a pretty strong conviction that the problem was insoluble. And, with Hume and Kant on my side, I could not think myself presumptuous in holding fast by that opinion&nbsp;... So I took thought, and invented what I conceived to be the appropriate title of "agnostic". It came into my head as suggestively antithetic to the "gnostic" of Church history, who professed to know so much about the very things of which I was ignorant.&nbsp;... To my great satisfaction the term took.}} William Stewart Ross William Stewart Ross (1844–1906) wrote under the name of Saladin. He was associated with Victorian Freethinkers and the organization the British Secular Union. He edited the Secular Review from 1882; it was renamed Agnostic Journal and Eclectic Review and closed in 1907. Ross championed agnosticism in opposition to the atheism of Charles Bradlaugh as an open-ended spiritual exploration.<ref>Alastair Bonnett 'The Agnostic Saladin' History Today, 2013, 63,2, pp.&nbsp;47–52 </ref> In Why I am an Agnostic ({{circa\|1889}}) he claims that agnosticism is "the very reverse of atheism".<ref name"RossTaylor1889">{{cite book\|author1William Stewart Ross\|author2Joseph Taylor\|titleWhy I Am an Agnostic: Being a Manual of Agnosticism\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idnGNEmgEACAAJ\|year1889\|publisherW. Stewart & Company}}</ref> Bertrand Russell ]] Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) declared Why I Am Not a Christian in 1927, a classic statement of agnosticism.<ref name"Users.drew.edu">{{cite web\|urlhttp://users.drew.edu/~jlenz/whynot.html \|titleWhy I Am Not A Christian, by Bertrand Russell \|publisherUsers.drew.edu \|dateMarch 6, 1927 \|access-dateFebruary 9, 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140301002401/http://www.users.drew.edu/~jlenz/whynot.html \|archive-dateMarch 1, 2014 \|url-statuslive \|dfmdy }}</ref><ref name="Russell1992"> {{cite book\|authorBertrand Russell\|titleWhy I Am Not a Christian: And Other Essays on Religion and Related Subjects\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_f6LMwEACAAJ\|year1992\|publisherRoutledge\|isbn=978-0-415-07918-1}} </ref> He calls upon his readers to "stand on their own two feet and look fair and square at the world with a fearless attitude and a free intelligence".<ref name="Russell1992" /> In 1939, Russell gave a lecture on The existence and nature of God, in which he characterized himself as an atheist. He said:<ref>{{cite book\| lastRussell\| first Bertrand\| titleCollected Papers, Vol 10\|page255}}</ref> {{blockquote\|The existence and nature of God is a subject of which I can discuss only half. If one arrives at a negative conclusion concerning the first part of the question, the second part of the question does not arise; and my position, as you may have gathered, is a negative one on this matter.}} However, later in the same lecture, discussing modern non-anthropomorphic concepts of God, Russell states:<ref>Collected Papers, Vol. 10, p. 258</ref> {{blockquote\|That sort of God is, I think, not one that can actually be disproved, as I think the omnipotent and benevolent creator can.}} In Russell's 1947 pamphlet, Am I An Atheist or an Agnostic? (subtitled A Plea For Tolerance in the Face of New Dogmas), he ruminates on the problem of what to call himself:<ref name="Russell1997"> {{cite book\|authorBertrand Russell\|titleLast Philosophical Testament: 1943–68\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idr1jBN5iehKsC&pgPA91\|year1997\|publisherPsychology Press\|isbn978-0-415-09409-2\|pages=91–}}</ref> {{blockquote\|As a philosopher, if I were speaking to a purely philosophic audience I should say that I ought to describe myself as an Agnostic, because I do not think that there is a conclusive argument by which one can prove that there is not a God. On the other hand, if I am to convey the right impression to the ordinary man in the street I think I ought to say that I am an Atheist, because when I say that I cannot prove that there is not a God, I ought to add equally that I cannot prove that there are not the Homeric gods.}} In his 1953 essay, What Is An Agnostic? Russell states:<ref name"Russell2009">{{cite book\|authorBertrand Russell\|titleThe Basic Writings of Bertrand Russell\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLm58AgAAQBAJ&pgPA557\|dateMarch 2, 2009\|publisherRoutledge\|isbn978-1-134-02867-2\|pages557–}} </ref> {{blockquote\|An agnostic thinks it impossible to know the truth in matters such as God and the future life with which Christianity and other religions are concerned. Or, if not impossible, at least impossible at the present time. Are Agnostics Atheists? No. An atheist, like a Christian, holds that we can know whether or not there is a God. The Christian holds that we can know there is a God; the atheist, that we can know there is not. The Agnostic suspends judgment, saying that there are not sufficient grounds either for affirmation or for denial.}} Later in the essay, Russell adds:<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://scepsis.net/eng/articles/id_5.php \|title'What Is an agnostic?' by Bertrand Russell \|publisherScepsis.net \|access-dateFebruary 2, 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130822181953/http://scepsis.net/eng/articles/id_5.php \|archive-dateAugust 22, 2013 \|url-statuslive \|dfmdy }}</ref> {{blockquote\|I think that if I heard a voice from the sky predicting all that was going to happen to me during the next twenty-four hours, including events that would have seemed highly improbable, and if all these events then produced to happen, I might perhaps be convinced at least of the existence of some superhuman intelligence.}} Leslie Weatherhead {{See also\|Christian agnosticism}} {{Wikiquote\|Leslie Weatherhead}} In 1965, Christian theologian Leslie Weatherhead (1893–1976) published The Christian Agnostic, in which he argues:<ref name"Weatherhead1990">{{cite book\|lastWeatherhead \|firstLeslie D.\|titleThe Christian Agnostic\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-ZODJwAACAAJ\|dateSeptember 1990\|publisherAbingdon Press\|isbn=978-0-687-06980-4}} </ref> {{blockquote\|...&nbsp;many professing agnostics are nearer belief in the true God than are many conventional church-goers who believe in a body that does not exist whom they miscall God.}} Although radical and unpalatable to conventional theologians, Weatherhead's agnosticism falls far short of Huxley's, and short even of weak agnosticism:<ref name="Weatherhead1990" /> {{blockquote\|Of course, the human soul will always have the power to reject God, for choice is essential to its nature, but I cannot believe that anyone will finally do this.}} United States Robert G. Ingersoll ]] Robert G. Ingersoll (1833–1899), an Illinois lawyer and politician who evolved into a well-known and sought-after orator in 19th-century America, has been referred to as the "Great Agnostic".<ref>{{cite journal \| last1 Brandt \| first1 Eric T. \|first2Timothy \|last2Larsen \| title The Old Atheism Revisited: Robert G. Ingersoll and the Bible \| journal Journal of the Historical Society \| volume 11 \| issue 2 \| year 2011 \| pages 211–238 \| doi=10.1111/j.1540-5923.2011.00330.x}}</ref> In an 1896 lecture titled Why I Am An Agnostic, Ingersoll stated this: <ref name"infidels1">{{cite web\|urlhttp://infidels.org/library/historical/robert_ingersoll/why_i_am_agnostic.html \|date1896 \|first1Robert Green \|last1Ingersoll \|titleWhy I Am Agnostic\|publisherInternet Infidels \|access-dateFebruary 2, 2014}}</ref> {{blockquote\|Is there a supernatural power—an arbitrary mind—an enthroned God—a supreme will that sways the tides and currents of the world—to which all causes bow? I do not deny. I do not know—but I do not believe. I believe that the natural is supreme—that from the infinite chain no link can be lost or broken—that there is no supernatural power that can answer prayer—no power that worship can persuade or change—no power that cares for man. I believe that with infinite arms Nature embraces the all—that there is no interference—no chance—that behind every event are the necessary and countless causes, and that beyond every event will be and must be the necessary and countless effects. Is there a God? I do not know. Is man immortal? I do not know. One thing I do know, and that is, that neither hope, nor fear, belief, nor denial, can change the fact. It is as it is, and it will be as it must be.}} In the conclusion of the speech he simply sums up the agnostic position as:<ref name="infidels1"/> {{blockquote\|We can be as honest as we are ignorant. If we are, when asked what is beyond the horizon of the known, we must say that we do not know.}} In 1885, Ingersoll explained his comparative view of agnosticism and atheism as follows:<ref>{{cite book \|lastJacoby \|firstSusan \|date2013 \|titleThe Great Agnostic \|publisherYale University Press \|page17 \| isbn=978-0-300-13725-5 }}</ref> {{blockquote\|The Agnostic is an Atheist. The Atheist is an Agnostic. The Agnostic says, 'I do not know, but I do not believe there is any God.' The Atheist says the same.}}{{See also\|Physical determinism}} Bernard Iddings Bell Canon Bernard Iddings Bell (1886–1958), a popular cultural commentator, Episcopal priest, and author, lauded the necessity of agnosticism in Beyond Agnosticism: A Book for Tired Mechanists, calling it the foundation of "all intelligent Christianity".<ref name":0">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://anglicanhistory.org/usa/bibell/goodnews/02.html\|titleThe Good News, by Bernard Iddings Bell (1921)\|websiteanglicanhistory.org\|access-date2019-02-21}}</ref> Agnosticism was a temporary mindset in which one rigorously questioned the truths of the age, including the way in which one believed God.<ref>{{Cite book\|titleThe religious roots of postmodernism in American culture: an analysis of the postmodern theory of Bernard Iddings Bell and its continued relevance to contemporary postmodern theory and literary criticism.\|lastBrauer\|firstKristen D.\|publisherUniversity of Glasgow\|year2007\|locationGlasgow, Scotland\|pages32}}</ref> His view of Robert Ingersoll and Thomas Paine was that they were not denouncing true Christianity but rather "a gross perversion of it".<ref name":0" /> Part of the misunderstanding stemmed from ignorance of the concepts of God and religion.<ref>{{Cite book\|titleUnfashionable Convictions\|lastBell\|firstBernard Iddings\|publisherHarper & Brothers\|year1931\|locationNew York and London\|pages20}}</ref> Historically, a god was any real, perceivable force that ruled the lives of humans and inspired admiration, love, fear, and homage; religion was the practice of it. Ancient peoples worshiped gods with real counterparts, such as Mammon (money and material things), Nabu (rationality), or Ba'al (violent weather); Bell argued that modern peoples were still paying homage—with their lives and their children's lives—to these old gods of wealth, physical appetites, and self-deification.<ref>{{Cite book\|titleBeyond Agnosticism\|lastBell\|firstBernard Iddings\|publisherHarper & Brothers\|year1929\|locationNew York and London\|pages=12–19}}</ref> Thus, if one attempted to be agnostic passively, he or she would incidentally join the worship of the world's gods. In Unfashionable Convictions (1931), he criticized the Enlightenment's complete faith in human sensory perception, augmented by scientific instruments, as a means of accurately grasping Reality. Firstly, it was fairly new, an innovation of the Western World, which Aristotle invented and Thomas Aquinas revived among the scientific community. Secondly, the divorce of "pure" science from human experience, as manifested in American Industrialization, had completely altered the environment, often disfiguring it, so as to suggest its insufficiency to human needs. Thirdly, because scientists were constantly producing more data—to the point where no single human could grasp it all at once—it followed that human intelligence was incapable of attaining a complete understanding of universe; therefore, to admit the mysteries of the unobserved universe was to be actually scientific. Bell believed that there were two other ways that humans could perceive and interact with the world. Artistic experience was how one expressed meaning through speaking, writing, painting, gesturing—any sort of communication which shared insight into a human's inner reality. Mystical experience was how one could "read" people and harmonize with them, being what we commonly call love.<ref name":1">{{Cite book\|titleUnfashionable Convictions\|lastBell\|firstBernard Iddings\|publisherHarper & Brothers\|year1931\|locationNew York and London\|pages4–5}}</ref> In summary, man was a scientist, artist, and lover. Without exercising all three, a person became "lopsided". Bell considered a humanist to be a person who cannot rightly ignore the other ways of knowing. However, humanism, like agnosticism, was also temporal, and would eventually lead to either scientific materialism or theism. He lays out the following thesis: # Truth cannot be discovered by reasoning on the evidence of scientific data alone. Modern peoples' dissatisfaction with life is the result of depending on such incomplete data. Our ability to reason is not a way to discover Truth but rather a way to organize our knowledge and experiences somewhat sensibly. Without a full, human perception of the world, one's reason tends to lead them in the wrong direction. # Beyond what can be measured with scientific tools, there are other types of perception, such as one's ability know another human through loving. One's loves cannot be dissected and logged in a scientific journal, but we know them far better than we know the surface of the sun. They show us an indefinable reality that is nevertheless intimate and personal, and they reveal qualities lovelier and truer than detached facts can provide. # To be religious, in the Christian sense, is to live for the Whole of Reality (God) rather than for a small part (gods). Only by treating this Whole of Reality as a person—good and true and perfect—rather than an impersonal force, can we come closer to the Truth. An ultimate Person can be loved, but a cosmic force cannot. A scientist can only discover peripheral truths, but a lover is able to get at the Truth. # There are many reasons to believe in God but they are not sufficient for an agnostic to become a theist. It is not enough to believe in an ancient holy book, even though when it is accurately analyzed without bias, it proves to be more trustworthy and admirable than what we are taught in school. Neither is it enough to realize how probable it is that a personal God would have to show human beings how to live, considering they have so much trouble on their own. Nor is it enough to believe for the reason that, throughout history, millions of people have arrived at this Wholeness of Reality only through religious experience. The aforementioned reasons may warm one toward religion, but they fall short of convincing. However, if one presupposes that God is in fact a knowable, loving person, as an experiment, and then lives according to that religion, he or she will suddenly come face to face with experiences previously unknown. One's life becomes full, meaningful, and fearless in the face of death. It does not defy reason but exceeds it. # Because God has been experienced through love, the orders of prayer, fellowship, and devotion now matter. They create order within one's life, continually renewing the "missing piece" that had previously felt lost. They empower one to be compassionate and humble, not small-minded or arrogant. # No truth should be denied outright, but all should be questioned. Science reveals an ever-growing vision of our universe that should not be discounted due to bias toward older understandings. Reason is to be trusted and cultivated. To believe in God is not to forego reason or to deny scientific facts, but to step into the unknown and discover the fullness of life.<ref>{{Cite book\|titleUnfashionable Convictions\|lastBell\|firstBernard Iddings\|publisherHarper & Brothers Publishing\|year1931\|locationNew York and London\|pages25–28}}</ref>Demographics, 2010<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/\|titleReligious Composition by Country, 2010–2050\|date2015-04-02\|websitePew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project\|languageen-US\|access-date=2020-04-27}}</ref>]] Demographic research services normally do not differentiate between various types of non-religious respondents, so agnostics are often classified in the same category as atheists or other non-religious people.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html \|titleMajor Religions Ranked by Size \|publisherAdherents.com \|access-dateAugust 14, 2010\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100811013003/http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html\| archive-dateAugust 11, 2010 \| url-status=usurped}}</ref> A 2010 survey published in Encyclopædia Britannica found that the non-religious people or the agnostics made up about 9.6% of the world's population.<ref name="eb-2010">{{cite encyclopedia \|title=Religion: Year in Review 2010: Worldwide Adherents of All Religions \|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1731588/Religion-Year-In-Review-2010/298437/Worldwide-Adherents-of-All-Religions \|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica \|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. \|access-date=November 21, 2013 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702182310/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1731588/Religion-Year-In-Review-2010/298437/Worldwide-Adherents-of-All-Religions \|archive-date=July 2, 2014 \|url-status=live \|df=mdy }} </ref> A November–December 2006 poll published in the Financial Times gives rates for the United States and five European countries. The rates of agnosticism in the United States were at 14%, while the rates of agnosticism in the European countries surveyed were considerably higher: Italy (20%), Spain (30%), Great Britain (35%), Germany (25%), and France (32%).<ref name="Harris">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.harrisinteractive.com/news/allnewsbydate.asp?NewsID1131 \|title=Religious Views and Beliefs Vary Greatly by Country, According to the Latest Financial Times/Harris Poll \|publisher=Financial Times/Harris Interactive \|date=December 20, 2006 \|access-date=April 9, 2011 \|url-status=dead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130723125147/http://www.harrisinteractive.com/news/allnewsbydate.asp?NewsID1131 \|archive-date=July 23, 2013 \|df=mdy }}</ref> A study conducted by the Pew Research Center found that about 16% of the world's people, the third largest group after Christianity and Islam, have no religious affiliation.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleStudy Finds One in 6 Follows No Religion \|lastGoodstein \|firstLaurie \|workThe New York Times \|dateDecember 18, 2012 \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/18/world/pew-study-finds-one-in-6-follows-no-religion.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140623235102/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/18/world/pew-study-finds-one-in-6-follows-no-religion.html\|archive-dateJune 23, 2014 \|url-status=dead }} </ref> According to a 2012 report by the Pew Research Center, agnostics made up 3.3% of the US adult population.<ref name="pew 2012">{{cite web \|last = Cary Funk \|first = Greg Smith \|title = "Nones" on the Rise: One-in-Five Adults Have No Religious Affiliation \|url = http://www.pewforum.org/files/2012/10/NonesOnTheRise-full.pdf \|publisher = Pew Research Center \|pages = 9, 42 \|access-date = November 21, 2013 \|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140826234925/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2012/10/NonesOnTheRise-full.pdf \|archive-date = August 26, 2014 \|url-status = dead \|df = mdy-all }}</ref> In the U.S. Religious Landscape Survey, conducted by the Pew Research Center, 55% of agnostic respondents expressed "a belief in God or a universal spirit",<ref name="Demographics1">{{cite web \|url=http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report2religious-landscape-study-key-findings.pdf \|title=Summary of Key Findings \|year=2011 \|publisher=Pew Research Center \|access-date=December 28, 2011 \|quote=Nearly all adults (92%) say they believe in God or a universal spirit, including seven-in-ten of the unaffiliated. Indeed, one-in-five people who identify themselves as atheist (21%) and a majority of those who identify themselves as agnostic (55%) express a belief in God or a universal spirit. \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017135407/http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report2religious-landscape-study-key-findings.pdf \|archive-date=October 17, 2014 \|url-status=live \|df=mdy }} </ref> whereas 41% stated that they thought that they felt a tension "being non-religious in a society where most people are religious".<ref name"Demographics2">{{cite web\|urlhttp://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report2religious-landscape-study-key-findings.pdf \|titleSummary of Key Findings \|year2011 \|publisherPew Research Center \|access-dateDecember 28, 2011 \|quoteInterestingly, a substantial number of adults who are not affiliated with a religion also sense that there is a conflict between religion and modern society&nbsp;– except for them the conflict involves being non-religious in a society where most people are religious. For instance, more than four-inten atheists and agnostics (44% and 41%, respectively) believe that such a tension exists. \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141017135407/http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report2religious-landscape-study-key-findings.pdf \|archive-dateOctober 17, 2014 \|url-statuslive \|df=mdy }}</ref> According to the 2021 Australian Bureau of Statistics, 38.9% of Australians have "no religion", a category that includes agnostics.<ref name="abs"> {{cite web \|url = https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/people-and-communities/snapshot-australia/2021#religious-affiliation \|title = Snapshot of Australia \|publisher = Australian Bureau of Statistics \|year = 2021 \|access-date = September 4, 2023 \|df = mdy }} </ref> Between 64% and 65% of Japanese,<ref name"Martin2007">{{cite book \| lastZuckerman \| firstPhil\| editorMartin, Michael T \| titleThe Cambridge Companion to Atheism \| year2007 \|publisherCambridge University Press \| locationCambridge, England \| isbn978-0-521-60367-6 \| ol 22379448M \| page56 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtAeFipOVx4MC&pgPA56 \| access-date=April 9, 2011}} </ref> and up to 81% of Vietnamese,<ref name="Intelligence">{{cite web \|url=http://davesource.com/Fringe/Fringe/Religion/Average-intelligence-predicts-atheism-rates-across-137-nations-Lynn-et-al.pdf \|title=Average intelligence predicts atheism rates across 137 nations \|date=January 3, 2008 \|access-date=October 21, 2012 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130823195203/http://davesource.com/Fringe/Fringe/Religion/Average-intelligence-predicts-atheism-rates-across-137-nations-Lynn-et-al.pdf \|archive-date=August 23, 2013 \|url-status=live \|df=mdy }} </ref> are atheists, agnostics, or do not believe in a god. An official European Union survey reported that 3% of the EU population is unsure about their belief in a god or spirit.<ref name"EU">{{cite book\|titleSocial values, Science and Technology \|publisherDirectorate General Research, European Union \|year2005 \|pages7–11 \|urlhttp://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf \|access-dateApril 9, 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110430163128/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf \|archive-dateApril 30, 2011 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Criticism Agnosticism is criticized from a variety of standpoints. Some atheists criticize the use of the term agnosticism as functionally indistinguishable from atheism; this results in frequent criticisms of those who adopt the term as avoiding the atheist label.<ref name"EB-Agnosticism"/>TheisticTheistic critics claim that agnosticism is impossible in practice, since a person can live only either as if God did not exist (etsi deus non-daretur), or as if God did exist (etsi deus daretur).<ref nameSM> {{cite web \|urlhttp://chiesa.espresso.repubblica.it/articolo/125081?engy \|title=Habermas writes to Ratzinger and Ruini responds \|author=Sandro Magister \|year=2007 \|access-date=May 25, 2008 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140221193703/http://chiesa.espresso.repubblica.it/articolo/125081?engy \|archive-date=February 21, 2014 \|url-status=live \|df=mdy }}</ref><ref nameCCC>{{cite book\| titleChristianity and the Crisis of Cultures\| firstJoseph\| lastRatzinger\| isbn978-1-58617-142-1\|publisherIgnatius Press\|year2006\|pages87–89}}</ref> Christian According to Pope Benedict XVI, strong agnosticism in particular contradicts itself in affirming the power of reason to know scientific truth.<ref nameYOJC/><ref nameTT/> He blames the exclusion of reasoning from religion and ethics for dangerous pathologies such as crimes against humanity and ecological disasters.<ref nameYOJC>{{cite book\| titleThe Yes of Jesus Christ: Spiritual Exercises in Faith, Hope, and Love\| firstJoseph\| lastRatzinger\|publisherCross Roads Publishing\|year2005}} </ref>{{page needed\|dateJune 2023}}<ref nameTT>{{cite book\| titleTruth and Tolerance: Christian Belief And World Religions\| firstJoseph\| lastRatzinger\|publisherIgnatius Press\|year2004}}</ref>{{page needed\|dateJune 2023}}<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.zenit.org/en/articles/papal-address-at-university-of-regensburg \|titlePapal Address at University of Regensburg \|publisherzenit.org \|dateSeptember 12, 2006 \|access-dateJune 29, 2014 \|authorBenedict XVI \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140601043308/http://www.zenit.org/en/articles/papal-address-at-university-of-regensburg \|archive-dateJune 1, 2014 \|url-statuslive \|dfmdy }}</ref> "Agnosticism", said Benedict, "is always the fruit of a refusal of that knowledge which is in fact offered to man&nbsp;... The knowledge of God has always existed".<ref nameTT/> He asserted that agnosticism is a choice of comfort, pride, dominion, and utility over truth, and is opposed by the following attitudes: the keenest self-criticism, humble listening to the whole of existence, the persistent patience and self-correction of the scientific method, a readiness to be purified by the truth.<ref nameYOJC/> The Catholic Church sees merit in examining what it calls "partial agnosticism", specifically those systems that "do not aim at constructing a complete philosophy of the unknowable, but at excluding special kinds of truth, notably religious, from the domain of knowledge".<ref name="CEnc1">{{cite encyclopedia \|title=Agnosticism \|publisher=Catholic Encyclopedia \|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01215c.htm \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140701133447/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01215c.htm \|archive-date=July 1, 2014 \|url-status=live \|df=mdy }} </ref> However, the Church is historically opposed to a full denial of the capacity of human reason to know God. The Council of the Vatican declares, "God, the beginning and end of all, can, by the natural light of human reason, be known with certainty from the works of creation".<ref name="CEnc1"/> Blaise Pascal argued that even if there were truly no evidence for God, agnostics should consider what is now known as Pascal's Wager: the infinite expected value of acknowledging God is always greater than the finite expected value of not acknowledging his existence, and thus it is a safer "bet" to choose God.<ref namePKPW>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.peterkreeft.com/topics/pascals-wager.htm\| titleArgument from Pascal's Wager\| year2007 \| access-dateMay 25, 2008\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080605044148/http://peterkreeft.com/topics/pascals-wager.htm\| archive-dateJune 5, 2008 \| url-statuslive}}</ref> Atheistic According to Richard Dawkins, a distinction between agnosticism and atheism is unwieldy and depends on how close to zero a person is willing to rate the probability of existence for any given god-like entity. About himself, Dawkins continues, "I am agnostic only to the extent that I am agnostic about fairies at the bottom of the garden."<ref>The God Delusion (2006), Bantam Press, p.&nbsp;51</ref> Dawkins also identifies two categories of agnostics; "Temporary Agnostics in Practice" (TAPs), and "Permanent Agnostics in Principle" (PAPs). He states that "agnosticism about the existence of God belongs firmly in the temporary or TAP category. Either he exists or he doesn't. It is a scientific question; one day we may know the answer, and meanwhile we can say something pretty strong about the probability", and considers PAP a "deeply inescapable kind of fence-sitting".<ref>The God Delusion (2006), Bantam Press, pp&nbsp;47–48</ref> Ignosticism A related concept is ignosticism, the view that a coherent definition of a deity must be put forward before the question of the existence of a deity can be meaningfully discussed. If the chosen definition is not coherent, the ignostic holds the noncognitivist view that the existence of a deity is meaningless or empirically untestable.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.strongatheism.net/library/atheology/argument_from_noncognitivism/ \|titleThe Argument From Non-Cognitivism \|access-dateOctober 1, 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140429162223/http://www.strongatheism.net/library/atheology/argument_from_noncognitivism/ \|archive-dateApril 29, 2014 \|url-statuslive \|dfmdy }}</ref> A.&nbsp;J. Ayer, Theodore Drange, and other philosophers see both atheism and agnosticism as incompatible with ignosticism on the grounds that atheism and agnosticism accept the statement "a deity exists" as a meaningful proposition that can be argued for or against.<ref>Ayer, Language, 115: "There can be no way of proving that the existence of a God&nbsp;... is even probable.&nbsp;... For if the existence of such a god were probable, then the proposition that he existed would be an empirical hypothesis. And in that case it would be possible to deduce from it, and other empirical hypotheses, certain experimental propositions which were not deducible from those other hypotheses alone. But in fact this is not possible."</ref><ref name"Drange">Drange, Atheism{{full citation needed\|dateApril 2024}}</ref>See also{{columns-list\|colwidth30em\| * Acatalepsy * Agnostic atheism * Agnostic theism * Apatheism * Apophatic theology * ''Asimov's Guide to the Bible * Avidyā (Buddhism) * Christian agnosticism * Existentialism * Ietsism * Ignoramus et ignorabimus'' * Instrumentalism * List of agnostics * Objectivism * Possibilianism * Rationalism * Relativism * Religiosity * Religious skepticism * Russell's teapot * Scientism * Secularism * Solipsism * Spirituality * Spiritual but not religious * Subjectivism * Unknown God * {{Portal-inline\|Philosophy}} * {{Portal-inline\|Religion}} }} References {{reflist}} Further reading * {{cite book\|titleAgnosticism\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqd8feB0LiOcC&pgPA164\|publisherForgotten Books\|isbn978-1-4400-6878-2\|pages=164–}} * Alexander, Nathan G. [https://thehumanist.com/magazine/march-april-2019/philosophically-speaking/philosophically-speaking-an-atheist-with-a-tall-hat-on-the-forgotten-history-of-agnosticism "An Atheist with a Tall Hat On: The Forgotten History of Agnosticism."] The Humanist, February 19, 2019. * Annan, Noel. Leslie Stephen: The Godless Victorian (U of Chicago Press, 1984) * Cockshut, A.O.J. The Unbelievers, English Thought, 1840–1890 (1966). * Dawkins, Richard. "The poverty of agnosticism", in The God Delusion, Black Swan, 2007 ({{ISBN\|978-0-552-77429-1}}). * {{cite book\|authorHuxley, Thomas H. \|titleMan's Place in Nature\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idUJwfDYDJ-v0C&pgPP1\|dateFebruary 4, 2013\|publisherCourier Dover Publications\|isbn978-0-486-15134-2\|pages=1–}} * {{cite book\|authorHume, David\|titleDialogues Concerning Natural Religion\|publisherPenguin Books, Limited\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/bub_gb_E7dbAAAAQAAJ\|year1779\|pages[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_E7dbAAAAQAAJ/page/n9 1]–}} * {{cite book\|authorKant, Immanuel\|titleThe Critique of Pure Reason\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idb826nQEACAAJ\|dateMay 28, 2013\|publisherLoki's Publishing\|isbn=978-0-615-82576-2}} * {{cite book \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/philosophicalfra0000kier_y4a6 \|titlePhilosophical Fragments \|publisherReligion-online.org \|access-dateFebruary 9, 2014 \|authorKierkegaard, Sören \|isbn978-0-691-02036-5 \|url-statusdead \|year1985 \|url-accessregistration \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140222040928/http://www.religion-online.org/showbook.asp?title2512 \|archive-dateFebruary 22, 2014 }} * Lightman, Bernard. The Origins of Agnosticism (1987). * Royle, Edward. Radicals, Secularists, and Republicans: Popular Freethought in Britain, 1866–1915 (Manchester UP, 1980). * {{cite book \| urlhttps://archive.org/details/atheismcaseagain00smit_0 \| titleAtheism&nbsp;– The Case Against God \| access-dateFebruary 9, 2014 \| authorSmith, George H. \| isbn0-87975-124-X \| url-statusdead \| year1979 \| publisherPrometheus Books \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131126123403/http://www.andrew.cmu.edu/user/jksadegh/A%20Good%20Atheist%20Secularist%20Skeptical%20Book%20Collection/George%20H.%20Smith%20-%20Atheism-%20The%20Case%20Against%20God%20(v1.1).pdf \| archive-dateNovember 26, 2013 }} External links {{Library resources box\|byno\|onlinebooksno\|aboutyes\|wikititleagnosticism}} {{Wiktionary}} {{Wikiquote}} {{EB1911 poster\|Agnosticism}} * {{cite SEP \|url-id atheism-agnosticism \|title Atheism and Agnosticism }} * {{PhilPapers\|category\|Agnosticism}} * {{InPho\|idea\|13}} * [https://www.shapell.org/historical-perspectives/exhibitions/albert-einstein-original-letters-aid-brethren/ Albert Einstein on Religion] Shapell Manuscript Foundation * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060718144400/http://www.agnosticuniverse.org/ingersoll-why_i_am_an_agnostic.html Why I Am An Agnostic] by Robert G. Ingersoll, [1896]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060909185501/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-03 Dictionary of the History of Ideas]: Agnosticism * [https://inters.org/agnosticism Agnosticism from INTERS&nbsp;– Interdisciplinary Encyclopedia of Religion and Science] * [http://www.religioustolerance.org/agnostic.htm Agnosticism]&nbsp;– from [http://www.religioustolerance.org/ ReligiousTolerance.org] * [https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/68831/jewish/What-do-Agnostics-Believe.htm What do Agnostics Believe?&nbsp;– A Jewish perspective] * Fides et Ratio [https://web.archive.org/web/20111126183043/http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/encyclicals/documents/hf_jp-ii_enc_15101998_fides-et-ratio_en.html &nbsp;– the relationship between faith and reason] Karol Wojtyla [1998] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090408143154/http://thenaturalreligion.org/ The Natural Religion] by Brendan Connolly, 2008 * {{cite encyclopedia \|url http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docIdDicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist1.xml;chunk.iddv1-03;toc.depth1;toc.iddv1-03;branddefault \|first Kai \|last Nielsen \|title Agnosticism \|encyclopedia Dictionary of the History of Ideas \|publisher University of Virginia Library \|orig-date1968 \|year=1973 }} {{Clear}} {{Agnosticism}} {{Philosophy of religion}} {{Criticism of religion}} {{skepticism}} {{Western culture}}{{Belief systems}}{{Authority control}}	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnosticism	2025-04-05T18:25:25.796343
896	Argon	{{About\|the chemical element}} {{distinguish\|Aragon}} {{pp\|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=January 2020}} {{Infobox argon}} Argon is a chemical element; it has symbol Ar and atomic number 18. It is in group 18 of the periodic table and is a noble gas.<ref>In older versions of the periodic table, the noble gases were identified as Group VIIIA or as Group 0. See Group (periodic table).</ref> Argon is the third most abundant gas in Earth's atmosphere, at 0.934% (9340 ppmv). It is more than twice as abundant as water vapor (which averages about 4000 ppmv, but varies greatly), 23 times as abundant as carbon dioxide (400 ppmv), and more than 500 times as abundant as neon (18 ppmv). Argon is the most abundant noble gas in Earth's crust, comprising 0.00015% of the crust. Nearly all argon in Earth's atmosphere is radiogenic argon-40, derived from the decay of potassium-40 in Earth's crust. In the universe, argon-36 is by far the most common argon isotope, as it is the most easily produced by stellar nucleosynthesis in supernovas. The name "argon" is derived from the Greek word {{lang\|grc\|ἀργόν}}, neuter singular form of {{lang\|grc\|ἀργός}} meaning 'lazy' or 'inactive', as a reference to the fact that the element undergoes almost no chemical reactions. The complete octet (eight electrons) in the outer atomic shell makes argon stable and resistant to bonding with other elements. Its triple point temperature of 83.8058&nbsp;K is a defining fixed point in the International Temperature Scale of 1990. Argon is extracted industrially by the fractional distillation of liquid air. It is mostly used as an inert shielding gas in welding and other high-temperature industrial processes where ordinarily unreactive substances become reactive; for example, an argon atmosphere is used in graphite electric furnaces to prevent the graphite from burning. It is also used in incandescent and fluorescent lighting, and other gas-discharge tubes. It makes a distinctive blue-green gas laser. It is also used in fluorescent glow starters. Characteristics Argon has approximately the same solubility in water as oxygen and is 2.5 times more soluble in water than nitrogen. Argon is colorless, odorless, nonflammable and nontoxic as a solid, liquid or gas.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.uigi.com/MSDS_gaseous_Ar.html \|titleMaterial Safety Data Sheet Gaseous Argon \|websiteUIGI.com\| publisher Universal Industrial Gases, Inc. \|access-date=14 October 2013 }}</ref> Argon is chemically inert under most conditions and forms no confirmed stable compounds at room temperature. Although argon is a noble gas, it can form some compounds under various extreme conditions. Argon fluorohydride (HArF), a compound of argon with fluorine and hydrogen that is stable below {{cvt\|17\|K}}, has been demonstrated.<ref>{{cite journal \|display-authors=4 \|first1Leonid \| last1 Khriachtchev \|first2Mika \| last2 Pettersson \|first3Nino \| last3Runeberg \|first4Jan \| last4 Lundell \|first5Markku \| last5 Räsänen \|s2cid=4382128 \|name-list-style=amp \|date=2000 \|title=A stable argon compound \|journal=Nature \|volume406 \|issue6798 \|pages=874–876 \|doi = 10.1038/35022551 \|pmid10972285\|bibcode2000Natur.406..874K }}</ref><ref name="sciencenews-harf"> {{cite news \|lastPerkins \|firstS. \|date=26 August 2000 \|title=HArF! Argon's not so noble after all – researchers make argon fluorohydride \|urlhttp://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/795/description/HArF_Argons_not_so_noble_after_all \|work Science News}}</ref> Although the neutral ground-state chemical compounds of argon are presently limited to HArF, argon can form clathrates with water when atoms of argon are trapped in a lattice of water molecules.<ref> {{cite journal \|display-authors=4 \|author=Belosludov, V. R. \|author2=Subbotin, O. S. \|author3=Krupskii, D. S. \|author4=Prokuda, O. V. \|author5=Belosludov, R. V. \|author6=Kawazoe, Y. \|date=2006 \|title=Microscopic model of clathrate compounds \|journal=Journal of Physics: Conference Series \|volume29 \|issue1 \|pages=1–7 \|doi = 10.1088/1742-6596/29/1/001 \|bibcode 2006JPhCS..29....1B \|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Ions, such as {{chem\|ArH\|+}}, and excited-state complexes, such as ArF, have been demonstrated. Theoretical calculation predicts several more argon compounds that should be stable<ref> {{cite journal \|last1Cohen \|first1A. \|last2Lundell \|first2J. \|last3Gerber \|first3R. B. \|s2cid=95850840 \|date=2003 \|title=First compounds with argon–carbon and argon–silicon chemical bonds \|journal=Journal of Chemical Physics \|volume119 \|pages 6415 \|doi=10.1063/1.1613631 \|bibcode = 2003JChPh.119.6415C \|issue13 }}</ref> but have not yet been synthesized.HistoryArgon (Greek {{lang\|grc\|ἀργόν}}, neuter singular form of {{lang\|grc\|ἀργός}} meaning "lazy" or "inactive") is named in reference to its chemical inactivity. This chemical property of this first noble gas to be discovered impressed the namers.<ref name"lazyone1"> {{cite book \|last Hiebert \|first E. N. \|date = 1963 \|chapter = In Noble-Gas Compounds \|editor = Hyman, H. H. \|title = Historical Remarks on the Discovery of Argon: The First Noble Gas \|publisher = University of Chicago Press \|pages = 3–20 }}</ref><ref name="lazyone2"> {{cite book \|lastTravers \|first M. W. \|date=1928 \|title=The Discovery of the Rare Gases \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/discoveryofrareg0000trav \|url-accessregistration \|pages=[https://archive.org/details/discoveryofrareg0000trav/page/1 1–7] \|publisher=Edward Arnold & Co. }}</ref> An unreactive gas was suspected to be a component of air by Henry Cavendish in 1785.<ref name"Cave1785">{{cite journal \|authorCavendish, Henry \|titleExperiments on Air \|journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society \|year1785 \|volume75 \|pages372–384 \|bibcode1785RSPT...75..372C \|doi10.1098/rstl.1785.0023\|urlhttps://zenodo.org/record/1432276\|doi-access=free }}</ref> Argon was first isolated from air in 1894 by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay at University College London by removing oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, and nitrogen from a sample of clean air.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle\| {{cite journal \|author=Lord Rayleigh \|author-link=Lord Rayleigh \|author2=Ramsay, William \|author2-link=William Ramsay \|date=1894–1895 \|title=Argon, a New Constituent of the Atmosphere \|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society \|volume57 \|issue1 \|pages=265–287 \|doi=10.1098/rspl.1894.0149 \|jstor=115394 \|doi-access=free }}\| {{cite journal \|author=Lord Rayleigh \|author2=Ramsay, William \|date = 1895 \|title = VI. Argon: A New Constituent of the Atmosphere \|journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A \|volume 186 \|pages 187–241 \|doi= 10.1098/rsta.1895.0006 \|jstor=90645 \|bibcode 1895RSPTA.186..187R \|doi-accessfree}}\| {{cite web \|lastRamsay \|firstW. \|date=1904 \|title=Nobel Lecture \|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1904/ramsay-lecture.html \|publisher=The Nobel Foundation }}}}</ref> They first accomplished this by replicating an experiment of Henry Cavendish's. They trapped a mixture of atmospheric air with additional oxygen in a test-tube (A) upside-down over a large quantity of dilute alkali solution (B), which in Cavendish's original experiment was potassium hydroxide,<ref name="Cave1785" /> and conveyed a current through wires insulated by U-shaped glass tubes (CC) which sealed around the platinum wire electrodes, leaving the ends of the wires (DD) exposed to the gas and insulated from the alkali solution. The arc was powered by a battery of five Grove cells and a Ruhmkorff coil of medium size. The alkali absorbed the oxides of nitrogen produced by the arc and also carbon dioxide. They operated the arc until no more reduction of volume of the gas could be seen for at least an hour or two and the spectral lines of nitrogen disappeared when the gas was examined. The remaining oxygen was reacted with alkaline pyrogallate to leave behind an apparently non-reactive gas which they called argon. in Vanity Fair, 1899]] Before isolating the gas, they had determined that nitrogen produced from chemical compounds was 0.5% lighter than nitrogen from the atmosphere. The difference was slight, but it was important enough to attract their attention for many months. They concluded that there was another gas in the air mixed in with the nitrogen.<ref> {{cite news \|date=3 March 1895 \|title=About Argon, the Inert; The New Element Supposedly Found in the Atmosphere \|urlhttps://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res9B04E3D61139E033A25750C0A9659C94649ED7CF \|work=The New York Times \|access-date = 1 February 2009 }}</ref> Argon was also encountered in 1882 through independent research of H. F. Newall and W. N. Hartley.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Emsley \|first1John \|titleNature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements \|date2003 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn0198503407 \|page36 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idj-Xu07p3cKwC&pgPA36 \|access-date=12 June 2020}}</ref> Each observed new lines in the emission spectrum of air that did not match known elements. Prior to 1957, the symbol for argon was "A". This was changed to Ar after the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry published the work Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry in 1957.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle\| {{cite web \|lastHolden \|firstN. E. \|date=12 March 2004 \|title=History of the Origin of the Chemical Elements and Their Discoverers \|url=http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/content/elements.html \|publisher=National Nuclear Data Center }}\|{{Citation \|titleCommission II.2: Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry \|date1957 \|publisherInternational Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) \|viaScience History Institute Archives \|urlhttps://sciencehistory.libraryhost.com/repositories/3/archival_objects/38117\|access-dateSeptember 3, 2024}}}}</ref> Occurrence Argon constitutes 0.934% by volume and 1.288% by mass of Earth's atmosphere.<ref> {{cite encyclopedia \|titleArgon (Ar)\|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica \|access-date=14 January 2014 \|url= https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/33896/argon-Ar }}</ref> Air is the primary industrial source of purified argon products. Argon is isolated from air by fractionation, most commonly by cryogenic fractional distillation, a process that also produces purified nitrogen, oxygen, neon, krypton and xenon.<ref> {{cite web \|title=Argon, Ar \|url=http://elements.etacude.com/Ar.php \|work=Etacude.com \|access-date=8 March 2007 \|url-status=unfit \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007175238/http://elements.etacude.com/Ar.php \|archive-date=7 October 2008 }}</ref> Earth's crust and seawater contain 1.2 ppm and 0.45 ppm of argon, respectively.<ref name="emsley">{{cite book \|lastEmsley \|firstJ. \|date=2001 \|title=Nature's Building Blocks \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|pages44–45\| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2EfYXzwPo3UC&pgPA44 \|isbn=978-0-19-960563-7 }}</ref> Isotopes {{Main\|Isotopes of argon}} The main isotopes of argon found on Earth are {{chem\|40\|Ar}} (99.6%), {{chem\|36\|Ar}} (0.34%), and {{chem\|38\|Ar}} (0.06%). Naturally occurring {{chem\|40\|K\|linkpotassium-40}}, with a half-life of 1.25{{e\|9}} years, decays to stable {{chem\|40\|Ar}} (11.2%) by electron capture or positron emission, and also to stable {{chem\|40\|Ca}} (88.8%) by beta decay. These properties and ratios are used to determine the age of rocks by K–Ar dating.<ref name"emsley" /><ref name="iso"> {{cite web \|url=http://www.geoberg.de/text/geology/07011601.php \|title=<sup>40</sup>Ar/<sup>39</sup>Ar dating and errors \|access-date=7 March 2007 \|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070509023017/http://www.geoberg.de/text/geology/07011601.php \|archive-date = 9 May 2007 }}</ref> In Earth's atmosphere, {{chem\|39\|Ar}} is made by cosmic ray activity, primarily by neutron capture of {{chem\|40\|Ar}} followed by two-neutron emission. In the subsurface environment, it is also produced through neutron capture by {{chem\|39\|K}}, followed by proton emission. {{chem\|37\|Ar}} is created from the neutron capture by {{chem\|40\|Ca}} followed by an alpha particle emission as a result of subsurface nuclear explosions. It has a half-life of 35 days.<ref name="iso" /> Between locations in the Solar System, the isotopic composition of argon varies greatly. Where the major source of argon is the decay of {{chem\|40\|K}} in rocks, {{chem\|40\|Ar}} will be the dominant isotope, as it is on Earth. Argon produced directly by stellar nucleosynthesis is dominated by the alpha-process nuclide {{chem\|36\|Ar}}. Correspondingly, solar argon contains 84.6% {{chem\|36\|Ar}} (according to solar wind measurements),<ref> {{cite journal \|lastLodders \|firstK.\|author-link=Katharina Lodders \|s2cid=59150678 \|date = 2008 \|title=The solar argon abundance \|journal=Astrophysical Journal \|volume674 \|issue1 \|pages=607–611 \|arxiv=0710.4523 \|doi=10.1086/524725 \|bibcode=2008ApJ...674..607L }}</ref> and the ratio of the three isotopes <sup>36</sup>Ar&nbsp;:&nbsp;<sup>38</sup>Ar&nbsp;:&nbsp;<sup>40</sup>Ar in the atmospheres of the outer planets is 8400&nbsp;:&nbsp;1600&nbsp;:&nbsp;1.<ref>{{Cite journal \| last1 Cameron \| first1 A. G. W. \| s2cid = 119861943 \| title = Elemental and isotopic abundances of the volatile elements in the outer planets \| doi = 10.1007/BF00214750 \| journal = Space Science Reviews \| volume = 14 \| issue = 3–4 \| pages = 392–400 \| year = 1973 \|bibcode 1973SSRv...14..392C }}</ref> This contrasts with the low abundance of primordial {{chem\|36\|Ar}} in Earth's atmosphere, which is only 31.5 ppmv ( 9340 ppmv × 0.337%), comparable with that of neon (18.18 ppmv) on Earth and with interplanetary gasses, measured by probes. The atmospheres of Mars, Mercury and Titan (the largest moon of Saturn) contain argon, predominantly as {{chem\|40\|Ar}}.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi10.1126/science.1237966 \|pmid23869014 \|titleAbundance and Isotopic Composition of Gases in the Martian Atmosphere from the Curiosity Rover \|journalScience \|volume341 \|issue6143 \|pages263–6 \|year2013 \|last1Mahaffy \|first1P. R. \|last2Webster \|first2C. R. \|last3Atreya \|first3S. K. \|last4Franz \|first4H. \|last5Wong \|first5M. \|last6Conrad \|first6P. G. \|last7Harpold \|first7D. \|last8Jones \|first8J. J. \|last9Leshin \|first9L. A. \|last10Manning \|first10H. \|last11Owen \|first11T. \|last12Pepin \|first12R. O. \|last13Squyres \|first13S. \|last14Trainer \|first14M. \|last15Kemppinen \|first15O. \|last16Bridges \|first16N. \|last17Johnson \|first17J. R. \|last18Minitti \|first18M. \|last19Cremers \|first19D. \|last20Bell \|first20J. F. \|last21Edgar \|first21L. \|last22Farmer \|first22J. \|last23Godber \|first23A. \|last24Wadhwa \|first24M. \|author24-linkMeenakshi Wadhwa \|last25Wellington \|first25D. \|last26McEwan \|first26I. \|last27Newman \|first27C. \|last28Richardson \|first28M. \|last29Charpentier \|first29A. \|last30Peret \|first30L. \|s2cid206548973 \|display-authors29 \|bibcode2013Sci...341..263M }}</ref> The predominance of radiogenic {{chem\|40\|Ar}} is the reason the standard atomic weight of terrestrial argon is greater than that of the next element, potassium, a fact that was puzzling when argon was discovered. Mendeleev positioned the elements on his periodic table in order of atomic weight, but the inertness of argon suggested a placement before the reactive alkali metal. Henry Moseley later solved this problem by showing that the periodic table is actually arranged in order of atomic number (see History of the periodic table). Compounds {{Main\|Argon compounds}} of argon fluorohydride]] Argon's complete octet of electrons indicates full s and p subshells. This full valence shell makes argon very stable and extremely resistant to bonding with other elements. Before 1962, argon and the other noble gases were considered to be chemically inert and unable to form compounds; however, compounds of the heavier noble gases have since been synthesized. The first argon compound with tungsten pentacarbonyl, W(CO)<sub>5</sub>Ar, was isolated in 1975. However, it was not widely recognised at that time.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Young\|first1Nigel A.\|titleMain group coordination chemistry at low temperatures: A review of matrix isolated Group 12 to Group 18 complexes\|journalCoordination Chemistry Reviews\|dateMarch 2013\|volume257\|issue5–6\|pages956–1010\|doi10.1016/j.ccr.2012.10.013}}</ref> In August 2000, another argon compound, argon fluorohydride (HArF), was formed by researchers at the University of Helsinki, by shining ultraviolet light onto frozen argon containing a small amount of hydrogen fluoride with caesium iodide. This discovery caused the recognition that argon could form weakly bound compounds, even though it was not the first.<ref name"sciencenews-harf" /><ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle\|{{cite book\|author Kean, Sam\|chapter Chemistry Way, Way Below Zero\|title The Disappearing Spoon\|date 2011\|publisher=Black Bay Books}}\| {{cite journal \|url=http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/noblegases.html \|title=The Noble Gases \|author=Bartlett, Neil \|author-link=Neil Bartlett (chemist) \|journalChemical & Engineering News \|date8 September 2003\|volume81\|issue36 \|pages=32–34 \|doi=10.1021/cen-v081n036.p032 }}}}</ref> It is stable up to 17&nbsp;kelvins (−256&nbsp;°C). The metastable {{chem\|ArCF\|2\|2+}} dication, which is valence-isoelectronic with carbonyl fluoride and phosgene, was observed in 2010.<ref> {{cite journal \|display-authors=4 \|author=Lockyear, JF \|author2=Douglas, K \|author3=Price, SD \|author4=Karwowska, M \|author5=Fijalkowski, KJ \|author6=Grochala, W \|author7=Remeš, M \|author8=Roithová, J \|author9=Schroder, D \|name-list-style=amp \|date=2010 \|title=Generation of the ArCF<sub>2</sub><sup>2+</sup> Dication \|journal=Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters \|volume1 \|page358 \|doi=10.1021/jz900274p }}</ref> Argon-36, in the form of argon hydride (argonium) ions, has been detected in interstellar medium associated with the Crab Nebula supernova; this was the first noble-gas molecule detected in outer space.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle\| {{cite journal \|last1Barlow \|first1 M. J. \|last2=Swinyard \|display-authors=1 \|date=2013 \|title=Detection of a Noble Gas Molecular Ion, <sup>36</sup>ArH<sup>+</sup>, in the Crab Nebula \|journal=Science \|volume342 \|issue6164 \|pages=1343–1345 \|doi=10.1126/science.1243582 \|arxiv 1312.4843 \|bibcode 2013Sci...342.1343B \|pmid24337290\|s2cid 37578581 }}\|{{cite news \|lastQuenqua \|firstDouglas \|titleNoble Molecules Found in Space \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/17/science/space/noble-molecules-found-in-space.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/17/science/space/noble-molecules-found-in-space.html \|archive-date2022-01-01 \|url-accesslimited \|date13 December 2013 \|workThe New York Times \|access-date13 December 2013 }}{{cbignore}}}}</ref> Solid argon hydride (Ar(H<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>) has the same crystal structure as the MgZn<sub>2</sub> Laves phase. It forms at pressures between 4.3 and 220 GPa, though Raman measurements suggest that the H<sub>2</sub> molecules in Ar(H<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub> dissociate above 175 GPa.<ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.1038/srep04989 \|title New high-pressure van der Waals compound Kr(H2)4 discovered in the krypton-hydrogen binary system \|journalScientific Reports \|volume4 \|pages4989 \|year2014 \|last1Kleppe \|first1Annette K. \|last2Amboage \|first2Mónica \|last3Jephcoat \|first3Andrew P. \|bibcode2014NatSR...4.4989K \|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Production Argon is extracted industrially by the fractional distillation of liquid air in a cryogenic air separation unit; a process that separates liquid nitrogen, which boils at 77.3&nbsp;K, from argon, which boils at 87.3&nbsp;K, and liquid oxygen, which boils at 90.2&nbsp;K. About 700,000 tonnes of argon are produced worldwide every year.<ref name="emsley" /><ref> {{cite web \|url=http://environmentalchemistry.com/yogi/periodic/Ar.html \|title=Periodic Table of Elements: Argon – Ar \|publisher=Environmentalchemistry.com \|access-date=12 September 2008 }}</ref> Applications Argon has several desirable properties: * Argon is a chemically inert gas. * Argon is the cheapest alternative when nitrogen is not sufficiently inert. * Argon has low thermal conductivity. * Argon has electronic properties (ionization and/or the emission spectrum) desirable for some applications. Other noble gases would be equally suitable for most of these applications, but argon is by far the cheapest. It is inexpensive, since it occurs naturally in air and is readily obtained as a byproduct of cryogenic air separation in the production of liquid oxygen and liquid nitrogen: the primary constituents of air are used on a large industrial scale. The other noble gases (except helium) are produced this way as well, but argon is the most plentiful by far. The bulk of its applications arise simply because it is inert and relatively cheap. Industrial processes Argon is used in some high-temperature industrial processes where ordinarily non-reactive substances become reactive. For example, an argon atmosphere is used in graphite electric furnaces to prevent the graphite from burning. For some of these processes, the presence of nitrogen or oxygen gases might cause defects within the material. Argon is used in some types of arc welding such as gas metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding, as well as in the processing of titanium and other reactive elements. An argon atmosphere is also used for growing crystals of silicon and germanium. {{See also\|shielding gas}} Argon is used in the poultry industry to asphyxiate birds, either for mass culling following disease outbreaks, or as a means of slaughter more humane than electric stunning. Argon is denser than air and displaces oxygen close to the ground during inert gas asphyxiation.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle\| {{cite news \|last = Fletcher \|first = D. L. \|title = Slaughter Technology \|url = http://ps.fass.org/cgi/reprint/78/2/277.pdf \|work = Symposium: Recent Advances in Poultry Slaughter Technology \|access-date = 1 January 2010 \|url-status = dead \|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110724195609/http://ps.fass.org/cgi/reprint/78/2/277.pdf \|archive-date = 24 July 2011 }}\|{{cite journal\|last1Shields\|first1Sara J.\|last2Raj\|first2A. B. M.\|s2cid11301328\|titleA Critical Review of Electrical Water-Bath Stun Systems for Poultry Slaughter and Recent Developments in Alternative Technologies\|journalJournal of Applied Animal Welfare Science\|volume13\|issue4\|year2010\|pages281–299\|issn1088-8705\|doi10.1080/10888705.2010.507119\|pmid20865613\|citeseerx10.1.1.680.5115}}}}</ref> Its non-reactive nature makes it suitable in a food product, and since it replaces oxygen within the dead bird, argon also enhances shelf life.<ref name"FraquezaBarreto2009">{{cite journal\|last1Fraqueza\|first1M. J.\|last2Barreto\|first2A. S.\|titleThe effect on turkey meat shelf life of modified-atmosphere packaging with an argon mixture\|journalPoultry Science\|volume88\|issue9\|year2009\|pages1991–1998\|issn0032-5791\|doi10.3382/ps.2008-00239\|pmid19687286\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Argon is sometimes used for extinguishing fires where valuable equipment may be damaged by water or foam.<ref name"SuKim2001">{{cite journal\|last1Su\|first1Joseph Z.\|last2Kim\|first2Andrew K.\|last3Crampton\|first3George P.\|last4Liu\|first4Zhigang\|titleFire Suppression with Inert Gas Agents\|journalJournal of Fire Protection Engineering\|volume11\|issue2\|year2001\|pages72–87\|issn1042-3915\|doi10.1106/X21V-YQKU-PMKP-XGTP}}</ref>Scientific research Liquid argon is used as the target for neutrino experiments and direct dark matter searches. The interaction between the hypothetical WIMPs and an argon nucleus produces scintillation light that is detected by photomultiplier tubes. Two-phase detectors containing argon gas are used to detect the ionized electrons produced during the WIMP–nucleus scattering. As with most other liquefied noble gases, argon has a high scintillation light yield (about 51 photons/keV<ref> {{cite journal \|display-authors= 4 \|author= Gastler, Dan \|author2= Kearns, Ed \|author3= Hime, Andrew \|author4= Stonehill, Laura C. \|author5= Seibert, Stan \|author6= Klein, Josh \|author7= Lippincott, W. Hugh \|author8= McKinsey, Daniel N. \|author9= Nikkel, James A \|s2cid= 6876533 \|date= 2012 \|title=Measurement of scintillation efficiency for nuclear recoils in liquid argon \|doi= 10.1103/PhysRevC.85.065811 \|journal= Physical Review C \|volume= 85 \|issue= 6 \|pages= 065811 \|arxiv=1004.0373 \|bibcode = 2012PhRvC..85f5811G }}</ref>), is transparent to its own scintillation light, and is relatively easy to purify. Compared to xenon, argon is cheaper and has a distinct scintillation time profile, which allows the separation of electronic recoils from nuclear recoils. On the other hand, its intrinsic beta-ray background is larger due to {{chem\|39\|Ar}} contamination, unless one uses argon from underground sources, which has much less {{chem\|39\|Ar}} contamination. Most of the argon in Earth's atmosphere was produced by electron capture of long-lived {{chem\|40\|K}} ({{chem\|40\|K}} + e<sup>−</sup> → {{chem\|40\|Ar}} + ν) present in natural potassium within Earth. The {{chem\|39\|Ar}} activity in the atmosphere is maintained by cosmogenic production through the knockout reaction {{chem\|40\|Ar}}(n,2n){{chem\|39\|Ar}} and similar reactions. The half-life of {{chem\|39\|Ar}} is only 269&nbsp;years. As a result, the underground Ar, shielded by rock and water, has much less {{chem\|39\|Ar}} contamination.<ref> {{Cite journal\|author= Xu, J. \|author2= Calaprice, F. \|author3= Galbiati, C. \|author4= Goretti, A. \|author5= Guray, G. \|s2cid= 117711599 \|name-list-style= amp \|date= 26 April 2012 \|title=A Study of the Residual {{Chem\|39\|Ar}} Content in Argon from Underground Sources \|journal= Astroparticle Physics \|volume= 66 \|issue= 2015 \|pages= 53–60 \|arxiv1204.6011 \|display-authorsetal\|doi= 10.1016/j.astropartphys.2015.01.002 \|bibcode= 2015APh....66...53X }}</ref> Dark-matter detectors currently operating with liquid argon include DarkSide, WArP, ArDM, microCLEAN and DEAP. Neutrino experiments include ICARUS and MicroBooNE, both of which use high-purity liquid argon in a time projection chamber for fine grained three-dimensional imaging of neutrino interactions. At Linköping University, Sweden, the inert gas is being utilized in a vacuum chamber in which plasma is introduced to ionize metallic films.<ref>{{Cite web\|titlePlasma electrons can be used to produce metallic films\|urlhttps://phys.org/news/2020-05-plasma-electrons-metallic.html\|dateMay 7, 2020\|websitePhys.org\|access-dateMay 8, 2020}}</ref> This process results in a film usable for manufacturing computer processors. The new process would eliminate the need for chemical baths and use of expensive, dangerous and rare materials.Preservative is packed under argon to avoid reactions with air]] Argon is used to displace oxygen- and moisture-containing air in packaging material to extend the shelf-lives of the contents (argon has the European food additive code E938). Aerial oxidation, hydrolysis, and other chemical reactions that degrade the products are retarded or prevented entirely. High-purity chemicals and pharmaceuticals are sometimes packed and sealed in argon.<ref name"pmid17099243">{{cite journal \|vauthorsIlouga PE, Winkler D, Kirchhoff C, Schierholz B, Wölcke J\|dateNovember 2007 \|titleInvestigation of 3 industry-wide applied storage conditions for compound libraries\|journalJournal of Biomolecular Screening\|volume12 \|issue1 \|pages21–32 \|doi10.1177/1087057106295507\|pmid17099243 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> In winemaking, argon is used in a variety of activities to provide a barrier against oxygen at the liquid surface, which can spoil wine by fueling both microbial metabolism (as with acetic acid bacteria) and standard redox chemistry. Argon is sometimes used as the propellant in aerosol cans. Argon is also used as a preservative for such products as varnish, polyurethane, and paint, by displacing air to prepare a container for storage.<ref>Zawalick, Steven Scott "Method for preserving an oxygen sensitive liquid product" {{US patent\|6629402}} Issue date: 7 October 2003.</ref> Since 2002, the American National Archives stores important national documents such as the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution within argon-filled cases to inhibit their degradation. Argon is preferable to the helium that had been used in the preceding five decades, because helium gas escapes through the intermolecular pores in most containers and must be regularly replaced.<ref> {{cite web \|url=https://www.archives.gov/press/press-kits/charters.html#pressrelaese1 \|title=Schedule for Renovation of the National Archives Building \|access-date=7 July 2009 }}</ref> Laboratory equipment {{See also\|Air-free technique}} es are often filled with argon, which recirculates over scrubbers to maintain an oxygen-, nitrogen-, and moisture-free atmosphere]] Argon may be used as the inert gas within Schlenk lines and gloveboxes. Argon is preferred to less expensive nitrogen in cases where nitrogen may react with the reagents or apparatus. Argon may be used as the carrier gas in gas chromatography and in electrospray ionization mass spectrometry; it is the gas of choice for the plasma used in ICP spectroscopy. Argon is preferred for the sputter coating of specimens for scanning electron microscopy. Argon gas is also commonly used for sputter deposition of thin films as in microelectronics and for wafer cleaning in microfabrication. Medical use Cryosurgery procedures such as cryoablation use liquid argon to destroy tissue such as cancer cells. It is used in a procedure called "argon-enhanced coagulation", a form of argon plasma beam electrosurgery. The procedure carries a risk of producing gas embolism and has resulted in the death of at least one patient.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.mdsr.ecri.org/summary/detail.aspx?doc_id8248 \|title=Fatal Gas Embolism Caused by Overpressurization during Laparoscopic Use of Argon Enhanced Coagulation \|date=24 June 1994 \|publisher=MDSR \|access-date=10 January 2007 \|archive-date=12 July 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210712040208/http://www.mdsr.ecri.org/summary/detail.aspx?doc_id8248 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> Blue argon lasers are used in surgery to weld arteries, destroy tumors, and correct eye defects.<ref name="emsley" /> Argon has also been used experimentally to replace nitrogen in the breathing or decompression mix known as Argox, to speed the elimination of dissolved nitrogen from the blood.<ref> {{cite journal \|author=Pilmanis Andrew A. \|author2=Balldin U. I. \|author3=Webb James T. \|author4=Krause K. M. \|title=Staged decompression to 3.5 psi using argon–oxygen and 100% oxygen breathing mixtures \|journal=Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine \|volume74 \|issue12 \|pages=1243–1250 \|date=2003 \|pmid14692466\|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/8945687 }}</ref> Lighting forming "Ar", the symbol for argon]] Incandescent lights are filled with argon, to preserve the filaments at high temperature from oxidation. It is used for the specific way it ionizes and emits light, such as in plasma globes and calorimetry in experimental particle physics. Gas-discharge lamps filled with pure argon provide lilac/violet light; with argon and some mercury, blue light. Argon is also used for blue and green argon-ion lasers. Miscellaneous uses Argon is used for thermal insulation in energy-efficient windows.<ref> {{cite web \|url=http://www.finehomebuilding.com/how-to/articles/understanding-energy-efficient-windows.aspx \|title=Energy-Efficient Windows \|access-date=1 August 2009 \|publisher=FineHomebuilding.com \|date=February 1998 }}</ref> Argon is also used in technical scuba diving to inflate a dry suit because it is inert and has low thermal conductivity.<ref name="IEEE2008">{{cite journal \|author=Nuckols M. L. \|author2=Giblo J. \|author3=Wood-Putnam J. L. \|title=Thermal Characteristics of Diving Garments When Using Argon as a Suit Inflation Gas \|journal=Proceedings of the Oceans 08 MTS/IEEE Quebec, Canada Meeting \|date=15–18 September 2008 \|url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7962 \|access-date=2 March 2009 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090721035810/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7962 \|archive-date=21 July 2009 \|url-status=usurped }}</ref> Argon is used as a propellant in the development of the Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket (VASIMR). Compressed argon gas is allowed to expand, to cool the seeker heads of some versions of the AIM-9 Sidewinder missile and other missiles that use cooled thermal seeker heads. The gas is stored at high pressure.<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://home.wanadoo.nl/tcc/rnlaf/aim9.html \|title=Description of Aim-9 Operation \|access-date=1 February 2009 \|publisher=planken.org \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081222025556/http://home.wanadoo.nl/tcc/rnlaf/aim9.html \|archive-date=22 December 2008 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> Argon-39, with a half-life of 269 years, has been used for a number of applications, primarily ice core and ground water dating. Also, potassium–argon dating and related argon-argon dating are used to date sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks.<ref name="emsley" /> Argon has been used by athletes as a doping agent to simulate hypoxic conditions. In 2014, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) added argon and xenon to the list of prohibited substances and methods, although at this time there is no reliable test for abuse.<ref>{{cite news \|titleWADA amends Section S.2.1 of 2014 Prohibited List \|urlhttps://www.wada-ama.org/en/media/2014-05/wada-amends-section-s21-of-2014-prohibited-list#.VARJ3WNqOIl \|date31 August 2014 \|access-date1 September 2014 \|archive-date27 April 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210427160909/https://www.wada-ama.org/en/media/2014-05/wada-amends-section-s21-of-2014-prohibited-list#.VARJ3WNqOIl \|url-statusdead }}</ref>Safety Although argon is non-toxic, it is 38% more dense than air and therefore considered a dangerous asphyxiant in closed areas. It is difficult to detect because it is colorless, odorless, and tasteless. A 1994 incident, in which a man was asphyxiated after entering an argon-filled section of oil pipe under construction in Alaska, highlights the dangers of argon tank leakage in confined spaces and emphasizes the need for proper use, storage and handling.<ref> {{cite web \|author = Alaska FACE Investigation 94AK012 \|url = https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/face/stateface/ak/94ak012.html \|title = Welder's Helper Asphyxiated in Argon-Inerted Pipe – Alaska (FACE AK-94-012) \|publisher State of Alaska Department of Public Health\|date 23 June 1994 \|access-date = 29 January 2011 }}</ref> See also {{portal\|Chemistry}} * Industrial gas * Oxygen–argon ratio, a ratio of two physically similar gases, which has importance in various sectors. References {{Reflist\|30em}} Further reading * {{cite book \|last1=Brown \|first1=T. L. \|last2=Bursten \|first2=B. E. \|last3=LeMay \|first3=H. E. \|date=2006 \|title=Chemistry: The Central Science \|edition=10th \|editor=J. Challice \|editor2=N. Folchetti \|publisher=Pearson Education \|pages=[https://archive.org/details/chemistry00theo_0/page/276 276]& 289 \|isbn=978-0-13-109686-8 \|url-access=registration \|url=https://archive.org/details/chemistry00theo_0 }} * {{cite book \|lastLide \|firstD. R. \|date=2005 \|chapter=Properties of the Elements and Inorganic Compounds; Melting, boiling, triple, and critical temperatures of the elements \|title=CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics \|edition=86th \|publisher=CRC Press \|at=§4 \|isbn=978-0-8493-0486-6 \|title-link=CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics }}<!-- Possibly 85th edition (2004) --> On triple point pressure at 69 kPa. * {{cite journal \|lastPreston-Thomas \|firstH. \|date=1990 \|title=The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) \|url=http://www.bipm.org/en/publications/its-90.html \|journal=Metrologia \|volume27 \|issue1 \|pages=3–10 \|bibcode=1990Metro..27....3P \|doi=10.1088/0026-1394/27/1/002 \|s2cid=250785635 \|doi-access=free }} On triple point pressure at 83.8058 K. External links {{Sister project links\|auto1\|wiktargon\|sargon \|vThe periodic table/Argon \|b=Wikijunior:The Elements/Argon}} * [http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/018.htm Argon] at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham) * [http://wwwrcamnl.wr.usgs.gov/isoig/period/ar_iig.html USGS Periodic Table – Argon] * Diving applications: [http://www.decompression.org/maiken/Why_Argon.htm Why Argon?] {{Periodic table (navbox)}} {{Molecules detected in outer space}} {{Authority control}} Category:Chemical elements Category:E-number additives Category:Noble gases Category:Industrial gases	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argon	2025-04-05T18:25:25.821514
897	Arsenic	<!-- {{cs1 config\|name-list-style=vanc}} --> {{About\|the chemical element\|the poison commonly called "arsenic"\|arsenic trioxide\|other uses}} {{Infobox arsenic}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=December 2020}} Arsenic is a chemical element with the symbol As and the atomic number&nbsp;33. It is a metalloid and one of the pnictogens, and therefore shares many properties with its group 15 neighbors phosphorus and antimony. Arsenic is a notoriously toxic heavy metal. It occurs naturally in many minerals, usually in combination with sulfur and metals, but also as a pure elemental crystal. It has various allotropes, but only the grey form, which has a metallic appearance, is important to industry. The primary use of arsenic is in alloys of lead (for example, in car batteries and ammunition). Arsenic is also a common n-type dopant in semiconductor electronic devices, and a component of the III–V compound semiconductor gallium arsenide. Arsenic and its compounds, especially the trioxide, are used in the production of pesticides, treated wood products, herbicides, and insecticides. These applications are declining with the increasing recognition of the persistent toxicity of arsenic and its compounds.<ref nameUllmann>{{Ullmann \|last1 Grund \|first1 Sabina C. \|last2 Hanusch \|first2 Kunibert \|last3 Wolf \|first3 Hans Uwe \|title Arsenic and arsenic compounds \|doi = 10.1002/14356007.a03_113.pub2 }}</ref> Arsenic has been known since ancient times to be poisonous to humans.<ref>{{cite web \|title Arsenic: A murderous history \|series Dartmouth Toxic Metals \|publisher Dartmouth University \|url https://sites.dartmouth.edu/toxmetal/arsenic/arsenic-a-murderous-history/ }}</ref> However, a few species of bacteria are able to use arsenic compounds as respiratory metabolites. Trace quantities of arsenic have been proposed to be an essential dietary element in rats, hamsters, goats, and chickens. Research has not been conducted to determine whether small amounts of arsenic may play a role in human metabolism.<ref nameANut/><ref nameUEssent/> However, arsenic poisoning occurs in multicellular life if quantities are larger than needed. Arsenic contamination of groundwater is a problem that affects millions of people across the world. The United States' Environmental Protection Agency states that all forms of arsenic are a serious risk to human health.<ref name"EPA1">{{cite report \|last1Dibyendu \|first1Sarkar \|last2Datta \|first2Rupali \|date2007 \|titleBiogeochemistry of arsenic in contaminated soils of Superfund sites \|viaEPA.gov \|publisherUnited States Environmental Protection Agency \|urlhttps://cfpub.epa.gov/ncer_abstracts/index.cfm/fuseaction/display.highlight/abstract/6015 \|access-date25 February 2018 }}</ref> The United States Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry ranked arsenic number&nbsp;1 in its 2001 prioritized list of hazardous substances at Superfund sites.<ref>{{cite report \|lastCarelton \|firstJames \|date2007 \|titleBiogeochemistry of arsenic in contaminated soils of Superfund sites \|typeFinal Report \|publisherUnited States Environmental Protection Agency \|urlhttps://cfpub.epa.gov/ncer_abstracts/index.cfm/fuseaction/display.highlight/abstract/6015/report/F \|viaEPA.gov \|url-statusdead \|access-date25 February 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180728035900/https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncer_abstracts/index.cfm/fuseaction/display.highlight/abstract/6015/report/F \|archive-date28 July 2018 }}</ref> Arsenic is classified as a group-A carcinogen.<ref name"EPA1" /> Characteristics Physical characteristics {{main\|Allotropes of arsenic}} , AsSb and grey As]] The three most common arsenic allotropes are grey, yellow, and black arsenic, with grey being the most common.<ref name"Norman">{{cite book\|title Chemistry of Arsenic, Antimony and Bismuth\|first Nicholas C.\|last Norman\|publisher Springer\|date 1998\|isbn 978-0-7514-0389-3\|url https://books.google.com/books?idvVhpurkfeN4C\|page 50}}</ref> Grey arsenic (α-As, space group R{{overline\|3}}m No. 166) adopts a double-layered structure consisting of many interlocked, ruffled, six-membered rings. Because of weak bonding between the layers, grey arsenic is brittle and has a relatively low Mohs hardness of 3.5. Nearest and next-nearest neighbors form a distorted octahedral complex, with the three atoms in the same double-layer being slightly closer than the three atoms in the next.<ref name"Wiberg2001">{{cite book\|last1 Wiberg\|first1 Egon\|last2 Wiberg\|first2 Nils\|last3 Holleman\|first3 Arnold Frederick\|title Inorganic Chemistry\|publisher Academic Press\|date 2001\|isbn 978-0-12-352651-9}}</ref> This relatively close packing leads to a high density of 5.73&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>.<ref name"Holl" /> Grey arsenic is a semimetal, but becomes a semiconductor with a bandgap of 1.2–1.4&nbsp;eV if amorphized.<ref>{{cite book\|authorMadelung, Otfried \|titleSemiconductors: data handbook\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idv_8sMfNAcA4C&pgPA410\|date2004\|publisherBirkhäuser\|isbn978-3-540-40488-0\|pages=410–}}</ref> Grey arsenic is also the most stable form. Yellow arsenic is soft and waxy, and somewhat similar to tetraphosphorus ({{chem2\|P4}}).<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Seidl \|first1Michael \|last2Balázs \|first2Gábor \|last3Scheer \|first3Manfred \|titleThe Chemistry of Yellow Arsenic \|journalChemical Reviews \|volume119 \|issue14 \|pages8406–8434 \|date22 March 2019 \|doi10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00713\|pmid30900440 \|s2cid85448636 }}</ref> Both have four atoms arranged in a tetrahedral structure in which each atom is bound to each of the other three atoms by a single bond. This unstable allotrope, being molecular, is the most volatile, least dense, and most toxic. Solid yellow arsenic is produced by rapid cooling of arsenic vapor, {{chem2\|As4}}. It is rapidly transformed into grey arsenic by light. The yellow form has a density of 1.97&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>.<ref name"Holl" /> Black arsenic is similar in structure to black phosphorus.<ref name="Holl" /><!--10.1002/jlac.18440490302 Ueber Allotropie bei einfachen Körpern, als eine der Ursachen der Isomerie bei ihren Verbindungen (pp. 247–264) Jac. Berzelius Volume 49 Issue 3, Pages 247–366 (1844) Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie 10.1002/jlac.18671440115 10.1002/jlac.19134000206 10.1002/zaac.19020320158 10.1002/zaac.18940060139 10.1002/cber.19080410197 10.1002/zaac.18940060139 --> Black arsenic can also be formed by cooling vapor at around 100–220&nbsp;°C and by crystallization of amorphous arsenic in the presence of mercury vapors.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Antonatos\|first1Nikolas\|last2Luxa\|first2Jan\|last3Sturala\|first3Jiri\|last4Sofer\|first4Zdeněk\|date2020\|titleBlack arsenic: a new synthetic method by catalytic crystallization of arsenic glass\|journalNanoscale\|volume12\|issue9\|languageen\|pages5397–5401\|doi10.1039/C9NR09627B\|pmid31894222\|s2cid209544160}}</ref> It is glassy and brittle. Black arsenic is also a poor electrical conductor.<ref>[http://www.chemicool.com/elements/arsenic.html Arsenic Element Facts]. chemicool.com</ref> Arsenic sublimes upon heating at atmospheric pressure, converting directly to a gaseous form without an intervening liquid state at {{convert\|887\|K\|C}}. The triple point is at 3.63&nbsp;MPa and {{convert\|1090\|K\|C}}.<ref name"Holl" /><ref name"Gokcen1989" /> Isotopes {{Main\|Isotopes of arsenic}} Arsenic occurs in nature as one stable isotope, <sup>75</sup>As, and is therefore called a monoisotopic element.<ref name"NUBASE">{{NUBASE 2003}}</ref> As of 2024, at least 32 radioisotopes have also been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 64–95.<ref>{{NUBASE 2020}}</ref><ref name"shimizu2024">{{cite journal \|last1Shimizu \|first1Y. \|last2Kubo \|first2T. \|last3Sumikama \|first3T. \|last4Fukuda \|first4N. \|last5Takeda \|first5H. \|last6Suzuki \|first6H. \|last7Ahn \|first7D.S. \|last8Inabe \|first8N. \|last9Kusaka \|first9K. \|last10Ohtake \|first10M. \|last11Yanagisawa \|first11Y. \|last12Yoshida \|first12K. \|last13Ichikawa \|first13Y. \|last14Isobe \|first14T. \|last15Otsu \|first15H. \|last16Sato \|first16H. \|last17Sonoda \|first17T. \|last18Murai \|first18D. \|last19Iwasa \|first19N. \|last20Imai \|first20N. \|last21Hirayama \|first21Y. \|last22Jeong \|first22S.C. \|last23Kimura \|first23S. \|last24Miyatake \|first24H. \|last25Mukai \|first25M. \|last26Kim \|first26D.G. \|last27Kim \|first27E. \|last28Yagi \|first28A. \|display-authors6 \|titleProduction of new neutron-rich isotopes near the N 60 isotones Ge 92 and As 93 by in-flight fission of a 345 MeV/nucleon U 238 beam \|journalPhysical Review C \|date8 April 2024 \|volume109 \|issue4 \|page044313 \|doi=10.1103/PhysRevC.109.044313}}</ref> The most stable of these is <sup>73</sup>As with a half-life of 80.30&nbsp;days. The majority of the other isotopes have half-lives of under one day, with the exceptions being {{div col begin\|colwidth=15em}} : <sup>71</sup>As ({{mvar\|t}}<sub>{{small\|½}}</sub> {{=}} 65.30&nbsp;hours), : <sup>72</sup>As ({{mvar\|t}}<sub>{{small\|½}}</sub> {{=}} 26.0&nbsp;&nbsp;hours), : <sup>74</sup>As ({{mvar\|t}}<sub>{{small\|½}}</sub> {{=}} 17.77&nbsp;days), : <sup>76</sup>As ({{mvar\|t}}<sub>{{small\|½}}</sub> {{=}} 26.26&nbsp;hours), : <sup>77</sup>As ({{mvar\|t}}<sub>{{small\|½}}</sub> {{=}} 38.83&nbsp;hours). {{div col end}} Isotopes that are lighter than the stable <sup>75</sup>As tend to decay by β<sup>+</sup> decay, and those that are heavier tend to decay by β<sup>−</sup> decay, with some exceptions. At least 10&nbsp;nuclear isomers have been described, ranging in atomic mass from 66 to 84. The most stable of arsenic's isomers is <sup>68m</sup>As with a half-life of 111&nbsp;seconds.<ref name"NUBASE" /> Chemistry Arsenic has a similar electronegativity and ionization energies to its lighter pnictogen congener phosphorus and therefore readily forms covalent molecules with most of the nonmetals. Though stable in dry air, arsenic forms a golden-bronze tarnish upon exposure to humidity which eventually becomes a black surface layer.<ref name"Greenwood552">Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 552–4</ref> When heated in air, arsenic oxidizes to arsenic trioxide; the fumes from this reaction have an odor resembling garlic. This odor can be detected on striking arsenide minerals such as arsenopyrite with a hammer.<ref name"Gokcen1989" /> It burns in oxygen to form arsenic trioxide and arsenic pentoxide, which have the same structure as the more well-known phosphorus compounds, and in fluorine to give arsenic pentafluoride.<ref name"Greenwood552" /> Arsenic makes arsenic acid with concentrated nitric acid, arsenous acid with dilute nitric acid, and arsenic trioxide with concentrated sulfuric acid; however, it does not react with water, alkalis, or non-oxidising acids.<ref>{{cite EB1911\|wstitleArsenic \|volume2 \|pages651–654}}</ref> Arsenic reacts with metals to form arsenides, though these are not ionic compounds containing the As<sup>3−</sup> ion as the formation of such an anion would be highly endothermic and even the group 1 arsenides have properties of intermetallic compounds.<ref name"Greenwood552" /> Like germanium, selenium, and bromine, which like arsenic succeed the 3d transition series, arsenic is much less stable in the +5 oxidation state than its vertical neighbors phosphorus and antimony, and hence arsenic pentoxide and arsenic acid are potent oxidizers.<ref name"Greenwood552" /> Compounds {{Category see also\|Arsenic compounds}} Compounds of arsenic resemble, in some respects, those of phosphorus, which occupies the same group (column) of the periodic table. The most common oxidation states for arsenic are: −3 in the arsenides, which are alloy-like intermetallic compounds, +3 in the arsenites, and +5 in the arsenates and most organoarsenic compounds. Arsenic also bonds readily to itself as seen in the square {{chem2\|As4(3-)}} ions in the mineral skutterudite.<ref>{{cite book \|doi 10.1016/S0080-8784(01)80151-4 \|title Recent Trends in Thermoelectric Materials Research I: Skutterudites: Prospective novel thermoelectrics \|date 2001 \|last1 Uher \|first1 Ctirad \|isbn 978-0-12-752178-7 \|volume 69 \|pages 139–253\| series Semiconductors and Semimetals \|chapter Chapter 5 Skutterudites: Prospective novel thermoelectrics }}</ref> In the +3 oxidation state, arsenic is typically pyramidal owing to the influence of the lone pair of electrons.<ref name"Norman" /><!--page 30--> Inorganic compounds One of the simplest arsenic compounds is the trihydride, the highly toxic, flammable, pyrophoric arsine (AsH<sub>3</sub>). This compound is generally regarded as stable, since at room temperature it decomposes only slowly. At temperatures of 250–300&nbsp;°C decomposition to arsenic and hydrogen is rapid.<ref name"Greenwood557">Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 557–558</ref> Several factors, such as humidity, presence of light and certain catalysts (namely aluminium) facilitate the rate of decomposition.<ref name"INRS">{{cite web \|websiteInstitut National de Recherche et de Sécurité \|titleFiche toxicologique No. 53: Trihydrure d'arsenic \|year 2000 \|url http://www.inrs.fr/inrs-pub/inrs01.nsf/IntranetObject-accesParReference/FT%2053/$File/ft53.pdf \|access-date 2006-09-06 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20061126045357/http://www.inrs.fr/inrs-pub/inrs01.nsf/IntranetObject-accesParReference/FT%2053/$FILE/ft53.pdf \|archive-date 26 November 2006 \|languagefr}}</ref> It oxidises readily in air to form arsenic trioxide and water, and analogous reactions take place with sulfur and selenium instead of oxygen.<ref name"Greenwood557" /> Arsenic forms colorless, odorless, crystalline oxides As<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> ("white arsenic") and As<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub> which are hygroscopic and readily soluble in water to form acidic solutions. Arsenic(V) acid is a weak acid and its salts, known as arsenates,<ref name"Greenwood572" /> are a major source of arsenic contamination of groundwater in regions with high levels of naturally-occurring arsenic minerals.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Smedley \|first1P.L \|last2Kinniburgh \|first2D.G \|titleA review of the source, behaviour and distribution of arsenic in natural waters \|journalApplied Geochemistry \|dateMay 2002 \|volume17 \|issue5 \|pages517–568 \|doi10.1016/S0883-2927(02)00018-5 \|bibcode2002ApGC...17..517S \|urlhttp://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/12311/1/Abstract.pdf }}</ref> Synthetic arsenates include Scheele's Green (cupric hydrogen arsenate, acidic copper arsenate), calcium arsenate, and lead hydrogen arsenate. These three have been used as agricultural insecticides and poisons. The protonation steps between the arsenate and arsenic acid are similar to those between phosphate and phosphoric acid. Unlike phosphorous acid, arsenous acid is genuinely tribasic, with the formula As(OH)<sub>3</sub>.<ref name="Greenwood572">Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 572–578</ref> A broad variety of sulfur compounds of arsenic are known. Orpiment (As<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>) and realgar (As<sub>4</sub>S<sub>4</sub>) are somewhat abundant and were formerly used as painting pigments. In As<sub>4</sub>S<sub>10</sub>, arsenic has a formal oxidation state of +2 in As<sub>4</sub>S<sub>4</sub> which features As-As bonds so that the total covalency of As is still 3.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.webelements.com/webelements/compounds/text/As/As4S4-12279902.html\|titleArsenic: arsenic(II) sulfide compound data\|access-date2007-12-10\|publisherWebElements.com\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071211100733/http://www.webelements.com/webelements/compounds/text/As/As4S4-12279902.html\| archive-date 11 December 2007\|url-status = live}}</ref> Both orpiment and realgar, as well as As<sub>4</sub>S<sub>3</sub>, have selenium analogs; the analogous As<sub>2</sub>Te<sub>3</sub> is known as the mineral kalgoorlieite,<ref> {{cite web \|urlhttps://www.mindat.org/min-47039.html \|titleKalgoorlieite \|date1993–2017 \|websiteMindat \|publisherHudson Institute of Mineralogy \|access-date2 September 2017}}</ref> and the anion As<sub>2</sub>Te<sup>−</sup> is known as a ligand in cobalt complexes.<ref name="Greenwood578">Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 578–583</ref> All trihalides of arsenic(III) are well known except the astatide, which is unknown. Arsenic pentafluoride (AsF<sub>5</sub>) is the only important pentahalide, reflecting the lower stability of the +5 oxidation state; even so, it is a very strong fluorinating and oxidizing agent. (The pentachloride is stable only below −50&nbsp;°C, at which temperature it decomposes to the trichloride, releasing chlorine gas.<ref name"Holl" />) Alloys Arsenic is used as the group 5 element in the III-V semiconductors gallium arsenide, indium arsenide, and aluminium arsenide.<ref>{{cite journal \|doi 10.1016/j.taap.2003.10.019 \|title Toxicity of indium arsenide, gallium arsenide, and aluminium gallium arsenide \|date 2004 \|last1 Tanaka \|first1 A. \|journal Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology \|volume 198 \|issue 3 \|pages 405–411 \|pmid 15276420\|bibcode 2004ToxAP.198..405T }}</ref> The valence electron count of GaAs is the same as a pair of Si atoms, but the band structure is completely different which results in distinct bulk properties.<ref>{{cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idpkuuvlNjRtsC&pgPA1 \|titleLight Emitting Silicon for Microphotonics \|isbn 978-3-540-40233-6\|last1Ossicini \|first1Stefano \|last2Pavesi \|first2Lorenzo \|last3Priolo \|first3Francesco \|year2003 \|publisherSpringer \|access-date2013-09-27}}</ref> Other arsenic alloys include the II-V semiconductor cadmium arsenide.<ref>{{cite book \|doi 10.1109/SMELEC.1998.781173 \|date 1998 \|last1 Din \|first1 M. B. \|last2 Gould \|first2 R. D. \|title ICSE'98. 1998 IEEE International Conference on Semiconductor Electronics. Proceedings (Cat. No. 98EX187) \|chapter High field conduction mechanism of the evaporated cadmium arsenide thin films \|isbn 978-0-7803-4971-1 \|pages 168–174\|s2cid 110904915 }}</ref> Organoarsenic compounds {{Main\|Organoarsenic chemistry}} ]] A large variety of organoarsenic compounds are known. Several were developed as chemical warfare agents during World War I, including vesicants such as lewisite and vomiting agents such as adamsite.<ref name"Ellison2007">{{cite book\|lastEllison\|firstHank D.\|titleHandbook of chemical and biological warfare agents\|date2007\|publisherCRC Press\|isbn978-0-8493-1434-6}}</ref><ref name"Girard2010">{{cite book\|lastGirard\|firstJames\|titlePrinciples of Environmental Chemistry\|date2010\|publisherJones & Bartlett Learning\|isbn978-0-7637-5939-1}}</ref><ref name"Somani2001">{{cite book\|lastSomani\|firstSatu M.\|titleChemical warfare agents: toxicity at low levels\|date2001\|publisherCRC Press\|isbn978-0-8493-0872-7}}</ref> Cacodylic acid, which is of historic and practical interest, arises from the methylation of arsenic trioxide, a reaction that has no analogy in phosphorus chemistry. Cacodyl was the first organometallic compound known (even though arsenic is not a true metal) and was named from the Greek κακωδία "stink" for its offensive, garlic-like odor; it is very toxic.<ref name"Greenwood584">Greenwood, p. 584</ref> {{clear left}} Occurrence and production {{See also\|:Category:Arsenide minerals\|l1Arsenide minerals\|:Category:Arsenate minerals\|l2Arsenate minerals}} , France]] Arsenic is the 53rd most abundant element in the Earth's crust, comprising about 1.5&nbsp;parts per million&nbsp;(0.00015%).<ref>{{Cite book \|lastEmsley \|firstJohn \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iddGZaDwAAQBAJ&dq%2253rd+most+abundant+element%22&pgPA52 \|titleNature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements \|date2011-08-25 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-19-257046-8 \|languageen}}</ref> Typical background concentrations of arsenic do not exceed 3&nbsp;ng/m<sup>3</sup> in the atmosphere; 100&nbsp;mg/kg in soil; 400&nbsp;μg/kg in vegetation; 10&nbsp;μg/L in freshwater and 1.5&nbsp;μg/L in seawater.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastRieuwerts\|firstJohn \|titleThe Elements of Environmental Pollution\|date2015\|publisherEarthscan Routledge \|isbn978-0-415-85919-6\|locationLondon and New York\|page145 \|oclc886492996}}</ref> Arsenic is the 22nd most abundant element in seawater<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Papry \|first1Rimana Islam \|last2Omori \|first2Yoshiki \|last3Fujisawa \|first3Shogo \|last4Al Mamun \|first4M. Abdullah \|last5Miah \|first5Sohag \|last6Mashio \|first6Asami S. \|last7Maki \|first7Teruya \|last8Hasegawa \|first8Hiroshi \|display-authors6 \|date2020-05-01 \|titleArsenic biotransformation potential of marine phytoplankton under a salinity gradient \|journalAlgal Research \|volume47 \|pages101842 \|doi10.1016/j.algal.2020.101842 \|bibcode2020AlgRe..4701842P }}</ref> and ranks 41st in abundance in the universe.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastHelmenstine \|firstAnne \|date2022-06-28 \|titleComposition of the Universe - Element Abundance \|urlhttps://sciencenotes.org/composition-of-the-universe-element-abundance/ \|access-date2024-06-13 \|websiteScience Notes and Projects \|languageen-US}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?\|date=December 2024}} Minerals with the formula MAsS and MAs<sub>2</sub> (M Fe, Ni, Co) are the dominant commercial sources of arsenic, together with realgar (an arsenic sulfide mineral) and native (elemental) arsenic. An illustrative mineral is arsenopyrite<!--, also unofficially called mispickel,<ref>{{cite journal\|journal Geology Today\|volume 18\|issue 2\|pages 72–75\|title Minerals explained 35: Arsenopyrite\|first R. J.\|last King\|year 2002\|doi 10.1046/j.1365-2451.2002.t01-1-00006.x}}</ref>--> (FeAsS), which is structurally related to iron pyrite. Many minor As-containing minerals are known. Arsenic also occurs in various organic forms in the environment.<ref name"geosphere">{{cite journal\|journal The Science of the Total Environment\|volume 249\|date 2000\|pages 297–312\| doi 10.1016/S0048-9697(99)00524-0\|title Arsenic in the geosphere – a review\|first Jörg\|last Matschullat\|pmid 10813460\|issue 1–3\|bibcode 2000ScTEn.249..297M}}</ref> In 2014, China was the top producer of white arsenic with almost 70% world share, followed by Morocco, Russia, and Belgium, according to the British Geological Survey and the United States Geological Survey.<ref name"USGSCS2016" /> Most arsenic refinement operations in the US and Europe have closed over environmental concerns. Arsenic is found in the smelter dust from copper, gold, and lead smelters, and is recovered primarily from copper refinement dust.<ref name"USGSYB2007" /> Arsenic is the main of impurity found in copper concentrates to enter copper smelting facilities.<ref namesona>{{Cite report \|titleFundiciones de Cobre en Chile \|date2015-06-10 \|urlhttps://www.sonami.cl/v2/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/FCM-20150610-Com-Miner%C3%ADa-y-Energia-Senado-Fundiciones.pdf \|lastCostabal M. \|firstFrancisco \|access-date2025-03-23 \|publisherSONAMI \|languagees}}</ref> There has been an increase in arsenic in copper concentrates over the years since copper mining has moved into deep high-impurity ores as shallow, low-arsenic copper deposits have been progressively depleted.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleArsénico y Minería \|urlhttps://www.ecometales.cl/difusion/arsenico/arsenico-y-mineria \|access-date2025-03-21 \|websiteecometales.cl \|languagees \|quoteHoy se extrae más arsénico que antes debido al agotamiento de los minerales de más alta ley de cobre y sin impurezas, lo que obliga a explotar yacimientos de mayor profundidad con más arsénico.\|trans-quoteMore arsenic is being mined today than before due to the depletion of higher-grade copper ores without impurities, which requires the exploitation of deeper deposits with more arsenic.}}</ref> On roasting arsenopyrite in air, arsenic sublimes as arsenic(III) oxide leaving iron oxides,<ref name"geosphere" /> while roasting without air results in the production of gray arsenic. Further purification from sulfur and other chalcogens is achieved by sublimation in vacuum, in a hydrogen atmosphere, or by distillation from molten lead-arsenic mixture.<ref>{{cite journal\|title Separation of Sulfur, Selenium, and Tellurium from Arsenic\|journal Journal of the Electrochemical Society\|volume 107\|issue 12\|pages 982–985\|date 1960\|first1 J. M.\|last1 Whelan\|doi 10.1149/1.2427585\|last2 Struthers\|first2 J. D.\|last3 Ditzenberger\|first3 J. A.\|doi-access = free}}</ref><!-- 10.1023/A:1012370808738--> {\|class="wikitable sortable" \|- ! Rank !! Country !! 2014 As<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> Production<ref name"USGSCS2016">{{cite web\|urlhttp://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/arsenic/mcs-2016-arsen.pdf\|first Daniel L.\|last Edelstein \|publisher United States Geological Survey\|access-date 2016-07-01 \|title = Mineral Commodity Summaries 2016: Arsenic}}</ref> \|- \| 1 \|\| {{CHN}} \|\| 25,000 T \|- \| 2 \|\| {{MAR}} \|\| 8,800 T \|- \| 3 \|\| {{RUS}} \|\| 1,500 T \|- \| 4 \|\| {{BEL}} \|\| 1,000 T \|- \| 5 \|\| {{BOL}} \|\| 52 T \|- \| 6 \|\| {{JAP}} \|\| 45 T \|- \| — \|\| World Total (rounded) \|\| 36,400 T \|} History for arsenic]] The word arsenic has its origin in the Syriac word {{lang\|arc\|ܙܪܢܝܟܐ}} zarnika,<ref name"etymonline.com">{{OEtymD\|arsenic\|access-date 2010-05-15}}</ref><ref name="oed \|arsenic">{{oed \|arsenic}}</ref> from Arabic al-zarnīḵ {{lang\|ar\|الزرنيخ}} 'the orpiment', based on Persian zar ("gold") from the word {{lang\|fa\|زرنيخ}} zarnikh, meaning "yellow" (literally "gold-colored") and hence "(yellow) orpiment". It was adopted into Greek (using folk etymology) as arsenikon ({{lang\|grc\|ἀρσενικόν}}) – a neuter form of the Greek adjective arsenikos ({{lang\|grc\| ἀρσενικός}}), meaning "male", "virile". Latin-speakers adopted the Greek term as {{Lang\|la\|arsenicum}}, which in French ultimately became {{Lang\|fr\|arsenic}}, whence the English word "arsenic".<ref name="oed \|arsenic"/> Arsenic sulfides (orpiment, realgar) and oxides have been known and used since ancient times.<ref name"Curiosa">{{cite journal \|last1Bentley \|first1Ronald \|last2Chasteen \|first2Thomas G. \|titleArsenic Curiosa and Humanity \|journalThe Chemical Educator \|dateApril 2002 \|volume7 \|issue2 \|pages51–60 \|doi10.1007/s00897020539a }}</ref> Zosimos ({{circa\|300 AD}}) describes roasting sandarach (realgar) to obtain cloud of arsenic (arsenic trioxide), which he then reduces to gray arsenic.<ref>{{cite book\|titleMakers of Chemistry\|author Holmyard John Eric\|publisherRead Books\|date 2007\|isbn978-1-4067-3275-7}}</ref> As the symptoms of arsenic poisoning are not very specific, the substance was frequently used for murder until the advent in the 1830s of the Marsh test, a sensitive chemical test for its presence. (Another less sensitive but more general test is the Reinsch test.) Owing to its use by the ruling class to murder one another and its potency and discreetness, arsenic has been called the "poison of kings" and the "king of poisons".<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Hughes \|first1Michael F. \|last2Beck \|first2Barbara D. \|last3Chen \|first3Yu \|last4Lewis \|first4Ari S. \|last5Thomas \|first5David J. \|date2011 \|titleArsenic Exposure and Toxicology: A Historical Perspective \|journalToxicological Sciences \|volume123 \|issue2 \|pages305–332 \|doi10.1093/toxsci/kfr184 \|pmc3179678 \|pmid21750349}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|doi 10.1177/0960327107084539 \|date 2007 \|title Arsenic neurotoxicity – a review \|volume 26 \|issue 10 \|pages 823–832 \|pmid 18025055 \|journal Human & Experimental Toxicology \|last1 Vahidnia \|first1 A. \|last2 van der Voet \|first2 G.B. \|last3 De Wolff \|first3 F.A. \|bibcode 2007HETox..26..823V \|s2cid 24138885}}</ref> Arsenic became known as "the inheritance powder" due to its use in killing family members in the Renaissance era.<ref nameKetha-Garg-2020>{{cite book \|last1Ketha \|first1Hema \|last2Garg \|first2Uttam \|year2020 \|chapterAn introduction to clinical and forensic toxicology \|titleToxicology Cases for the Clinical and Forensic Laboratory \|pages3–6 \|isbn978-0-12-815846-3 \|doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-815846-3.00001-6 }}</ref>{{efn\| Arsenic was nicknamed 'the inheritance powder' as it was commonly used to poison family members for a fortune in the Renaissance era.<ref name=Ketha-Garg-2020/> }} , Cornwall]] During the Bronze Age, arsenic was melted with copper to make arsenical bronze.<ref>{{cite journal \|last Lechtman \|first H. \|year 1996 \|title Arsenic bronze: Dirty copper or chosen alloy? A view from the Americas \|journal Journal of Field Archaeology \|volume 23 \|issue 4 \|pages 477–514 \|doi 10.2307/530550 \|jstor 530550 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|lastCharles \|firstJ.A. \|year1967 \|title Early Arsenical Bronzes—A Metallurgical View \|journalAmerican Journal of Archaeology \|volume 71 \|issue1 \|pages 21–26 \|jstor 501586 \|doi 10.2307/501586}}</ref> Jabir ibn Hayyan described the isolation of arsenic before 815 AD.{{efn\| "We find in his [<nowiki/>ibn Hayyan's<nowiki/>] writings [...] preparation of various substances (e.g., basic lead carbonatic, arsenic and antimony from their sulphides).<ref nameSarton>{{cite book \|lastSarton \|firstG. \|author-linkGeorge Sarton \|titleIntroduction to the History of Science}}</ref>{{full citation\|dateApril 2025}} }} Albertus Magnus (Albert the Great, 1193–1280) later isolated the element from a compound in 1250, by heating soap together with arsenic trisulfide.<ref name"BuildingBlocks451-3">{{cite book \|last Emsley \|firstJohn \|year 2001 \|titleNature's Building Blocks: An A-Z guide to the elements \|pages 43, 513, 529 \|publisherOxford University Press \|location Oxford, UK \|isbn978-0-19-850341-5 }}</ref> In 1649, Johann Schröder published two ways of preparing arsenic.<ref>{{cite book \|last1 Fourcroy \|first1Antoine-François \|author-link1 Antoine-François de Fourcroy \|year1804 \|title A general system of chemical knowledge, and its application to the phenomena of nature and art \|page 84 \|url https://books.google.com/books?idPTgwAAAAYAAJ&pgPA84}}</ref> Crystals of elemental (native) arsenic are found in nature, although rarely. Cadet's fuming liquid (impure cacodyl), often claimed as the first synthetic organometallic compound, was synthesized in 1760 by Louis Claude Cadet de Gassicourt through the reaction of potassium acetate with arsenic trioxide.<ref>{{cite journal \|first Dietmar \|last Seyferth \|year 2001 \|title Cadet's fuming arsenical liquid and the cacodyl compounds of Bunsen \|journal Organometallics \|volume 20 \|issue 8 \|pages 1488–1498 \|doi 10.1021/om0101947 \|doi-access free }}</ref> of a chemist giving a public demonstration of arsenic, 1841]] In the Victorian era, women would eat "arsenic" ("white arsenic" or arsenic trioxide) mixed with vinegar and chalk to improve the complexion of their faces, making their skin paler (to show they did not work in the fields).<ref>{{cite news \|lastFould \|firstH.S. \|date13 February 1898 \|titleDisplay ad&nbsp;48 – no title \|quoteLADIES" [in large print at the top]; [advertises] "Dr. Campbell's Safe Arsenic Complexion Wafers and Fould's Medicated Arsenic Complexion Soap \|newspaperThe Washington Post \|page28 \|placeWashington, DC \|id{{ProQuest\|143995174}} }}</ref> The accidental use of arsenic in the adulteration of foodstuffs led to the Bradford sweet poisoning in 1858, which resulted in 21 deaths.<ref nameFood>{{cite journal \|first Alan \|last Turner \|year 1999 \|title The story so far: An overview of developments in UK food regulation and associated advisory committees \|departmentViewpoint \|journal British Food Journal \|volume 101 \|issue 4 \|pages 274–283 \|doi10.1108/00070709910272141}}</ref> From the late 18th&nbsp;century wallpaper production began to use dyes made from arsenic,{{efn\| "At first, green papers were coloured with the traditional mineral pigment verdigris or buy mixing blues and yellows of plant origin. But once Scheele's green began to be produced in quantity, it was adopted as an improvement over the old colours and became a common constituent in wallpaper by 1800." <ref name=Whorton-2010> {{cite book \|last1 Whorton \|first1 James C. \|date = 28 January 2010 \|orig-date = 2010 \|chapter = Walls of death \|title = The Arsenic Century: How Victorian Britain was poisoned at home, work, and play \|edition = reprint \|publication-place = Oxford, UK \|publisher = Oxford University Press \|page = 205 \|isbn = 978-0-19-162343-1 \|chapter-url https://books.google.com/books?idYnVNX3drptkC \|access-date = 1 October 2023 \|quote = }} </ref> }} which was thought to increase the pigment's brightness.<ref>{{cite book \|last Hawksley \|first Lucinda \|year2016 \|title Bitten by Witch Fever: Wallpaper & arsenic in the Victorian home \|publisherThames & Hudson \|location New York, NY }}</ref> One account of the illness and 1821 death of Napoleon implicates arsenic poisoning involving wallpaper.{{efn\| "The wallpaper-as-arsenic-source of poison made the headlines in 1982 [...] when analysis of a sample of wallpaper from the living room in Longwood, Napoleon's residence on Saint Helena, revealed arsenic concentrations of about 0.12&nbsp;g/m²."<ref> {{cite book \|last Cullen \|first William R. \|year = 2008 \|chapter = 4.7.1 Was it the arsenic in the wallpaper? \|title = Is Arsenic an Aphrodisiac?: The sociochemistry of an element \|publisher = Royal Society of Chemistry \|page = 146 \|isbn = 978-0-85404-363-7 \|chapter-url https://books.google.com/books?idyyaTdY4UGLMC \|access-date = 1 October 2023 }} </ref> }} Two arsenic pigments have been widely used since their discovery – Paris Green in 1814 and Scheele's Green in 1775. After the toxicity of arsenic became widely known, these chemicals were used less often as pigments and more often as insecticides. In the 1860s, an arsenic byproduct of dye production, London Purple, was widely used. This was a solid mixture of arsenic trioxide, aniline, lime, and ferrous oxide, insoluble in water and very toxic by inhalation or ingestion<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://cameochemicals.noaa.gov/chemical/3779\|title London purple\|access-date24 June 2023\|publisher National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref> But it was later replaced with Paris Green, another arsenic-based dye.<ref>{{cite journal \| title Colour in the Garden: 'Malignant Magenta' \| first Susan W. \| last Lanman \| journal Garden History \| volume 28 \| issue 2 \| date 2000 \| pages 209–221 \|jstor1587270 \| doi 10.2307/1587270}}</ref> With better understanding of the toxicology mechanism, two other compounds were used starting in the 1890s.<ref>{{cite journal \| doi 10.1021/ie50201a018 \| title Insecticides and Fungicides \| date 1926 \| last1 Holton \| first1 E. C. \| journal Industrial & Engineering Chemistry \| volume 18 \| issue 9 \| pages 931–933}}</ref> Arsenite of lime and arsenate of lead were used widely as insecticides until the discovery of DDT in 1942.<ref>{{cite journal \|doi 10.1016/S0048-9697(98)00180-6 \| title An assessment of the amounts of arsenical pesticides used historically in a geographical area \| date 1998 \| last1 Murphy \| first1 E. A. \| last2 Aucott \| first2 M. \| journal Science of the Total Environment \| volume 218 \| issue 2–3 \| pages 89–101 \| bibcode 1998ScTEn.218...89M }}</ref><ref>{{cite book \| url https://archive.org/details/CAT85816421 \|page[https://archive.org/details/CAT85816421/page/n5 5] \| title Important Insecticides: Directions for Their Preparation and Use \| publisher U.S. Department of Agriculture \| last1 Marlatt \| first1 C. L. \| date 1897}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \| url https://books.google.com/books?ideIJVHFCBI_wC&pgPA248 \|title Paradise Under Glass: An Amateur Creates a Conservatory Garden \|isbn 978-0-06-199130-1 \|last1 Kassinger \|first1 Ruth \|year 2010\|publisher = Harper Collins }}</ref> In small doses, soluble arsenic compounds act as stimulants, and were once popular as medicine by people in the mid-18th to 19th centuries;<ref nameHoll>{{cite book \|first1 Arnold F. \|last1 Holleman \|last2 Wiberg \|first2 Egon \|last3 Wiberg \|first3 Nils \|year 1985 \|chapter Arsen \|trans-chapter Arsenic \|title Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie \|trans-titleTextbook of Inorganic Chemistry \|edition 91–100te \|pages 675–681 \|lang de \|publisher Walter de Gruyter \|isbn 978-3-11-007511-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|lastHaller \|first John S. \|year1975 \|titleTherapeutic mule: The use of arsenic in the nineteenth century Materia Medica \|journalPharmacy in History \|volume17 \|issue3 \|pages87–100 \|jstor41108920 \|pmid11610136 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|lastParascandola \|firstJohn \|year2011 \|chapterChapter&nbsp;5: What kills can cure – arsenic in medicine \|titleKing of Poisons: A history of arsenic \|isbn978-1-59797-809-5 \|oclc817901966 \|pages145–172 \|chapter-urlhttps://muse.jhu.edu/chapter/1650011 \|viaProject MUSE \|urlhttps://muse.jhu.edu/book/42297 \|publisherUniversity of Nebraska Press \|langen \|publication-placeLincoln, NB }}</ref> this use was especially prevalent for sport animals such as race horses or work dogs and continued into the 20th century.<ref>{{cite book \|doi10.1016/B978-0-12-420227-6.00014-1 \|chapterMetalloids \|titleVeterinary Toxicology for Australia and New Zealand \|date2017 \|last1Cope \|first1Rhian \|pages255–277 \|isbn=978-0-12-420227-6 }}</ref> A 2006 study of the remains of the Australian racehorse Phar Lap determined that its 1932 death was caused by a massive overdose of arsenic. Sydney veterinarian Percy Sykes stated, : "In those days, arsenic was quite a common tonic, usually given in the form of a solution (Fowler's Solution) ... It was so common that I'd reckon 90&nbsp;per cent of the horses had arsenic in their system."<ref>{{cite news \|titlePhar Lap arsenic claims premature: Expert \|date2006-10-23 \|publisherABC News \|placeAustralia \|urlhttp://www.abc.net.au/news/2006-10-23/phar-lap-arsenic-claims-premature-expert/1292814 \|viaabc.net.au \|access-date2016-06-14}}</ref> Applications Agricultural is a controversial arsenic compound used as a feed ingredient for chickens.]] The toxicity of arsenic to insects, bacteria, and fungi led to its use as a wood preservative.<ref>{{cite journal \|doi 10.2134/jeq2004.0173 \|last1 Rahman \|first1 F. A. \|last2 Allan \|first2 D. L. \|last3 Rosen \|first3 C. J. \|last4 Sadowsky \|first4 M. J. \|title Arsenic availability from chromated copper arsenate (CCA)-treated wood \|journal Journal of Environmental Quality \|volume 33 \|issue 1 \|pages 173–180 \|date 2004 \|pmid 14964372}}</ref> In the 1930s, a process of treating wood with chromated copper arsenate (also known as CCA or Tanalith) was invented, and for decades, this treatment was the most extensive industrial use of arsenic. An increased appreciation of the toxicity of arsenic led to a ban of CCA in consumer products in 2004, initiated by the European Union and United States.<ref>{{cite book\|title Environmental Chemistry: Green Chemistry and Pollutants in Ecosystems\|editor Lichtfouse, Eric\|editor2 Schwarzbauer, Jan\|editor3 Robert, Didier\|date 2004\|isbn 978-3-540-22860-8\|chapter-url https://books.google.com/books?idIDGLh_cWAIwC\|chapter Electrodialytical Removal of Cu, Cr and As from Threaded Wood\|first Eric\|last Lichtfouse \|publisher Springer\|location Berlin}}</ref><ref name"round">{{cite journal\|journal Talanta\|volume 58\|issue 1\|date 2002\|pages 201–235\|doi 10.1016/S0039-9140(02)00268-0\|title Arsenic round the world: a review\|first1 Badal Kumar\|last1 Mandal\|pmid 18968746\|last2 Suzuki\|first2 K. T.}}</ref> However, CCA remains in heavy use in other countries (such as on Malaysian rubber plantations).<ref name = Ullmann /> Arsenic was also used in various agricultural insecticides and poisons. For example, lead hydrogen arsenate was a common insecticide on fruit trees,<ref>{{cite conference\|last Peryea\|first F. J.\|title Historical use of lead arsenate insecticides, resulting in soil contamination and implications for soil remediation\|conference 16th World Congress of Soil Science\|place Montpellier, France\|date 20–26 August 1998\|url http://soils.tfrec.wsu.edu/leadhistory.htm\|url-status dead\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20081207174027/http://soils.tfrec.wsu.edu/leadhistory.htm\|archive-date 7 December 2008}}</ref> but contact with the compound sometimes resulted in brain damage among those working the sprayers. In the second half of the 20th century, monosodium methyl arsenate (MSMA) and disodium methyl arsenate (DSMA) – less toxic organic forms of arsenic – replaced lead arsenate in agriculture. These organic arsenicals were in turn phased out in the United States by 2013 in all agricultural activities except cotton farming.<ref name"Federal Register">{{cite web \|titleOrganic Arsenicals; Notice of Receipt of Requests to Voluntarily Cancel or to Amend to Terminate Uses of Certain Pesticide Registrations \|urlhttps://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2009-07-08/html/E9-16054.htm \|websiteFederal Register \|publisherGovernment Printing Office \|access-date18 July 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleMonosodium Methanearsonate (MSMA), an Organic Arsenical \|date22 April 2015 \|urlhttps://www.epa.gov/ingredients-used-pesticide-products/monosodium-methanearsonate-msma-organic-arsenical \|publisherEnvironmental Protection Agency \|access-date=18 July 2023}}</ref> The biogeochemistry of arsenic is complex and includes various adsorption and desorption processes. The toxicity of arsenic is connected to its solubility and is affected by pH. Arsenite ({{chem2\|AsO3(3-)}}) is more soluble than arsenate ({{chem2\|AsO4(3-)}}) and is more toxic; however, at a lower pH, arsenate becomes more mobile and toxic. It was found that addition of sulfur, phosphorus, and iron oxides to high-arsenite soils greatly reduces arsenic phytotoxicity.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.crcpress.com/Trace-Elements-in-Soils-and-Plants-Third-Edition/Kabata-Pendias/p/book/9780849315756\|titleTrace Elements in Soils and Plants, Third Edition\|websiteCRC Press\|access-date2016-08-02\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160821154852/https://www.crcpress.com/Trace-Elements-in-Soils-and-Plants-Third-Edition/Kabata-Pendias/p/book/9780849315756\|archive-date21 August 2016\|url-status = dead}}</ref> Arsenic is used as a feed additive in poultry and swine production, in particular it was used in the U.S. until 2015 to increase weight gain, improve feed efficiency, and prevent disease.<ref>{{cite journal\|journal Environmental Health Perspectives\|date 2005\|volume 113\|issue 9\|pages 1123–1124\|doi 10.1289/ehp.7834\|pmid 16140615\|pmc 1280389\|title Arsenic: A Roadblock to Potential Animal Waste Management Solutions\|first1 Keeve E.\|last1 Nachman\|last2 Graham\|first2 Jay P.\|last3 Price\|first3 Lance B.\|last4 Silbergeld\|first4 Ellen K.\| bibcode2005EnvHP.113.1123N }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp2-c5.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp2-c5.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|titleArsenic \|atSection 5.3, p. 310 \|publisherAgency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry }}</ref> An example is roxarsone, which had been used as a broiler starter by about 70% of U.S. broiler growers.<ref>{{cite journal\|titleA Broad View of Arsenic\|date 2007\|volume 86\|pages 2–14\|journal Poultry Science\|first F. T.\|lastJones\|pmid 17179408\|issue1\|doi10.1093/ps/86.1.2\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> In 2011, Alpharma, a subsidiary of Pfizer Inc., which produces roxarsone, voluntarily suspended sales of the drug in response to studies showing elevated levels of inorganic arsenic, a carcinogen, in treated chickens.<ref name"FDAQ&A">{{cite web \|authorStaff \|titleQuestions and Answers Regarding 3-Nitro (Roxarsone) \|urlhttps://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/SafetyHealth/ProductSafetyInformation/ucm258313.htm \|date8 June 2011 \|publisherU.S. Food and Drug Administration \|access-date2012-09-21 }}</ref> A successor to Alpharma, Zoetis, continued to sell nitarsone until 2015, primarily for use in turkeys.<ref name"FDAQ&A" /> Medical use During the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, a number of arsenic compounds were used as medicines, including arsphenamine (by Paul Ehrlich) and arsenic trioxide (by Thomas Fowler), for treating diseases such as cancer or psoriasis.<ref name"ITOM">{{cite book \|last1Gibaud \|first1Stéphane \|last2Jaouen \|first2Gérard \|titleMedicinal Organometallic Chemistry \|chapterArsenic-Based Drugs: From Fowler's Solution to Modern Anticancer Chemotherapy \|date2010 \|volume32 \|pages1–20 \|doi10.1007/978-3-642-13185-1_1 \|seriesTopics in Organometallic Chemistry \|isbn978-3-642-13184-4\|bibcode2010moc..book....1G }}</ref> Arsphenamine, as well as neosalvarsan, was indicated for syphilis, but has been superseded by modern antibiotics. However, arsenicals such as melarsoprol are still used for the treatment of trypanosomiasis in spite of their severe toxicity, since the disease is almost uniformly fatal if untreated.<ref>{{cite journal \| pmid 28673422 \| doi10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31510-6 \| volume390 \| issue10110 \| titleHuman African trypanosomiasis \| year2017 \|vauthorsBüscher P, Cecchi G, Jamonneau V, Priotto G \| journalLancet \| pages2397–2409\| s2cid4853616 }}</ref> In 2000 the US Food and Drug Administration approved arsenic trioxide for the treatment of patients with acute promyelocytic leukemia that is resistant to all-trans retinoic acid.<ref>{{cite journal\|last Antman \|first Karen H.\|date 2001\| title The History of Arsenic Trioxide in Cancer Therapy\|volume 6\|issueSuppl 2\|pages 1–2\|pmid 11331433\|doi 10.1634/theoncologist.6-suppl_2-1\|journal The Oncologist\|doi-access = free}}</ref> A 2008 paper reports success in locating tumors using arsenic-74 (a positron emitter). This isotope produces clearer PET scan images than the previous radioactive agent, iodine-124, because the body tends to transport iodine to the thyroid gland producing signal noise.<ref>{{cite journal\|journal Clinical Cancer Research\|date 2008\|volume 14\|pages1377–1385\|doi 10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-07-1516\|title Vascular imaging of solid tumors in rats with a radioactive arsenic-labeled antibody that binds exposed phosphatidylserine \|last1 Jennewein \|first1Marc\|pmid 18316558\|issue 5\|last2 Lewis\|first2 M. A.\|last3 Zhao\|first3 D.\|last4 Tsyganov \|first4 E.\|last5 Slavine \|first5 N. \|last6 He \|first6 J. \|last7 Watkins \|first7 L. \|last8 Kodibagkar \|first8 V. D.\|last9 O'Kelly \|first9 S.\|first10P. \|last10Kulkarni\|first11P. \|last11Antich\|first12A. \|last12Hermanne\|first13F. \|last13Rösch \|first14R. \|last14Mason \|first15Ph. \|last15Thorpe \|display-authors6 \|pmc 3436070}}</ref> Nanoparticles of arsenic have shown ability to kill cancer cells with lesser cytotoxicity than other arsenic formulations.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Subastri \|first1Ariraman \|last2Arun \|first2Viswanathan \|last3Sharma \|first3Preeti \|last4Preedia babu \|first4Ezhuthupurakkal \|last5Suyavaran \|first5Arumugam \|last6Nithyananthan \|first6Subramaniyam \|last7Alshammari \|first7Ghedeir M. \|last8Aristatile \|first8Balakrishnan \|last9Dharuman \|first9Venkataraman \|last10Thirunavukkarasu \|first10Chinnasamy \|display-authors6 \|titleSynthesis and characterisation of arsenic nanoparticles and its interaction with DNA and cytotoxic potential on breast cancer cells \|journalChemico-Biological Interactions \|dateNovember 2018 \|volume295 \|pages73–83 \|doi10.1016/j.cbi.2017.12.025 \|pmid29277637 \|bibcode2018CBI...295...73S \|s2cid1816043 }}</ref> Alloys The main use of arsenic is in alloying with lead. Lead components in car batteries are strengthened by the presence of a very small percentage of arsenic.<ref name Ullmann /><ref>{{cite journal\|doi10.1016/0378-7753(94)01973-Y\|title Lead alloys: Past, present and future\|date1995\|last1 Bagshaw\|first1N. E.\|journal Journal of Power Sources\|volume53\|issue 1\|pages25–30\|bibcode 1995JPS....53...25B }}</ref> Dezincification of brass (a copper-zinc alloy) is greatly reduced by the addition of arsenic.<ref>{{cite book\|chapter-url https://books.google.com/books?id1hSJcC9zwFIC&pgPA123\|pages 123–124\| chapter Dealloying\|title Copper: Its Trade, Manufacture, Use, and Environmental Status\|isbn 978-0-87170-656-0\|last1 Joseph\|first1 Günter\|last2 Kundig\|first2 Konrad J. A\|last3 Association\|first3 International Copper\|date 1999\|publisherASM International}}</ref> "Phosphorus Deoxidized Arsenical Copper" with an arsenic content of 0.3% has an increased corrosion stability in certain environments.<ref>{{cite book \|url https://books.google.com/books?idcXkNMB1vBesC&pgSA5-PA6\| page 6 \|title The Metals Databook \|isbn 978-0-07-462300-8 \|author1 Nayar \|date 1997\| publisher McGraw-Hill }}</ref> Gallium arsenide is an important semiconductor material, used in integrated circuits. Circuits made from GaAs are much faster (but also much more expensive) than those made from silicon. Unlike silicon, GaAs has a direct bandgap, and can be used in laser diodes and LEDs to convert electrical energy directly into light.<ref name Ullmann /> Military After World War I, the United States built a stockpile of 20,000 tons of weaponized lewisite (ClCHCHAsCl<sub>2</sub>), an organoarsenic vesicant (blister agent) and lung irritant. The stockpile was neutralized with bleach and dumped into the Gulf of Mexico in the 1950s.<ref>{{cite web\|url http://library.thinkquest.org/05aug/00639/en/w_chemical_blister.html\|publisher Code Red – Weapons of Mass Destruction \|title Blister Agents\|access-date 2010-05-15 }}</ref> Lewisite, the chemical warfare agent, is known for its acute toxicity to aquatic organisms. However, studies assessing the environmental impact of this disposal in the Gulf are lacking.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastCzub \|firstMichał \|last2Nawała \|first2Jakub \|last3Popiel \|first3Stanisław \|last4Brzeziński \|first4Tomasz \|last5Maszczyk \|first5Piotr \|last6Sanderson \|first6Hans \|last7Maser \|first7Edmund \|last8Gordon \|first8Diana \|last9Dziedzic \|first9Daniel \|last10Dawidziuk \|first10Barbara \|last11Pijanowska \|first11Joanna \|last12Fabisiak \|first12Jacek \|last13Szubska \|first13Marta \|last14Lang \|first14Thomas \|last15Vanninen \|first15Paula \|display-authors6 \|date2021-01-01 \|titleAcute aquatic toxicity of arsenic-based chemical warfare agents to Daphnia magna \|urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166445X20304422 \|journalAquatic Toxicology \|volume230 \|pages105693 \|doi10.1016/j.aquatox.2020.105693 \|issn0166-445X}}</ref> During the Vietnam War, the United States used Agent Blue, a mixture of sodium cacodylate and its acid form, as one of the rainbow herbicides to deprive North Vietnamese soldiers of foliage cover and rice.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi 10.1016/0006-3207(72)90043-2\|title Herbicides in war: Current status and future doubt\|date 1972\|last1 Westing\|first1 Arthur H.\|journal Biological Conservation\|volume 4\|issue 5\|pages 322–327\| bibcode1972BCons...4..322W }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|last1 Westing\| first1 Arthur H.\|title Forestry and the War in South Vietnam\|journal Journal of Forestry\|volume 69\|pages 777–783\|date 1971\|url http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/saf/jof/1971/00000069/00000011/art00008}}</ref><!--https://books.google.com/books?idagsAAAAAMBAJ&pgPA37--> Other uses * Copper acetoarsenite was used as a green pigment known under many names, including Paris Green and Emerald Green. It caused numerous arsenic poisonings. Scheele's Green, a copper arsenate, was used in the 19th century as a coloring agent in sweets.<ref>{{cite book\|title The Poison Paradox: Chemicals as Friends and Foes\|chapter Butter Yellow and Scheele's Green\|first John\|last Timbrell\|publisher Oxford University Press\|date 2005\|isbn 978-0-19-280495-2\|chapter-url https://books.google.com/books?idqYYOtQU37jcC\|url-access registration\|url = https://archive.org/details/poisonparadoxche0000timb}}</ref> * Arsenic is used in bronzing.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi 10.1007/BF02519786\|title Industrial exposure to arsenic\|date 1979\|last1 Cross\|first1 J. D.\|last2 Dale\|first2 I. M.\|last3 Leslie\|first3 A. C. D.\|last4 Smith\|first4 H.\|journal Journal of Radioanalytical Chemistry\|volume 48\|issue 1–2\|pages 197–208\| bibcode1979JRNC...48..197C \|s2cid = 93714157}}</ref> * As much as 2% of produced arsenic is used in lead alloys for lead shot and bullets.<ref>{{cite book\|title Engineering Properties and Applications of Lead Alloys\|chapter XIV. Ammunition\|first Sivaraman\|last Guruswamy\|publisher CRC Press\|date 1999\|isbn 978-0-8247-8247-4\|chapter-url https://books.google.com/books?idTtGmjOv9CUAC\|pages 569–570}}</ref> * Arsenic is added in small quantities to alpha-brass to make it dezincification-resistant. This grade of brass is used in plumbing fittings and other wet environments.<ref>{{cite book\|chapter-url https://books.google.com/books?idsxkPJzmkhnUC&pgPA390\|chapter Dealloying\|page 390\|isbn 978-0-87170-726-0\|title Copper and copper alloys\|last1 Davis \|first1Joseph R. \|author2 Handbook Committee, ASM International\|year2001\| publisherASM International }}</ref> * Arsenic is also used for taxonomic sample preservation.<!--https://books.google.com/books?idaRI9MrpXLqYC&pgPA93 --> It was also used in embalming fluids historically.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastQuigley \|firstChristine \|url{{Google books\|ZMSSCgAAQBAJ\|page6\|plainurlyes}}\|page6 \|titleModern Mummies: The Preservation of the Human Body in the Twentieth Century \|date2006 \|orig-dateFirst published 1998 \|publisherMcFarland \|isbn978-1-4766-1373-4 \|languageen}}</ref> * Arsenic was used in the taxidermy process up until the 1980s.<ref>{{cite journal\| last1Marte \| first1Fernando \| last2Pequignot \| first2Amandine\| titleArsenic in Taxidermy Collections: History, Detection, and Management \|journalCollection Forum\|year2006\| urlhttps://repository.si.edu/handle/10088/8134\|hdl10088/8134\|volume21\|issue1–2\|pages143–150}}</ref> * Arsenic was used as an opacifier in ceramics, creating white glazes.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Parmelee \|first1Cullen W. \|titleCeramic Glazes \|date1947 \|publisherCahners Books \|locationBoston\|page61 \|edition3rd}}</ref> * Until recently, arsenic was used in optical glass. Modern glass manufacturers have ceased using both arsenic and lead.<ref>{{cite book\|chapter-url https://books.google.com/books?idQt7sNqoP_CkC&pgPA68\|page68\|title Pollution technology review 214: Mercury and arsenic wastes: removal, recovery, treatment, and disposal\|publisher William Andrew\|date 1993\|isbn 978-0-8155-1326-1\|chapter Arsenic Supply Demand and the Environment\|authorUnited States Environmental Protection Agency}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Kumar \|first1Mahendra \|last2Seth \|first2Aparna \|last3Singh \|first3Alak Kumar \|last4Rajput \|first4Manish Singh \|last5Sikandar \|first5Mohd \|date2021-12-01 \|titleRemediation strategies for heavy metals contaminated ecosystem: A review \|journalEnvironmental and Sustainability Indicators \|volume12 \|pages100155 \|doi10.1016/j.indic.2021.100155 \|doi-accessfree \|bibcode2021EnvSI..1200155K }}</ref><ref>{{Citation \|lastHumans \|firstIARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to \|titleExposures in the Glass Manufacturing Industry \|date1993 \|urlhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499748/ \|workBeryllium, Cadmium, Mercury, and Exposures in the Glass Manufacturing Industry \|volume58 \|pages347–375 \|access-date2024-01-12 \|publisherInternational Agency for Research on Cancer \|languageen \|pmid8022057\|pmc7681308 }}</ref> Biological role {{Main\|Arsenic biochemistry}} Bacteria Some species of bacteria obtain their energy in the absence of oxygen by oxidizing various fuels while reducing arsenate to arsenite. Under oxidative environmental conditions some bacteria use arsenite as fuel, which they oxidize to arsenate.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1 Stolz\|first1 John F.\|last2 Basu\|first2 Partha\|last3 Santini\|first3 Joanne M.\|last4 Oremland\|first4 Ronald S.\|s2cid 2575554\|title Arsenic and Selenium in Microbial Metabolism\|journal Annual Review of Microbiology\|volume 60\|pages 107–130\|date 2006\|doi 10.1146/annurev.micro.60.080805.142053\|pmid16704340\| bibcode2006ARvMb..60..107S }}</ref> The enzymes involved are known as arsenate reductases (Arr).<ref>{{cite journal \|doi 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2002.tb00617.x \|title Microbial arsenic: From geocycles to genes and enzymes \|date 2002 \|last1 Mukhopadhyay \|first1 Rita \|last2 Rosen \|first2 Barry P. \|last3 Phung \|first3 Le T. \|last4 Silver \|first4 Simon \|journal FEMS Microbiology Reviews \|volume 26 \|issue 3 \|pages 311–325 \|pmid 12165430\| doi-access = free }}</ref> In 2008, bacteria were discovered that employ a version of photosynthesis in the absence of oxygen with arsenites as electron donors, producing arsenates (just as ordinary photosynthesis uses water as electron donor, producing molecular oxygen). Researchers conjecture that, over the course of history, these photosynthesizing organisms produced the arsenates that allowed the arsenate-reducing bacteria to thrive. One strain, PHS-1, has been isolated and is related to the gammaproteobacterium Ectothiorhodospira shaposhnikovii. The mechanism is unknown, but an encoded Arr enzyme may function in reverse to its known homologues.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Kulp \|first1T.R \|last2Hoeft \|first2 S.E. \|last3Asao \|first3 M. \|last4Madigan \|first4 M.T. \|last5Hollibaugh \|first5 J.T. \|last6Fisher \|first6 J.C. \|last7Stolz \|first7 J.F. \|last8Culbertson \|first8 C.W. \|last9Miller \|first9 L.G.\|first10R.S. \|last10Oremland \|display-authors6 \|year 2008 \|title Arsenic(III) fuels anoxygenic photosynthesis in hot spring biofilms from Mono Lake, California\|journal Science\|volume 321 \|issue 5891\|pages 967–970\|doi 10.1126/science.1160799 \|pmid18703741 \|s2cid 39479754\|bibcode = 2008Sci...321..967K}} : {{cite magazine \|firstFred \|lastCampbell \|date11 August 2008 \|titleArsenic-loving bacteria rewrite photosynthesis rules \|magazineChemistry World \|urlhttps://www.chemistryworld.com/news/arsenic-loving-bacteria-rewrite-photosynthesis-rules/3000398.article }}</ref> In 2011, it was postulated that the Halomonadaceae strain GFAJ-1 could be grown in the absence of phosphorus if that element were substituted with arsenic,<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Wolfe-Simon \|first1F. \|last2Blum \|first2J.S. \|last3Kulp \|first3T.R. \|last4Gordon \|first4G.W. \|last5Hoeft \|first5S.E. \|last6Pett-Ridge \|first6J. \|last7Stolz \|first7J.F. \|last8Webb \|first8S.M. \|last9Weber \|first9P.K. \|display-authors6 \|date2011-06-03 \|titleA bacterium that can grow by using arsenic instead of phosphorus \|journalScience \|langen \|volume332 \|issue6034 \|pages1163–1166 \|doi10.1126/science.1197258 \|doi-accessfree \|pmid21127214 \|bibcode2011Sci...332.1163W \|s2cid51834091 \|urlhttps://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc832429/m2/1/high_res_d/1016932.pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc832429/m2/1/high_res_d/1016932.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 }}</ref> exploiting the fact that the arsenate and phosphate anions are similar structurally. The study was widely criticised and subsequently refuted by independent research groups.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1 Erb \|first1 T.J. \|last2 Kiefer \|first2 P. \|last3 Hattendorf \|first3 B. \|last4 Günther \|first4 D. \|last5 Vorholt \|first5 J.A. \|year 2012 \|title GFAJ-1 is an arsenate-resistant, phosphate-dependent organism \|journal Science \|volume 337 \|issue 6093 \|pages 467–470 \|pmid 22773139 \|bibcode 2012Sci...337..467E \|s2cid 20229329 \|doi 10.1126/science.1218455 \|doi-access free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1 Reaves \|first1 M. L. \|last2 Sinha \|first2 S. \|last3 Rabinowitz \|first3 J. D. \|last4 Kruglyak \|first4 L. \|last5 Redfield \|first5 R.J. \|year 2012 \|title Absence of detectable arsenate in DNA from arsenate-grown GFAJ-1 cells \|journal Science \|volume 337 \|issue 6093 \|pages 470–473 \|doi 10.1126/science.1219861 \|pmid 22773140 \|pmc 3845625 \|arxiv 1201.6643 \|bibcode 2012Sci...337..470R }}</ref> Potential role in higher animals Arsenic may be an essential trace mineral in birds, involved in the synthesis of methionine metabolites.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Živkov Baloš \|first1M. \|last2Jakšić \|first2S. \|last3Ljubojević Pelić \|first3D. \|dateSeptember 2019 \|titleThe role, importance and toxicity of arsenic in poultry nutrition \|journalWorld's Poultry Science Journal \|volume75 \|issue3 \|pages375–386 \|doi10.1017/S0043933919000394 }}</ref> However, the role of arsenic in bird nutrition is disputed, as other authors state that arsenic is toxic in small amounts.<ref>{{cite journal \| last Aljohani \| first A.S. \| year 2023 \| titleHeavy metal toxicity in poultry: A comprehensive review \| journalFrontiers in Veterinary Science \| volume10 \| pmid37456954 \| pmc10340091 \| doi10.3389/fvets.2023.1161354 \| doi-accessfree }}</ref> Some evidence indicates that arsenic is an essential trace mineral in mammals.<ref nameANut>Anke M. (1986) "Arsenic", pp. 347–372 in Mertz W. (ed.), Trace elements in human and Animal Nutrition, 5th ed. Orlando, FL: Academic Press</ref><ref nameUEssent> {{cite journal \|last1Uthus \|first1Eric O. \|year=1992 \|title= Evidency for arsenical essentiality \|journal= Environmental Geochemistry and Health \|volume14 \|issue2 \|pages=55–58 \|pmid24197927 \|bibcode1992EnvGH..14...55U \|s2cid22882255 \|doi10.1007/BF01783629 }} : {{cite book \|lastUthus \|firstE.O. \|year=1994 \|section=Arsenic essentiality and factors affecting its importance \|editor1-lastChappell \|editor1-firstW.R. \|editor2-lastAbernathy \|editor2-firstC.O. \|editor3-lastCothern \|editor3-firstC.R. \|title=Arsenic Exposure and Health \|pages=199–208 \|place=Northwood, UK \|publisher=Science and Technology Letters }} </ref> Heredity Arsenic has been linked to epigenetic changes, heritable changes in gene expression that occur without changes in DNA sequence. These include DNA methylation, histone modification, and RNA interference. Toxic levels of arsenic cause significant DNA hypermethylation of tumor suppressor genes p16 and p53, thus increasing risk of carcinogenesis. These epigenetic events have been studied in vitro using human kidney cells and in vivo using rat liver cells and peripheral blood leukocytes in humans.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Baccarelli\|first1A.\|date2009\|titleEpigenetics and environmental chemicals\|journalCurrent Opinion in Pediatrics \|issue2 \|volume21 \|pages243–251 \|doi10.1097/MOP.0b013e32832925cc \|pmid19663042\|last2Bollati\|first2V.\|pmc3035853}}</ref> Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) is used to detect precise levels of intracellular arsenic and other arsenic bases involved in epigenetic modification of DNA.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Nicholis\|first1I.\|date2009\|titleArsenite medicinal use, metabolism, pharmacokinetics and monitoring in human hair\| journalBiochimie\| pmid19527769\| doi10.1016/j.biochi.2009.06.003 \|last2Curis \|last3Deschamps\|last4Bénazeth\|volume91\|first2E.\|first3P.\|first4S.\|issue10\|pages=1260–1267}}</ref> Studies investigating arsenic as an epigenetic factor can be used to develop precise biomarkers of exposure and susceptibility. The Chinese brake fern (Pteris vittata) hyperaccumulates arsenic from the soil into its leaves and has a proposed use in phytoremediation.<ref>{{Cite journal \| volume = 156 \| journal = New Phytologist \| title = Arsenic Distribution and Speciation in the Fronds of the Hyperaccumulator Pteris vittata \| issue = 2 \| pages = 195–203 \| jstor = 1514012 \| doi = 10.1046/j.1469-8137.2002.00512.x \| year 2002 \|first5 S. P. \| last5 = McGrath \|first2 = F.-J. \| last2 = Zhao \| first1 = E. \| last3 Fuhrmann \|first3 M. \|first4 = L. Q. \| last4 = Ma \| last1 = Lombi \| pmid = 33873285 \| doi-access = free \| bibcode = 2002NewPh.156..195L }} </ref> Biomethylation ]] Inorganic arsenic and its compounds, upon entering the food chain, are progressively metabolized through a process of methylation.<ref name"Biomethylation">{{cite journal\|title Biomethylation of Arsenic is Essentially Detoxicating Event\|journal Journal of Health Science\|date 2003\|first1 Teruaki Sakurai\|volume 49\|issue 3\|pages 171–178\| doi 10.1248/jhs.49.171\|last1 Sakurai\|doi-access free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|lastReimer\|firstK. J.\|author2Koch, I.\|author3Cullen, W.R.\|date2010\|titleOrganoarsenicals. Distribution and transformation in the environment\|volume7 \|pages165–229\|isbn978-1-84755-177-1\|pmid20877808\|doi10.1039/9781849730822-00165\|seriesMetal Ions in Life Sciences}}</ref> For example, the mold Scopulariopsis brevicaulis produces trimethylarsine if inorganic arsenic is present.<ref>{{cite journal \|first1 Ronald \|last1 Bentley \|last2 Chasteen \|first2 T.G. \|year 2002 \|title Microbial methylation of metalloids: Arsenic, antimony, and bismuth \|journal Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews \|volume 66 \|issue 2 \|pages 250–271 \|doi 10.1128/MMBR.66.2.250-271.2002 \|pmid 12040126 \|pmc 120786}}</ref> The organic compound arsenobetaine is found in some marine foods such as fish and algae, and also in mushrooms in larger concentrations. The average person's intake is about 10–50&nbsp;μg/day. Values about 1000&nbsp;μg are not unusual following consumption of fish or mushrooms, but there is little danger in eating fish because this arsenic compound is nearly non-toxic.<ref>{{cite journal \|first1 William R. \|last1 Cullen \|last2 Reimer \|first2 Kenneth J. \|year 1989 \| title Arsenic speciation in the environment \|journal Chemical Reviews \|volume 89\|issue 4\|pages713–764\|doi 10.1021/cr00094a002 \|hdl 10214/2162\|hdl-access free}}</ref> Environmental issues Exposure Naturally occurring sources of human exposure include volcanic ash, weathering of minerals and ores, and mineralized groundwater. Arsenic is also found in food, water, soil, and air.<ref>{{cite report \|titleArsenic toxicity exposure pathways \|series Case Studies in Environmental Medicine (CSEM) \|publisher Agency for Toxic Substances & Disease Registry \|url https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/csem.html \|url-status dead \|access-date 2010-05-15 \|archive-date 4 February 2016\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160204174821/http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/csem.asp?csem7&po7 }}</ref> Arsenic is absorbed by all plants, but is more concentrated in leafy vegetables, rice, apple and grape juice, and seafood.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.webmd.com/diet/features/arsenic-food-faq\|access-date2010-04-11 \|date5 December 2011\|titleArsenic in Food: FAQ}}</ref> An additional route of exposure is inhalation of atmospheric gases and dusts.<ref name"atsdr.cdc.gov">{{cite web \|titleArsenic \|publisherThe Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry \|year2009 \|urlhttps://wwwn.cdc.gov/TSP/index.aspx?toxid=3 }}</ref> During the Victorian era, arsenic was widely used in home decor, especially wallpapers.<ref>{{cite AV media \| title How Victorians were poisoned by their own homes \|series Hidden Killers \|publisherAbsolute Victory (YouTube) \|mediumvideo \|url https://www.youtube.com/watch?vMvxnXOoFl20 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211205/MvxnXOoFl20 \|archive-date2021-12-05 \|viaGhostarchive }}<br/>{{cite web \|titlealternate arcived video \|viaWayback Machine (archive.org) \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190919033145/https://www.youtube.com/watch?vMvxnXOoFl20&glUS&hlen }}</ref> In Europe, an analysis based on 20,000&nbsp;soil samples across all 28&nbsp;countries show that 98% of sampled soils have concentrations less than 20&nbsp;mg/kg. In addition, the arsenic hotspots are related to both frequent fertilization and close distance to mining activities.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Fendrich \|first1Arthur Nicolaus \|last2Van Eynde \|first2Elise \|last3Stasinopoulos \|first3Dimitrios M. \|last4Rigby \|first4Robert A. \|last5Mezquita \|first5Felipe Yunta \|last6Panagos \|first6Panos \|date2024-03-01 \|titleModeling arsenic in European topsoils with a coupled semiparametric (GAMLSS-RF) model for censored data \|journalEnvironment International \|languageen \|volume185 \|pages108544 \|doi10.1016/j.envint.2024.108544\|doi-accessfree \|pmid38452467 \|bibcode2024EnInt.18508544F }}</ref> Occurrence in drinking water {{Main\|Arsenic contamination of groundwater}} Extensive arsenic contamination of groundwater has led to widespread arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh<ref>{{cite book \|first Andrew \|last Meharg \|year2005 \|title Venomous Earth – How arsenic caused the world's worst mass poisoning \|isbn 978-1-4039-4499-3 \|publisher Macmillan Science \|url-access registration\|url https://archive.org/details/venomousearthhow00meha}}</ref> and neighboring countries.<!--As of this writing,{{when\|dateJune 2012}}{{citation needed\|dateJune 2012}} 42&nbsp;major incidents around the world have been reported on groundwater arsenic contamination.--> It is estimated that approximately 57&nbsp;million people in the Bengal basin are drinking groundwater with arsenic concentrations elevated above the World Health Organization's standard of 10&nbsp;parts per billion (ppb).<ref>{{cite book \|url https://books.google.com/books?idhMA70VU36qUC&pgPA317 \|page 317 \|title Arsenic: Environmental Chemistry, Health Threats and Waste Treatment \|isbn 978-0-470-02758-5 \|last1 Henke \|first1 Kevin R. \|date 28 April 2009\|publisher John Wiley & Sons }}</ref> However, a study of cancer rates in Taiwan<ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.1289/ehp.8704 \|journalEnviron. Health Perspect. \|volume114 \|issue7 \|pages1077–1082 \|date2006 \|pmid16835062 \|pmc1513326 \|last1Lamm \|first1S. H. \|last2Engel \|first2A. \|last3Penn \|first3C. A. \|last4Chen \|first4R. \|last5Feinleib \|first5M. \|titleArsenic cancer risk confounder in southwest Taiwan dataset \|bibcode2006EnvHP.114.1077L }}</ref> suggested that significant increases in cancer mortality appear only at levels above 150&nbsp;ppb. The arsenic in the groundwater is of natural origin, and is released from the sediment into the groundwater, caused by the anoxic conditions of the subsurface. This groundwater was used after local and western NGOs and the Bangladeshi government undertook a massive shallow tube well drinking-water program in the late twentieth century. This program was designed to prevent drinking of bacteria-contaminated surface waters, but failed to test for arsenic in the groundwater. Many other countries and districts in Southeast Asia, such as Vietnam and Cambodia, have geological environments that produce groundwater with a high arsenic content. Arsenicosis was reported in Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand, in 1987, and the Chao Phraya River probably contains high levels of naturally occurring dissolved arsenic without being a public health problem because much of the public uses bottled water.<ref>{{cite journal \|first Andrew \|last Kohnhorst \|year2005 \|titleArsenic in groundwater in selected countries in south and southeast Asia: A review \|journalJ Tropical Medicine and Parasitology \|volume28 \|page73 \|urlhttp://antispam.kmutt.ac.th/index.php/JTMP/article/view/14749 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140110085919/http://antispam.kmutt.ac.th/index.php/JTMP/article/view/14749 \|url-status dead \|archive-date2014-01-10}}</ref> In Pakistan, more than 60&nbsp;million people are exposed to arsenic polluted drinking water indicated by a 2017 report in Science. Podgorski's team investigated more than 1200&nbsp;samples and more than 66% exceeded the WHO minimum contamination level.<ref>{{cite journal \|titleArsenic in drinking water threatens up to 60&nbsp;million in Pakistan \|date2017-08-23 \|journalScience \|publisherAAAS \|urlhttps://www.science.org/content/article/arsenic-drinking-water-threatens-60-million-pakistan \|access-date2017-09-11 \|langen }}</ref> Since the 1980s, residents of the Ba Men region of Inner Mongolia, China have been chronically exposed to arsenic through drinking water from contaminated wells.<ref name"Well Water Arsenic Exposure, Arsenic Induced Skin-Lesions and Self-Reported Morbidity in Inner Mongolia">{{cite journal \|last1Xia \|first1Yajuan \|last2Wade \|first2Timothy \|last3Wu \|first3Kegong \|last4Li \|first4Yanhong \|last5Ning \|first5Zhixiong \|last6Le \|first6X. Chris \|last7He \|first7Xingzhou \|last8Chen \|first8Binfei \|last9Feng \|first9Yong \|last10Mumford \|first10Judy \|display-authors6 \|titleWell Water Arsenic Exposure, Arsenic Induced Skin-Lesions and Self-Reported Morbidity in Inner Mongolia \|journalInternational Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health \|date9 March 2009 \|volume6 \|issue3 \|pages1010–1025 \|doi10.3390/ijerph6031010 \|pmid19440430 \|pmc2672384 \|doi-accessfree }}</ref> A 2009 research study observed an elevated presence of skin lesions among residents with well water arsenic concentrations between 5 and 10&nbsp;μg/L, suggesting that arsenic induced toxicity may occur at relatively low concentrations with chronic exposure.<ref name"Well Water Arsenic Exposure, Arsenic Induced Skin-Lesions and Self-Reported Morbidity in Inner Mongolia" /> Overall, 20 of China's 34 provinces have high arsenic concentrations in the groundwater supply, potentially exposing 19&nbsp;million people to hazardous drinking water.<ref name"Lall">{{Cite journal\|last1Lall\|first1Upmanu\|last2Josset\|first2Laureline\|last3Russo\|first3Tess\|date2020-10-17\|titleA Snapshot of the World's Groundwater Challenges\|journalAnnual Review of Environment and Resources\|languageen\|volume45\|issue1\|pages171–194\|doi10.1146/annurev-environ-102017-025800\|doi-access=free }}</ref> A study by IIT Kharagpur found high levels of Arsenic in groundwater of 20% of India's land, exposing more than 250&nbsp;million people. States such as Punjab, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and Gujarat have highest land area exposed to arsenic.<ref>{{cite news \|titleIIT Kharagpur Study Finds 20% of India Has High Arsenic Levels in Groundwater \|urlhttps://science.thewire.in/health/iit-kharagpurs-ai-study-finds-20-of-india-has-toxic-levels-of-arsenic-in-groundwater/ \|access-date2023-05-23 \|workThe Wire \|agencyPTI \|date2021-02-11}}</ref> In the United States, arsenic is most commonly found in the ground waters of the southwest.<ref name"test">{{cite web\|url http://h2oc.com/pdfs/Occurrence.pdf\|title Arsenic in Drinking Water: 3. Occurrence in U.S. Waters\|access-date 2010-05-15\|url-status dead\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20100107171246/http://h2oc.com/pdfs/Occurrence.pdf\|archive-date 7 January 2010}}</ref> Parts of New England, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and the Dakotas are also known to have significant concentrations of arsenic in ground water.<ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.1111/j.1745-6584.2000.tb00251.x \|titleArsenic in Ground Water of the United States: Occurrence and Geochemistry \|date2000 \|last1Welch \|first1Alan H. \|last2Westjohn \|first2D. B. \|last3Helsel \|first3Dennis R. \|last4Wanty \|first4Richard B. \|journalGround Water \|volume38 \|issue4 \|pages589–604\|bibcode2000GrWat..38..589W \|s2cid129409319 }}</ref> Increased levels of skin cancer have been associated with arsenic exposure in Wisconsin, even at levels below the 10&nbsp;ppb drinking water standard.<ref>{{cite journal \|titleAssociation of arsenic-contaminated drinking-water with prevalence of skin cancer in Wisconsin's Fox River Valley \|journalJ. Health Popul Nutr \|volume24 \|issue2 \|pages206–213 \|date2006 \|pmid17195561\|last1Knobeloch \|first1L. M. \|last2Zierold \|first2K. M. \|last3Anderson \|first3H. A.\|hdl1807/50099 \|hdl-accessfree }}</ref> According to a recent film funded by the US Superfund, millions of private wells have unknown arsenic levels, and in some areas of the US, more than 20% of the wells may contain levels that exceed established limits.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.dartmouth.edu/~toxmetal/InSmallDoses/ \|titleIn Small Doses:Arsenic\|workThe Dartmouth Toxic Metals Superfund Research Program. Dartmouth College}}</ref> Low-level exposure to arsenic at concentrations of 100&nbsp;ppb (i.e., above the 10&nbsp;ppb drinking water standard) compromises the initial immune response to H1N1 or swine flu infection according to NIEHS-supported scientists. The study, conducted in laboratory mice, suggests that people exposed to arsenic in their drinking water may be at increased risk for more serious illness or death from the virus.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Courtney\|first1D.\|date2009\|titleLow Dose Arsenic Compromises the Immune Response to Influenza A Infection in vivo\|pages1441–1447\|pmid19750111\|pmc2737023\|issue9\|doi10.1289/ehp.0900911\|volume117\|last2Ely\|first2Kenneth H.\|last3Enelow\|first3Richard I.\|last4Hamilton\|first4Joshua W.\|journalEnvironmental Health Perspectives\|bibcode2009EnvHP.117.1441K }}</ref> Some Canadians are drinking water that contains inorganic arsenic. Private-dug–well waters are most at risk for containing inorganic arsenic. Preliminary well water analysis typically does not test for arsenic. Researchers at the Geological Survey of Canada have modeled relative variation in natural arsenic hazard potential for the province of New Brunswick. This study has important implications for potable water and health concerns relating to inorganic arsenic.<ref name"GSC-2009">{{cite web\|last1Klassen \|first1R. A. \|last2Douma \|first2S. L. \|last3Ford \|first3A. \|last4Rencz \|first4A. \|last5Grunsky \|first5E. \|titleGeoscience modeling of relative variation in natural arsenic hazard in potential in New Brunswick \|urlhttp://geogratis.cgdi.gc.ca/eodata/download/part6/ess_pubs/247/247834/cr_2009_07_gsc.pdf \|date2009 \|publisherGeological Survey of Canada \|access-date2012-10-14 \|url-status dead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130502043721/http://geogratis.cgdi.gc.ca/eodata/download/part6/ess_pubs/247/247834/cr_2009_07_gsc.pdf \|archive-date=2 May 2013 }}</ref> Epidemiological evidence from Chile shows a dose-dependent connection between chronic arsenic exposure and various forms of cancer, in particular when other risk factors, such as cigarette smoking, are present. These effects have been demonstrated at contaminations less than 50&nbsp;ppb.<ref>{{cite journal \|titleArsenic exposure and its impact on health in Chile \|journalJ Health Popul Nutr \|volume24 \|issue2 \|pages164–175 \|date2006 \|pmid17195557\|last1Ferreccio \|first1C. \|last2Sancha \|first2A. M.\|hdl1807/50095 \|hdl-accessfree }}</ref> Arsenic is itself a constituent of tobacco smoke.<ref name"TalhoutSchulz2011">{{cite journal\|last1Talhout\|first1Reinskje\|last2Schulz\|first2Thomas\|last3Florek\|first3Ewa\|last4Van Benthem\|first4Jan\|last5Wester\|first5Piet\|last6Opperhuizen\|first6Antoon\|titleHazardous Compounds in Tobacco Smoke\|journalInternational Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health\|volume8\|issue12\|year2011\|pages613–628\|doi10.3390/ijerph8020613\|pmid21556207\|pmc3084482\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Analyzing multiple epidemiological studies on inorganic arsenic exposure suggests a small but measurable increase in risk for bladder cancer at 10&nbsp;ppb.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Chu\|first1 H. A. \|last2 Crawford-Brown\|first2 D. J. \|titleInorganic arsenic in drinking water and bladder cancer: a meta-analysis for dose-response assessment \|journalInt. J. Environ. Res. Public Health \|volume3 \|issue4 \|pages316–322 \|date2006 \|pmid17159272 \|doi10.3390/ijerph2006030039\|doi-accessfree \|pmc3732405 }}</ref> According to Peter Ravenscroft of the Department of Geography at the University of Cambridge,<ref>{{cite news \|url https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2007-08-30-553404631_x.htm\|title Arsenic in drinking water seen as threat – USATODAY.com\|access-date 2008-01-01 \|workUSA Today\|date=30 August 2007}}</ref> roughly 80&nbsp;million people worldwide consume between 10 and 50&nbsp;ppb arsenic in their drinking water. If they all consumed exactly 10&nbsp;ppb arsenic in their drinking water, the previously cited multiple epidemiological study analysis would predict an additional 2,000 cases of bladder cancer alone. This represents a clear underestimate of the overall impact, since it does not include lung or skin cancer, and explicitly underestimates the exposure. Those exposed to levels of arsenic above the current WHO standard should weigh the costs and benefits of arsenic remediation. <!-- RECENTISM, local university news: Several arsenic kits are available in the market which uses toxic mercury bromide, also required expensive machinery to read the outputs. A new test instrument called whole-cell arsenic bio-sensor, a cheap and non-toxic one, has been designed at the University of Edinburgh.<ref>[http://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/new-test-to-detect-arsenic-contamination-in-drinking-water/ New test to detect arsenic contamination in drinking water – Research – University of Cambridge]. Cam.ac.uk (2012-06-01). Retrieved 2012-06-20.</ref> --> Early (1973) evaluations of the processes for removing dissolved arsenic from drinking water demonstrated the efficacy of co-precipitation with either iron or aluminium oxides. In particular, iron as a coagulant was found to remove arsenic with an efficacy exceeding 90%.<ref>{{cite journal\|titleRemoval of Arsenic (V) from Water by Adsorption on Aluminum and Ferric Hydroxides\|journalJ. Am. Water Works Assoc.\| volume65\| issue8\|pages548–552\|date1973\|last1 Gulledge\| first1 John H.\| last2 O'Connor\|first2 John T.\|doi10.1002/j.1551-8833.1973.tb01893.x\|bibcode1973JAWWA..65h.548G }}</ref><ref>{{cite news\| url http://www.h2oc.com/pdfs/Removal.pdf\| title Arsenic in Drinking Water: 4. Removal Methods\| last1 O'Connor\| first1 J. T.\| last2 O'Connor\| first2 T. L.\|url-status dead\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20100107182531/http://h2oc.com/pdfs/Removal.pdf\| archive-date 7 January 2010}}</ref> Several adsorptive media systems have been approved for use at point-of-service in a study funded by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) and the National Science Foundation (NSF). A team of European and Indian scientists and engineers have set up six arsenic treatment plants in West Bengal based on in-situ remediation method (SAR Technology). This technology does not use any chemicals and arsenic is left in an insoluble form (+5 state) in the subterranean zone by recharging aerated water into the aquifer and developing an oxidation zone that supports arsenic oxidizing micro-organisms. This process does not produce any waste stream or sludge and is relatively cheap.<ref>{{cite web\|url http://www.insituarsenic.org\|title In situ arsenic treatment\|workinsituarsenic.org\|access-date = 2010-05-13 }}</ref> Another effective and inexpensive method to avoid arsenic contamination is to sink wells 500&nbsp;feet or deeper to reach purer waters. A recent 2011 study funded by the US National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences' Superfund Research Program shows that deep sediments can remove arsenic and take it out of circulation. In this process, called adsorption, arsenic sticks to the surfaces of deep sediment particles and is naturally removed from the ground water.<ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.1038/ngeo1283 \|titleArsenic migration to deep groundwater in Bangladesh influenced by adsorption and water demand \|date2011\|last1Radloff\|first1K.A. \|last2Zheng \|first2Y. \|last3Michael \|first3H.A. \|last4Stute \|first4M. \|last5Bostick \|first5B.C. \|last6Mihajlov \|first6I. \|last7Bounds\|first7M. \|last8Huq\|first8M. R. \|last9Choudhury \|first9I.\|first10M. \|last10Rahman\|first11P. \|last11Schlosser \|first12K. \|last12Ahmed \|first13A. \|last13van Geen \|display-authors6 \|journalNature Geoscience \|volume4 \|issue11 \|pages793–798 \|pmid22308168 \|pmc3269239 \|bibcode = 2011NatGe...4..793R}}</ref> Magnetic separations of arsenic at very low magnetic field gradients with high-surface-area and monodisperse magnetite (Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>) nanocrystals have been demonstrated in point-of-use water purification. Using the high specific surface area of Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub> nanocrystals, the mass of waste associated with arsenic removal from water has been dramatically reduced.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1 Yavuz\|first1 Cafer T.\|title Low-field magnetic separation of monodisperse Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub> nanocrystals \|journal Science \|year 2005 \|doi 10.1126/science.1131475 \|volume 314 \|issue 580 1\|pages 964–967 \|pmid 17095696\|last2 Mayo\|first2 J.T. \|last3 Yu \|first3 W.W. \|last4 Prakash \|first4 A. \|last5 Falkner \|first5 J. C.\|last6 Yean\|first6 S.\|last7 Cong \| first7 L. \|last8 Shipley \|first8 H.J. \|last9 Kan \|first9 A. \|first10M. \|last10Tomson \|first11D. \|last11Natelson \|first12V.L. \|last12Colvin \|display-authors6 \|s2cid 23522459}}</ref> Epidemiological studies have suggested a correlation between chronic consumption of drinking water contaminated with arsenic and the incidence of all leading causes of mortality.<ref>{{cite journal \|pmc 1797014 \|last1 Meliker \|first1 J. R. \|last2 Wahl \|first2 R. L. \|last3 Cameron \|first3 L. L. \|last4 Nriagu \|first4 J. O. \|title Arsenic in drinking water and cerebrovascular disease, diabetes mellitus, and kidney disease in Michigan: A standardized mortality ratio analysis \|volume 6 \|page 4 \|doi 10.1186/1476-069X-6-4 \|journal Environmental Health \|year 2007 \|issue 1 \|pmid 17274811 \|bibcode 2007EnvHe...6....4M \|doi-access free }}</ref> The literature indicates that arsenic exposure is causative in the pathogenesis of diabetes.<ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.1289/ehp.00108847 \|titleLong-term arsenic exposure and incidence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: A cohort study in arseniasis-hyperendemic villages in Taiwan \|year2000 \|last1Tseng \|first1Chin-Hsiao \|last2Tai \|first2Tong-Yuan \|last3Chong \|first3Choon-Khim \|last4Tseng \|first4Ching-Ping \|last5Lai \|first5Mei-Shu \|last6Lin \|first6Boniface J. \|last7Chiou \|first7Hung-Yi \|last8Hsueh \|first8Yu-Mei \|last9Hsu \|first9Kuang-Hung \|last10Chen \|first10C. J. \|display-authors6 \|journalEnvironmental Health Perspectives \|volume108 \|issue9 \|pages847–851 \|pmid11017889 \|pmc2556925\|bibcode2000EnvHP.108..847T }}</ref> Chaff-based filters have recently been shown to reduce the arsenic content of water to 3&nbsp;μg/L. This may find applications in areas where the potable water is extracted from underground aquifers.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://mno.hu/gazdasag/szenzacios-magyar-talalmany-1068315 \|titleNewspaper article \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120417212726/http://mno.hu/gazdasag/szenzacios-magyar-talalmany-1068315 \|archive-date17 April 2012 \|langHungarian \|publisherMagyar Nemzet \|date15 April 2012 }}</ref> San Pedro de Atacama For several centuries, the people of San Pedro de Atacama in Chile have been drinking water that is contaminated with arsenic, and some evidence suggests they have developed some immunity.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Goering \|first1P. \|last2Aposhian \|first2H.V. \|last3Mass \|first3M.J. \|last4Cebrián \|first4M. \|last5Beck \|first5B.D. \|last6Waalkes \|first6M.P. \|titleThe enigma of arsenic carcinogenesis: role of metabolism \|journalToxicological Sciences \|dateMay 1999 \|volume49 \|issue1 \|pages5–14 \|doi10.1093/toxsci/49.1.5 \|pmid10367337 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|date1996 \|last1Hopenhayn-Rich \|first1C. \|last2Biggs \|first2M. L. \|last3Smith \|first3Allan H. \|last4Kalman \|first4D. A. \|last5Moore \|first5Lee E. \|titleMethylation study of a population environmentally exposed to arsenic in drinking water \|journalEnvironmental Health Perspectives \|volume104 \|issue6 \|pages620–628 \|doi10.1289/ehp.96104620 \|pmid8793350 \|pmc1469390 \|bibcode1996EnvHP.104..620H }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Smith \|first1A.H. \|last2Arroyo \|first2A.P. \|last3Mazumder \|first3D.N. \|last4Kosnett \|first4M.J. \|last5Hernandez \|first5A L \|last6Beeris \|first6M. \|last7Smith \|first7M.M. \|last8Moore \|first8L.E. \|display-authors6 \|titleArsenic-induced skin lesions among Atacameño people in Northern Chile despite good nutrition and centuries of exposure. \|journalEnvironmental Health Perspectives \|dateJuly 2000 \|volume108 \|issue7 \|pages617–620 \|doi10.1289/ehp.00108617 \|pmid10903614 \|pmc1638201 \|bibcode2000EnvHP.108..617S }}</ref> Hazard maps for contaminated groundwater Around one-third of the world's population drinks water from groundwater resources. Of this, about 10 percent, approximately 300&nbsp;million people, obtains water from groundwater resources that are contaminated with unhealthy levels of arsenic or fluoride.<ref>Eawag (2015) Geogenic Contamination Handbook – Addressing Arsenic and Fluoride in Drinking Water. C.A. Johnson, A. Bretzler (Eds.), Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), Duebendorf, Switzerland. (download: www.eawag.ch/en/research/humanwelfare/drinkingwater/wrq/geogenic-contamination-handbook/)</ref> These trace elements derive mainly from minerals and ions in the ground.<ref>{{cite journal \| last1Amini \|first1M.\|last2Abbaspour \|first2K.C. \|last3Berg \|first3M. \|last4Winkel \|first4L. \|last5Hug \|first5S.J. \|last6Hoehn \|first6E. \|last7Yang \|first7H. \|last8Johnson \|first8C.A. \|display-authors6 \| year 2008 \| title Statistical modeling of global geogenic arsenic contamination in groundwater \| journal Environmental Science and Technology \| volume 42 \| issue 10\| pages 3669–3675 \| doi 10.1021/es702859e \| pmid 18546706 \| bibcode 2008EnST...42.3669A \| doi-access free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Winkel \|first1Lenny \|last2Berg \|first2Michael \|last3Amini \|first3Manouchehr \|last4Hug \|first4Stephan J. \|last5Annette Johnson \|first5C. \|titlePredicting groundwater arsenic contamination in Southeast Asia from surface parameters \|journalNature Geoscience \|dateAugust 2008 \|volume1 \|issue8 \|pages536–542 \|doi10.1038/ngeo254 \|bibcode2008NatGe...1..536W }}</ref> Redox transformation of arsenic in natural waters Arsenic is unique among the trace metalloids and oxyanion-forming trace metals (e.g. As, Se, Sb, Mo, V, Cr, U, Re). It is sensitive to mobilization at pH values typical of natural waters (pH 6.5–8.5) under both oxidizing and reducing conditions. Arsenic can occur in the environment in several oxidation states (−3, 0, +3 and +5), but in natural waters it is mostly found in inorganic forms as oxyanions of trivalent arsenite [As(III)] or pentavalent arsenate [As(V)]. Organic forms of arsenic are produced by biological activity, mostly in surface waters, but are rarely quantitatively important. Organic arsenic compounds may, however, occur where waters are significantly impacted by industrial pollution.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Smedley \|first1P.L \|last2Kinniburgh \|first2D.G \|titleA review of the source, behaviour and distribution of arsenic in natural waters \|journalApplied Geochemistry \|dateMay 2002 \|volume17 \|issue5 \|pages517–568 \|doi10.1016/S0883-2927(02)00018-5 \|bibcode2002ApGC...17..517S \|urlhttp://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/12311/1/Abstract.pdf }}</ref> Arsenic may be solubilized by various processes. When pH is high, arsenic may be released from surface binding sites that lose their positive charge. When water level drops and sulfide minerals are exposed to air, arsenic trapped in sulfide minerals can be released into water. When organic carbon is present in water, bacteria are fed by directly reducing As(V) to As(III) or by reducing the element at the binding site, releasing inorganic arsenic.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110308104034/http://www.civil.umaine.edu/macrae/arsenic_gw.htm How Does Arsenic Get into the Groundwater]. Civil and Environmental Engineering. University of Maine</ref> The aquatic transformations of arsenic are affected by pH, reduction-oxidation potential, organic matter concentration and the concentrations and forms of other elements, especially iron and manganese. The main factors are pH and the redox potential. Generally, the main forms of arsenic under oxic conditions are {{chem2\|H3AsO4}}, {{chem2\|H2AsO4-}}, {{chem2\|HAsO4(2-)}}, and {{chem2\|AsO4(3-)}} at pH 2, 2–7, 7–11 and 11, respectively. Under reducing conditions, {{chem2\|H3AsO4}} is predominant at pH 2–9. Oxidation and reduction affects the migration of arsenic in subsurface environments. Arsenite is the most stable soluble form of arsenic in reducing environments and arsenate, which is less mobile than arsenite, is dominant in oxidizing environments at neutral pH. Therefore, arsenic may be more mobile under reducing conditions. The reducing environment is also rich in organic matter which may enhance the solubility of arsenic compounds. As a result, the adsorption of arsenic is reduced and dissolved arsenic accumulates in groundwater. That is why the arsenic content is higher in reducing environments than in oxidizing environments.<ref>Zeng Zhaohua, Zhang Zhiliang (2002). "The formation of As element in groundwater and the controlling factor". Shanghai Geology 87 (3): 11–15.</ref> The presence of sulfur is another factor that affects the transformation of arsenic in natural water. Arsenic can precipitate when metal sulfides form. In this way, arsenic is removed from the water and its mobility decreases. When oxygen is present, bacteria oxidize reduced sulfur to generate energy, potentially releasing bound arsenic. Redox reactions involving Fe also appear to be essential factors in the fate of arsenic in aquatic systems. The reduction of iron oxyhydroxides plays a key role in the release of arsenic to water. So arsenic can be enriched in water with elevated Fe concentrations.<ref>{{cite journal \|titleRedox control of arsenic mobilization in Bangladesh groundwater \|doi10.1016/j.apgeochem.2003.09.007 \|volume19 \|issue2 \|journalApplied Geochemistry\|pages201–214\|bibcode2004ApGC...19..201Z \|year2004 \|last1Zheng \|first1Y. \|last2Stute \|first2M. \|last3van Geen \|first3A. \|last4Gavrieli \|first4I. \|last5Dhar \|first5R. \|last6Simpson \|first6H.J. \|last7Schlosser \|first7P. \|last8Ahmed \|first8K.M. \|display-authors=6 }}</ref> Under oxidizing conditions, arsenic can be mobilized from pyrite or iron oxides especially at elevated pH. Under reducing conditions, arsenic can be mobilized by reductive desorption or dissolution when associated with iron oxides. The reductive desorption occurs under two circumstances. One is when arsenate is reduced to arsenite which adsorbs to iron oxides less strongly. The other results from a change in the charge on the mineral surface which leads to the desorption of bound arsenic.<ref>Thomas, Mary Ann (2007). [http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2007/5036/pdf/sir20075036_web.pdf "The Association of Arsenic With Redox Conditions, Depth, and Ground-Water Age in the Glacial Aquifer System of the Northern United States"]. U.S. Geological Survey, Virginia. pp. 1–18.</ref> Some species of bacteria catalyze redox transformations of arsenic. Dissimilatory arsenate-respiring prokaryotes (DARP) speed up the reduction of As(V) to As(III). DARP use As(V) as the electron acceptor of anaerobic respiration and obtain energy to survive. Other organic and inorganic substances can be oxidized in this process. Chemoautotrophic arsenite oxidizers (CAO) and heterotrophic arsenite oxidizers (HAO) convert As(III) into As(V). CAO combine the oxidation of As(III) with the reduction of oxygen or nitrate. They use obtained energy to fix produce organic carbon from CO<sub>2</sub>. HAO cannot obtain energy from As(III) oxidation. This process may be an arsenic detoxification mechanism for the bacteria.<ref>{{cite journal\|authorBin, Hong \|year2006\|titleInfluence of microbes on biogeochemistry of arsenic mechanism of arsenic mobilization in groundwater\|journal Advances in Earth Science \|volume21 \|issue1\|pages77–82\|urlhttp://www.adearth.ac.cn/EN/abstract/abstract3466.shtml}}</ref> Equilibrium thermodynamic calculations predict that As(V) concentrations should be greater than As(III) concentrations in all but strongly reducing conditions, i.e. where sulfate reduction is occurring. However, abiotic redox reactions of arsenic are slow. Oxidation of As(III) by dissolved O<sub>2</sub> is a particularly slow reaction. For example, Johnson and Pilson (1975) gave half-lives for the oxygenation of As(III) in seawater ranging from several months to a year.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi10.1080/00139307509437429\|pmid236901 \|titleThe oxidation of arsenite in seawater \|volume8 \|issue2 \|journalEnvironmental Letters\|pages157–171\|year1975 \|last1Johnson \|first1D. L. \|last2Pilson \|first2M. E. Q. }}</ref> In other studies, As(V)/As(III) ratios were stable over periods of days or weeks during water sampling when no particular care was taken to prevent oxidation, again suggesting relatively slow oxidation rates. Cherry found from experimental studies that the As(V)/As(III) ratios were stable in anoxic solutions for up to 3 weeks but that gradual changes occurred over longer timescales.<ref>{{cite book\|authorCherry, J. A.\|titleContemporary Hydrogeology – the George Burke Maxey Memorial Volume\|chapterArsenic species as an indicator of redox conditions in groundwater\|doi10.1016/S0167-5648(09)70027-9 \|volume12\|pages373–392\|seriesDevelopments in Water Science\|year1979\|isbn978-0-444-41848-7}}</ref> Sterile water samples have been observed to be less susceptible to speciation changes than non-sterile samples.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi10.1021/cr00094a002 \|titleArsenic speciation in the environment \|volume89 \|issue4 \|journalChemical Reviews \|pages713–764\|year1989 \|last1Cullen \|first1William R \|last2Reimer \|first2Kenneth J \|hdl10214/2162 \|hdl-accessfree }}</ref> Oremland found that the reduction of As(V) to As(III) in Mono Lake was rapidly catalyzed by bacteria with rate constants ranging from 0.02 to 0.3-day<sup>−1</sup>.<ref>{{cite journal\|author1-linkRonald Oremland\|authorOremland, Ronald S.\|titleBacterial dissimilatory reduction of arsenate and sulfate in meromictic Mono Lake, California\|doi10.1016/S0016-7037(00)00422-1 \|bibcode2000GeCoA..64.3073O\|volume64\|issue18\|journalGeochimica et Cosmochimica Acta\|pages3073–3084\|year2000\|urlhttps://zenodo.org/record/1259591}}</ref> Wood preservation in the US As of 2002, US-based industries consumed 19,600 metric tons of arsenic. Ninety percent of this was used for treatment of wood with chromated copper arsenate (CCA). In 2007, 50% of the 5,280 metric tons of consumption was still used for this purpose.<ref name"USGSYB2007">{{cite web\|url http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/arsenic/myb1-2007-arsen.pdf\|first William E.\|last Brooks\|publisher United States Geological Survey\|access-date 2008-11-08 \|title Minerals Yearbook 2007: Arsenic\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081217031509/http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/arsenic/myb1-2007-arsen.pdf\| archive-date 17 December 2008\|url-status live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|url http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/arsenic/160302.pdf\|first Robert G. Jr.\|last Reese\|publisher United States Geological Survey\|access-date 2008-11-08 \|title Commodity Summaries 2002: Arsenic\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20081217031513/http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/arsenic/160302.pdf\| archive-date17 December 2008\|url-status live}}</ref> In the United States, the voluntary phasing-out of arsenic in production of consumer products and residential and general consumer construction products began on 31 December 2003, and alternative chemicals are now used, such as Alkaline Copper Quaternary, borates, copper azole, cyproconazole, and propiconazole.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.epa.gov/ingredients-used-pesticide-products/chromated-arsenicals-cca\|titleChromated Copper Arsenate (CCA)\|publisherUS Environmental Protection Agency\|access-date 2018-10-15 \|date=16 January 2014}}</ref> Although discontinued, this application is also one of the most concerning to the general public. The vast majority of older pressure-treated wood was treated with CCA. CCA lumber is still in widespread use in many countries, and was heavily used during the latter half of the 20th century as a structural and outdoor building material. Although the use of CCA lumber was banned in many areas after studies showed that arsenic could leach out of the wood into the surrounding soil (from playground equipment, for instance), a risk is also presented by the burning of older CCA timber. The direct or indirect ingestion of wood ash from burnt CCA lumber has caused fatalities in animals and serious poisonings in humans; the lethal human dose is approximately 20&nbsp;grams of ash.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.softwoods.com.au/blog/cca-treated-pine-safe/\|titleIs CCA treated pine Safe? \|websitewww.softwoods.com.au\|date26 October 2010\|languageen-AU\|access-date2017-02-24}}</ref> Scrap CCA lumber from construction and demolition sites may be inadvertently used in commercial and domestic fires. Protocols for safe disposal of CCA lumber are not consistent throughout the world. Widespread landfill disposal of such timber raises some concern,<ref>{{Cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3l_LBQAAQBAJ\|titleEnvironmental Impacts of Treated Wood\|last1Townsend\|first1Timothy G.\|last2Solo-Gabriele\|first2Helena\|year2006\|publisherCRC Press\|isbn978-1-4200-0621-6}}</ref> but other studies have shown no arsenic contamination in the groundwater.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Saxe\|first1Jennifer K.\|last2Wannamaker\|first2Eric J.\|last3Conklin\|first3Scott W.\|last4Shupe\|first4Todd F.\|last5Beck\|first5Barbara D.\|date2007-01-01\|titleEvaluating landfill disposal of chromated copper arsenate (CCA) treated wood and potential effects on groundwater: evidence from Florida\|journalChemosphere\|volume66\|issue3\|pages496–504\|doi10.1016/j.chemosphere.2006.05.063\|pmid16870233\|bibcode2007Chmsp..66..496S}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.woodpreservativescience.org/disposal.shtml\|titleCCA Treated Wood Disposal {{!}} Wood Preservative Science Council {{!}} Objective, Sound, Scientific Analysis of CCA\|lastBuildingOnline\|websitewww.woodpreservativescience.org\|access-date2016-06-16}}</ref> Mapping of industrial releases in the US One tool that maps the location (and other information) of arsenic releases in the United States is TOXMAP.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://toxmap.nlm.nih.gov/toxmap/tri/mapIt.do?chemicalNamearsenic \|titleTRI Releases Map \|publisherToxmap.nlm.nih.gov \|access-date2010-03-23 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100320154547/http://toxmap.nlm.nih.gov/toxmap/tri/mapIt.do?chemicalNamearsenic \|archive-date20 March 2010 \|url-status dead}}</ref> TOXMAP is a Geographic Information System (GIS) from the Division of Specialized Information Services of the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM) funded by the US Federal Government. With marked-up maps of the United States, TOXMAP enables users to visually explore data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Toxics Release Inventory and Superfund Basic Research Programs. TOXMAP's chemical and environmental health information is taken from NLM's Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET),<ref>[http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/ TOXNET – Databases on toxicology, hazardous chemicals, environmental health, and toxic releases]. Toxnet.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2011-10-24.</ref> PubMed, and from other authoritative sources. Bioremediation Physical, chemical, and biological methods have been used to remediate arsenic contaminated water.<ref name"JEM-2012">{{cite journal \|last1Jain \|first1C. K. \|last2Singh \|first2R. D. \|titleTechnological options for the removal of arsenic with special reference to South East Asia \|doi10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.04.016 \|date2012 \|journalJournal of Environmental Management \|volume107 \|pages1–8 \|pmid22579769\|bibcode2012JEnvM.107....1J \|urlhttps://zenodo.org/record/1259107 }}</ref> Bioremediation is said to be cost-effective and environmentally friendly.<ref>{{cite journal \|doi 10.1007/s11270-013-1722-y \|title Bioremediation of arsenic-contaminated water: recent advances and future prospects \|date 2013 \|last1 Goering \|first1 P. \|journal Water, Air, & Soil Pollution \|volume 224 \|issue 12 \|page1722\| bibcode 2013WASP..224.1722B \|s2cid 97563539 }}</ref> Bioremediation of ground water contaminated with arsenic aims to convert arsenite, the toxic form of arsenic to humans, to arsenate. Arsenate (+5 oxidation state) is the dominant form of arsenic in surface water, while arsenite (+3 oxidation state) is the dominant form in hypoxic to anoxic environments. Arsenite is more soluble and mobile than arsenate. Many species of bacteria can transform arsenite to arsenate in anoxic conditions by using arsenite as an electron donor.<ref>{{cite journal \|doi 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.10.014\| pmid 25464303 \|title Anaerobic arsenite oxidation with an electrode serving as the sole electron acceptor: A novel approach to the bioremediation of arsenic-polluted groundwater. \|date 2015 \|last1 Goering \|first1 P. \|journal Journal of Hazardous Materials \|volume 283 \|pages 617–622\| bibcode 2015JHzM..283..617P \| hdl = 10256/11522 }}</ref> This is a useful method in ground water remediation. Another bioremediation strategy is to use plants that accumulate arsenic in their tissues via phytoremediation but the disposal of contaminated plant material needs to be considered. Bioremediation requires careful evaluation and design in accordance with existing conditions. Some sites may require the addition of an electron acceptor while others require microbe supplementation (bioaugmentation). Regardless of the method used, only constant monitoring can prevent future contamination. Arsenic removal Coagulation and flocculation are closely related processes common in arsenate removal from water. Due to the net negative charge carried by arsenate ions, they settle slowly or not at all due to charge repulsion. In coagulation, a positively charged coagulent such as iron and aluminum (commonly used salts: FeCl<sub>3</sub>,<ref name"Bina 2013 17">{{cite journal \|last1Hesami \|first1Farid \|last2Bina \|first2Bijan \|last3Ebrahimi \|first3Afshin \|last4Amin \|first4MohammadMehdi \|titleArsenic removal by coagulation using ferric chloride and chitosan from water \|journalInternational Journal of Environmental Health Engineering \|date2013 \|volume2 \|issue1 \|pages17 \|doi10.4103/2277-9183.110170 \|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Fe<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub>,<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Sun \|first1Yuankui \|last2Zhou \|first2Gongming \|last3Xiong \|first3Xinmei \|last4Guan \|first4Xiaohong \|last5Li \|first5Lina \|last6Bao \|first6Hongliang \|titleEnhanced arsenite removal from water by Ti(SO4)2 coagulation \|journalWater Research \|dateSeptember 2013 \|volume47 \|issue13 \|pages4340–4348 \|doi10.1016/j.watres.2013.05.028 \|pmid23764585 \|bibcode2013WatRe..47.4340S }}</ref> Al<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Hering \|first1Janet G. \|last2Chen \|first2Pen-Yuan \|last3Wilkie \|first3Jennifer A. \|last4Elimelech \|first4Menachem \|titleArsenic Removal from Drinking Water during Coagulation \|journalJournal of Environmental Engineering \|dateAugust 1997 \|volume123 \|issue8 \|pages800–807 \|doi10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(1997)123:8(800) }}</ref>) neutralize the negatively charged arsenate, enable it to settle. Flocculation follows where a flocculant bridges smaller particles and allows the aggregate to precipitate out from water. However, such methods may not be efficient on arsenite as As(III) exists in uncharged arsenious acid, H<sub>3</sub>AsO<sub>3</sub>, at near-neutral pH.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Ng \|first1Wenfa \|titleInability to Completely Remove Trace Contaminants from Drinking Water by Adsorption \|journalJournal of Environmental Science and Public Health \|date9 March 2022 \|volume6 \|issue1 \|pages129–134 \|urlhttps://fortuneonline.org/articles/inability-to-completely-remove-trace-contaminants-from-drinking-water-by-adsorption.html }}</ref> The major drawbacks of coagulation and flocculation are the costly disposal of arsenate-concentrated sludge, and possible secondary contamination of environment. Moreover, coagulents such as iron may produce ion contamination that exceeds safety levels.<ref name"Bina 2013 17"/> Toxicity and precautions {{Main\|Arsenic poisoning}} {{Chembox \|container_only = yes \|Section7={{Chembox Hazards \| ExternalSDS \| GHSPictograms {{GHS05}} {{GHS06}} {{GHS08}} {{GHS09}} \| GHSSignalWord = Danger \| HPhrases = {{H-phrases\|H301+H331\|H315\|H318\|H350\|H410}} \| PPhrases = {{PPhrases\|P273\|P280\|P301 + P310\|P302 + P352\|P304 + P340 + P311\|P305 + P351 + P338}} \| GHS_ref <ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/aldrich/202657?langen&regionUS\| publisherSigma Aldrich \|titleArsenic \|date\|access-date2021-12-21}}</ref> \| NFPA-H = 3 \| NFPA-F = 2 \| NFPA-R = 0 \| NFPA-S \| NFPA_ref<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.osha.gov/chemicaldata/528 \|titleArsenic, inorganic compounds (as As) \|access-dateApril 1, 2025 \|websiteOccupational Safety and Health Administration \|date=April 3, 2024 }}</ref>}} }} Arsenic and many of its compounds are especially potent poisons (e.g. arsine). Small amount of arsenic can be detected by pharmacopoial methods which includes reduction of arsenic to arsenious with help of zinc and can be confirmed with mercuric chloride paper.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleGENERAL TESTS, PROCESSES AND APPARATUS \|urlhttps://www.pmda.go.jp/files/000217651.pdf\|access-date11 October 2022 \|websitepmda.go.jp}}</ref> Classification Elemental arsenic and arsenic sulfate and trioxide compounds are classified as "toxic" and "dangerous for the environment" in the European Union under directive 67/548/EEC. <!-- INDEX 033-001-00-X (arsenic) R23/25-50/53; S1/2-20/21-28-45-60-61 --> <!-- INDEX 033-002-00-5 (other compounds) pareil -->The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) recognizes arsenic and inorganic arsenic compounds as group 1 carcinogens, and the EU lists arsenic trioxide, arsenic pentoxide, and arsenate salts as category 1 carcinogens. Arsenic is known to cause arsenicosis when present in drinking water, "the most common species being arsenate [{{chem2\|HAsO4(2-)}}; As(V)] and arsenite [{{chem2\|H3AsO3}}; As(III)]". Legal limits, food, and drink In the United States since 2006, the maximum concentration in drinking water allowed by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is 10&nbsp;ppb<ref>[http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/rulesregs/sdwa/arsenic/regulations.cfm Arsenic Rule]. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Adopted 22 January 2001; effective 23 January 2006.</ref> and the FDA set the same standard in 2005 for bottled water.<ref name"fda_metals">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/GuidanceDocumentsRegulatoryInformation/ChemicalContaminantsMetalsNaturalToxinsPesticides/ucm360023.htm \|titleSupporting Document for Action Level for Arsenic in Apple Juice \|publisherFda.gov \|access-date2013-08-21 }}</ref> The Department of Environmental Protection for New Jersey set a drinking water limit of 5&nbsp;ppb in 2006.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.state.nj.us/dep/dsr/arsenic/guide.htm \|titleA Homeowner's Guide to Arsenic in Drinking Water \|publisherNew Jersey Department of Environmental Protection \|access-date2013-08-21 }}</ref> The IDLH (immediately dangerous to life and health) value for arsenic metal and inorganic arsenic compounds is 5&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> (5&nbsp;ppb). The Occupational Safety and Health Administration has set the permissible exposure limit (PEL) to a time-weighted average (TWA) of 0.01&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> (0.01&nbsp;ppb), and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set the recommended exposure limit (REL) to a 15-minute constant exposure of 0.002&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> (0.002&nbsp;ppb).<ref name"PGCH">{{PGCH\|0038}}</ref> The PEL for organic arsenic compounds is a TWA of 0.5&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup>.<ref>{{PGCH\|0039}}</ref> (0.5&nbsp;ppb). In 2008, based on its ongoing testing of a wide variety of American foods for toxic chemicals,<ref>[https://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodScienceResearch/TotalDietStudy/default.htm Total Diet Study] and [https://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodborneIllnessContaminants/ChemicalContaminants/ucm2006907.htm Toxic Elements Program]</ref> the U.S. Food and Drug Administration set the "level of concern" for inorganic arsenic in apple and pear juices at 23&nbsp;ppb, based on non-carcinogenic effects, and began blocking importation of products in excess of this level; it also required recalls for non-conforming domestic products.<ref name"fda_metals" /> In 2011, the national Dr. Oz television show broadcast a program highlighting tests performed by an independent lab hired by the producers. Though the methodology was disputed (it did not distinguish between organic and inorganic arsenic) the tests showed levels of arsenic up to 36&nbsp;ppb.<ref>{{cite news\|authorKotz, Deborah \|urlhttp://www.boston.com/community/moms/articles/2011/09/14/does_apple_juice_have_unsafe_levels_of_arsenic/ \|titleDoes apple juice have unsafe levels of arsenic? – The Boston Globe \|newspaperBoston.com \|date14 September 2011 \|access-date2013-08-21 }}</ref> In response, the FDA tested the worst brand from the Dr. Oz show and found much lower levels. Ongoing testing found 95% of the apple juice samples were below the level of concern. Later testing by Consumer Reports showed inorganic arsenic at levels slightly above 10&nbsp;ppb, and the organization urged parents to reduce consumption.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://consumerist.com/2011/11/30/consumer-reports-study-finds-high-levels-of-arsenic-lead-in-apple-juice/\|titleConsumer Reports Study Finds High Levels of Arsenic & Lead in Some Fruit Juice\|authorMorran, Chris \|date30 November 2011\|publisherconsumerist.com }}</ref> In July 2013, on consideration of consumption by children, chronic exposure, and carcinogenic effect, the FDA established an "action level" of 10&nbsp;ppb for apple juice, the same as the drinking water standard.<ref name="fda_metals" /> Concern about arsenic in rice in Bangladesh was raised in 2002, but at the time only Australia had a legal limit for food (one milligram per kilogram, or 1000 ppb).<ref>{{cite journal\|urlhttp://www.nature.com/news/2002/021122/full/news021118-11.html \|title Arsenic contamination of Bangladeshi paddy field soils: Implications for rice contribution to arsenic consumption\|journalNature \|date22 November 2002 \|doi10.1038/news021118-11 \|access-date2013-08-21 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine\|urlhttps://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3141-tainted-wells-pour-arsenic-onto-food-crops.html#.UhPasx-37Vs \|titleTainted wells pour arsenic onto food crops \|magazineNew Scientist \|date6 December 2002 \|access-date2013-08-21 }}</ref> Concern was raised about people who were eating U.S. rice exceeding WHO standards for personal arsenic intake in 2005.<ref>{{cite journal\|authorPeplow, Mark \|doi10.1038/news050801-5 \|titleUS rice may carry an arsenic burden \|journalNature News\|date2 August 2005 }}</ref> In 2011, the People's Republic of China set a food standard of 150&nbsp;ppb for arsenic.<ref>{{cite web \|url http://medicalxpress.com/news/2011-12-rice-source-arsenic-exposure.html \|title Rice as a source of arsenic exposure}}</ref> In the United States in 2012, testing by separate groups of researchers at the Children's Environmental Health and Disease Prevention Research Center at Dartmouth College (early in the year, focusing on urinary levels in children)<ref>{{Cite journal\|doi10.1289/ehp.1205014\|titleRice Consumption and Urinary Arsenic Concentrations in U.S. Children\|year2012\|last1Davis\|first1Matthew A.\|last2MacKenzie\|first2Todd A.\|last3Cottingham\|first3Kathryn L.\|last4Gilbert-Diamond\|first4Diane\|last5Punshon\|first5Tracy\|last6Karagas\|first6Margaret R.\|journalEnvironmental Health Perspectives\|volume120\|issue10\|pages1418–1424\|pmid23008276\|pmc3491944\|bibcode2012EnvHP.120.1418D }}</ref> and Consumer Reports (in November)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.npr.org/2012/03/02/147781035/high-levels-of-arsenic-found-in-rice \|titleHigh Levels of Arsenic Found in Rice \|websiteNPR.org \|date2 March 2012 \|access-date2013-08-21 }}</ref><ref name"cr_rice">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.consumerreports.org/cro/magazine/2012/11/arsenic-in-your-food/index.htm \|titleArsenic in Your Food {{pipe}} Consumer Reports Investigation \|workConsumer Reports \|date1 November 2012 \|access-date2013-08-21 }}</ref> found levels of arsenic in rice that resulted in calls for the FDA to set limits.<ref name"foodsafetynews">[http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2012/02/lawmakers-urge-fda-to-act-on-arsenic-standards/ Lawmakers Urge FDA to Act on Arsenic Standards]. Foodsafetynews.com (24 February 2012). Retrieved 2012-05-23.</ref> The FDA released some testing results in September 2012,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.fda.gov/forconsumers/consumerupdates/ucm319827.htm \|titleFDA Looks for Answers on Arsenic in Rice \|publisherFda.gov \|date19 September 2012 \|access-date2013-08-21 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodborneIllnessContaminants/Metals/ucm319870.htm \|titleArsenic in Rice \|publisherFda.gov \|access-date2013-08-21 }}</ref> and as of July 2013, is still collecting data in support of a new potential regulation. It has not recommended any changes in consumer behavior.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodborneIllnessContaminants/Metals/ucm319948.htm \|titleQuestions & Answers: FDA's Analysis of Arsenic in Rice and Rice Products \|publisherFda.gov \|date21 March 2013 \|access-date2013-08-21 }}</ref> Consumer Reports recommended: # That the EPA and FDA eliminate arsenic-containing fertilizer, drugs, and pesticides in food production; # That the FDA establish a legal limit for food; # That industry change production practices to lower arsenic levels, especially in food for children; and # That consumers test home water supplies, eat a varied diet, and cook rice with excess water, then draining it off (reducing inorganic arsenic by about one third along with a slight reduction in vitamin content).<ref name="cr_rice" /> # Evidence-based public health advocates also recommend that, given the lack of regulation or labeling for arsenic in the U.S., children should eat no more than 1.5 servings per week of rice and should not drink rice milk as part of their daily diet before age 5.<ref name"berkeleywellness">{{cite web\|titleArsenic in Rice: What You Need to Know\|urlhttp://www.berkeleywellness.com/healthy-eating/food-safety/article/arsenic-rice-should-you-worry\|websiteUC Berkeley Wellness\|access-date3 September 2014}}</ref> They also offer recommendations for adults and infants on how to limit arsenic exposure from rice, drinking water, and fruit juice.<ref name"berkeleywellness" /> A 2014 World Health Organization advisory conference was scheduled to consider limits of 200–300&nbsp;ppb for rice.<ref name"cr_rice" />Reducing arsenic content in riceIn 2020, scientists assessed multiple preparation procedures of rice for their capacity to reduce arsenic content and preserve nutrients, recommending a procedure involving parboiling and water-absorption.<ref>{{cite news \|titleNew way of cooking rice removes arsenic and retains mineral nutrients, study shows \|urlhttps://phys.org/news/2020-11-cooking-rice-arsenic-retains-mineral.html \|access-date10 November 2020 \|workphys.org \|languageen}}</ref><ref name"cookingmethod">{{cite journal \|titleImproved rice cooking approach to maximise arsenic removal while preserving nutrient elements \|journalScience of the Total Environment \|date29 October 2020 \|pages143341 \|doi10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143341 \|last1Menon \|first1Manoj \|last2Dong \|first2Wanrong \|last3Chen \|first3Xumin \|last4Hufton \|first4Joseph \|last5Rhodes \|first5Edward J. \|volume755 \|issuePt 2 \|pmid33153748 \|doi-accessfree }}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|titleHow much arsenic is in your rice? Consumer Reports' new data and guidelines are important for everyone but especially for gluten avoiders \|urlhttps://www.consumerreports.org/cro/magazine/2015/01/how-much-arsenic-is-in-your-rice/index.htm \|access-date15 February 2022 \|workconsumerreports.org}}</ref> Occupational exposure limits {\| class="wikitable" !Country !Limit<ref>{{Cite web\|url https://www.cdc.gov/niosh-rtecs/CG802C8.html\|title Arsenic\|website RTECS\|date 28 March 2018\|publisher = National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)}}</ref> \|- \|Argentina \|Confirmed human carcinogen \|- \|Australia \|TWA 0.05&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> – Carcinogen \|- \|Belgium \|TWA 0.1&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> – Carcinogen \|- \|Bulgaria \|Confirmed human carcinogen \|- \|Canada \|TWA 0.01&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> \|- \|Colombia \|Confirmed human carcinogen \|- \|Denmark \|TWA 0.01&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> \|- \|Finland \|Carcinogen \|- \|Egypt \|TWA 0.2&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> \|- \|Hungary \|Ceiling concentration 0.01&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> – Skin, carcinogen \|- \|India \|TWA 0.2&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> \|- \|Japan \|Group 1 carcinogen \|- \|Jordan \|Confirmed human carcinogen \|- \|Mexico \|TWA 0.2&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> \|- \|New Zealand \|TWA 0.05&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> – Carcinogen \|- \|Norway \|TWA 0.02&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> \|- \|Philippines \|TWA 0.5&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> \|- \|Poland \|TWA 0.01&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> \|- \|Singapore \|Confirmed human carcinogen \|- \|South Korea \|TWA 0.01&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup><ref>[http://www.kosha.or.kr/content/safetyinfo/안전보건기술지침_제정현황1.xls Korea Occupational Safety & Health Agency] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170123114742/http://www.kosha.or.kr/content/safetyinfo/%EC%95%88%EC%A0%84%EB%B3%B4%EA%B1%B4%EA%B8%B0%EC%88%A0%EC%A7%80%EC%B9%A8_%EC%A0%9C%EC%A0%95%ED%98%84%ED%99%A91.xls \|date23 January 2017 }}. kosha.or.kr</ref> \|- \|Sweden \|TWA 0.01&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> \|- \|Thailand \|TWA 0.5&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> \|- \|Turkey \|TWA 0.5&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> \|- \|United Kingdom \|TWA 0.1&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> \|- \|United States \|TWA 0.01&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> \|- \|Vietnam \|Confirmed human carcinogen \|} Ecotoxicity Arsenic is bioaccumulative in many organisms, marine species in particular, but it does not appear to biomagnify significantly in food webs.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Gaion \|first1Andrea \|last2Sartori \|first2Davide \|last3Scuderi \|first3Alice \|last4Fattorini \|first4Daniele \|titleBioaccumulation and biotransformation of arsenic compounds in Hediste diversicolor (Muller 1776) after exposure to spiked sediments \|journalEnvironmental Science and Pollution Research \|dateMay 2014 \|volume21 \|issue9 \|pages5952–5959 \|doi10.1007/s11356-014-2538-z \|pmid24458939 \|bibcode2014ESPR...21.5952G \|s2cid12568097 }}</ref> In polluted areas, plant growth may be affected by root uptake of arsenate, which is a phosphate analog and therefore readily transported in plant tissues and cells. In polluted areas, uptake of the more toxic arsenite ion (found more particularly in reducing conditions) is likely in poorly-drained soils. Toxicity in animals {\| class="wikitable" !Compound !Animal !LD<sub>50</sub> !Route \|- \|Arsenic \|Rat \|763&nbsp;mg/kg \|oral \|- \|Arsenic \|Mouse \|145&nbsp;mg/kg \|oral \|- \|Calcium arsenate \|Rat \|20&nbsp;mg/kg \|oral \|- \|Calcium arsenate \|Mouse \|794&nbsp;mg/kg \|oral \|- \|Calcium arsenate \|Rabbit \|50&nbsp;mg/kg \|oral \|- \|Calcium arsenate \|Dog \|38&nbsp;mg/kg \|oral \|- \|Lead arsenate \|Rabbit \|75&nbsp;mg/kg \|oral \|} {\| class="wikitable" !Compound !Animal !LD<sub>50</sub><ref name="Hughes" /> !Route \|- \|Arsenic trioxide (As(III)) \|Mouse \|26&nbsp;mg/kg \|oral \|- \|Arsenite (As(III)) \|Mouse \|8&nbsp;mg/kg \|im \|- \|Arsenate (As(V)) \|Mouse \|21&nbsp;mg/kg \|im \|- \|MMA (As(III)) \|Hamster \|2&nbsp;mg/kg \|ip \|- \|MMA (As(V)) \|Mouse \|916&nbsp;mg/kg \|oral \|- \|DMA (As(V)) \|Mouse \|648&nbsp;mg/kg \|oral \|- \| colspan"4" \|im injected intramuscularly ip = administered intraperitoneally \|} Biological mechanism Arsenic's toxicity comes from the affinity of arsenic(III) oxides for thiols. Thiols, in the form of cysteine residues and cofactors such as lipoic acid and coenzyme A, are situated at the active sites of many important enzymes.<ref name="Ullmann" /> Arsenic disrupts ATP production through several mechanisms. At the level of the citric acid cycle, arsenic inhibits lipoic acid, which is a cofactor for pyruvate dehydrogenase. By competing with phosphate, arsenate uncouples oxidative phosphorylation, thus inhibiting energy-linked reduction of NAD+, mitochondrial respiration and ATP synthesis. Hydrogen peroxide production is also increased, which, it is speculated, has potential to form reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress. These metabolic interferences lead to death from multi-system organ failure. The organ failure is presumed to be from necrotic cell death, not apoptosis, since energy reserves have been too depleted for apoptosis to occur.<ref name"Hughes">{{cite journal \|doi 10.1016/S0378-4274(02)00084-X \|title Arsenic toxicity and potential mechanisms of action \|date 2002 \|last1 Hughes \|first1 Michael F. \|journal Toxicology Letters \|volume 133 \|pages 1–16 \|pmid 12076506 \|issue 1\| url https://zenodo.org/record/1260065 }}</ref> <!--A post mortem in an arsenic poisoning death reveals brick-red-colored mucosa, owing to severe hemorrhage. copyright violation from http://rfppl.com/subscription/upload_pdf/Art%204_415.pdf if we need it there is another ref 10.1080/10643389991259227 --> Exposure risks and remediation Occupational exposure and arsenic poisoning may occur in persons working in industries involving the use of inorganic arsenic and its compounds, such as wood preservation, glass production, nonferrous metal alloys, and electronic semiconductor manufacturing. Inorganic arsenic is also found in coke oven emissions associated with the smelter industry.<ref>{{cite web \|url= https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/arsenic/index.html \|title=OSHA Arsenic \|access-date=2007-10-08 \|publisher=United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071012033424/https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/arsenic/index.html\| archive-date 12 October 2007\|url-status = live}}</ref> The conversion between As(III) and As(V) is a large factor in arsenic environmental contamination. According to Croal, Gralnick, Malasarn and Newman, "[the] understanding [of] what stimulates As(III) oxidation and/or limits As(V) reduction is relevant for bioremediation of contaminated sites (Croal). The study of chemolithoautotrophic As(III) oxidizers and the heterotrophic As(V) reducers can help the understanding of the oxidation and/or reduction of arsenic.<ref>{{cite journal \|titleThe Genetics of Geochemisty \|journalAnnual Review of Genetics \|volume38 \|date2004 \|pages175–206 \|pmid15568975 \|doi10.1146/annurev.genet.38.072902.091138 \|last1Croal \|first1Laura R. \|last2Gralnick \|first2Jeffrey A. \|last3Malasarn \|first3Davin \|last4Newman \|first4Dianne K. \|urlhttp://authors.library.caltech.edu/286/ \|access-date30 August 2017 \|archive-date18 September 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210918094902/http://authors.library.caltech.edu/286/ \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Treatment Treatment of chronic arsenic poisoning is possible. British anti-lewisite (dimercaprol) is prescribed in doses of 5&nbsp;mg/kg up to 300&nbsp;mg every 4&nbsp;hours for the first day, then every 6&nbsp;hours for the second day, and finally every 8&nbsp;hours for 8 additional days.<ref>{{cite book\|author1Giannini, A. James \|author2Black, Henry Richard \|author3Goettsche, Roger L. \|titleThe Psychiatric, Psychogenic and Somatopsychic Disorders Handbook\|isbn978-0-87488-596-5 \|locationNew Hyde Park, NY\|publisherMedical Examination Publishing Co \|date1978 \|pages81–82}}</ref> However the USA's Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) states that the long-term effects of arsenic exposure cannot be predicted.<ref name"atsdr.cdc.gov" /> Blood, urine, hair, and nails may be tested for arsenic; however, these tests cannot foresee possible health outcomes from the exposure.<ref name"atsdr.cdc.gov" /> Long-term exposure and consequent excretion through urine has been linked to bladder and kidney cancer in addition to cancer of the liver, prostate, skin, lungs, and nasal cavity.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxguides/toxguide-2.pdf?id21&tid3 \|titleThe tox-guide for arsenic \|year2007 \|seriesThe US Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry \|publisherU.S. Center for Disease Control \|viaatsdr.cdc.gov }}</ref> Footnotes {{notelist}} See also * Aqua Tofana * Arsenic and Old Lace * Grainger challenge * Hypothetical types of biochemistry References {{reflist\|25em}} Bibliography * {{cite book \|title=Nature's Building Blocks: An A–Z Guide to the Elements \|lastEmsley \|firstJohn \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|year=2011 \|location=Oxford, UK \|isbn=978-0-19-960563-7 \|chapter=Arsenic \|pages=47–55 \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idj-Xu07p3cKwC }} * {{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd}} * {{cite book\|titleThe Elements of Environmental Pollution\|authorRieuwerts, John\|publisherAbingdon and New York: Routledge\|isbn978-0-415-85920-2\|date2015}} Further reading * {{cite book\|titleThe Arsenic Century\|firstJames G.\|lastWhorton\|publisherOxford University Press\|isbn978-0-19-960599-6\|date2011}} External links {{Commons}} {{Wiktionary\|arsenic}} * [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/arsenic WHO fact sheet on arsenic] * [https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/substances/arsenic Arsenic] Cancer Causing Substances, U.S. National Cancer Institute. * [http://ctdbase.org/detail.go?typechem&accD001151 CTD's Arsenic page] and [http://ctdbase.org/detail.go?typechem&accD001152 CTD's Arsenicals page] from the Comparative Toxicogenomics Database * [http://www.clu-in.org/contaminantfocus/default.focus/sec/arsenic/cat/Overview/ Contaminant Focus: Arsenic] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090901131448/http://www.clu-in.org/contaminantfocus/default.focus/sec/arsenic/cat/Overview/ \|date1 September 2009 }} by the EPA. * [http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc224.htm Environmental Health Criteria for Arsenic and Arsenic Compounds, 2001] by the WHO. * [https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/arsenic/ National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health – Arsenic Page] {{Periodic table (navbox)}} {{Arsenic compounds}} {{Arsenides}} {{Authority control}} Category:Chemical elements Category:Metalloids Category:Semimetals Category:Hepatotoxins Category:Pnictogens Category:Endocrine disruptors Category:IARC Group 1 carcinogens Category:Trigonal minerals Category:Minerals in space group 166 Category:Teratogens Category:Fetotoxicants Category:Suspected testicular toxicants Category:Native element minerals Category:Chemical elements with rhombohedral structure	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenic	2025-04-05T18:25:25.964501
898	Antimony	{{distinguish\|\|\|text=antinomy or antiphony}} {{About\|the element\|other uses\|Antimony (disambiguation)}} {{Use American English\|date=September 2019}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=August 2020}} {{Good article}} {{Infobox antimony}} Antimony is a chemical element; it has symbol Sb ({{etymology\|la\|stibium}}) and atomic number 51. A lustrous grey metal or metalloid, it is found in nature mainly as the sulfide mineral stibnite (Sb<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>). Antimony compounds have been known since ancient times and were powdered for use as medicine and cosmetics, often known by the Arabic name kohl.<ref>David Kimhi's Commentary on Isaiah 4:30 and I Chronicles 29:2; Hebrew: פוך/כְּחֻל, Aramaic: כּוּחְלִי/צדידא; Arabic: كحل, and which can also refer to antimony trisulfide. See also Z. Dori, Antimony and Henna (Heb. הפוך והכופר), Jerusalem 1983 (Hebrew).</ref> The earliest known description of this metalloid in the West was written in 1540 by Vannoccio Biringuccio. China is the largest producer of antimony and its compounds, with most production coming from the Xikuangshan Mine in Hunan. The industrial methods for refining antimony from stibnite are roasting followed by reduction with carbon, or direct reduction of stibnite with iron. The most common applications for metallic antimony are in alloys with lead and tin, which have improved properties for solders, bullets, and plain bearings. It improves the rigidity of lead-alloy plates in lead–acid batteries. Antimony trioxide is a prominent additive for halogen-containing flame retardants. Antimony is used as a dopant in semiconductor devices. Characteristics Properties of antimony]] products]] and gray As]] Antimony is a member of group 15 of the periodic table, one of the elements called pnictogens, and has an electronegativity of 2.05. In accordance with periodic trends, it is more electronegative than tin or bismuth, and less electronegative than tellurium or arsenic. Antimony is stable in air at room temperature but, if heated, it reacts with oxygen to produce antimony trioxide, Sb<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>.<ref name=w758>Wiberg and Holleman, p. 758</ref> Antimony is a silvery, lustrous gray metalloid with a Mohs scale hardness of 3, which is too soft to mark hard objects. Coins of antimony were issued in China's Guizhou in 1931; durability was poor, and minting was soon discontinued because of its softness and toxicity.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.ukcoinpics.co.uk/metal.html\|titleMetals Used in Coins and Medals\|publisherukcoinpics.co.uk\|access-date16 October 2009\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101226044427/http://www.ukcoinpics.co.uk/metal.html\|archive-date26 December 2010\|url-status=dead}}</ref> Antimony is resistant to attack by acids. The only stable allotrope of antimony under standard conditions<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Ashcheulov \|first1A. A. \|last2Manyk \|first2O. N. \|first3T. O. \|last3Manyk \|first4S. F. \|last4Marenkin \|first5V. R. \|last5Bilynskiy-Slotylo \|date2013 \|titleSome Aspects of the Chemical Bonding in Antimony \|journalInorganic Materials \|volume49 \|issue8 \|pages766–769 \|doi10.1134/s0020168513070017 }}</ref> is metallic, brittle, silver-white, and shiny. It crystallises in a trigonal cell, isomorphic with bismuth and the gray allotrope of arsenic, and is formed when molten antimony is cooled slowly. Amorphous black antimony is formed upon rapid cooling of antimony vapor, and is only stable as a thin film (thickness in nanometres); thicker samples spontaneously transform into the metallic form.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Shen \|first1Xueyang \|last2Zhou \|first2Yuxing \|first3Hanyi \|last3Zhang \|first4Volker L. \|last4Derlinger \|first5Riccardo \|last5Mazzarello \|first6Wei \|last6Zhang \|date2023 \|titleSurface effects on the crystallization kinetics of amorphous antimony \|url \|journalNanoscale \|volume15 \|issue37\|pages15259–15267 \|doi10.1039/D3NR03536K \|pmid37674458 }}</ref> It oxidizes in air and may ignite spontaneously. At 100&nbsp;°C, it gradually transforms into the stable form. The supposed yellow allotrope of antimony, generated only by oxidation of stibine (SbH<sub>3</sub>) at −90&nbsp;°C, is also impure and not a true allotrope;<ref nameallotropes/><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Krebs \|first1H. \|last2Schultze-Gebhardt \|first2F. \|last3Thees \|first3R. \|date1955 \|languagede \|titleÜber die Struktur und die Eigenschaften der Halbmetalle. IX: Die Allotropie des Antimons \|url\|journalZeitschrift für anorganische und allgemeine Chemie \|volume282 \|issue1–6 \|pages177–195 \|doi10.1002/zaac.19552820121 \|access-date}}</ref> above this temperature and in ambient light, it transforms into the more stable black allotrope.<ref name"kirk" /><ref name"cww" /><ref>{{harvnb\|Norman\|1998}}, [{{GBUrl\|vVhpurkfeN4C\|PA50}} pp.&nbsp;50–51]</ref> A rare explosive form of antimony can be formed from the electrolysis of antimony trichloride, but it always contains appreciable chlorine and is not really an antimony allotrope.<ref nameallotropes>{{RubberBible82nd\|page=4-4}}</ref> When scratched with a sharp implement, an exothermic reaction occurs and white fumes are given off as metallic antimony forms; when rubbed with a pestle in a mortar, a strong detonation occurs. Elemental antimony adopts a layered structure (space group R{{overline\|3}}m No. 166) whose layers consist of fused, ruffled, six-membered rings. The nearest and next-nearest neighbors form an irregular octahedral complex, with the three atoms in each double layer slightly closer than the three atoms in the next. This relatively close packing leads to a high density of 6.697&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>, but the weak bonding between the layers leads to the low hardness and brittleness of antimony.<ref namew758/>Isotopes {{Main\|Isotopes of antimony}} Antimony has two stable isotopes: <sup>121</sup>Sb with a natural abundance of 57.36% and <sup>123</sup>Sb with a natural abundance of 42.64%. It also has 35 radioisotopes, of which the longest-lived is <sup>125</sup>Sb with a half-life of 2.75&nbsp;years. In addition, 29 metastable states have been characterized. The most stable of these is <sup>120m1</sup>Sb with a half-life of 5.76&nbsp;days. Isotopes that are lighter than the stable <sup>123</sup>Sb tend to decay by β<sup>+</sup> decay, and those that are heavier tend to decay by β<sup>−</sup> decay, with some exceptions.<ref name"NUBASE">{{NUBASE 2003\|modecs1}}</ref> Antimony is the lightest element to have an isotope with an alpha decay branch, excluding <sup>8</sup>Be and other light nuclides with beta-delayed alpha emission.<ref nameNUBASE/>Occurrence {{See also\|Category:Antimonide minerals\|Category:Antimonate minerals}} , China CM29287 Carnegie Museum of Natural History specimen on display in Hillman Hall of Minerals and Gems\|alt=]] The abundance of antimony in the Earth's crust is estimated at 0.2 parts per million,<ref nameg548>Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 548</ref> comparable to thallium at 0.5&nbsp;ppm and silver at 0.07&nbsp;ppm. It is the 63rd most abundant element in the crust. Even though this element is not abundant, it is found in more than 100 mineral species.<ref>[https://www.mindat.org/chemsearch.php?incSb&exc&class0&subSearch+Minerals Antimony minerals]. mindat.org</ref> Antimony is sometimes found natively (e.g. on Antimony Peak), but more frequently it is found in the sulfide stibnite (Sb<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>) which is the predominant ore mineral.<ref nameg548/> Compounds {{See also\|Category:Antimony compounds}} Antimony compounds are often classified according to their oxidation state: Sb(III) and Sb(V). The +5 oxidation state is more common.<ref>Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 553</ref> Oxides and hydroxides Antimony trioxide is formed when antimony is burnt in air.<ref name"reger2009">{{cite book\|titleChemistry: Principles and Practice\|authorReger, Daniel L.\|author2Goode, Scott R.\|author3Ball, David W.\|name-list-styleamp\|edition3rd\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idOUIaM1V3ThsC&pgPA883\|publisherCengage Learning\|date2009\|isbn978-0-534-42012-3\|page883}}</ref> In the gas phase, the molecule of the compound is {{chem\|Sb\|4\|O\|6}}, but it polymerizes upon condensing.<ref namew758/> Antimony pentoxide ({{chem\|Sb\|4\|O\|10}}) can be formed only by oxidation with concentrated nitric acid.<ref name"house">{{cite book\|titleInorganic chemistry\|publisherAcademic Press\|authorHouse, James E.\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idocKWuxOur-kC&pgPA502\|date2008\|isbn978-0-12-356786-4\|page502}}</ref> Antimony also forms a mixed-valence oxide, antimony tetroxide ({{chem\|Sb\|2\|O\|4}}), which features both Sb(III) and Sb(V).<ref name"house" /> Unlike oxides of phosphorus and arsenic, these oxides are amphoteric, do not form well-defined oxoacids, and react with acids to form antimony salts. Antimonous acid {{chem\|Sb(OH)\|3}} is unknown, but the conjugate base sodium antimonite ({{chem\|[Na\|3\|SbO\|3\|]\|4}}) forms upon fusing sodium oxide and {{chem\|Sb\|4\|O\|6}}.<ref>Wiberg and Holleman, p. 763</ref> Transition metal antimonites are also known.<ref name"norman">{{cite book\|titleChemistry of arsenic, antimony, and bismuth\|authorGodfrey, S. M.\|author2McAuliffe, C. A.\|author3Mackie, A. G.\|author4Pritchard, R. G.\|name-list-styleamp\|editor-lastNorman\|editor-firstNicholas&nbsp;C.\|publisherSpringer\|date1998\|isbn978-0-7514-0389-3\|ref{{harvid\|Norman\|1998}}}}</ref>{{rp\|122}} Antimonic acid exists only as the hydrate {{chem\|HSb(OH)\|6}}, forming salts as the antimonate anion {{chem\|Sb(OH)\|6\|-}}. When a solution containing this anion is dehydrated, the precipitate contains mixed oxides.<ref name"norman" />{{rp\|143}} The most important antimony ore is stibnite ({{chem\|Sb\|2\|S\|3}}). Other sulfide minerals include pyrargyrite ({{chem\|Ag\|3\|SbS\|3}}), zinkenite, jamesonite, and boulangerite.<ref>Wiberg and Holleman, p. 757</ref> Antimony pentasulfide is non-stoichiometric, which features antimony in the +3 oxidation state and S–S bonds.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi10.1016/0020-1650(69)80231-X\|titleThe oxidation number of antimony in antimony pentasulfide\|date1969\|last1Long\|first1G.\|journalInorganic and Nuclear Chemistry Letters\|volume5\|page21\|last2Stevens\|first2J. G.\|last3Bowen\|first3L. H.\|last4Ruby\|first4S. L.}}</ref> Several thioantimonides are known, such as {{chem\|[Sb\|6\|S\|10\|]\|2-}} and {{chem\|[Sb\|8\|S\|13\|]\|2-}}.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi10.1016/j.jpcs.2006.12.010\|titleThe synthesis and characterisation of four new antimony sulphides incorporating transition-metal complexes\|date2007\|last1Lees\|first1R.\|last2Powell\|first2A.\|last3Chippindale\|first3A.\|journalJournal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids\|volume68\|page1215\|bibcode2007JPCS...68.1215L\|issue5–6}}</ref> Halides Antimony forms two series of halides: {{chem\|SbX\|3}} and {{chem\|SbX\|5}}. The trihalides {{chem\|SbF\|3}}, {{chem\|SbCl\|3}}, {{chem\|SbBr\|3}}, and {{chem\|SbI\|3}} are all molecular compounds having trigonal pyramidal molecular geometry. The trifluoride {{chem\|SbF\|3}} is prepared by the reaction of {{chem\|Sb\|2\|O\|3}} with HF:<ref>Wiberg and Holleman, pp. 761–762</ref> :{{chem\|Sb\|2\|O\|3}} + 6 HF → 2 {{chem\|SbF\|3}} + 3 {{chem\|H\|2\|O}} It is Lewis acidic and readily accepts fluoride ions to form the complex anions {{chem\|SbF\|4\|-}} and {{chem\|SbF\|5\|2-}}. Molten {{chem\|SbF\|3}} is a weak electrical conductor. The trichloride {{chem\|SbCl\|3}} is prepared by dissolving {{chem\|Sb\|2\|S\|3}} in hydrochloric acid:<ref name="Ullmann" /> :{{chem\|Sb\|2\|S\|3}} + 6 HCl → 2 {{chem\|SbCl\|3}} + 3 {{chem\|H\|2\|S}} Arsenic sulfides are not readily attacked by the hydrochloric acid, so this method offers a route to As-free Sb. The pentahalides {{chem\|SbF\|5}} and {{chem\|SbCl\|5}} have trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry in the gas phase, but in the liquid phase, {{chem\|SbF\|5}} is polymeric, whereas {{chem\|SbCl\|5}} is monomeric.<ref>Wiberg and Holleman, p. 761</ref> {{chem\|SbF\|5}} is a powerful Lewis acid used to make the superacid fluoroantimonic acid ("H<sub>2</sub>SbF<sub>7</sub>"). Oxyhalides are more common for antimony than for arsenic and phosphorus. Antimony trioxide dissolves in concentrated acid to form oxoantimonyl compounds such as SbOCl and {{chem\|(SbO)\|2\|SO\|4}}.<ref>Wiberg and Holleman, p. 764</ref> Antimonides, hydrides, and organoantimony compounds Compounds in this class generally are described as derivatives of Sb<sup>3−</sup>. Antimony forms antimonides with metals, such as indium antimonide (InSb) and silver antimonide ({{chem\|Ag\|3\|Sb}}).<ref>Wiberg and Holleman, p. 760</ref> The alkali metal and zinc antimonides, such as Na<sub>3</sub>Sb and Zn<sub>3</sub>Sb<sub>2</sub>, are more reactive. Treating these antimonides with acid produces the highly unstable gas stibine, {{chem\|SbH\|3}}:<ref>{{cite book\|titleOutlines of Chemistry&nbsp;– A Textbook for College Students\|authorKahlenberg, Louis\|publisherREAD BOOKS\|date2008\|isbn978-1-4097-6995-8\|pages324–325}}</ref> :{{chem\|Sb\|3-}} + 3 {{chem\|H\|+}} → {{chem\|SbH\|3}} Stibine can also be produced by treating {{chem\|Sb\|3+}} salts with hydride reagents such as sodium borohydride. Stibine decomposes spontaneously at room temperature. Because stibine has a positive heat of formation, it is thermodynamically unstable and thus antimony does not react with hydrogen directly.<ref>Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 558</ref> Organoantimony compounds are typically prepared by alkylation of antimony halides with Grignard reagents.<ref>Elschenbroich, C. (2006) "Organometallics". Wiley-VCH: Weinheim. {{ISBN\|3-527-29390-6}}</ref> A large variety of compounds are known with both Sb(III) and Sb(V) centers, including mixed chloro-organic derivatives, anions, and cations. Examples include triphenylstibine (Sb(C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>)<sub>3</sub>) and pentaphenylantimony (Sb(C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>)<sub>5</sub>).<ref>Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 598</ref> History s for antimony]] Antimony(III) sulfide, Sb<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>, was recognized in predynastic Egypt as an eye cosmetic (kohl) as early as about 3100&nbsp;BC, when the cosmetic palette was invented.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi10.1111/j.1475-4754.2006.00279.x\|titleApplication of Lead Isotope Analysis to a Wide Range of Late Bronze Age Egyptian Materials\|date2006\|last1Shortland\|first1A. J.\|journalArchaeometry\|volume48\|issue4\|page657\|bibcode2006Archa..48..657S }}</ref> An artifact, said to be part of a vase, made of antimony dating to about 3000&nbsp;BC was found at Telloh, Chaldea (part of present-day Iraq), and a copper object plated with antimony dating between 2500&nbsp;BC and 2200&nbsp;BC has been found in Egypt.<ref name"kirk" /> Austen, at a lecture by Herbert Gladstone in 1892, commented that "we only know of antimony at the present day as a highly brittle and crystalline metal, which could hardly be fashioned into a useful vase, and therefore this remarkable 'find' (artifact mentioned above) must represent the lost art of rendering antimony malleable."<ref name"moorey">{{cite book\|lastMoorey\|firstP. R. S.\|date1994\|titleAncient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: the Archaeological Evidence\|placeNew York\|publisherClarendon Press\|page241\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idP_Ixuott4doC&pgPA241\|isbn=978-1-57506-042-2}}</ref> The British archaeologist Roger Moorey was unconvinced the artifact was indeed a vase, mentioning that Selimkhanov, after his analysis of the Tello object (published in 1975), "attempted to relate the metal to Transcaucasian natural antimony" (i.e. native metal) and that "the antimony objects from Transcaucasia are all small personal ornaments."<ref name"moorey" /> This weakens the evidence for a lost art "of rendering antimony malleable".<ref name"moorey" /> The Roman scholar Pliny the Elder described several ways of preparing antimony sulfide for medical purposes in his treatise Natural History, around 77&nbsp;AD.<ref name"mellor">{{cite book\|chapter-urlhttps://archive.org/details/comprehensivetre0009mell/page/338/\|chapterAntimony\|page339\|titleA comprehensive treatise on inorganic and theoretical chemistry\|volume9\|authorMellor, Joseph William\|date1964}}</ref> Pliny the Elder also made a distinction between "male" and "female" forms of antimony; the male form is probably the sulfide, while the female form, which is superior, heavier, and less friable, has been suspected to be native metallic antimony.<ref>Pliny, Natural history, 33.33; W.H.S. Jones, the Loeb Classical Library translator, supplies a note suggesting the identifications.</ref> The Greek naturalist Pedanius Dioscorides mentioned that antimony sulfide could be roasted by heating by a current of air. It is thought that this produced metallic antimony.<ref name="mellor" /> described a procedure to isolate antimony.]] Antimony was frequently described in alchemical manuscripts, including the Summa Perfectionis of Pseudo-Geber, written around the 14th century.<ref>{{cite book \|doi10.1515/9783110668711 \|titleAntimony \|date2021 \|editor1-lastFilella \|editor1-firstMontserrat \|isbn978-3-11-066871-1 \|urlhttps://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:153699 \|page4 \|publisherDe Gruyter }}</ref> A description of a procedure for isolating antimony is later given in the 1540 book De la pirotechnia by Vannoccio Biringuccio,<ref>Vannoccio Biringuccio, [http://library.si.edu/digital-library/book/delapirotechnial00biri De la Pirotechnia] (Venice (Italy): Curtio Navo e fratelli, 1540), Book 2, chapter 3: Del antimonio & sua miniera, Capitolo terzo (On antimony and its ore, third chapter), pp. 27–28. [Note: Only every second page of this book is numbered, so the relevant passage is to be found on the 74th and 75th pages of the text.] (in Italian)</ref> predating the more famous 1556 book by Agricola, De re metallica. In this context Agricola has been often incorrectly credited with the discovery of metallic antimony. The book Currus Triumphalis Antimonii (The Triumphal Chariot of Antimony), describing the preparation of metallic antimony, was published in Germany in 1604. It was purported to be written by a Benedictine monk, writing under the name Basilius Valentinus in the 15th century; if it were authentic, which it is not, it would predate Biringuccio.{{efn\|Already in 1710 Wilhelm Gottlob Freiherr von Leibniz, after careful inquiry, concluded the work was spurious, there was no monk named Basilius Valentinus, and the book's author was its ostensible editor, Johann Thölde (c. 1565 – c. 1624). Professional historians now agree the Currus Triumphalis&nbsp;... was written after the middle of the 16th century and Thölde was likely its author.<ref>{{cite book\|editorPriesner, Claus\|editor2Figala, Karin\|date1998\|titleAlchemie. Lexikon einer hermetischen Wissenschaft\|isbn3406441068\|placeMünchen\|publisherC.H. Beck\|languagede}}</ref> Harold Jantz was perhaps the only modern scholar to deny Thölde's authorship, but he too agrees the work dates from after 1550.<ref>[https://assets.cengage.com/gale/psm/2025000R.pdf Harold Jantz Collection of German Baroque Literature Reel Listing].</ref>\|namepriesner}}<ref name"cww">{{cite book\|last1Wang\|first1Chung Wu\|titleAntimony: Its History, Chemistry, Mineralogy, Geology, Metallurgy, Uses, Preparation, Analysis, Production and Valuation with Complete Bibliographies\|chapterThe Chemistry of Antimony\|publisherCharles Geiffin and Co. Ltd\|date1919\|locationLondon, United Kingdom\|pages6–33\|chapter-urlhttp://library.sciencemadness.org/library/books/antimony.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://library.sciencemadness.org/library/books/antimony.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|doi10.1021/ed009p11\|titleThe discovery of the elements. II. Elements known to the alchemists\|date1932\|last1Weeks\|first1Mary Elvira\|author-link1Mary Elvira Weeks\|journalJournal of Chemical Education\|volume9\|issue1\|page11\|bibcode1932JChEd...9...11W}}</ref><!--An English translation of the Currus Triumphalis appeared in English in 1660, under the title The Triumphant Chariot of Antimony. The work remains of great interest, chiefly because it documents how followers of the renegade German physician, Philippus Theophrastus Paracelsus von Hohenheim (of whom Thölde was one), came to associate the practice of alchemy with the preparation of chemical medicines.--> The metal antimony was known to German chemist Andreas Libavius in 1615 who obtained it by adding iron to a molten mixture of antimony sulfide, salt and potassium tartrate. This procedure produced antimony with a crystalline or starred surface.<ref name="mellor" /> With the advent of challenges to phlogiston theory, it was recognized that antimony is an element forming sulfides, oxides, and other compounds, as do other metals.<ref name="mellor" /> The first discovery of naturally occurring pure antimony in the Earth's crust was described by the Swedish scientist and local mine district engineer Anton von Swab in 1783; the type-sample was collected from the Sala Silver Mine in the Bergslagen mining district of Sala, Västmanland, Sweden.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.mindat.org/min-262.html\|titleNative antimony\|publisherMindat.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|doi10.1080/14786440308676406\|titleXL. Extracts from the third volume of the analyses\|date1803\|last1Klaproth\|first1M.\|journalPhilosophical Magazine \|seriesSeries 1\|volume17\|issue67\|page230\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqxtRAAAAYAAJ&pgPA230}}</ref> Etymology The medieval Latin form, from which the modern languages and late Byzantine Greek take their names for antimony, is {{Lang\|la\|antimonium}}.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateMay 22, 2024 \|orig-dateJuly 20, 1998 \|titleantimony \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/science/antimony \|access-dateJune 10, 2024 \|websiteBritannica.com}}</ref> The origin of that is uncertain, and all suggestions have some difficulty either of form or interpretation. The popular etymology, from ἀντίμοναχός anti-monachos or French {{Lang\|fr\|antimoine}}, would mean "monk-killer", which is explained by the fact that many early alchemists were monks, and some antimony compounds were poisonous.<ref>{{cite book\|authorFernando, Diana\|isbn9780713726688\|titleAlchemy: an illustrated A to Z\|date1998\|publisher=Blandford}} Fernando connects the proposed etymology to the story of "Basil Valentine", although antimonium is found two centuries before Valentine's time.</ref> Another popular etymology is the hypothetical Greek word ἀντίμόνος antimonos, "against aloneness", explained as "not found as metal", or "not found unalloyed".<ref name"kirk">"Antimony" in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 5th ed. 2004. {{ISBN\|978-0-471-48494-3}}</ref> However, ancient Greek would more naturally express the pure negative as α- ("not").<ref>{{cite OED\|Antimony}}, which considers the derivation a "popular etymology".</ref> Edmund Oscar von Lippmann conjectured a hypothetical Greek word ανθήμόνιον anthemonion, which would mean "floret", and cites several examples of related Greek words (but not that one) which describe chemical or biological efflorescence.<ref nameLippmann>von Lippmann, Edmund Oscar (1919) Entstehung und Ausbreitung der Alchemie, teil 1. Berlin: Julius Springer (in German). pp. 642–5</ref> The early uses of antimonium include the translations, in 1050–1100, by Constantine the African of Arabic medical treatises.<ref nameLippmann/> Several authorities believe antimonium is a scribal corruption of some Arabic form; Meyerhof derives it from ithmid;<ref>Meyerhof as quoted in {{harvnb\|Sarton\|1935}}, asserts that ithmid or athmoud became corrupted in the medieval "traductions barbaro-latines". The OED asserts some Arabic form is the origin, and if ithmid is the root, posits athimodium, atimodium, atimonium as intermediates.</ref> other possibilities include athimar, the Arabic name of the metalloid, and a hypothetical as-stimmi, derived from or parallel to the Greek.<ref namee28>{{cite journal\|authorEndlich, F. M.\|titleOn Some Interesting Derivations of Mineral Names\|journalThe American Naturalist\|volume22\|issue253\|date1888\|jstor2451020\|pages21–32\|doi10.1086/274630\|doi-accessfree\|bibcode=1888ANat...22...21E }}</ref>{{rp\|28}} The standard chemical symbol for antimony (Sb) is credited to Jöns Jakob Berzelius, who derived the abbreviation from stibium.<ref>Jöns Jacob Berzelius, "Essay on the cause of chemical proportions, and on some circumstances relating to them: together with a short and easy method of expressing them," Annals of Philosophy, vol. 2, pages 443–454 (1813) and vol. 3, pages 51–62, 93–106, 244–255, 353–364 (1814). On [{{GBUrl\|E8M4AAAAMAAJ\|PA52}} p.&nbsp;52], Berzelius lists the symbol for antimony as "St"; however, starting from [{{GBUrl\|E8M4AAAAMAAJ\|PA248}} p.&nbsp;248], Berzelius consistently uses the symbol "Sb" instead.</ref> The ancient words for antimony mostly have, as their chief meaning, kohl, the sulfide of antimony.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastHelmenstine \|firstAnne \|date2024-07-09 \|titleAntimony Facts - Symbol, Definition, Uses \|urlhttps://sciencenotes.org/antimony-facts-symbol-definition-uses/ \|access-date2024-10-30 \|websiteScience Notes and Projects \|languageen-US}}</ref> The Egyptians called antimony mśdmt<ref>{{cite journal\|lastAlbright\|firstW. F.\|titleNotes on Egypto-Semitic Etymology. II\|journalThe American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures\|volume34\|issue4\|date1918\|jstor528157\|pages215–255\|doi10.1086/369866 }}</ref>{{rp\|230}}<ref name"sarton">{{cite journal\|lastSarton\|firstGeorge\|date1935\|titleReview of ''Al-morchid fi'l-kohhl, ou Le guide d'oculistique (Translated by Max Meyerhof<!--Not translator of the review; translator of the reviewed book-->)\|journalIsis\|volume22\|issue2\|languagefr\|jstor225136\|page539-542\|doi10.1086/346926}}</ref>{{rp\|541}} or stm.<ref name="etym">{{OEtymD\|antimony}}</ref> The Arabic word for the substance, as opposed to the cosmetic, can appear as {{Lang\|ar\|إثمد}} ithmid, athmoud, othmod, or uthmod. Littré suggests the first form, which is the earliest, derives from stimmida, an accusative for stimmi.<ref namee28/><ref>{{multiref\|LSJ, s.v., vocalisation, spelling, and declension vary\|Celsus, 6.6.6 ff\|Pliny Natural History 33.33\|Lewis and Short: Latin Dictionary\|OED, s. "antimony"}}</ref> The Greek word στίμμι (stimmi) is used by Attic tragic poets of the 5th century BC, and is possibly a loan word from Arabic or from Egyptian stm.<ref name"etym"/> Production Process The extraction of antimony from ores depends on the quality and composition of the ore. Most antimony is mined as the sulfide; lower-grade ores are concentrated by froth flotation, while higher-grade ores are heated to 500–600&nbsp;°C, the temperature at which stibnite melts and separates from the gangue minerals. Antimony can be isolated from the crude antimony sulfide by reduction with scrap iron:<ref name=usgs2 /> :{{chem\|Sb\|2\|S\|3}} + 3 Fe → 2 Sb + 3 FeS The sulfide is converted to an oxide by roasting. The product is further purified by vaporizing the volatile antimony(III) oxide, which is recovered.<ref name"Ullmann" /> This sublimate is often used directly for the main applications, impurities being arsenic and sulfide.<ref name"Norm">{{harvnb\|Norman\|1998}}, [{{GBUrl\|vVhpurkfeN4C\|PA45}} p.&nbsp;45]</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|doi10.1016/j.envpol.2003.10.014\|titleAntimony distribution and environmental mobility at an historic antimony smelter site, New Zealand\|date2004\|last1Wilson\|first1N. J.\|last2Craw\|first2D.\|last3Hunter\|first3K.\|journalEnvironmental Pollution\|volume129\|issue2\|pages257–66\|pmid14987811\|bibcode2004EPoll.129..257W }}</ref> Antimony is isolated from the oxide by a carbothermal reduction:<ref nameusgs2 /><ref name="Norm" /> :2 {{chem\|Sb\|2\|O\|3}} + 3 C → 4 Sb + 3 {{chem\|CO\|2}} The lower-grade ores are reduced in blast furnaces while the higher-grade ores are reduced in reverberatory furnaces.<ref nameusgs2 />Top producers and production volumesIn 2022, according to the US Geological Survey, China accounted for 54.5% of total antimony production, followed in second place by Russia with 18.2% and Tajikistan with 15.5%.<ref nameusgs>{{cite web\|urlhttps://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2023/mcs2023-antimony.pdf\|titleAntimony Statistics and Information\|websiteNational Minerals Information Center\|publisher USGS}}</ref> {\|class="wikitable" \|+Antimony mining in 2022<ref name="usgs" /> ! Country !! Tonnes !! % of total \|- \|{{flag\|China}} \|60,000 \|54.5 \|- \|{{flag\|Russia}} \|20,000 \|18.2 \|- \|{{flag\|Tajikistan}} \|17,000 \|15.5 \|- \|{{flag\|Myanmar}} \|4,000 \|3.6 \|- \|{{flag\|Australia}} \|4,000 \|3.6 \|- \|Top 5'' \|105,000 \|95.5 \|- !Total world !110,000 !100.0 \|} Chinese production of antimony is expected to decline in the future as mines and smelters are closed down by the government as part of pollution control. Especially due to an environmental protection law having gone into effect in January 2015<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.chinadialogue.net/Environmental-Protection-Law-2014-eversion.pdf\|titleEnvironmental Protection Law of the People's Republic of China\|date24 April 2014\|access-date14 October 2016\|archive-date2 June 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140602113948/https://www.chinadialogue.net/Environmental-Protection-Law-2014-eversion.pdf\|url-status=dead}}</ref> and revised "Emission Standards of Pollutants for Stanum, Antimony, and Mercury" having gone into effect, hurdles for economic production are higher. Reported production of antimony in China has fallen and is unlikely to increase in the coming years, according to the Roskill report. No significant antimony deposits in China have been developed for about ten years, and the remaining economic reserves are being rapidly depleted.<ref name"Roskill">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.ancoa.com.au/RoskillCRT.pdf\|titleStudy of the antimony market by Roskill Consulting Group\|access-date9 April 2012\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121018034957/http://www.ancoa.com.au/RoskillCRT.pdf\|archive-date18 October 2012\|url-status dead}}</ref>Reserves{\|class"wikitable" \|+World antimony reserves in 2022<ref name=usgs/> ! Country !! Reserves <br />(tonnes) \|- \|{{flag\|China}} \|350,000 \|- \|{{flag\|Russia}} \|350,000 \|- \|{{flag\|Bolivia}} \|310,000 \|- \|{{flag\|Kyrgyzstan}} \|260,000 \|- \|{{flag\|Myanmar}} \|140,000 \|- \|{{flag\|Australia}} \|120,000 \|- \|{{flag\|Turkey}} \|100,000 \|- \|{{flag\|Canada}} \|78,000 \|- \|{{flag\|United States}} \|60,000 \|- \|{{flag\|Slovakia}} \|60,000 \|- \|{{flag\|Tajikistan}} \|50,000 \|- !Total world !>1,800,000 \|} Supply risk For antimony-importing regions, such as Europe and the U.S., antimony is considered to be a critical mineral for industrial manufacturing that is at risk of supply chain disruption. With global production coming mainly from China (74%), Tajikistan (8%), and Russia (4%), these sources are critical to supply.<ref name"EU Raw 2020" /><ref name"Nassar SciAdv 2020">{{cite journal \| lastNassar \| firstNedal T. \| display-authorsetal \| titleEvaluating the mineral commodity supply risk of the U.S. manufacturing sector \| journalSci. Adv.\| volume6 \| issue8 \|pageeaay8647 \| date2020-02-21 \| doi10.1126/sciadv.aay8647\| pmid32128413 \| pmc7035000 \| bibcode=2020SciA....6.8647N }}</ref> European Union: Antimony is considered a critical raw material for defense, automotive, construction and textiles. The E.U. sources are 100% imported, coming mainly from Turkey (62%), Bolivia (20%) and Guatemala (7%).<ref name"EU Raw 2020">{{cite web \|titleCritical Raw Materials Resilience: Charting a Path towards greater Security and Sustainability \|urlhttps://ec.europa.eu/docsroom/documents/42849 \|publisherEuropean Commission\|date2020 \|access-date2 February 2022}}</ref> United Kingdom: The British Geological Survey's 2015 risk list ranks antimony second highest (after rare earth elements) on the relative supply risk index.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsuk/statistics/risklist.html\|titleMineralsUK Risk List 2015\|publisherBGS}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleBritish Geological Survey Risk list 2015 \|urlhttps://www2.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsuk/download/statistics/risk_list_2015.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www2.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsuk/download/statistics/risk_list_2015.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|websiteMinerals UK \|publisherBGS \|access-date=2 February 2022}}</ref> United States: Antimony is a mineral commodity considered critical to the economic and national security.<ref name'"USGS 2022 News"'>{{cite web \|titleInterior Releases 2018's Final List of Critical Minerals \|urlhttps://www.usgs.gov/news/national-news-release/interior-releases-2018s-final-list-35-minerals-deemed-critical-us \|publisherUnited States Geological Survey \|access-date1 February 2022}}</ref><ref name"Nassar SciAdv 2020" /> In 2022, no antimony was mined in the U.S.<ref name'"USGS 2022'>{{cite book \|titleU.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2022 \|chapterAntimony \|urlhttps://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2022/mcs2022-antimony.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2022/mcs2022-antimony.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|access-date1 February 2022}}</ref> Applications Approximately 48% of antimony is consumed in flame retardants, 33% in lead–acid batteries, and 8% in plastics.<ref nameusgs2>{{cite web\|urlhttps://d9-wret.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com/assets/palladium/production/atoms/files/myb1-2017-antim.pdf\|first1Kateryna\|last1Klochko\|date2021\|publisherUnited States Geological Survey\|title2017 Minerals Yearbook: Antimony}}</ref> Flame retardants Antimony is mainly used as the trioxide for flame-proofing compounds, always in combination with halogenated flame retardants except in halogen-containing polymers. The flame retarding effect of antimony trioxide is produced by the formation of halogenated antimony compounds,<ref>{{cite book\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZG9VFSBnIPAC&pgPA61\|chapterAntimony trioxide and Related Compounds\|titleFlame retardants for plastics and textiles: Practical applications\|isbn978-3-446-41652-9\|last1Weil\|first1Edward D.\|last2Levchik\|first2Sergei V.\|date4 June 2009\|publisherHanser }}</ref><!--10.1016/S0141-3910(02)00067-8--> which react with hydrogen atoms, and probably also with oxygen atoms and OH radicals, thus inhibiting fire.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi10.1016/0010-2180(73)90006-0\|titleMass spectrometric studies of flame inhibition: Analysis of antimony trihalides in flames\|date1973\|last1Hastie\|first1John W.\|journalCombustion and Flame\|volume21\|issue1 \|page49\|bibcode1973CoFl...21...49H }}</ref> Markets for these flame-retardants include children's clothing, toys, aircraft, and automobile seat covers. They are also added to polyester resins in fiberglass composites for such items as light aircraft engine covers. The resin will burn in the presence of an externally generated flame, but will extinguish when the external flame is removed.<ref name"Ullmann">Grund, Sabina C.; Hanusch, Kunibert; Breunig, Hans J.; Wolf, Hans Uwe (2006) "Antimony and Antimony Compounds" in ''Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry'', Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. {{doi\|10.1002/14356007.a03_055.pub2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZG9VFSBnIPAC&pgPA15\|pages15–16\|titleFlame retardants for plastics and textiles: Practical applications\|isbn978-3-446-41652-9\|last1Weil\|first1Edward D.\|last2Levchik\|first2Sergei V.\|date4 June 2009\|publisherHanser }}</ref> Alloys Antimony forms a highly useful alloy with lead, increasing its hardness and mechanical strength. When casting it increases fluidity of the melt and reduces shrinkage during cooling.<ref>{{Cite web \|last1Butterman \|first1W.C. \|last2Carlin, Jr. \|first2J.F. \|year2004 \|titleMineral Commodity Profiles - Antimony \|urlhttps://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2003/of03-019/of03-019.pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240324185146/https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2003/of03-019/of03-019.pdf \|archive-date24 March 2024 \|access-date18 July 2024 \|websiteU.S. Geological Survey}}</ref> For most applications involving lead, varying amounts of antimony are used as alloying metal. In lead–acid batteries, this addition improves plate strength and charging characteristics.<ref name"Ullmann" /><ref>{{cite book\|chapterTypes of Alloys\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1HSsx9fPAKkC&pgPA60\|titleBattery Technology Handbook\|firstHeinz Albert\|lastKiehne\|publisherCRC Press\|date2003\|pages60–61\|isbn978-0-8247-4249-2}}</ref> For sailboats, lead keels are used to provide righting moment, ranging from 600 lbs to over 200 tons for the largest sailing superyachts; to improve hardness and tensile strength of the lead keel, antimony is mixed with lead between 2% and 5% by volume. Antimony is used in antifriction alloys (such as Babbitt metal),<ref>{{cite book\|pages46–47\|isbn978-1-4067-4671-6\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKR82QRlAgUwC&pgPA46\|titlePrinciples of Metallography\|lastWilliams\|firstRobert S.\|publisherRead books\|date2007}}</ref> in bullets and lead shot, electrical cable sheathing, type metal (for example, for linotype printing machines<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIYZezyEvZ78C&pgPA399\|titleInorganic Chemistry&nbsp;– A Textbook for Colleges and Schools\|firstE. J.\|lastHolmyard\|date2008\|isbn978-1-4437-2253-7\|pages399–400\|publisherRead Books }}</ref>), solder (some "lead-free" solders contain 5% Sb),<ref>{{cite journal\|first1H.\|last1Ipser\|first2H.\|last2Flandorfer\|first3Ch.\|last3Luef\|first4C.\|last4Schmetterer\|first5U.\|last5Saeed\|titleThermodynamics and phase diagrams of lead-free solder materials\|journalJournal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics\|volume18\|date2007\|doi10.1007/s10854-006-9009-3\|pages3–17\|issue1–3 }}</ref> in pewter,<ref>{{cite book\|lastHull\|firstCharles\|titlePewter\|publisherOsprey Publishing\|date1992\|isbn978-0-7478-0152-8\|pages1–5}}</ref> and in hardening alloys with low tin content in the manufacturing of organ pipes. Other applications in the 1960s]] Three other applications consume nearly all the rest of the world's supply.<ref nameusgs2 /> One application is as a stabilizer and catalyst for the production of polyethylene terephthalate.<ref nameusgs2 /> Another is as a fining agent to remove microscopic bubbles in glass, mostly for TV screens<ref>{{cite book\|doi10.1002/14356007.a12_365\|chapterGlass\|titleUllmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry\|date2000\|last1De Jong\|first1Bernard H. W. S.\|last2Beerkens\|first2Ruud G. C.\|last3Van Nijnatten\|first3Peter A.\|isbn978-3-527-30673-2}}</ref> {{endash}} antimony ions interact with oxygen, suppressing the tendency of the latter to form bubbles.<ref>{{cite journal\|titleVoltammetric Studies of Antimony Ions in Soda-lime-silica Glass Melts up to 1873 K\|pmid11993676\|date2001\|last1Yamashita\|first1H.\|last2Yamaguchi\|first2S.\|last3Nishimura\|first3R.\|last4Maekawa\|first4T.\|volume17\|issue1\|pages45–50\|journalAnalytical Sciences\|doi10.2116/analsci.17.45\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> The third application is pigments.<ref name=usgs2 /> In the 1990s antimony was increasingly being used in semiconductors as a dopant in n-type silicon wafers<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCOcVgAtqeKkC&pgPA473\|page473\|titleHandbook of semiconductor silicon technology\|first1William C.\|last1O'Mara\|first2Robert B.\|last2Herring\|first3Lee Philip\|last3Hunt\|publisherWilliam Andrew\|date1990\|isbn978-0-8155-1237-0}}</ref> for diodes, infrared detectors, and Hall-effect devices. In the 1950s, the emitters and collectors of n-p-n alloy junction transistors were doped with tiny beads of a lead-antimony alloy.<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_7fOlKRDcCkC&pgPA101\|page101\|titleSelected Works of Professor Herbert Kroemer\|lastMaiti\|firstC. K.\|publisherWorld Scientific, 2008\|isbn978-981-270-901-1\|date2008}}</ref> Indium antimonide (InSb) is used as a material for mid-infrared detectors.<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idX-qeJG1k2jwC&pgPA68\|page68\|titleExpanding the vision of sensor materials\|isbn978-0-309-05175-0\|last1Committee on New Sensor Technologies: Materials And Applications\|first1National Research Council (U.S.)\|date1995\|publisherNational Academies Press }}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idwBQCKN_GKhAC&pgPA35\|page35\|titleFundamentals of infrared detector materials\|isbn978-0-8194-6731-7\|authorKinch, Michael A\|date2007\|publisherSPIE Press }}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWR4_GzaAQM0C&pgPA15\|page15\|titleInfrared detectors\|isbn978-0-12-752105-3\|authorWillardson, Robert K\|author2Beer, Albert C\|name-list-styleamp\|date1970\|publisherAcademic Press }}</ref> The material Ge<sub>2</sub>Sb<sub>2</sub>Te<sub>5</sub> is used as for phase-change memory, a type of computer memory. Biology and medicine have few uses for antimony. Treatments containing antimony, known as antimonials, are used as emetics.<ref>{{cite journal\|titleAntimony's Curious History\|firstColin A.\|lastRussell\|jstor532063\|pages115–116\|volume54\|issue1\|journalNotes and Records of the Royal Society of London\|date2000\|doi10.1098/rsnr.2000.0101\|pmc1064207}}</ref> Antimony compounds are used as antiprotozoan drugs. Potassium antimonyl tartrate, or tartar emetic, was once used as an anti-schistosomal drug from 1919 on. It was subsequently replaced by praziquantel.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Harder \|first1A \|titleChemotherapeutic approaches to schistosomes: current knowledge and outlook \|journalParasitology Research \|dateMay 2002 \|volume88 \|issue5 \|pages395–397 \|doi10.1007/s00436-001-0588-x \|pmid12049454 }}</ref> Antimony and its compounds are used in several veterinary preparations, such as anthiomaline and lithium antimony thiomalate, as a skin conditioner in ruminants.<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJAkOtJsGqiQC&pgPA262\|pages262–265\|titleDiseases of Warm Lands: A Clinical Manual\|isbn978-1-4102-0789-0\|last1Kassirsky\|first1I. A.\|last2Plotnikov\|first2N. N.\|date1 August 2003\|publisher=The Minerva Group }}</ref> Antimony has a nourishing or conditioning effect on keratinized tissues in animals. Antimony-based drugs, such as meglumine antimoniate, are also considered the drugs of choice for treatment of leishmaniasis. Early treatments used antimony(III) species (trivalent antimonials), but in 1922 Upendranath Brahmachari invented a much safer antimony(V) drug, and since then so-called pentavalent antimonials have been the standard first-line treatment. However, Leishmania strains in Bihar and neighboring regions have developed resistance to antimony.<ref>{{cite book \|titleControl of the leishmaniases: report of a meeting of the WHO Expert Committee on the Control of Leishmaniases, Geneva, 22-26 March 2010 \|date2010 \|publisherWorld Health Organization \|isbn978-92-4-120949-6 \|page1–2, 55, 67–68}}</ref> Elemental antimony as an antimony pill was once used as a medicine. It could be reused by others after ingestion and elimination.<ref>{{cite book\|isbn978-1-85821-642-3\|titleAntimony in medical history: an account of the medical uses of antimony and its compounds since early times to the present\|authorMcCallum, R. I.\|publisherPentland Press\|date1999}}</ref><!--https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1044720/?page=1--> Antimony(III) sulfide is used in the heads of some safety matches.<ref name"Trends">{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTyQrAAAAYAAJ&pgPA50\|publisherNational Academies\|date1970\|authorNational Research Council\|titleTrends in usage of antimony: report\|page50}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idnDhpLa1rl44C&pgPT109\|page109\|titleEncyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety: Chemical, industries and occupations\|isbn978-92-2-109816-4\|authorStellman, Jeanne Mager\|date1998\|publisherInternational Labour Organization }}</ref> Antimony sulfides help to stabilize the friction coefficient in automotive brake pad materials.<ref>{{cite journal\|journalJournal of Wear\|volume239\|issue2\|pages229\|date2000\|authorJang, H\|author2Kim, S.\|name-list-styleamp\|titleThe effects of antimony trisulfide (Sb<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>) and zirconium silicate (ZrSiO<sub>4</sub>) in the automotive brake friction material on friction\|doi10.1016/s0043-1648(00)00314-8}}</ref> Antimony is used in bullets, bullet tracers,<ref>{{cite journal\|doi10.1016/S0379-0738(02)00118-4\|titleA metallurgical review of the interpretation of bullet lead compositional analysis\|date2002\|last1Randich\|first1Erik\|last2Duerfeldt\|first2Wayne\|last3McLendon\|first3Wade\|last4Tobin\|first4William\|journalForensic Science International\|volume127\|issue3\|pages174–91\|pmid12175947 }}</ref> paint, glass art, and as an opacifier in enamel. Antimony-124 is used together with beryllium in neutron sources; the gamma rays emitted by antimony-124 initiate the photodisintegration of beryllium.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi10.1016/0022-3107(70)90058-4\|titleThe energy distribution of antimonyberyllium photoneutrons\|date1970\|last1Lalovic\|first1M.\|journalJournal of Nuclear Energy\|volume24\|issue3\|page123\|bibcode1970JNuE...24..123L\|last2Werle\|first2H.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3KdmdcGbBywC&pgPA51\|page51\|titlePhysics and engineering of radiation detection\|isbn978-0-12-045581-2\|authorAhmed, Syed Naeem\|date2007\|publisherAcademic Press \|bibcode2007perd.book.....A}}</ref> The emitted neutrons have an average energy of 24&nbsp;keV.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi10.1016/0029-5582(60)90171-1\|titleDetermination of the energy of antimony-beryllium photoneutrons\|date1960\|authorSchmitt, H\|journalNuclear Physics\|volume20\|page220\|bibcode1960NucPh..20..220S}}</ref> Natural antimony is used in startup neutron sources. The powder derived from crushed antimony sulfide (kohl) has been used for millennia as an eye cosmetic. Historically it was applied to the eyes with a metal rod and with one's spittle, and was thought by the ancients to aid in curing eye infections.<ref>{{cite book \|contributionRabbeinu Hananel's Commentary on Tractate Shabbat\|titlePerushe Rabenu Ḥananʼel Bar Ḥushiʼel la-Talmud \|lastRabbeinu Hananel\|author-linkChananel ben Chushiel \|publisherMekhon 'Lev Sameaḥ'\|editor-lastMetzger\|editor-firstDavid\|placeJerusalem\|page215 (Shabbat 109a) \|year1995 \|languagehe \|oclc319767989 }}</ref> The practice is still seen in Yemen and in other Muslim countries.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleSunan an-Nasa'i 5113 – The Book of Adornment – كتاب الزينة من السنن – Sunnah.com – Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)\|urlhttps://sunnah.com/nasai:5113\|access-date2021-02-18\|websitesunnah.com}}</ref> Precautions {{Chembox \| container_only = yes \|Section7={{Chembox Hazards \| ExternalSDS \| GHSPictograms {{GHS06}} {{GHS07}} {{GHS08}} {{GHS09}} \| GHSSignalWord = Danger \| HPhrases = {{H-phrases\|301\|332\|351\|373\|411}} \| PPhrases = {{P-phrases\|203\|260\|264\|270\|273\|280\|301+316\|304+340\|318\|321\|330\|391\|405}} \| NFPA-H \| NFPA-F \| NFPA-R \| NFPA-S \| NFPA_ref = }} }} Antimony and many of its compounds are toxic, and the effects of antimony poisoning are similar to arsenic poisoning. The toxicity of antimony is far lower than that of arsenic; this might be caused by the significant differences of uptake, metabolism and excretion between arsenic and antimony. The uptake of antimony(III) or antimony(V) in the gastrointestinal tract is at most 20%. Antimony(V) is not quantitatively reduced to antimony(III) in the cell (in fact antimony(III) is oxidised to antimony(V) instead<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Foster\|first1S.\|last2Maher\|first2W.\|last3Krikowa\|first3F.\|last4Telford\|first4K.\|last5Ellwood\|first5M.\|titleObservations on the measurement of total antimony and antimony species in algae, plant and animal tissues\|doi10.1039/b509202g\|journalJournal of Environmental Monitoring\|volume7\|issue12\|pages1214–1219\|year2005\|pmid16307074}}</ref>). Since methylation of antimony does not occur, the excretion of antimony(V) in urine is the main way of elimination.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi10.1016/S0009-2797(97)00087-2\|titleArsenic and antimony: Comparative approach on mechanistic toxicology\|year1997\|last1Gebel\|first1T\|journalChemico-Biological Interactions\|volume107\|issue3\|pages131–44\|pmid9448748\|bibcode1997CBI...107..131G }}</ref> Like arsenic, the most serious effect of acute antimony poisoning is cardiotoxicity and the resulting myocarditis; however, it can also manifest as Adams–Stokes syndrome, which arsenic does not. Reported cases of intoxication by antimony equivalent to 90&nbsp;mg antimony potassium tartrate dissolved from enamel has been reported to show only short term effects. An intoxication with 6&nbsp;g of antimony potassium tartrate was reported to result in death after three days.<ref>{{cite journal\|pmc1543508\|titlePresident's address. Observations upon antimony\|year1977\|volume70\|issue11\|pmid341167\|last1McCallum\|first1RI\|pages756–63\|journalProceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine\|doi10.1177/003591577707001103 }}</ref> Inhalation of antimony dust is harmful and in certain cases may be fatal; in small doses, antimony causes headaches, dizziness, and depression. Larger doses such as prolonged skin contact may cause dermatitis, or damage the kidneys and the liver, causing violent and frequent vomiting, leading to death in a few days.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Sundar\|first1S.\|last2Chakravarty\|first2J.\|doi10.3390/ijerph7124267\|titleAntimony Toxicity\|journalInternational Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health\|volume7\|issue12\|pages4267–4277\|year2010\|pmid21318007\|pmc3037053\|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Antimony is incompatible with strong oxidizing agents, strong acids, halogen acids, chlorine, or fluorine. It should be kept away from heat.<ref>[http://www.mallbaker.com/americas/msds/english/a7152_msds_us_default.pdf Antimony MSDS]{{dead link\|date=March 2013}}. Baker</ref> Antimony leaches from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles into liquids.<ref>{{cite journal\|pmid17707454 \|titleAntimony leaching from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic used for bottled drinking water\|year2008\|last1Westerhoff\|first1P\|last2Prapaipong\|first2P\|last3Shock\|first3E\|last4Hillaireau\|first4A\|volume42\|issue3\|pages551–6\|doi10.1016/j.watres.2007.07.048\|journalWater Research\|bibcode2008WatRe..42..551W }}</ref> While levels observed for bottled water are below drinking water guidelines,<ref nameshotyk/> fruit juice concentrates (for which no guidelines are established) produced in the UK were found to contain up to 44.7&nbsp;μg/L of antimony, well above the EU limits for tap water of 5&nbsp;μg/L.<ref>{{cite journal\|titleElevated antimony concentrations in commercial juices\|first7Helle Rüsz\|last7Hansen\|first6Bente\|last6Gammelgaard\|first5Stefan\|last5Stürup\|first4Spiros A.\|last4Pergantis\|first3Søren Alex\|last3Bak\|first2Alexandra\|last1Hansen\|last2Tsirigotaki\|journalJournal of Environmental Monitoring\|first1Claus\|volume12\|issue4\|pages822–4\|date2010\|pmid20383361\|doi10.1039/b926551a}}</ref> The guidelines are: World Health Organization: 20&nbsp;μg/L<ref name=who/> * Japan: 15&nbsp;μg/L<ref>Wakayama, Hiroshi (2003) [http://www.nilim.go.jp/lab/bcg/siryou/tnn/tnn0264pdf/ks0264011.pdf "Revision of Drinking Water Standards in Japan"], Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare (Japan); Table 2, p. 84</ref> * United States Environmental Protection Agency, Health Canada and the Ontario Ministry of Environment: 6&nbsp;μg/L<ref name=canada>[https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/evaluating-existing-substances/screening-assessment-antimony-containing-substances.html#toc13 Screening assessment antimony-containing substances]. Health Canada. July 2020. {{ISBN\|978-0-660-32826-3}}</ref> * EU and German Federal Ministry of Environment: 5&nbsp;μg/L<ref name"shotyk">{{cite journal \|last1Shotyk \|first1William \|last2Krachler \|first2Michael \|last3Chen \|first3Bin \|titleContamination of Canadian and European bottled waters with antimony from PET containers \|journalJournal of Environmental Monitoring \|date2006 \|volume8 \|issue2 \|pages288–292 \|doi10.1039/b517844b \|pmid=16470261 }}</ref> The tolerable daily intake (TDI) proposed by WHO is 6&nbsp;μg antimony per kilogram of body weight.<ref namewho>{{cite book\|titleGuidelines for Drinking-water Quality\|date2011\|publisherWorld Health Organization\|isbn978-92-4-154815-1\|edition4th \|hdl10665/44584 \|hdl-accessfree \|page314}}</ref> The immediately dangerous to life or health (IDLH) value for antimony is 50&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup>.<ref>{{PGCH\|0036}}</ref> Toxicity Certain compounds of antimony appear to be toxic, particularly antimony trioxide and antimony potassium tartrate.<ref name"atsdr.cdc.gov">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp23.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp23.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|titleToxicological Profile for Antimony and Compounds \|publisherU.S. Department of Health and Human Services \|access-date19 May 2022}}</ref> Effects may be similar to arsenic poisoning.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/science/antimony-poisoning\|titleAntimony poisoning\|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Occupational exposure may cause respiratory irritation, pneumoconiosis, antimony spots on the skin, gastrointestinal symptoms, and cardiac arrhythmias. In addition, antimony trioxide is potentially carcinogenic to humans.<ref>{{Cite journal\|pmc 3037053\|year 2010\|last1 Sundar\|first1 S\|title Antimony Toxicity\|journal International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health\|volume 7\|issue 12\|pages 4267–4277\|last2 Chakravarty\|first2 J\|pmid 21318007\|doi 10.3390/ijerph7124267\|doi-access free}}</ref> Adverse health effects have been observed in humans and animals following inhalation, oral, or dermal exposure to antimony and antimony compounds.<ref name"atsdr.cdc.gov" /> Antimony toxicity typically occurs either due to occupational exposure, during therapy or from accidental ingestion. It is unclear if antimony can enter the body through the skin.<ref name"atsdr.cdc.gov" /> The presence of low levels of antimony in saliva may also be associated with dental decay.<ref name"Davis_et_al_Sci_Rep">{{cite journal \|last1Davis \|first1E. \|last2Bakulski \|first2K. M. \|last3Goodrich \|first3J. M. \|titleLow levels of salivary metals, oral microbiome composition and dental decay \|journalScientific Reports \|date2020 \|volume10 \|issue1 \|page14640 \|doi10.1038/s41598-020-71495-9\|pmid32887894 \|pmc7474081 \|bibcode2020NatSR..1014640D \|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Notes {{Notelist}} References {{Reflist\|30em}} Cited sources {{cite book\|refGreenwood\|author1Greenwood, N. N.\|author2Earnshaw, A. \|year1997\|titleChemistry of the Elements \|edition2nd \|placeOxford\|publisher Butterworth-Heinemann\|isbn=0-7506-3365-4}} {{cite book\|refWiberg\|titleInorganic chemistry\|author1Wiberg, Egon\|author2Wiberg, Nils\|author3Holleman, Arnold Frederick\|name-list-styleamp\|publisherAcademic Press\|date2001\|isbn978-0-12-352651-9}}External links {{Commons}} {{Wiktionary\|antimony}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090115095847/http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/phs23.html Public Health Statement for Antimony] * [http://www.antimony.com/ International Antimony Association vzw (i2a]) * [http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/podcast/element.asp Chemistry in its element podcast] (MP3) from the Royal Society of Chemistry's Chemistry World: [http://www.rsc.org/images/CIIE_antimony_48kbps_tcm18-128033.mp3 Antimony] * [http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/051.htm Antimony] at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham) * [https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0036.html CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Antimony] * [http://webmineral.com/data/Antimony.shtml Antimony Mineral data and specimen images] {{Clear}} {{Periodic table (navbox)}} {{Antimony compounds}} {{Authority control}} Category:Chemical elements Category:Metalloids Category:Native element minerals Category:Nuclear materials Category:Pnictogens Category:Trigonal minerals Category:Minerals in space group 166 Category:Materials that expand upon freezing Category:Chemical elements with rhombohedral structure Category:Semimetals	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimony	2025-04-05T18:25:26.011103
899	Actinium	Actinium is a chemical element; it has symbol Ac and atomic number 89. It was discovered by Friedrich Oskar Giesel in 1902, who gave it the name emanium; the element got its name by being wrongly identified with a substance André-Louis Debierne found in 1899 and called actinium. The actinide series, a set of 15 elements between actinium and lawrencium in the periodic table, are named for actinium. Together with polonium, radium, and radon, actinium was one of the first non-primordial radioactive elements to be discovered. A soft, silvery-white radioactive metal, actinium reacts rapidly with oxygen and moisture in air forming a white coating of actinium oxide that prevents further oxidation. As with most lanthanides and many actinides, actinium assumes oxidation state +3 in nearly all its chemical compounds. Actinium is found only in traces in uranium and thorium ores as the isotope 227Ac, which decays with a half-life of 21.772 years, predominantly emitting beta and sometimes alpha particles, and 228Ac, which is beta active with a half-life of 6.15 hours. One tonne of natural uranium in ore contains about 0.2 milligrams of actinium-227, and one tonne of thorium contains about 5 nanograms of actinium-228. The close similarity of physical and chemical properties of actinium and lanthanum makes separation of actinium from the ore impractical. Instead, the element is prepared, in milligram amounts, by the neutron irradiation of in a nuclear reactor. Owing to its scarcity, high price and radioactivity, actinium has no significant industrial use. Its current applications include a neutron source and an agent for radiation therapy. History André-Louis Debierne, a French chemist, announced the discovery of a new element in 1899. He separated it from pitchblende residues left by Marie and Pierre Curie after they had extracted radium. and (in 1900) as similar to thorium. Friedrich Oskar Giesel found in 1902 a substance similar to lanthanum and called it "emanium" in 1904. After a comparison of the substances' half-lives determined by Debierne, Harriet Brooks in 1904, and Otto Hahn and Otto Sackur in 1905, Debierne's chosen name for the new element was retained because it had seniority, despite the contradicting chemical properties he claimed for the element at different times. Articles published in the 1970s and later suggest that Debierne's results published in 1904 conflict with those reported in 1899 and 1900. Furthermore, the now-known chemistry of actinium precludes its presence as anything other than a minor constituent of Debierne's 1899 and 1900 results; in fact, the chemical properties he reported make it likely that he had, instead, accidentally identified protactinium, which would not be discovered for another fourteen years, only to have it disappear due to its hydrolysis and adsorption onto his laboratory equipment. This has led some authors to advocate that Giesel alone should be credited with the discovery. and sometimes acetaldehyde. Properties Actinium is a soft, silvery-white, radioactive, metallic element. Its estimated shear modulus is similar to that of lead. Owing to its strong radioactivity, actinium glows in the dark with a pale blue light, which originates from the surrounding air ionized by the emitted energetic particles. Actinium has similar chemical properties to lanthanum and other lanthanides, and therefore these elements are difficult to separate when extracting from uranium ores. Solvent extraction and ion chromatography are commonly used for the separation. The first element of the actinides, actinium gave the set its name, much as lanthanum had done for the lanthanides. The actinides are much more diverse than the lanthanides and therefore it was not until 1945 that the most significant change to Dmitri Mendeleev's periodic table since the recognition of the lanthanides, the introduction of the actinides, was generally accepted after Glenn T. Seaborg's research on the transuranium elements (although it had been proposed as early as 1892 by British chemist Henry Bassett). Actinium reacts rapidly with oxygen and moisture in air forming a white coating of actinium oxide that impedes further oxidation. As with most lanthanides and actinides, actinium exists in the oxidation state +3, and the Ac3+ ions are colorless in solutions. Chemical compounds Due to actinium's intense radioactivity, only a limited number of actinium compounds are known. These include: AcF3, AcCl3, AcBr3, AcOF, AcOCl, AcOBr, Ac2S3, Ac2O3, AcPO4 and Ac(NO3)3. They all contain actinium in the oxidation state +3. Fmm 225 cF4 531.1 531.1 531.1 4 10.07 AcH2unknown cubic Pm1 164 hP5 408 408 630 1 9.18 Ac2S3 black cubic I3d 220 cI28 778.56 778.56 778.56 4 6.71 AcF3 white hexagonal P63/m 165 hP8 764 764 456 2 4.8 AcBr3 white AcF3 + 2 NH3 + H2O → AcOF + 2 NH4F Actinium trichloride is obtained by reacting actinium hydroxide or oxalate with carbon tetrachloride vapors at temperatures above . Similarly to the oxyfluoride, actinium oxychloride can be prepared by hydrolyzing actinium trichloride with ammonium hydroxide at . However, in contrast to the oxyfluoride, the oxychloride could well be synthesized by igniting a solution of actinium trichloride in hydrochloric acid with ammonia. Mixing monosodium phosphate (NaH2PO4) with a solution of actinium in hydrochloric acid yields white-colored actinium phosphate hemihydrate (AcPO4·0.5H2O), and heating actinium oxalate with hydrogen sulfide vapors at for a few minutes results in a black actinium sulfide Ac2S3. It may possibly be produced by acting with a mixture of hydrogen sulfide and carbon disulfide on actinium oxide at . Isotopes Naturally occurring actinium is principally composed of two radioactive isotopes; (from the radioactive family of ) and (a granddaughter of ). decays mainly as a beta emitter with a very small energy, but in 1.38% of cases it emits an alpha particle, so it can readily be identified through alpha spectrometry. The isotopes of actinium range in atomic weight from 203 u () to 236 u (). Isotope Production Decay Half-life 221Ac 232Th(d,9n)→225Pa(α)→221Ac α 52 ms 222Ac 232Th(d,8n)→226Pa(α)→222Ac α 5.0 s 223Ac 232Th(d,7n)→227Pa(α)→223Ac α 2.1 min 224Ac 232Th(d,6n)→228Pa(α)→224Ac α 2.78 hours 225Ac 232Th(n,γ)→233Th(β−)→233Pa(β−)→233U(α)→229Th(α)→225Ra(β−)→225Ac α 10 days 226Ac 226Ra(d,2n)→226Ac α, β− electron capture 29.37 hours 227Ac 235U(α)→231Th(β−)→231Pa(α)→227Ac α, β− 21.77 years 228Ac 232Th(α)→228Ra(β−)→228Ac β− 6.15 hours 229Ac 228Ra(n,γ)→229Ra(β−)→229Ac β− 62.7 min 230Ac 232Th(d,α)→230Ac β− 122 s 231Ac 232Th(γ,p)→231Ac β− 7.5 min 232Ac 232Th(n,p)→232Ac β− 119 s Occurrence and synthesis upright=0.70\|thumb\|Uraninite ores have elevated concentrations of actinium. Actinium is found only in traces in uranium ores – one tonne of uranium in ore contains about 0.2 milligrams of 227Ac – and in thorium ores, which contain about 5 nanograms of 228Ac per one tonne of thorium. The actinium isotope 227Ac is a transient member of the uranium-actinium series decay chain, which begins with the parent isotope 235U (or 239Pu) and ends with the stable lead isotope 207Pb. The isotope 228Ac is a transient member of the thorium series decay chain, which begins with the parent isotope 232Th and ends with the stable lead isotope 208Pb. Another actinium isotope (225Ac) is transiently present in the neptunium series decay chain, beginning with 237Np (or 233U) and ending with thallium (205Tl) and near-stable bismuth (209Bi); even though all primordial 237Np has decayed away, it is continuously produced by neutron knock-out reactions on natural 238U. The low natural concentration, and the close similarity of physical and chemical properties to those of lanthanum and other lanthanides, which are always abundant in actinium-bearing ores, render separation of actinium from the ore impractical. The most concentrated actinium sample prepared from raw material consisted of 7 micrograms of 227Ac in less than 0.1 milligrams of La2O3, and complete separation was never achieved. Instead, actinium is prepared, in milligram amounts, by the neutron irradiation of in a nuclear reactor. ^{226}_{88}Ra + ^{1}_{0}n -> ^{227}_{88}Ra ->[\beta^-][42.2 \ \ce{min}] ^{227}_{89}Ac The reaction yield is about 2% of the radium weight. 227Ac can further capture neutrons resulting in small amounts of 228Ac. After the synthesis, actinium is separated from radium and from the products of decay and nuclear fusion, such as thorium, polonium, lead and bismuth. The extraction can be performed with thenoyltrifluoroacetone-benzene solution from an aqueous solution of the radiation products, and the selectivity to a certain element is achieved by adjusting the pH (to about 6.0 for actinium). This rare isotope has potential applications in radiation therapy and is most efficiently produced by bombarding a radium-226 target with 20–30 MeV deuterium ions. This reaction also yields 226Ac which however decays with a half-life of 29 hours and thus does not contaminate 225Ac. Actinium metal has been prepared by the reduction of actinium fluoride with lithium vapor in vacuum at a temperature between . Higher temperatures resulted in evaporation of the product and lower ones lead to an incomplete transformation. Lithium was chosen among other alkali metals because its fluoride is most volatile. 227Ac is highly radioactive and was therefore studied for use as an active element of radioisotope thermoelectric generators, for example in spacecraft. The oxide of 227Ac pressed with beryllium is also an efficient neutron source with the activity exceeding that of the standard americium-beryllium and radium-beryllium pairs. In all those applications, 227Ac (a beta source) is merely a progenitor which generates alpha-emitting isotopes upon its decay. Beryllium captures alpha particles and emits neutrons owing to its large cross-section for the (α,n) nuclear reaction: ^{9}_{4}Be + ^{4}_{2}He -> ^{12}_{6}C + ^{1}_{0}n + \gamma The 227AcBe neutron sources can be applied in a neutron probe – a standard device for measuring the quantity of water present in soil, as well as moisture/density for quality control in highway construction. Such probes are also used in well logging applications, in neutron radiography, tomography and other radiochemical investigations. thumb\|upright=0.70\|Chemical structure of the DOTA carrier for 225Ac in radiation therapy 225Ac is applied in medicine to produce in a reusable generator or can be used alone as an agent for radiation therapy, in particular targeted alpha therapy (TAT). This isotope has a half-life of 10 days, making it much more suitable for radiation therapy than 213Bi (half-life 46 minutes). or DOTA () coupled to trastuzumab, a monoclonal antibody that interferes with the HER2/neu receptor. The latter delivery combination was tested on mice and proved to be effective against leukemia, lymphoma, breast, ovarian, neuroblastoma and prostate cancers. The medium half-life of 227Ac (21.77 years) makes it a very convenient radioactive isotope in modeling the slow vertical mixing of oceanic waters. The associated processes cannot be studied with the required accuracy by direct measurements of current velocities (of the order 50 meters per year). However, evaluation of the concentration depth-profiles for different isotopes allows estimating the mixing rates. The physics behind this method is as follows: oceanic waters contain homogeneously dispersed 235U. Its decay product, 231Pa, gradually precipitates to the bottom, so that its concentration first increases with depth and then stays nearly constant. 231Pa decays to 227Ac; however, the concentration of the latter isotope does not follow the 231Pa depth profile, but instead increases toward the sea bottom. This occurs because of the mixing processes which raise some additional 227Ac from the sea bottom. Thus analysis of both 231Pa and 227Ac depth profiles allows researchers to model the mixing behavior. There are theoretical predictions that AcHx hydrides (in this case with very high pressure) are a candidate for a near room-temperature superconductor as they have Tc significantly higher than H3S, possibly near 250 K. Precautions 227Ac is highly radioactive and experiments with it are carried out in a specially designed laboratory equipped with a tight glove box. When actinium trichloride is administered intravenously to rats, about 33% of actinium is deposited into the bones and 50% into the liver. Its toxicity is comparable to, but slightly lower, than that of americium and plutonium. For trace quantities, fume hoods with good aeration suffice; for gram amounts, hot cells with shielding from the intense gamma radiation emitted by 227Ac are necessary. See also Actinium series Notes References Bibliography External links Actinium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham) NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Actinium, Radioactive Actinium in Category:Chemical elements Category:Chemical elements with face-centered cubic structure Category:Actinides	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinium	2025-04-05T18:25:26.131058
900	Americium	{{good article}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=July 2020}} {{infobox americium}} Americium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Am and atomic number 95. It is radioactive and a transuranic member of the actinide series in the periodic table, located under the lanthanide element europium and was thus named after the Americas by analogy.<ref>{{cite journal\|title The Transuranium Elements\|first Glenn T.\|last Seaborg\|journal Science\|volume 104\|issue 2704\|date 1946\|pages 379–386\|doi 10.1126/science.104.2704.379\|pmid 17842184\|jstor 1675046\|bibcode 1946Sci...104..379S }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|urlhttp://acshist.scs.illinois.edu/bulletin_open_access/v33-2/v33-2%20p89-93.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://acshist.scs.illinois.edu/bulletin_open_access/v33-2/v33-2%20p89-93.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|titleAmericium – From Discovery to the Smoke Detector and Beyond \|journalBull. Hist. Chem. \|volume33 \|number2 \|date2008 \|lastKostecka \|firstKeith \|pages89–93}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://pubsapp.acs.org/cen/80th/print/americiumprint.html?\|title C&En: It's Elemental: The Periodic Table - Americium}}</ref> Americium was first produced in 1944 by the group of Glenn T. Seaborg from Berkeley, California, at the Metallurgical Laboratory of the University of Chicago, as part of the Manhattan Project. Although it is the third element in the transuranic series, it was discovered fourth, after the heavier curium. The discovery was kept secret and only released to the public in November 1945. Most americium is produced by uranium or plutonium being bombarded with neutrons in nuclear reactors – one tonne of spent nuclear fuel contains about 100 grams of americium. It is widely used in commercial ionization chamber smoke detectors, as well as in neutron sources and industrial gauges. Several unusual applications, such as nuclear batteries or fuel for space ships with nuclear propulsion, have been proposed for the isotope <sup>242m</sup>Am, but they are as yet hindered by the scarcity and high price of this nuclear isomer. Americium is a relatively soft radioactive metal with a silvery appearance. Its most common isotopes are <sup>241</sup>Am and <sup>243</sup>Am. In chemical compounds, americium usually assumes the oxidation state +3, especially in solutions. Several other oxidation states are known, ranging from +2 to +7, and can be identified by their characteristic optical absorption spectra. The crystal lattices of solid americium and its compounds contain small intrinsic radiogenic defects, due to metamictization induced by self-irradiation with alpha particles, which accumulates with time; this can cause a drift of some material properties over time, more noticeable in older samples. History , in August 1939]] Although americium was likely produced in previous nuclear experiments, it was first intentionally synthesized, isolated and identified in late autumn 1944, at the University of California, Berkeley, by Glenn T. Seaborg, Leon O. Morgan, Ralph A. James, and Albert Ghiorso. They used a 60-inch cyclotron at the University of California, Berkeley.<ref>[http://www.utexas.edu/faculty/council/2002-2003/memorials/Morgan/morgan.html Obituary of Dr. Leon Owen (Tom) Morgan (1919–2002)], Retrieved 28 November 2010</ref> The element was chemically identified at the Metallurgical Laboratory (now Argonne National Laboratory) of the University of Chicago. Following the lighter neptunium, plutonium, and heavier curium, americium was the fourth transuranium element to be discovered. At the time, the periodic table had been restructured by Seaborg to its present layout, containing the actinide row below the lanthanide one. This led to americium being located right below its twin lanthanide element europium; it was thus by analogy named after the Americas: "The name americium (after the Americas) and the symbol Am are suggested for the element on the basis of its position as the sixth member of the actinide rare-earth series, analogous to europium, Eu, of the lanthanide series."<ref>Seaborg, G. T.; James, R.A. and Morgan, L. O.: "The New Element Americium (Atomic Number 95)", THIN PPR (National Nuclear Energy Series, Plutonium Project Record), Vol 14 B The Transuranium Elements: Research Papers, Paper No. 22.1, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1949. [http://www.osti.gov/cgi-bin/rd_accomplishments/display_biblio.cgi?idACC0046&numPages43&fpN Abstract]; [http://www.osti.gov/accomplishments/documents/fullText/ACC0046.pdf Full text] (January 1948), Retrieved 28 November 2010</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|last1Street\|first1K.\|last2Ghiorso\|first2A.\|last3Seaborg\|first3G.\|titleThe Isotopes of Americium\|doi10.1103/PhysRev.79.530\|date1950\|page530\|volume79\|journalPhysical Review\|urlhttp://repositories.cdlib.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article7073&contextlbnl\|issue3\|bibcode 1950PhRv...79..530S }}</ref><ref name="g1252">Greenwood, p. 1252</ref> The new element was isolated from its oxides in a complex, multi-step process. First plutonium-239 nitrate (<sup>239</sup>PuNO<sub>3</sub>) solution was coated on a platinum foil of about 0.5&nbsp;cm<sup>2</sup> area, the solution was evaporated and the residue was converted into plutonium dioxide (PuO<sub>2</sub>) by calcining. After cyclotron irradiation, the coating was dissolved with nitric acid, and then precipitated as the hydroxide using concentrated aqueous ammonia solution. The residue was dissolved in perchloric acid. Further separation was carried out by ion exchange, yielding a certain isotope of curium. The separation of curium and americium was so painstaking that those elements were initially called by the Berkeley group as pandemonium<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmericium (Am) {{!}} AMERICAN ELEMENTS ® \|urlhttps://www.americanelements.com/am.html \|access-date2024-05-09 \|websiteAmerican Elements: The Materials Science Company \|languageen}}</ref> (from Greek for all demons or hell) and delirium (from Latin for madness).<ref name"radio" /><ref>{{cite book\| author Robert E. Krebs\| title The History and Use of Our Earth's Chemical Elements: A Reference Guide\| edition Second\| url https://books.google.com/books?idyb9xTj72vNAC&pgPA322\| date 2006\| publisher Greenwood Publishing Group\| isbn 978-0-313-33438-2\| page 322 }}</ref> Initial experiments yielded four americium isotopes: <sup>241</sup>Am, <sup>242</sup>Am, <sup>239</sup>Am and <sup>238</sup>Am. Americium-241 was directly obtained from plutonium upon absorption of two neutrons. It decays by emission of a α-particle to <sup>237</sup>Np; the half-life of this decay was first determined as {{val\|510\|20}} years but then corrected to 432.2 years.<ref name="nubase">{{NUBASE 1997}}</ref> :<math chem>\ce{^{239}_{94}Pu ->[\ce{(n,\gamma)}] ^{240}_{94}Pu ->[\ce{(n,\gamma)}] ^{241}_{94}Pu ->[\beta^-][14.35\ \ce{yr}] ^{241}_{95}Am}\ \left( \ce{->[\alpha][432.2\ \ce{yr}] ^{237}_{93}Np} \right)</math> : <small> The times are half-lives</small> The second isotope <sup>242</sup>Am was produced upon neutron bombardment of the already-created <sup>241</sup>Am. Upon rapid β-decay, <sup>242</sup>Am converts into the isotope of curium <sup>242</sup>Cm (which had been discovered previously). The half-life of this decay was initially determined at 17 hours, which was close to the presently accepted value of 16.02 h.<ref name="nubase" /> : <math chem>\ce{^{241}_{95}Am ->[\ce{(n,\gamma)}] ^{242}_{95}Am}\ \left(\ce{->[\beta^-][16.02\ \ce{h}] ^{242}_{96}Cm} \right)</math> The discovery of americium and curium in 1944 was closely related to the Manhattan Project; the results were confidential and declassified only in 1945. Seaborg leaked the synthesis of the elements 95 and 96 on the U.S. radio show for children Quiz Kids five days before the official presentation at an American Chemical Society meeting on 11 November 1945, when one of the listeners asked whether any new transuranium element besides plutonium and neptunium had been discovered during the war.<ref name"radio">{{cite web\|url http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/americium.html\|title Chemical & Engineering News: It's Elemental: The Periodic Table – Americium\|access-date7 July 2010\| first Rachel Sheremeta\|last Pepling\|date 2003}}</ref> After the discovery of americium isotopes <sup>241</sup>Am and <sup>242</sup>Am, their production and compounds were patented listing only Seaborg as the inventor.<ref>Seaborg, Glenn T. {{US patent\|3156523}} "Element", Filing date: 23 August 1946, Issue date: 10 November 1964</ref> The initial americium samples weighed a few micrograms; they were barely visible and were identified by their radioactivity. The first substantial amounts of metallic americium weighing 40–200 micrograms were not prepared until 1951 by reduction of americium(III) fluoride with barium metal in high vacuum at 1100&nbsp;°C.<ref name"AM_METALL1">{{cite journal\|titleThe Preparation and Some Properties of Americium Metal\|last1Westrum\|first1Edgar F.\|last2Eyring\|first2Leroy\|journalJournal of the American Chemical Society\|volume73\|page3396\|date1951\|doi10.1021/ja01151a116\|issue7\|bibcode1951JAChS..73.3396W \|hdl2027/mdp.39015086480962\|hdl-accessfree}}</ref> Occurrence {{See also\|Nuclear reprocessing}} nuclear test.]] The longest-lived and most common isotopes of americium, <sup>241</sup>Am and <sup>243</sup>Am, have half-lives of 432.2 and 7,370 years, respectively. Therefore, any primordial americium (americium that was present on Earth during its formation) should have decayed by now. Trace amounts of americium probably occur naturally in uranium minerals as a result of neutron capture and beta decay (<sup>238</sup>U → <sup>239</sup>Pu → <sup>240</sup>Pu → <sup>241</sup>Am), though the quantities would be tiny and this has not been confirmed.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.livescience.com/39874-facts-about-americium.html\|titleFacts About Americium\|lastEarth\|firstRachel Ross 2017-05-23T02:31:00Z Planet\|websitelivescience.com\|date23 May 2017\|languageen\|access-date2019-08-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/95/americium\|titleAmericium - Element information, properties and uses {{!}} Periodic Table\|websitewww.rsc.org\|access-date2019-08-10}}</ref><ref nameThorntonBurdette>{{cite journal \|last1Thornton \|first1Brett F. \|last2Burdette \|first2Shawn C. \|date2019 \|titleNeutron stardust and the elements of Earth \|urlhttps://www.nature.com/articles/s41557-018-0190-9 \|journalNature Chemistry \|volume11 \|issue1 \|pages4–10 \|doi10.1038/s41557-018-0190-9 \|pmid30552435 \|bibcode2019NatCh..11....4T \|s2cid54632815 \|access-date19 February 2022}}</ref> Extraterrestrial long-lived <sup>247</sup>Cm is probably also deposited on Earth and has <sup>243</sup>Am as one of its intermediate decay products, but again this has not been confirmed.<ref nameThorntonBurdette/> Existing americium is concentrated in the areas used for the atmospheric nuclear weapons tests conducted between 1945 and 1980, as well as at the sites of nuclear incidents, such as the Chernobyl disaster. For example, the analysis of the debris at the testing site of the first U.S. hydrogen bomb, Ivy Mike, (1 November 1952, Enewetak Atoll), revealed high concentrations of various actinides including americium; but due to military secrecy, this result was not published until later, in 1956.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Fields\|first1P. R.\|last2Studier\|first2M. H.\|last3Diamond\|first3H.\|last4Mech\|first4J. F.\|last5Inghram\|first5M. G.\|last6Pyle\|first6G. L.\|last7Stevens\|first7C. M.\|last8Fried\|first8S.\|last9Manning\|first9W. M.\|last10Ghiorso\|first10A.\|last11Thompson\|first11S. G.\|last12Higgins\|first12G. H.\|last13Seaborg\|first13G. T.\|display-authors3\|titleTransplutonium Elements in Thermonuclear Test Debris\|date1956\|journalPhysical Review\|volume102\|issue1\|pages180–182\|doi10.1103/PhysRev.102.180\|bibcode1956PhRv..102..180F}}</ref> Trinitite, the glassy residue left on the desert floor near Alamogordo, New Mexico, after the plutonium-based Trinity nuclear bomb test on 16 July 1945, contains traces of americium-241. Elevated levels of americium were also detected at the crash site of a US Boeing B-52 bomber aircraft, which carried four hydrogen bombs, in 1968 in Greenland.<ref>{{cite book\|authorEriksson, Mats \|titleOn Weapons Plutonium in the Arctic Environment \|publisherLund University \|dateApril 2002 \|locationRisø National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark \|access-date15 November 2008 \|urlhttp://www.risoe.dk/rispubl/NUK/nukpdf/ris-r-1321.pdf \|page28 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081218233551/http://www.risoe.dk/rispubl/NUK/nukpdf/ris-r-1321.pdf \|archive-date18 December 2008 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> In other regions, the average radioactivity of surface soil due to residual americium is only about 0.01&nbsp;picocuries per gram (0.37&nbsp;mBq/g). Atmospheric americium compounds are poorly soluble in common solvents and mostly adhere to soil particles. Soil analysis revealed about 1,900 times higher concentration of americium inside sandy soil particles than in the water present in the soil pores; an even higher ratio was measured in loam soils.<ref name"am">[http://www.ead.anl.gov/pub/doc/americium.pdf Human Health Fact Sheet on Americium] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110716164652/http://www.ead.anl.gov/pub/doc/americium.pdf \|date=16 July 2011 }}, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Retrieved 28 November 2010</ref> Americium is produced mostly artificially in small quantities, for research purposes. A tonne of spent nuclear fuel contains about 100&nbsp;grams of various americium isotopes, mostly <sup>241</sup>Am and <sup>243</sup>Am.<ref>Hoffmann, Klaus Kann man Gold machen? Gauner, Gaukler und Gelehrte. Aus der Geschichte der chemischen Elemente'' (Can you make gold? Crooks, clowns, and scholars. From the history of the chemical elements), Urania-Verlag, Leipzig, Jena, Berlin 1979, no ISBN, p. 233</ref> Their prolonged radioactivity is undesirable for the disposal, and therefore americium, together with other long-lived actinides, must be neutralized. The associated procedure may involve several steps, where americium is first separated and then converted by neutron bombardment in special reactors to short-lived nuclides. This procedure is well known as nuclear transmutation, but it is still being developed for americium.<ref>Baetslé, L. [http://www.ictp.trieste.it/~pub_off/lectures/lns012/Baetsle.pdf Application of Partitioning/Transmutation of Radioactive Materials in Radioactive Waste Management] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050426092418/http://www.ictp.trieste.it/~pub_off/lectures/lns012/Baetsle.pdf \|date26 April 2005 }}, Nuclear Research Centre of Belgium Sck/Cen, Mol, Belgium, September 2001, Retrieved 28 November 2010</ref><ref>Fioni, Gabriele; Cribier, Michel and Marie, Frédéric [http://www.cea.fr/var/cea/storage/static/gb/library/Clefs46/pagesg/clefs46_30.html Can the minor actinide, americium-241, be transmuted by thermal neutrons?] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071111175005/http://www.cea.fr/var/cea/storage/static/gb/library/Clefs46/pagesg/clefs46_30.html \|date11 November 2007 }}, Department of Astrophysics, CEA/Saclay, Retrieved 28 November 2010</ref> The transuranic elements from americium to fermium occurred naturally in the natural nuclear fission reactor at Oklo, but no longer do so.<ref name"emsley">{{cite book\|lastEmsley\|firstJohn\|titleNature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements\|editionNew\|date2011\|publisherOxford University Press\|locationNew York, NY\|isbn=978-0-19-960563-7}}</ref> Americium is also one of the elements that have theoretically been detected in Przybylski's Star.<ref namegopka08>{{cite journal \|last1Gopka \|first1V. F. \|last2Yushchenko \|first2A. V. \|last3Yushchenko \|first3V. A. \|last4Panov \|first4I. V. \|last5Kim \|first5Ch. \|titleIdentification of absorption lines of short half-life actinides in the spectrum of Przybylski's star (HD 101065) \|journalKinematics and Physics of Celestial Bodies \|date15 May 2008 \|volume24 \|issue2 \|pages89–98 \|doi10.3103/S0884591308020049 \|bibcode 2008KPCB...24...89G \|s2cid120526363 }}</ref> Synthesis and extraction Isotope nucleosynthesis elution curves revealing the similarity between the lanthanides Tb, Gd, and Eu and the corresponding actinides Bk, Cm, and Am]] Americium has been produced in small quantities in nuclear reactors for decades, and kilograms of its <sup>241</sup>Am and <sup>243</sup>Am isotopes have been accumulated by now.<ref name"g1262">Greenwood, p. 1262</ref> Nevertheless, since it was first offered for sale in 1962, its price, about {{Convert\|1,500\|$/g\|$/oz\|$US$}} of <sup>241</sup>Am, remains almost unchanged owing to the very complex separation procedure.<ref name"smoke">[http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf57.html Smoke detectors and americium] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101112082137/http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf57.html \|date12 November 2010 }}, World Nuclear Association, January 2009, Retrieved 28 November 2010</ref> The heavier isotope <sup>243</sup>Am is produced in much smaller amounts; it is thus more difficult to separate, resulting in a higher cost of the order {{convert\|100,000–160,000\|$/g\|$/oz\|$US$}}.<ref name"CRC">Hammond C. R. "The elements" in {{RubberBible86th}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\| author Emeleus, H. J. \|author2Sharpe, A. G. \| title Advances in Inorganic Chemistry \| url https://books.google.com/books?idK5_LSQqeZ_IC&pgPA2\| date 1987\| publisher Academic Press\| isbn 978-0-08-057880-4\| page = 2 }}</ref> Americium is not synthesized directly from uranium – the most common reactor material – but from the plutonium isotope <sup>239</sup>Pu. The latter needs to be produced first, according to the following nuclear process: : <chem>^{238}_{92}U ->[\ce{(n,\gamma)}] ^{239}_{92}U ->[\beta^-][23.5 \ \ce{min}] ^{239}_{93}Np ->[\beta^-][2.3565 \ \ce{d}] ^{239}_{94}Pu</chem> The capture of two neutrons by <sup>239</sup>Pu (a so-called (n,γ) reaction), followed by a β-decay, results in <sup>241</sup>Am: : <chem>^{239}_{94}Pu ->[\ce{2(n,\gamma)}] ^{241}_{94}Pu ->[\beta^-][14.35 \ \ce{yr}] ^{241}_{95}Am</chem> The plutonium present in spent nuclear fuel contains about 12% of <sup>241</sup>Pu. Because it beta-decays to <sup>241</sup>Am, <sup>241</sup>Pu can be extracted and may be used to generate further <sup>241</sup>Am.<ref name="smoke" /> However, this process is rather slow: half of the original amount of <sup>241</sup>Pu decays to <sup>241</sup>Am after about 15 years, and the <sup>241</sup>Am amount reaches a maximum after 70 years.<ref>[http://www.bredl.org/sapc/Pu_ReportI.htm BREDL Southern Anti-Plutonium Campaign], Blue Ridge Environmental Defense League, Retrieved 28 November 2010</ref> The obtained <sup>241</sup>Am can be used for generating heavier americium isotopes by further neutron capture inside a nuclear reactor. In a light water reactor (LWR), 79% of <sup>241</sup>Am converts to <sup>242</sup>Am and 10% to its nuclear isomer <sup>242m</sup>Am:<ref groupnote>The "metastable" state is marked by the letter m.</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.3327/jnst.41.448 \|authorSasahara, A. \|titleNeutron and Gamma Ray Source Evaluation of LWR High Burn-up UO<sub>2</sub> and MOX Spent Fuels \|journalJournal of Nuclear Science and Technology \|date2004 \|volume41 \|issue4 \|pages448–456 \|display-authorsetal \|doi-accessfree }} [http://sciencelinks.jp/j-east/ article/200410/000020041004A0333355.php Abstract] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101124010256/http://sciencelinks.jp/j-east/ \|date=24 November 2010 }}</ref> :<math chem>\begin{cases} 79\%: & \ce{^{241}_{95}Am ->[\ce{(n,\gamma)}] ^{242}_{95}Am} \\ 10\%: & \ce{^{241}_{95}Am ->[\ce{(n,\gamma)}] ^{242 m}_{95}Am} \end{cases}</math> Americium-242 has a half-life of only 16 hours, which makes its further conversion to <sup>243</sup>Am extremely inefficient. The latter isotope is produced instead in a process where <sup>239</sup>Pu captures four neutrons under high neutron flux: : <chem>^{239}_{94}Pu ->[\ce{4(n,\gamma)}] \ ^{243}_{94}Pu ->[\beta^-][4.956 \ \ce{h}] ^{243}_{95}Am</chem> Metal generation Most synthesis routines yield a mixture of different actinide isotopes in oxide forms, from which isotopes of americium can be separated. In a typical procedure, the spent reactor fuel (e.g. MOX fuel) is dissolved in nitric acid, and the bulk of uranium and plutonium is removed using a PUREX-type extraction (Plutonium–URanium EXtraction) with tributyl phosphate in a hydrocarbon. The lanthanides and remaining actinides are then separated from the aqueous residue (raffinate) by a diamide-based extraction, to give, after stripping, a mixture of trivalent actinides and lanthanides. Americium compounds are then selectively extracted using multi-step chromatographic and centrifugation techniques<ref>Penneman, pp. 34–48</ref> with an appropriate reagent. A large amount of work has been done on the solvent extraction of americium. For example, a 2003 EU-funded project codenamed "EUROPART" studied triazines and other compounds as potential extraction agents.<ref>{{cite journal\|journal Dalton Trans.\|date 2003\|pages 1675–1685\|doi 10.1039/b301178j\|title The coordination chemistry of 1,2,4-triazinyl bipyridines with lanthanide(III) elements – implications for the partitioning of americium(III)\|author Hudson, M. J.\|issue 9\|display-authorsetal}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|author Geist, A.\|title Actinide(III)/Lanthanide(III) Partitioning Using n-Pr-BTP as Extractant: Extraction Kinetics and Extraction Test in a Hollow Fiber Module\|work 6th Information Exchange Meeting on Actinide and Fission Product Partitioning and Transmutation\|publisher OECD Nuclear Energy Agency\|date 11–13 December 2000\|url https://www.oecd-nea.org/pt/docs/iem/madrid00/Proceedings/Paper14.pdf\|display-authors etal\|access-date 26 May 2014\|archive-date 24 September 2015\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20150924055355/http://www.oecd-nea.org/pt/docs/iem/madrid00/Proceedings/Paper14.pdf\|url-status dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|url http://www-atalante2004.cea.fr/home/liblocal/docs/atalante2000/P3-26.pdf\|title Sanex-BTP Process Development Studies\|work Atalante 2000: Scientific Research on the Back-end of the Fuel Cycle for the 21st Century\|publisher Commissariat à l'énergie atomique\|date 24–26 October 2000\|author Hill, C.\|author2 Guillaneux, D.\|author3 Hérès, X.\|author4 Boubals, N.\|author5 Ramain, L.\|name-list-style amp\|url-status dead\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20121115151847/http://www-atalante2004.cea.fr/home/liblocal/docs/atalante2000/P3-26.pdf\|archive-date 15 November 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|title Effective Actinide(III)-Lanthanide(III) Separation in Miniature Hollow Fibre Modules\|author Geist, A.\|url http://www.nea.fr/html/pt/docs/iem/jeju02/session2/SessionII-15.pdf\|work 7th Information Exchange Meeting on Actinide and Fission Product Partitioning and Transmutation\|date 14–16 October 2002\|publisher OECD Nuclear Energy Agency\|display-authors etal\|access-date 17 March 2007\|archive-date 29 September 2009\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20090929023456/http://www.nea.fr/html/pt/docs/iem/jeju02/session2/SessionII-15.pdf\|url-status dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|title Separation Studies of f-Elements\|author Ensor, D.D.\|publisher Tennessee Tech University\|url http://www.tntech.edu/WRC/pdfs/Projects04_05/Ens_Elem.pdf\|url-status dead\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20060922113030/http://www.tntech.edu/wrc/pdfs/Projects04_05/Ens_Elem.pdf\|archive-date 22 September 2006}}</ref> A bis-triazinyl bipyridine complex was proposed in 2009 as such a reagent is highly selective to americium (and curium).<ref>{{cite journal\|author Magnusson D\|author2 Christiansen B\|author3 Foreman MRS\|author4 Geist A\|author5 Glatz JP\|author6 Malmbeck R\|author7 Modolo G\|author8 Serrano-Purroy D\|author9 Sorel C\|name-list-style amp\|journal Solvent Extraction and Ion Exchange\|date 2009\|volume 27\|page 97\|doi 10.1080/07366290802672204\|title Demonstration of a SANEX Process in Centrifugal Contactors using the CyMe4-BTBP Molecule on a Genuine Fuel Solution\|issue 2\|title-link centrifugal extractor\|s2cid 94720457}}</ref> Separation of americium from the highly similar curium can be achieved by treating a slurry of their hydroxides in aqueous sodium bicarbonate with ozone, at elevated temperatures. Both Am and Cm are mostly present in solutions in the +3 valence state; whereas curium remains unchanged, americium oxidizes to soluble Am(IV) complexes which can be washed away.<ref>Penneman, p. 25</ref> Metallic americium is obtained by reduction from its compounds. Americium(III) fluoride was first used for this purpose. The reaction was conducted using elemental barium as reducing agent in a water- and oxygen-free environment inside an apparatus made of tantalum and tungsten.<ref name"AM_METALL1" /><ref name "Gmelin">Gmelin Handbook of Inorganic Chemistry, System No. 71, transuranics, Part B 1, pp. 57–67.</ref><ref name="p3">Penneman, p. 3</ref> : <math>\mathrm{2\ AmF_3\ +\ 3\ Ba\ \longrightarrow \ 2\ Am\ +\ 3\ BaF_2}</math> An alternative is the reduction of americium dioxide by metallic lanthanum or thorium:<ref name"p3" /><ref name"AM_METALL2" /> : <math>\mathrm{3\ AmO_2\ +\ 4\ La\ \longrightarrow \ 3\ Am\ +\ 2\ La_2O_3}</math> Physical properties In the periodic table, americium is located to the right of plutonium, to the left of curium, and below the lanthanide europium, with which it shares many physical and chemical properties. Americium is a highly radioactive element. When freshly prepared, it has a silvery-white metallic lustre, but then slowly tarnishes in air. With a density of 12&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>, americium is less dense than both curium (13.52&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>) and plutonium (19.8&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>); but has a higher density than europium (5.264&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>)—mostly because of its higher atomic mass. Americium is relatively soft and easily deformable and has a significantly lower bulk modulus than the actinides before it: Th, Pa, U, Np and Pu.<ref name"pressure" /> Its melting point of 1173&nbsp;°C is significantly higher than that of plutonium (639&nbsp;°C) and europium (826&nbsp;°C), but lower than for curium (1340&nbsp;°C).<ref name"AM_METALL2">{{cite journal\|last1Wade\|first1W.\|titlePreparation and some properties of americium metal\|journalJournal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry\|volume29\|page2577\|date1967\|doi10.1016/0022-1902(67)80183-0\|issue10\|last2Wolf\|first2T.\|s2cid98370243 }}</ref><ref name="AM_METALL4" /> At ambient conditions, americium is present in its most stable α form which has a hexagonal crystal symmetry, and a space group P6<sub>3</sub>/mmc with cell parameters a&nbsp;346.8&nbsp;pm and c&nbsp; 1124&nbsp;pm, and four atoms per unit cell. The crystal consists of a double-hexagonal close packing with the layer sequence ABAC and so is isotypic with α-lanthanum and several actinides such as α-curium.<ref name"Gmelin" /><ref name "AM_METALL4">{{cite journal\|last1McWhan\|first1D. B.\|last2Cunningham\|first2B. B.\|last3Wallmann\|first3J. C.\|titleCrystal structure, thermal expansion and melting point of americium metal\|journalJournal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry\|volume24\|page1025\|date1962\|doi10.1016/0022-1902(62)80246-2\|issue9}}</ref> The crystal structure of americium changes with pressure and temperature. When compressed at room temperature to 5 GPa, α-Am transforms to the β modification, which has a face-centered cubic (fcc) symmetry, space group Fm{{overline\|3}}m and lattice constant a&nbsp; 489&nbsp;pm. This fcc structure is equivalent to the closest packing with the sequence ABC.<ref name"Gmelin" /><ref name "AM_METALL4" /> Upon further compression to 23 GPa, americium transforms to an orthorhombic γ-Am structure similar to that of α-uranium. There are no further transitions observed up to 52 GPa, except for an appearance of a monoclinic phase at pressures between 10 and 15 GPa.<ref name"pressure">{{cite journal\|last1Benedict\|first1U.\|titleStudy of actinide metals and actinide compounds under high pressures\|journalJournal of the Less Common Metals\|volume100\|page153\|date1984\|doi10.1016/0022-5088(84)90061-4}}</ref> There is no consistency on the status of this phase in the literature, which also sometimes lists the α, β and γ phases as I, II and III. The β-γ transition is accompanied by a 6% decrease in the crystal volume; although theory also predicts a significant volume change for the α-β transition, it is not observed experimentally. The pressure of the α-β transition decreases with increasing temperature, and when α-americium is heated at ambient pressure, at 770&nbsp;°C it changes into an fcc phase which is different from β-Am, and at 1075&nbsp;°C it converts to a body-centered cubic structure. The pressure-temperature phase diagram of americium is thus rather similar to those of lanthanum, praseodymium and neodymium.<ref>{{cite book\| last1 Young \|first1D. A. \| title Phase diagrams of the elements\| url https://books.google.com/books?idF2HVYh6wLBcC&pgPA226\| date 1991\| publisher University of California Press\| isbn 978-0-520-91148-2\| page = 226 }}</ref> As with many other actinides, self-damage of the crystal structure due to alpha-particle irradiation is intrinsic to americium. It is especially noticeable at low temperatures, where the mobility of the produced structure defects is relatively low, by broadening of X-ray diffraction peaks. This effect makes somewhat uncertain the temperature of americium and some of its properties, such as electrical resistivity.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Benedict\|first1U.\|last2Dufour\|first2C.\|titleLow temperature lattice expansion of americium dioxide\|journalPhysica B+C\|volume102\|issue1\|page303\|date1980\|doi10.1016/0378-4363(80)90178-3\|bibcode 1980PhyBC.102..303B }}</ref> So for americium-241, the resistivity at 4.2 K increases with time from about 2&nbsp;μOhm·cm to 10&nbsp;μOhm·cm after 40 hours, and saturates at about 16&nbsp;μOhm·cm after 140 hours. This effect is less pronounced at room temperature, due to annihilation of radiation defects; also heating to room temperature the sample which was kept for hours at low temperatures restores its resistivity. In fresh samples, the resistivity gradually increases with temperature from about 2 μOhm·cm at liquid helium to 69&nbsp;μOhm·cm at room temperature; this behavior is similar to that of neptunium, uranium, thorium and protactinium, but is different from plutonium and curium which show a rapid rise up to 60&nbsp;K followed by saturation. The room temperature value for americium is lower than that of neptunium, plutonium and curium, but higher than for uranium, thorium and protactinium.<ref name="res" /> Americium is paramagnetic in a wide temperature range, from that of liquid helium, to room temperature and above. This behavior is markedly different from that of its neighbor curium which exhibits antiferromagnetic transition at 52&nbsp;K.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Kanellakopulos\|first1B.\|titleThe magnetic susceptibility of Americium and curium metal\|journalSolid State Communications\|volume17\|page713\|date1975\|doi10.1016/0038-1098(75)90392-0\|issue6\|bibcode 1975SSCom..17..713K\|last2Blaise\|first2A.\|last3Fournier\|first3J. M.\|last4Müller\|first4W. }}</ref> The thermal expansion coefficient of americium is slightly anisotropic and amounts to {{val\|7.5e-6\|0.2\|u/°C}} along the shorter a axis and {{val\|6.2e-6\|0.4\|u/°C}} for the longer c hexagonal axis.<ref name "AM_METALL4" /> The enthalpy of dissolution of americium metal in hydrochloric acid at standard conditions is {{val\|−620.6\|1.3\|ukJ/mol}}, from which the standard enthalpy change of formation (Δ<sub>f</sub>H°) of aqueous Am<sup>3+</sup> ion is {{val\|−621.2\|2.0\|ukJ/mol}}. The standard potential Am<sup>3+</sup>/Am<sup>0</sup> is {{val\|−2.08\|0.01\|uV}}.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Mondal\|first1J. U.\|last2Raschella\|first2D. L.\|last3Haire\|first3R. G.\|last4Petereson\|first4J. R.\|titleThe enthalpy of solution of 243Am metal and the standard enthalpy of formation of Am3+(aq)\|journalThermochimica Acta\|volume116\|page235\|date1987\|doi10.1016/0040-6031(87)88183-2}}</ref> Chemical properties Americium metal readily reacts with oxygen and dissolves in aqueous acids. The most stable oxidation state for americium is +3.<ref name"p4">Penneman, p. 4</ref> The chemistry of americium(III) has many similarities to the chemistry of lanthanide(III) compounds. For example, trivalent americium forms insoluble fluoride, oxalate, iodate, hydroxide, phosphate and other salts.<ref name"p4" /> Compounds of americium in oxidation states +2, +4, +5, +6 and +7 have also been studied. This is the widest range that has been observed with actinide elements. The color of americium compounds in aqueous solution is as follows: Am<sup>3+</sup> (yellow-reddish), Am<sup>4+</sup> (yellow-reddish), {{chem2\|Am^{V}O2+}}; (yellow), {{chem2\|Am^{VI}O2(2+)}} (brown) and {{chem2\|Am^{VII}O6(5-)}} (dark green).<ref>[http://www.chemie-master.de/FrameHandler.php?lochttp://www.chemie-master.de/pse/pse.php?modulAm Americium] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190609181845/http://www.chemie-master.de/FrameHandler.php?lochttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.chemie-master.de%2Fpse%2Fpse.php%3Fmodul%3DAm \|date9 June 2019 }}, Das Periodensystem der Elemente für den Schulgebrauch (The periodic table of elements for schools) chemie-master.de (in German), Retrieved 28 November 2010</ref><ref name"g1265">Greenwood, p. 1265</ref> The absorption spectra have sharp peaks, due to f-f transitions' in the visible and near-infrared regions. Typically, Am(III) has absorption maxima at ca. 504 and 811&nbsp;nm, Am(V) at ca. 514 and 715&nbsp;nm, and Am(VI) at ca. 666 and 992&nbsp;nm.<ref>Penneman, pp. 10–14</ref><ref name"amoh4" /><ref name"carbonate" /><ref name="haxav" /> Americium compounds with oxidation state +4 and higher are strong oxidizing agents, comparable in strength to the permanganate ion ({{chem2\|MnO4-}}) in acidic solutions.<ref name = "HOWI_1956">Wiberg, p. 1956</ref> Whereas the Am<sup>4+</sup> ions are unstable in solutions and readily convert to Am<sup>3+</sup>, compounds such as americium dioxide (AmO<sub>2</sub>) and americium(IV) fluoride (AmF<sub>4</sub>) are stable in the solid state. The pentavalent oxidation state of americium was first observed in 1951.<ref>{{cite journal\|titleThe Pentavalent State of Americium\|last1Werner\|first1L. B.\|last2Perlman\|first2I.\|journalJournal of the American Chemical Society\|volume73\|page495\|date1951\|issue1 \|doi10.1021/ja01145a540\|bibcode1951JAChS..73..495W \|hdl2027/mdp.39015086479774\|hdl-accessfree}}</ref> In acidic aqueous solution the {{chem2\|AmO2+}} ion is unstable with respect to disproportionation.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Hall\|first1G.\|titleThe self-reduction of americium(V) and (VI) and the disproportionation of americium(V) in aqueous solution\|journalJournal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry\|volume4\|page296\|date1957\|doi10.1016/0022-1902(57)80011-6\|issue5–6\|last2Markin\|first2T. L.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|last1Coleman\|first1James S.\|titleThe Kinetics of the Disproportionation of Americium(V)\|journalInorganic Chemistry\|volume2\|page53\|date1963\|doi10.1021/ic50005a016}}</ref><ref name"g1275">Greenwood, p. 1275</ref> The reaction : {{chem2\|3[AmO2]+ + 4H+ -> 2[AmO2](2+) + Am(3+) + 2H2O}} is typical. The chemistry of Am(V) and Am(VI) is comparable to the chemistry of uranium in those oxidation states. In particular, compounds like {{chem2\|Li3AmO4}} and {{chem2\|Li6AmO6}} are comparable to uranates and the ion {{chem2\|AmO2(2+)}} is comparable to the uranyl ion, {{chem2\|UO2(2+)}}. Such compounds can be prepared by oxidation of Am(III) in dilute nitric acid with ammonium persulfate.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Asprey\|first1L. B.\|titleA New Valence State of Americium, Am(Vi)1\|last2Stephanou\|first2S. E.\|last3Penneman\|first3R. A.\|journalJournal of the American Chemical Society \|volume72\|page1425\| date1950\|doi10.1021/ja01159a528\|issue3\|bibcode1950JAChS..72.1425A \| urlhttps://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1020623/}}</ref> Other oxidising agents that have been used include silver(I) oxide,<ref name"haxav">{{cite journal\|last1Asprey\|first1L. B.\|last2Stephanou\|first2S. E.\|last3Penneman\|first3R. A.\|titleHexavalent Americium\|journalJournal of the American Chemical Society\|volume73\|page5715\|date1951\|doi10.1021/ja01156a065\|issue12\|bibcode1951JAChS..73.5715A }}</ref> ozone and sodium persulfate.<ref name"carbonate">{{cite journal\|last1Coleman\|first1J. S.\|last2Keenan\|first2T. K.\|last3Jones\|first3L. H.\|last4Carnall\|first4W. T.\|last5Penneman\|first5R. A.\|titlePreparation and Properties of Americium(VI) in Aqueous Carbonate Solutions\|journalInorganic Chemistry\|volume2\|page58\|date1963\|doi10.1021/ic50005a017}}</ref>Chemical compounds{{Main\|Americium compounds}}Oxygen compoundsThree americium oxides are known, with the oxidation states +2 (AmO), +3 (Am<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) and +4 (AmO<sub>2</sub>). Americium(II) oxide was prepared in minute amounts and has not been characterized in detail.<ref>{{Cite journal\| doi 10.1016/0022-1902(67)80191-X\| title A note on AmN and AmO\| journal Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry\| volume 29\| issue 10\| pages 2650–2652\| year 1967\| last1 Akimoto \| first1 Y.}}</ref> Americium(III) oxide is a red-brown solid with a melting point of 2205&nbsp;°C.<ref name "HOWI_1972">Wiberg, p. 1972</ref> Americium(IV) oxide is the main form of solid americium which is used in nearly all its applications. As most other actinide dioxides, it is a black solid with a cubic (fluorite) crystal structure.<ref name"g1267">Greenwood, p. 1267</ref> The oxalate of americium(III), vacuum dried at room temperature, has the chemical formula Am<sub>2</sub>(C<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub>·7H<sub>2</sub>O. Upon heating in vacuum, it loses water at 240&nbsp;°C and starts decomposing into AmO<sub>2</sub> at 300&nbsp;°C, the decomposition completes at about 470&nbsp;°C.<ref name"p4" /> The initial oxalate dissolves in nitric acid with the maximum solubility of 0.25&nbsp;g/L.<ref name"p5">Penneman, p. 5</ref> Halides Halides of americium are known for the oxidation states +2, +3 and +4,<ref name"HOWI_1969">Wiberg, p. 1969</ref> where the +3 is most stable, especially in solutions.<ref name"hal1">{{cite journal\|titleCrystal Structures of the Trifluorides, Trichlorides, Tribromides, and Triiodides of Americium and Curium\|last1Asprey\|first1L. B.\|last2Keenan\|first2T. K.\|last3Kruse\|first3F. H.\|journalInorganic Chemistry\|volume4\|page985\|date1965\|doi10.1021/ic50029a013\|issue7\|s2cid96551460 \|url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1035960/}}</ref> {\| Class "wikitable" style"text-align:center;" \|- ! Oxidation state ! F ! Cl ! Br ! I \|- ! +4 \| Americium(IV) fluoride <br /> AmF<sub>4</sub><br /> pale pink \| \| \| \|- ! +3 \| Americium(III) fluoride <br /> AmF<sub>3</sub><br /> pink \| Americium(III) chloride <br /> AmCl<sub>3</sub><br /> pink \| Americium(III) bromide <br /> AmBr<sub>3</sub><br /> light yellow \| Americium(III) iodide <br /> AmI<sub>3</sub><br /> light yellow \|- ! +2 \| \| Americium(II) chloride <br /> AmCl<sub>2</sub><br /> black <!-- (CAS: 16601-54-0) ---> \| Americium(II) bromide <br /> AmBr<sub>2</sub><br /> black <!-- (CAS: 39705-49-2) --> \| Americium(II) iodide <br /> AmI<sub>2</sub><br /> black <!-- (CAS: 38150-40-2) --> \|} Reduction of Am(III) compounds with sodium amalgam yields Am(II) salts – the black halides AmCl<sub>2</sub>, AmBr<sub>2</sub> and AmI<sub>2</sub>. They are very sensitive to oxygen and oxidize in water, releasing hydrogen and converting back to the Am(III) state. Specific lattice constants are: * Orthorhombic AmCl<sub>2</sub>: a {{val\|896.3\|0.8\|upm}}, b {{val\|757.3\|0.8\|upm}} and c {{val\|453.2\|0.6\|upm}} * Tetragonal AmBr<sub>2</sub>: a {{val\|1159.2\|0.4\|upm}} and c {{val\|712.1\|0.3\|upm}}.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Baybarz\|first1R. D.\|titleThe preparation and crystal structures of americium dichloride and dibromide\|journalJournal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry\|volume35\|page483\|date1973\|doi10.1016/0022-1902(73)80560-3\|issue2}}</ref> They can also be prepared by reacting metallic americium with an appropriate mercury halide HgX<sub>2</sub>, where X Cl, Br or I:<ref name="g1272">Greenwood, p. 1272</ref> : <chem>{Am} + \underset{mercury\ halide}{HgX2} ->[{} \atop 400 - 500 ^\circ \ce C] {AmX2} + {Hg}</chem> Americium(III) fluoride (AmF<sub>3</sub>) is poorly soluble and precipitates upon reaction of Am<sup>3+</sup> and fluoride ions in weak acidic solutions: : <chem>Am^3+ + 3F^- -> AmF3(v)</chem> The tetravalent americium(IV) fluoride (AmF<sub>4</sub>) is obtained by reacting solid americium(III) fluoride with molecular fluorine:<ref name"f4">{{cite journal\|titleNew Compounds of Quadrivalent Americium, AmF<sub>4</sub>, KAmF<sub>5</sub>\|last1Asprey\|first1L. B.\|journalJournal of the American Chemical Society\|volume76\|page2019\|date1954\|doi10.1021/ja01636a094\|issue7\|bibcode1954JAChS..76.2019A }}</ref><ref name"g1271">Greenwood, p. 1271</ref> : <chem>2AmF3 + F2 -> 2AmF4</chem> Another known form of solid tetravalent americium fluoride is KAmF<sub>5</sub>.<ref name"f4" /><ref name"p6">Penneman, p. 6</ref> Tetravalent americium has also been observed in the aqueous phase. For this purpose, black Am(OH)<sub>4</sub> was dissolved in 15-M NH<sub>4</sub>F with the americium concentration of 0.01 M. The resulting reddish solution had a characteristic optical absorption spectrum which is similar to that of AmF<sub>4</sub> but differed from other oxidation states of americium. Heating the Am(IV) solution to 90&nbsp;°C did not result in its disproportionation or reduction, however a slow reduction was observed to Am(III) and assigned to self-irradiation of americium by alpha particles.<ref name"amoh4">{{cite journal\|last1Asprey\|first1L. B.\|titleFirst Observation of Aqueous Tetravalent Americium1\|last2Penneman\|first2R. A.\|journalJournal of the American Chemical Society\|volume83\|page2200\|date1961\|doi10.1021/ja01470a040\|issue9\|bibcode=1961JAChS..83.2200A }}</ref> Most americium(III) halides form hexagonal crystals with slight variation of the color and exact structure between the halogens. So, chloride (AmCl<sub>3</sub>) is reddish and has a structure isotypic to uranium(III) chloride (space group P6<sub>3</sub>/m) and the melting point of 715&nbsp;°C.<ref name"HOWI_1969" /> The fluoride is isotypic to LaF<sub>3</sub> (space group P6<sub>3</sub>/mmc) and the iodide to BiI<sub>3</sub> (space group R{{overline\|3}}). The bromide is an exception with the orthorhombic PuBr<sub>3</sub>-type structure and space group Cmcm.<ref name"hal1" /> Crystals of americium(III) chloride hexahydrate (AmCl<sub>3</sub>·6H<sub>2</sub>O) can be prepared by dissolving americium dioxide in hydrochloric acid and evaporating the liquid. Those crystals are hygroscopic and have yellow-reddish color and a monoclinic crystal structure.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Burns\|first1John H.\|last2Peterson\|first2Joseph Richard\|titleCrystal structures of americium trichloride hexahydrate and berkelium trichloride hexahydrate\|journalInorganic Chemistry\|volume10\|page147\|date1971\|doi10.1021/ic50095a029}}</ref> Oxyhalides of americium in the form Am<sup>VI</sup>O<sub>2</sub>X<sub>2</sub>, Am<sup>V</sup>O<sub>2</sub>X, Am<sup>IV</sup>OX<sub>2</sub> and Am<sup>III</sup>OX can be obtained by reacting the corresponding americium halide with oxygen or Sb<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, and AmOCl can also be produced by vapor phase hydrolysis:<ref name="g1272" /> : AmCl<sub>3</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O -> AmOCl + 2HCl Chalcogenides and pnictides The known chalcogenides of americium include the sulfide AmS<sub>2</sub>,<ref name"AM_S_SE">{{cite journal\|last1Damien\|first1D.\|titleAmericium disulfide and diselenide\|journalInorganic and Nuclear Chemistry Letters\|volume7\|page685\|date1971\|doi10.1016/0020-1650(71)80055-7\|issue7\|last2Jove\|first2J.}}</ref> selenides AmSe<sub>2</sub> and Am<sub>3</sub>Se<sub>4</sub>,<ref name "AM_S_SE " /><ref name"AM_METALLIDE">{{cite journal\|last1Roddy\|first1J.\|titleAmericium metallides: AmAs, AmSb, AmBi, Am3Se4, and AmSe2\|journalJournal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry\|volume36\|page2531\|date1974\|doi10.1016/0022-1902(74)80466-5\|issue11}}</ref> and tellurides Am<sub>2</sub>Te<sub>3</sub> and AmTe<sub>2</sub>.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Damien\|first1D.\|titleAmericium tritelluride and ditelluride\|journalInorganic and Nuclear Chemistry Letters\|volume8\|page501\|date1972\|doi10.1016/0020-1650(72)80262-9\|issue5}}</ref> The pnictides of americium (<sup>243</sup>Am) of the AmX type are known for the elements phosphorus, arsenic,<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Charvillat\|first1J.\|titleAmericium monoarsenide\|journalInorganic and Nuclear Chemistry Letters\|volume9\|page559\|date1973\|doi10.1016/0020-1650(73)80191-6\|issue5\|last2Damien\|first2D.}}</ref> antimony and bismuth. They crystallize in the rock-salt lattice.<ref name"AM_METALLIDE" /> Silicides and borides Americium monosilicide (AmSi) and "disilicide" (nominally AmSi<sub>x</sub> with: 1.87 < x < 2.0) were obtained by reduction of americium(III) fluoride with elementary silicon in vacuum at 1050&nbsp;°C (AmSi) and 1150−1200&nbsp;°C (AmSi<sub>x</sub>). AmSi is a black solid isomorphic with LaSi, it has an orthorhombic crystal symmetry. AmSi<sub>x</sub> has a bright silvery lustre and a tetragonal crystal lattice (space group I4<sub>1</sub>/amd), it is isomorphic with PuSi<sub>2</sub> and ThSi<sub>2</sub>.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Weigel\|first1F.\|last2Wittmann\|first2F.\|last3Marquart\|first3R.\|titleAmericium monosilicide and "disilicide"\|journalJournal of the Less Common Metals\|volume56\|page47\|date1977\|doi10.1016/0022-5088(77)90217-X}}</ref> Borides of americium include AmB<sub>4</sub> and AmB<sub>6</sub>. The tetraboride can be obtained by heating an oxide or halide of americium with magnesium diboride in vacuum or inert atmosphere.<ref>Lupinetti, A. J. et al. {{US patent\|6830738}} "Low-temperature synthesis of actinide tetraborides by solid-state metathesis reactions", Filed 4 Apr 2002, Issued 14 December 2004</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|last1Eick\|first1Harry A.\|last2Mulford\|first2R. N. R.\|titleAmericium and neptunium borides\|journalJournal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry\|volume31\|page371\|date1969\|doi10.1016/0022-1902(69)80480-X\|issue2}}</ref>Organoamericium compoundsAnalogous to uranocene, americium is predicted to form the organometallic compound amerocene with two cyclooctatetraene ligands, with the chemical formula (η<sup>8</sup>-C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>8</sub>)<sub>2</sub>Am.<ref>{{cite book\| last Elschenbroich\| first Christoph\| title Organometallchemie\| date 2008\| publisher Vieweg+teubner Verlag\| isbn 978-3-8351-0167-8\| page 589 }}</ref> A cyclopentadienyl complex is also known that is likely to be stoichiometrically AmCp<sub>3</sub>.<ref>{{cite book\|author-linkThomas Albrecht-Schönzart \| author Albrecht-Schmitt, Thomas E. \| title Organometallic and Coordination Chemistry of the Actinides\| url https://books.google.com/books?idrgmnVSzFzXMC&pgPA8\| date 2008\| publisher Springer\| isbn 978-3-540-77836-3\| page 8 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Dutkiewicz \|first1Michał S. \|last2Apostolidis \|first2Christos \|last3Walter \|first3Olaf \|last4Arnold \|first4Polly L. \|date30 January 2017 \|titleReduction chemistry of neptunium cyclopentadienide complexes: from structure to understanding \|journalChemical Science \|volume2017 \|issue8 \|pages2553–61 \|doi10.1039/C7SC00034K \|pmid28553487 \|pmc=5431675 }}</ref> Formation of the complexes of the type Am(n-C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>7</sub>-BTP)<sub>3</sub>, where BTP stands for 2,6-di(1,2,4-triazin-3-yl)pyridine, in solutions containing n-C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>7</sub>-BTP and Am<sup>3+</sup> ions has been confirmed by EXAFS. Some of these BTP-type complexes selectively interact with americium and therefore are useful in its selective separation from lanthanides and another actinides.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Girnt\|first1Denise\|last2Roesky\|first2Peter W.\|last3Geist\|first3Andreas\|last4Ruff\|first4Christian M.\|last5Panak\|first5Petra J.\|last6Denecke\|first6Melissa A.\|title6-(3,5-Dimethyl-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)-2,2'-bipyridine as Ligand for Actinide(III)/Lanthanide(III) Separation\|journalInorganic Chemistry\|volume49\|issue20\|pages9627–35\|date2010\|pmid20849125\|doi10.1021/ic101309j\|urlhttps://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/api/datastream?publicationPiduk-ac-man-scw:209191&datastreamIdPOST-PEER-REVIEW-PUBLISHERS.PDF\|archive-date17 January 2022\|access-date24 August 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220117094730/https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/api/datastream?publicationPiduk-ac-man-scw:209191&datastreamIdPOST-PEER-REVIEW-PUBLISHERS.PDF\|url-statusdead}}</ref>Biological aspectsAmericium is an artificial element of recent origin, and thus does not have a biological requirement.<ref>Toeniskoetter, Steve; Dommer, Jennifer and Dodge, Tony [http://umbbd.ethz.ch/periodic/elements/am.html The Biochemical Periodic Tables – Americium], University of Minnesota, Retrieved 28 November 2010</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|urlhttp://www.osti.gov/bridge/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id2439\|authorDodge, C.J.\|titleRole of Microbes as Biocolloids in the Transport of Actinides from a Deep Underground Radioactive Waste Repository\|journalRadiochim. Acta \|date1998\|volume82\|pages347–354\|doi10.1524/ract.1998.82.special-issue.347\|s2cid99777562\|display-authorsetal}}</ref> It is harmful to life. It has been proposed to use bacteria for removal of americium and other heavy metals from rivers and streams. Thus, Enterobacteriaceae of the genus Citrobacter precipitate americium ions from aqueous solutions, binding them into a metal-phosphate complex at their cell walls.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi10.1111/j.1574-6976.1994.tb00109.x\|last1MacAskie\|first1L. E.\|last2Jeong\|first2B. C.\|last3Tolley\|first3M. R. \|titleEnzymically accelerated biomineralization of heavy metals: application to the removal of americium and plutonium from aqueous flows\|journalFEMS Microbiology Reviews\|volume14\|issue4\|pages351–67\|date1994\|pmid7917422\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Several studies have been reported on the biosorption and bioaccumulation of americium by bacteria<ref>{{cite journal\|doi10.1097/00004032-198601000-00007\|last1Wurtz\|first1E. A.\|last2Sibley\|first2T. H.\|last3Schell\|first3W. R.\|titleInteractions of Escherichia coli and marine bacteria with 241Am in laboratory cultures\|journalHealth Physics\|volume50\|issue1\|pages79–88\|date1986\|pmid3511007\|bibcode1986HeaPh..50...79W }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|authorFrancis, A.J.\|titleRole of Bacteria as Biocolloids in the Transport of Actinides from a Deep Underground Radioactive Waste Repository\|journalRadiochimica Acta\|date1998\|volume82\|pages 347–354\|osti2439\|display-authorsetal\|doi10.1524/ract.1998.82.special-issue.347\|s2cid99777562}}</ref> and fungi.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Liu\|first1N.\|last2Yang\|first2Y.\|last3Luo\|first3S.\|last4Zhang\|first4T.\|last5Jin\|first5J.\|last6Liao\|first6J.\|last7Hua\|first7X.\|titleBiosorption of 241Am by Rhizopus arrihizus: preliminary investigation and evaluation\|journalApplied Radiation and Isotopes\|volume57\|issue2\|pages139–43\|date2002\|pmid12150270\|doi10.1016/s0969-8043(02)00076-3}}</ref> In the laboratory, both americium and curium were found to support the growth of methylotrophs.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Remick \|first1Kaleigh \|last2Helmann \|first2John D. \|titleThe Elements of Life: A Biocentric Tour of the Periodic Table \|journalAdvances in Microbial Physiology \|publisherPubMed Central \|date30 January 2023 \|volume82 \|pages1–127 \|doi10.1016/bs.ampbs.2022.11.001 \|pmid36948652 \|pmc10727122 \|isbn978-0-443-19334-7}}</ref> Fission The isotope <sup>242m</sup>Am (half-life 141 years) has the largest cross sections for absorption of thermal neutrons (5,700 barns),<ref name "Karlsruhe">Pfennig, G.; Klewe-Nebenius, H and Seelmann Eggebert, W. (Eds.): Karlsruhe nuclide, 7 Edition 2006.</ref> that results in a small critical mass for a sustained nuclear chain reaction. The critical mass for a bare <sup>242m</sup>Am sphere is about 9–14&nbsp;kg (the uncertainty results from insufficient knowledge of its material properties). It can be lowered to 3–5&nbsp;kg with a metal reflector and should become even smaller with a water reflector.<ref>{{cite journal \|authorDias, H. \|author2Tancock, N. \|author3Clayton, A. \|name-list-styleamp \|titleCritical Mass Calculations for <sup>241</sup>Am, <sup>242m</sup>Am and <sup>243</sup>Am \|journalNippon Genshiryoku Kenkyujo JAERI \|date2003 \|pages618–623 \|urlhttp://typhoon.jaea.go.jp/icnc2003/Proceeding/paper/6.5_022.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110722105207/http://typhoon.jaea.go.jp/icnc2003/Proceeding/paper/6.5_022.pdf \|url-statusdead \|archive-date2011-07-22 }} [http://sciencelinks.jp/j-east/article/200403/000020040303A0828431.php Abstract] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120313120209/http://sciencelinks.jp/j-east/article/200403/000020040303A0828431.php \|date13 March 2012 }}</ref> Such small critical mass is favorable for portable nuclear weapons, but those based on <sup>242m</sup>Am are not known yet, probably because of its scarcity and high price. The critical masses of the two readily available isotopes, <sup>241</sup>Am and <sup>243</sup>Am, are relatively high – 57.6 to 75.6&nbsp;kg for <sup>241</sup>Am and 209&nbsp;kg for <sup>243</sup>Am.<ref name"irsn">Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire, [http://ec.europa.eu/energy/nuclear/transport/doc/irsn_sect03_146.pdf "Evaluation of nuclear criticality safety data and limits for actinides in transport"], p. 16.</ref> Scarcity and high price yet hinder application of americium as a nuclear fuel in nuclear reactors.<ref>{{cite journal\|authorRonen, Y.\|author2 Aboudy, M.\|author3Regev, D.\|name-list-style amp\|titleA novel method for energy production using <sup>242m</sup>Am as a nuclear fuel\|journalNuclear Technology \|date2000\|volume129\|issue3\|pages407–417\|urlhttp://cat.inist.fr/?aModeleafficheN&cpsidt1337515\|doi10.13182/nt00-a3071\|bibcode2000NucTe.129..407R\|s2cid 91916073}}</ref> There are proposals of very compact 10-kW high-flux reactors using as little as 20&nbsp;grams of <sup>242m</sup>Am. Such low-power reactors would be relatively safe to use as neutron sources for radiation therapy in hospitals.<ref>{{cite journal\|authorRonen, Y.\|author2Aboudy, M.\|author3Regev, D.\|name-list-styleamp\|titleHomogeneous <sup>242m</sup>Am-Fueled Reactor for Neutron Capture Therapy\|journalNuclear Science and Engineering\|date2001\|volume138\|issue3\|pages295–304\|osti20804726\|doi10.13182/nse01-a2215\|bibcode2001NSE...138..295R \|s2cid118801999}}</ref> Isotopes {{See also\|Isotopes of americium}} About 18 isotopes and 11 nuclear isomers are known for americium, having mass numbers 229, 230, and 232 through 247.<ref name"NUBASE2020"/> There are two long-lived alpha-emitters; <sup>243</sup>Am has a half-life of 7,370&nbsp;years and is the most stable isotope, and <sup>241</sup>Am has a half-life of 432.2&nbsp;years. The most stable nuclear isomer is <sup>242m1</sup>Am; it has a long half-life of 141&nbsp;years. The half-lives of other isotopes and isomers range from 0.64&nbsp;microseconds for <sup>245m1</sup>Am to 50.8&nbsp;hours for <sup>240</sup>Am. As with most other actinides, the isotopes of americium with odd number of neutrons have relatively high rate of nuclear fission and low critical mass.<ref name "nubase" /> Americium-241 decays to <sup>237</sup>Np emitting alpha particles of 5 different energies, mostly at 5.486&nbsp;MeV (85.2%) and 5.443&nbsp;MeV (12.8%). Because many of the resulting states are metastable, they also emit gamma rays with the discrete energies between 26.3 and 158.5&nbsp;keV.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://87.139.25.178:81/eng/theory.htm\|titleα-decay of <sup>241</sup>Am. Theory – A lecture course on radioactivity\|authorKlinck, Christian\|publisherUniversity of Technology Kaiserslautern\|access-date28 November 2010\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110706052757/http://87.139.25.178:81/eng/theory.htm\|archive-date6 July 2011}}</ref> Americium-242 is a short-lived isotope with a half-life of 16.02&nbsp;h.<ref name="nubase" /> It mostly (82.7%) converts by β-decay to <sup>242</sup>Cm, but also by electron capture to <sup>242</sup>Pu (17.3%). Both <sup>242</sup>Cm and <sup>242</sup>Pu transform via nearly the same decay chain through <sup>238</sup>Pu down to <sup>234</sup>U. Nearly all (99.541%) of <sup>242m1</sup>Am decays by internal conversion to <sup>242</sup>Am and the remaining 0.459% by α-decay to <sup>238</sup>Np. The latter subsequently decays to <sup>238</sup>Pu and then to <sup>234</sup>U.<ref name="nubase" /> Americium-243 transforms by α-emission into <sup>239</sup>Np, which converts by β-decay to <sup>239</sup>Pu, and the <sup>239</sup>Pu changes into <sup>235</sup>U by emitting an α-particle. Applications {{Multiple image\|directionvertical\|alignright\|image1Residential smoke detector.jpg\|image2InsideSmokeDetector.jpg\|width200\|caption2Outside and inside view of an americium-based smoke detector}} Ionization-type smoke detector {{Main\|Smoke detector#Ionization}} Americium is used in the most common type of household smoke detector, which uses <sup>241</sup>Am in the form of americium dioxide as its source of ionizing radiation.<ref>{{citation \|urlhttp://www.uic.com.au/nip35.htm \|archive-urlhttp://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20020911070229/http%3A//www%2Euic%2Ecom%2Eau/nip35%2Ehtm \|archive-date11 September 2002 \|titleSmoke Detectors and Americium \|workNuclear Issues Briefing Paper \|volume35 \|dateMay 2002 \|access-date2015-08-26}}</ref> This isotope is preferred over <sup>226</sup>Ra because it emits 5 times more alpha particles and relatively little harmful gamma radiation. The amount of americium in a typical new smoke detector is 1&nbsp;microcurie (37&nbsp;kBq) or 0.29 microgram. This amount declines slowly as the americium decays into neptunium-237, a different transuranic element with a much longer half-life (about 2.14 million years). With its half-life of 432.2 years, the americium in a smoke detector includes about 3% neptunium after 19 years, and about 5% after 32 years. The radiation passes through an ionization chamber, an air-filled space between two electrodes, and permits a small, constant current between the electrodes. Any smoke that enters the chamber absorbs the alpha particles, which reduces the ionization and affects this current, triggering the alarm. Compared to the alternative optical smoke detector, the ionization smoke detector is cheaper and can detect particles which are too small to produce significant light scattering; however, it is more prone to false alarms.<ref>Residential Smoke Alarm Performance, Thomas Cleary. Building and Fire Research Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology; UL Smoke and Fire Dynamics Seminar. November 2007</ref><ref name"NIST">Bukowski, R. W. et al. (2007) [http://www.fire.nist.gov/bfrlpubs/fire07/art063.html Performance of Home Smoke Alarms Analysis of the Response of Several Available Technologies in Residential Fire Settings] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100822192559/http://www.fire.nist.gov/bfrlpubs/fire07/art063.html \|date22 August 2010 }}, NIST Technical Note 1455-1</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://media.cns-snc.ca/pdf_doc/ecc/smoke_am241.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160325003327/https://cns-snc.ca/media/uploads/teachers/smoke_am241.pdf\|archive-date2016-03-25\|title Smoke detectors and americium-241 fact sheet\|publisher Canadian Nuclear Society\|access-date 31 August 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp156.pdf\|titleToxicological Profile For Americium\|authorGerberding, Julie Louise \|publisherUnited States Department of Health and Human Services/Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry\|access-date29 August 2009\|date2004\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20090906112953/http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp156.pdf\| archive-date6 September 2009 \| url-status live}}</ref> Radionuclide As <sup>241</sup>Am has a roughly similar half-life to <sup>238</sup>Pu (432.2 years vs. 87 years), it has been proposed as an active element of radioisotope thermoelectric generators, for example in spacecraft.<ref name"RTG">[http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/SPRING00/lecture5.pdf Basic elements of static RTGs] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130215003518/http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/SPRING00/lecture5.pdf \|date15 February 2013 }}, G.L. Kulcinski, NEEP 602 Course Notes (Spring 2000), Nuclear Power in Space, University of Wisconsin Fusion Technology Institute (see last page)</ref> Although americium produces less heat and electricity – the power yield is 114.7&nbsp;mW/g for <sup>241</sup>Am and 6.31&nbsp;mW/g for <sup>243</sup>Am<ref name"res" /> (cf. 390&nbsp;mW/g for <sup>238</sup>Pu)<ref name="RTG" /> – and its radiation poses more threat to humans owing to neutron emission, the European Space Agency is considering using americium for its space probes.<ref>[http://www.spaceflightnow.com/news/n1007/09rtg/ Space agencies tackle waning plutonium stockpiles], Spaceflight now, 9 July 2010</ref> Another proposed space-related application of americium is a fuel for space ships with nuclear propulsion. It relies on the very high rate of nuclear fission of <sup>242m</sup>Am, which can be maintained even in a micrometer-thick foil. Small thickness avoids the problem of self-absorption of emitted radiation. This problem is pertinent to uranium or plutonium rods, in which only surface layers provide alpha-particles.<ref name"rocket">{{cite web\|title Extremely Efficient Nuclear Fuel Could Take Man To Mars in Just Two Weeks\|website ScienceDaily\|date 3 January 2001\|url https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2001/01/010103073253.htm\|access-date22 November 2007\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071017120211/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2001/01/010103073253.htm\| archive-date 17 October 2007 \| url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite conference\|title An americium-fueled gas core nuclear rocket\|book-title AIP Conf. Proc.\|date 10 January 1993\|volume 271\|pages 585–589\|conference Tenth symposium on space nuclear power and propulsion\|author Kammash, T. \|doi 10.1063/1.43073\|display-authorsetal\|url https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/87734/2/585_1.pdf\|hdl 2027.42/87734\|hdl-access free}}</ref> The fission products of <sup>242m</sup>Am can either directly propel the spaceship or they can heat a thrusting gas. They can also transfer their energy to a fluid and generate electricity through a magnetohydrodynamic generator.<ref name"mprice">{{cite journal\|last1Ronen\|first1Y.\|last2Shwageraus\|first2E.\|titleUltra-thin 242mAm fuel elements in nuclear reactors\|journalNuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment\|volume455\|page442\|date2000\|doi10.1016/S0168-9002(00)00506-4\|issue2\|bibcode 2000NIMPA.455..442R }}</ref> One more proposal which utilizes the high nuclear fission rate of <sup>242m</sup>Am is a nuclear battery. Its design relies not on the energy of the emitted by americium alpha particles, but on their charge, that is the americium acts as the self-sustaining "cathode". A single 3.2&nbsp;kg <sup>242m</sup>Am charge of such battery could provide about 140&nbsp;kW of power over a period of 80 days.<ref>Genuth, Iddo [http://thefutureofthings.com/3015-americium-power-source/ Americium Power Source] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100507103250/http://thefutureofthings.com/articles.php?itemId26%2F64%2F \|date7 May 2010 }}, The Future of Things, 3 October 2006, Retrieved 28 November 2010</ref> Even with all the potential benefits, the current applications of <sup>242m</sup>Am are as yet hindered by the scarcity and high price of this particular nuclear isomer.<ref name"mprice" /> In 2019, researchers at the UK National Nuclear Laboratory and the University of Leicester demonstrated the use of heat generated by americium to illuminate a small light bulb. This technology could lead to systems to power missions with durations up to 400 years into interstellar space, where solar panels do not function.<ref>{{cite web \|titleUK scientists generate electricity from rare element to power future space missions \|urlhttps://www.nnl.co.uk/2019/05/uk-scientists-generate-electricity-from-rare-element-to-power-future-space-missions/ \|websiteNational Nuclear Laboratory \|date3 May 2019 \|access-date3 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine \|author<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> \|titleRare element could power distant space missions \|urlhttps://eandt.theiet.org/content/articles/2019/05/rare-element-could-power-far-flung-space-missions \|magazineE&T Engineering and Technology \|publisherInstitution of Engineering and Technology \|date3 May 2019 \|access-date3 May 2019 }}</ref> Neutron source The oxide of <sup>241</sup>Am pressed with beryllium is an efficient neutron source. Here americium acts as the alpha source, and beryllium produces neutrons owing to its large cross-section for the (α,n) nuclear reaction: : <chem>^{241}_{95}Am -> ^{237}_{93}Np + ^{4}_{2}He + \gamma</chem> : <chem>^{9}_{4}Be + ^{4}_{2}He -> ^{12}_{6}C + ^{1}_{0}n + \gamma</chem> The most widespread use of <sup>241</sup>AmBe neutron sources is a neutron probe – a device used to measure the quantity of water present in soil, as well as moisture/density for quality control in highway construction. <sup>241</sup>Am neutron sources are also used in well logging applications, as well as in neutron radiography, tomography and other radiochemical investigations.<ref name"Binder" />Production of other elements Americium is a starting material for the production of other transuranic elements and transactinides – for example, 82.7% of <sup>242</sup>Am decays to <sup>242</sup>Cm and 17.3% to <sup>242</sup>Pu. In the nuclear reactor, <sup>242</sup>Am is also up-converted by neutron capture to <sup>243</sup>Am and <sup>244</sup>Am, which transforms by β-decay to <sup>244</sup>Cm: : <chem>^{243}_{95}Am ->[\ce{(n,\gamma)}] ^{244}_{95}Am ->[\beta^-][10.1 \ \ce{h}] ^{244}_{96}Cm</chem> Irradiation of <sup>241</sup>Am by <sup>12</sup>C or <sup>22</sup>Ne ions yields the isotopes <sup>247</sup>Es (einsteinium) or <sup>260</sup>Db (dubnium), respectively.<ref name"Binder">{{cite book\| author Binder, Harry H. \| title Lexikon der chemischen Elemente: das Periodensystem in Fakten, Zahlen und Daten : mit 96 Abbildungen und vielen tabellarischen Zusammenstellungen\| date 1999\| publisher Hirzel\| isbn 978-3-7776-0736-8 }}</ref> Furthermore, the element berkelium (<sup>243</sup>Bk isotope) had been first intentionally produced and identified by bombarding <sup>241</sup>Am with alpha particles, in 1949, by the same Berkeley group, using the same 60-inch cyclotron. Similarly, nobelium was produced at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Dubna, Russia, in 1965 in several reactions, one of which included irradiation of <sup>243</sup>Am with <sup>15</sup>N ions. Besides, one of the synthesis reactions for lawrencium, discovered by scientists at Berkeley and Dubna, included bombardment of <sup>243</sup>Am with <sup>18</sup>O.<ref name"g1252" />SpectrometerAmericium-241 has been used as a portable source of both gamma rays and alpha particles for a number of medical and industrial uses. The 59.5409&nbsp;keV gamma ray emissions from <sup>241</sup>Am in such sources can be used for indirect analysis of materials in radiography and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, as well as for quality control in fixed nuclear density gauges and nuclear densometers. For example, the element has been employed to gauge glass thickness to help create flat glass.<ref name"g1262" /> Americium-241 is also suitable for calibration of gamma-ray spectrometers in the low-energy range, since its spectrum consists of nearly a single peak and negligible Compton continuum (at least three orders of magnitude lower intensity).<ref>[http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat2/indx_dec.jsp Nuclear Data Viewer 2.4] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170601010723/http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat2/indx_dec.jsp \|date1 June 2017 }}, NNDC</ref> Americium-241 gamma rays were also used to provide passive diagnosis of thyroid function. This medical application is however obsolete. Health concerns As a highly radioactive element, americium and its compounds must be handled only in an appropriate laboratory under special arrangements. Although most americium isotopes predominantly emit alpha particles which can be blocked by thin layers of common materials, many of the daughter products emit gamma-rays and neutrons which have a long penetration depth.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120315061533/http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/phs/phs.asp?id809&tid158 Public Health Statement for Americium] Section 1.5., Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, April 2004, Retrieved 28 November 2010</ref> If consumed, most of the americium is excreted within a few days, with only 0.05% absorbed in the blood, of which roughly 45% goes to the liver and 45% to the bones, and the remaining 10% is excreted. The uptake to the liver depends on the individual and increases with age. In the bones, americium is first deposited over cortical and trabecular surfaces and slowly redistributes over the bone with time. The biological half-life of <sup>241</sup>Am is 50 years in the bones and 20 years in the liver, whereas in the gonads (testicles and ovaries) it remains permanently; in all these organs, americium promotes formation of cancer cells as a result of its radioactivity.<ref name"am" /><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.doh.wa.gov/ehp/rp/factsheets/factsheets-pdf/fs23am241.pdf\|authorDivision of Environmental Health, Office of Radiation Protection\|titleFact Sheet # 23. Americium-241\|dateNovember 2002\|access-date28 November 2010\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101111125906/http://www.doh.wa.gov/ehp/rp/factsheets/factsheets-pdf/fs23am241.pdf\|archive-date11 November 2010\|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Frisch, Franz Crystal Clear, 100 x energy, Bibliographisches Institut AG, Mannheim 1977, {{ISBN\|3-411-01704-X}}, p. 184</ref> Americium often enters landfills from discarded smoke detectors. The rules associated with the disposal of smoke detectors are relaxed in most jurisdictions. In 1994, 17-year-old David Hahn extracted the americium from about 100 smoke detectors in an attempt to build a breeder nuclear reactor.<ref name"Silverstein2005">Ken Silverstein, [https://harpers.org/archive/1998/11/the-radioactive-boy-scout/ The Radioactive Boy Scout: When a teenager attempts to build a breeder reactor]. ''Harper's Magazine'', November 1998</ref><ref>{{cite news \|publisherFox News \|urlhttp://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,292111,00.html \|title'Radioactive Boy Scout' Charged in Smoke Detector Theft \|date4 August 2007 \|access-date28 November 2007 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071208062559/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0%2C2933%2C292111%2C00.html \|archive-date8 December 2007 \|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|workDetroit Free Press \|urlhttp://www.freep.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID/20070827/BUSINESS05/70827091 \|titleMan dubbed 'Radioactive Boy Scout' pleads guilty \|date27 August 2007 \|agencyAssociated Press \|access-date27 August 2007 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070929095926/http://www.freep.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID%2F20070827%2FBUSINESS05%2F70827091 \|archive-date29 September 2007 \|url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|publisherFox News \|urlhttps://www.foxnews.com/story/radioactive-boy-scout-sentenced-to-90-days-for-stealing-smoke-detectors \|title'Radioactive Boy Scout' Sentenced to 90 Days for Stealing Smoke Detectors \|date4 October 2007 \|access-date28 November 2007 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071113123408/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0%2C2933%2C299362%2C00.html \|archive-date13 November 2007 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> There have been a few cases of exposure to americium, the worst case being that of chemical operations technician Harold McCluskey, who at the age of 64 was exposed to 500 times the occupational standard for americium-241 as a result of an explosion in his lab. McCluskey died at the age of 75 of unrelated pre-existing disease.<ref name"tristateherald">{{cite news\|firstAnnette \|lastCary \|titleDoctor remembers Hanford's 'Atomic Man' \|newspaperTri-City Herald \|urlhttp://www.hanfordnews.com/news/2008/story/11403.html \|date25 April 2008 \|access-date17 June 2008 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100210232231/http://www.hanfordnews.com/news/2008/story/11403.html \|archive-date10 February 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|authorAP wire \|titleHanford nuclear workers enter site of worst contamination accident \|urlhttp://www.billingsgazette.com/index.php?id1&displayrednews/2005/06/03/build/nation/94-contamination.inc \|date3 June 2005 \|access-date17 June 2007 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071013185723/http://www.billingsgazette.com/newdex.php?displayrednews%2F2005%2F06%2F03%2Fbuild%2Fnation%2F94-contamination.inc \|archive-date13 October 2007 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> See also * Actinides in the environment * :Category:Americium compounds Notes {{Reflist\|groupnote}}References{{Reflist\|30em}}Bibliography * {{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd}} * Penneman, R. A. and Keenan T. K. [http://www.osti.gov/bridge/purl.cover.jsp?purl=/4187189-IKQUwY/ The radiochemistry of americium and curium], University of California, Los Alamos, California, 1960 * {{cite book\| last Wiberg\| first Nils\| title Lehrbuch Der Anorganischen Chemie\| date 2007\| publisher De Gruyter\| isbn 978-3-11-017770-1 }} Further reading * Nuclides and Isotopes – 14th Edition, GE Nuclear Energy, 1989. * {{cite web\|url http://www.cea.fr/var/cea/storage/static/gb/library/Clefs46/pagesg/clefs46_30.html\|title Can the minor actinide, americium-241, be transmuted by thermal neutrons?\|author Fioni, Gabriele\|author2 Cribier, Michel\|author3 Marie, Frédéric\|name-list-style amp\|publisher Commissariat à l'énergie atomique\|url-status dead\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20071111175005/http://www.cea.fr/var/cea/storage/static/gb/library/Clefs46/pagesg/clefs46_30.html\|archive-date 11 November 2007}} * {{cite book\| last Stwertka\| first Albert\| title A Guide to the Elements\| url https://archive.org/details/guidetoelements00stwe\| url-access registration\| date 1999\| publisher Oxford University Press, USA\| isbn 978-0-19-508083-4 }} External links {{Commons}} {{Wiktionary\|americium}} * [http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/095.htm Americium] at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060830050012/http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/phs156.html ATSDR – Public Health Statement: Americium] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081224123105/http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf57.html World Nuclear Association – Smoke Detectors and Americium ] {{Clear}} {{Periodic table (navbox)}} {{Americium compounds}} {{Authority control}} Category:Chemical elements Category:Chemical elements with double hexagonal close-packed structure Category:Actinides Category:Carcinogens Category:Synthetic elements	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americium	2025-04-05T18:25:26.197011
901	Astatine	{{Featured article}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=April 2020}} {{Infobox astatine}} Astatine is a chemical element; it has symbol At and atomic number 85. It is the rarest naturally occurring element in the Earth's crust, occurring only as the decay product of various heavier elements. All of astatine's isotopes are short-lived; the most stable is astatine-210, with a half-life of 8.1&nbsp;hours. Consequently, a solid sample of the element has never been seen, because any macroscopic specimen would be immediately vaporized by the heat of its radioactivity. The bulk properties of astatine are not known with certainty. Many of them have been estimated from its position on the periodic table as a heavier analog of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine, the four stable halogens. However, astatine also falls roughly along the dividing line between metals and nonmetals, and some metallic behavior has also been observed and predicted for it. Astatine is likely to have a dark or lustrous appearance and may be a semiconductor or possibly a metal. Chemically, several anionic species of astatine are known and most of its compounds resemble those of iodine, but it also sometimes displays metallic characteristics and shows some similarities to silver. The first synthesis of astatine was in 1940 by Dale R. Corson, Kenneth Ross MacKenzie, and Emilio G. Segrè at the University of California, Berkeley. They named it from the Ancient Greek {{transliteration\|grc\|astatos}} ({{lang\|grc\|ἄστατος}}) 'unstable'. Four isotopes of astatine were subsequently found to be naturally occurring, although much less than one gram is present at any given time in the Earth's crust. Neither the most stable isotope, astatine-210, nor the medically useful astatine-211 occur naturally; they are usually produced by bombarding bismuth-209 with alpha particles. Characteristics Astatine is an extremely radioactive element; all its isotopes have half-lives of 8.1 hours or less, decaying into other astatine isotopes, bismuth, polonium, or radon. Most of its isotopes are very unstable, with half-lives of seconds or less. Of the first 101 elements in the periodic table, only francium is less stable, and all the astatine isotopes more stable than the longest-lived francium isotopes (<sup>205–211</sup>At) are in any case synthetic and do not occur in nature.<ref name"Audi2003">{{NUBASE 2003\|modecs1}}</ref> The bulk properties of astatine are not known with any certainty.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|2002\|p795}} Research is limited by its short half-life, which prevents the creation of weighable quantities.<ref name"MoreAtIC">{{cite book\|titleHolleman-Wiberg: Inorganic Chemistry\|publisherAcademic Press\|page423\|editor-first1N.\|editor-last1Wiberg\|year2001\|isbn978-0-12-352651-9\|othersTranslation of 101st German edition by M. Eagleson and W. D. Brewer, English language editor B. J. Aylett\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMtth5g59dEIC}}</ref> A visible piece of astatine would immediately vaporize itself because of the heat generated by its intense radioactivity.<ref name"Emsley" /> It remains to be seen if, with sufficient cooling, a macroscopic quantity of astatine could be deposited as a thin film.<ref name"Hermann" /> Astatine is usually classified as either a nonmetal or a metalloid;<ref>{{cite book\|titleChemistry & Chemical Reactivity\|year2011\|edition8th\|page65\|publisherCengage Learning\|isbn978-0-8400-4828-8\|last1Kotz\|first1J. C.\|last2Treichel\|first2P. M.\|last3Townsend\|first3J.}}</ref><ref name"Jahn2010">{{cite book\|titleMIPS and Their Role in the Exchange of Metalloids\|year2010\|lastJahn\|firstT. P.\|page41\|volume679\|publisherSpringer\|isbn978-1-4419-6314-7\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idayGhnf3A-L0C}}</ref> metal formation has also been predicted.<ref name"Hermann" /><ref>{{cite book\|titleConcise Chemistry of the Elements\|year2002\|pages65, 122\|publisherHorwood\|isbn978-1-898563-71-6\|last1Siekierski\|first1S.\|last2Burgess\|first2 J.\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1I8sByjBONoC&pgPA3}}</ref> Physical Most of the physical properties of astatine have been estimated (by interpolation or extrapolation), using theoretically or empirically derived methods.<ref>{{cite book\|titleSupplement to Mellor's Comprehensive Treatise on Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry, Supplement II, Part 1, (F, Cl, Br, I, At)\| pages1064–1079\|chapterAstatine\|year1956\|firstA. G.\|lastMaddock \|publisher Longmans, Green & Co. (Ltd.)}}</ref> For example, halogens get darker with increasing atomic weight&nbsp;– fluorine is nearly colorless, chlorine is yellow-green, bromine is red-brown, and iodine is dark gray/violet. Astatine is sometimes described as probably being a black solid (assuming it follows this trend), or as having a metallic appearance (if it is a metalloid or a metal).<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNKUNAQAAIAAJ\|titleChemistry: A First Course in Modern Chemistry\|year1961\|page313\|publisherGinn\|last1Garrett\|first1A. B.\|last2Richardson\|first2J. B.\|last3Kiefer\|first3A. S.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|chapter-urlhttps://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/603220/transuranium-element/81196/The-first-transactinoid-elements\|chapterTransuranium element\|author-linkGlenn T. Seaborg\|lastSeaborg\|firstG. T.\|titleEncyclopædia Britannica\|year2015\|access-date24 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|titleChemistry Expression: An Inquiry Approach\|publisherJohn Wiley and Sons\|page300\|firstH. L.\|lastOon\|year2007\|isbn978-981-271-162-5\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjd-BR-nfzIoC}}</ref> Astatine sublimes less readily than iodine, having a lower vapor pressure.<ref name"MoreAtIC" /> Even so, half of a given quantity of astatine will vaporize in approximately an hour if put on a clean glass surface at room temperature.{{efn\|This half-vaporization period grows to 16 hours if it is instead put on a gold or platinum surface; this may be caused by poorly understood interactions between astatine and these noble metals.{{sfn\|Lavrukhina\|Pozdnyakov\|1970\|p251}}}} The absorption spectrum of astatine in the middle ultraviolet region has lines at 224.401 and 216.225&nbsp;nm, suggestive of 6p to 7s transitions.<ref>{{cite journal \|first1R.\|last1 McLaughlin \|year1964\|title Absorption Spectrum of Astatine \|journal= Journal of the Optical Society of America \|volume54 \|issue8\|pages965–967\|doi10.1364/JOSA.54.000965\|urlhttp://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3j83k4hx \|bibcode 1964JOSA...54..965M }}</ref>{{sfn\|Lavrukhina\|Pozdnyakov\|1970\|p=235}} The structure of solid astatine is unknown.<ref>{{cite book \| title The Structures of the Elements \| year 1982 \| page 400 \| publisher Robert E. Krieger \| isbn 978-0-89874-230-5 \| last Donohue \| first J. \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMshQAAAAYAAJ}}</ref> As an analog of iodine it may have an orthorhombic crystalline structure composed of diatomic astatine molecules, and be a semiconductor (with a band gap of 0.7&nbsp;eV).<ref name"Vernon" /><ref>{{Cite journal \|lastBatsanov \|firstS. S. \|date1972 \|titleQuantitative characteristics of bond metallicity in crystals \|url\|journalJournal of Structural Chemistry \|languageen \|volume12 \|issue5 \|pages809–813 \|doi10.1007/BF00743349 \|bibcode1972JStCh..12..809B \|s2cid96816296 \|issn0022-4766}}</ref> Alternatively, if condensed astatine forms a metallic phase, as has been predicted, it may have a monatomic face-centered cubic structure; in this structure, it may well be a superconductor, like the similar high-pressure phase of iodine.<ref name"Hermann" /> Metallic astatine is expected to have a density of 8.91–8.95&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>.<ref name"Arblaster" /> Evidence for (or against) the existence of diatomic astatine (At<sub>2</sub>) is sparse and inconclusive.<ref>{{cite journal \| language fr\| title Etude de la formation en phase gazeuse de composés interhalogénés d'astate par thermochromatographie \| trans-title Study of the gas-phase formation of interhalogen compounds of astatine by thermochromatography \| last1 Merinis \| first1 J. \| last2 Legoux \| first2 G. \| last3 Bouissières \| first3 G. \| journal Radiochemical and Radioanalytical Letters \| volume 11 \| pages 59–64 \| year 1972 \| issue 1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| title The Mechanism of the Reaction of Elementary Astatine with Organic Solvents \| last1 Takahashi \| first1 N. \| last2 Otozai \| first2 K. \| journal Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry \| volume 103 \| pages 1–9 \| year 1986 \| issue 1 \| doi 10.1007/BF02165358 \| bibcode 1986JRNC..103....1T \| s2cid93572282 }}</ref><ref>{{cite conference \| title Chemical Behavior of Astatine Molecules \| last1Takahashi \| first1 N. \| last2Yano \| first2 D. \| last3Baba \| first3 H. \| book-title Proceedings of the International Conference on Evolution in Beam Applications, Takasaki, Japan, 5–8 November 1991 \| pages 536–539\| year 1992 }}</ref>{{sfn\|Zuckerman\|Hagen\|1989\|p21}}{{sfn\|Kugler\|Keller\|1985\|pp110, 116, 210–211, 224}} Some sources state that it does not exist, or at least has never been observed,<ref name"Meyers2002">{{cite encyclopedia \| encyclopedia Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology \| edition3rd\| title Halogen Chemistry\| year 2001 \| last Meyers \| first R. A. \| pages 197–222 (202) \| isbn 978-0-12-227410-7 \| publisher Academic Press}}</ref><ref name"Ullmann">{{cite book \| last1Keller \| first1 C.\| title Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry\| last2 Wolf \| first2 W. \| last3 Shani \| first3 J.\| volume 31 \| pages 89–117 (96) \| year 2011 \| doi 10.1002/14356007.o22_o15 \| isbn 978-3-527-30673-2 \| chapterRadionuclides, 2. Radioactive Elements and Artificial Radionuclides}}</ref> while other sources assert or imply its existence.<ref name"boiling_point_chromatography">{{cite journal \| title Estimation Chemical Form Boiling Point Elementary Astatine by Radio Gas Chromatography \| last1 Otozai \| first1 K. \| last2 Takahashi \| first2 N. \| journal Radiochimica Acta \| volume 31 \| pages 201–203 \| year 1982 \|url http://www.mendeley.com/research/estimation-chemical-form-boiling-point-elementary-astatine-radio-gas-chromatography/ \| issue 3–4 \| doi10.1524/ract.1982.31.34.201\| s2cid100363889 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book \| title Chemistry \| edition8th \| year 2008 \| page 56 \| publisher Cengage Learning \| isbn 978-0-547-12532-9 \| last1 Zumdahl \| first1 S. S. \| last2 Zumdahl \| first2 S. A. \| url https://books.google.com/books?idLLWkH82PNbYC}}</ref><ref name"Housecroft">{{cite book \| title Inorganic chemistry \| edition3rd\| year 2008 \| page 533 \| publisher Pearson Education \| isbn 978-0-13-175553-6 \| last1 Housecroft \| first1 C. E. \| last2 Sharpe \| first2 A. G.}}</ref> Despite this controversy, many properties of diatomic astatine have been predicted;{{sfn\|Kugler\|Keller\|1985\|p116}} for example, its bond length would be {{val\|300\|10\|upm}}, dissociation energy <{{val\|50\|ukJ/mol}},<ref>{{cite journal \| last1Burgers \| first1Peter C. \| last2Zeneyedpour \| first2Lona \| last3Luider \| first3Theo M. \| last4Holmes \| first4John L. \| titleEstimation of thermodynamic and physicochemical properties of the alkali astatides: On the bond strength of molecular astatine (At<sub>2</sub>) and the hydration enthalpy of astatide (At<sup>−</sup>) \| journalJournal of Mass Spectrometry \| volume59 \| issue4 \| date2024 \| pagese5010 \| issn1076-5174 \| doi10.1002/jms.5010\| pmid38488842 \| doi-accessfree }}</ref> and heat of vaporization (∆H<sub>vap</sub>) 54.39&nbsp;kJ/mol.<ref name"Glushko">{{cite book\|first1V. P.\|last1Glushko \|first2V. A.\|last2Medvedev\|last3Bergma\|first3G. A.\|year1966\|titleTermicheskie Konstanty Veshchestv\|languageru\|volume1\|publisherNakua\|page65}}</ref> Many values have been predicted for the melting and boiling points of astatine, but only for At<sub>2</sub>.{{sfn\|Kugler\|Keller\|1985\|pp116–117}} Chemical The chemistry of astatine is "clouded by the extremely low concentrations at which astatine experiments have been conducted, and the possibility of reactions with impurities, walls and filters, or radioactivity by-products, and other unwanted nano-scale interactions".<ref name"Vernon">{{cite journal\|last1Vernon\|first1R.\|year2013\|titleWhich Elements are Metalloids?\|journalJournal of Chemical Education\|volume90\|issue12\|pages1703–1707 (1704)\|bibcode2013JChEd..90.1703V\|doi10.1021/ed3008457}}</ref> Many of its apparent chemical properties have been observed using tracer studies on extremely dilute astatine solutions,<ref name"Housecroft" /><ref>{{cite book \| title College chemistry \| year 1960 \| page 457 \| publisher Appleton-Century-Crofts \| last1 Smith \| first1 A. \| last2 Ehret \| first2 W. F.}}</ref> typically less than 10<sup>−10</sup> mol·L<sup>−1</sup>.<ref name"Champion">{{cite journal\|last1Champion\|first1J.\|last2Seydou\|first2M.\|last3Sabatié-Gogova\|first3A.\|last4Renault\|first4E.\|last5Montavon\|first5G.\|last6Galland\|first6N.\|year2011\|titleAssessment of an Effective Quasirelativistic Methodology Designed to Study Astatine Chemistry in Aqueous Solution\|journalPhysical Chemistry Chemical Physics\|volume13\|issue33\|pages14984–14992 (14984)\|bibcode2011PCCP...1314984C\|doi10.1039/C1CP20512A\|pmid21769335\|urlhttps://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2011/CP/c1cp20512a\|url-accesssubscription}}</ref> Some properties, such as anion formation, align with other halogens.<ref name"MoreAtIC" /> Astatine has some metallic characteristics as well, such as plating onto a cathode,{{efn\|It is also possible that this is sorption on a cathode.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi10.1007/BF02037143\|journalJournal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry\|volume83\|pages291–299\|titleChemical Properties of Positive Singly Charged Astatine Ion in Aqueous Solution\|year1984\|first1M.\|last1Milanov\|first2V.\|last2Doberenz\|first3V. A.\|last3Khalkin\|first4A.\|last4Marinov\|issue2\|bibcode1984JRNC...83..291M \|s2cid97361684}}</ref>}} and coprecipitating with metal sulfides in hydrochloric acid.{{sfn\|Lavrukhina\|Pozdnyakov\|1970\|p234}} It forms complexes with EDTA, a metal chelating agent,<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Milesz\|first1S. \|last2Jovchev\|first2M. \|last3Schumann\|first3D. \|last4Khalkin\|first4V. A. \|year1988\|titleThe EDTA Complexes of Astatine \|journalJournal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry \|volume127 \|issue3 \|pages193–198 \|doi10.1007/BF02164864\|bibcode1988JRNC..127..193M \|s2cid93032218 }}</ref> and is capable of acting as a metal in antibody radiolabeling; in some respects, astatine in the +1 state is akin to silver in the same state. Most of the organic chemistry of astatine is, however, analogous to that of iodine.<ref name"Guerard">{{cite journal \|first1F.\|last1Guérard\|first2J.-F.\|last2Gestin\|first3M. W.\|last3Brechbiel \|year2013 \|titleProduction of [<sup>211</sup>At]-Astatinated Radiopharmaceuticals and Applications in Targeted α-Particle Therapy \|journalCancer Biotherapy and Radiopharmaceuticals \|volume28 \|issue1\|pages1–20 \|doi10.1089/cbr.2012.1292\|pmc3545490 \|pmid23075373}}</ref> It has been suggested that astatine can form a stable monatomic cation in aqueous solution.{{sfn\|Lavrukhina\|Pozdnyakov\|1970\|p234}}<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Champion \|first1 J.\|last2Alliot \|first2C. \|last3Renault \|first3E. \|last4Mokili \|first4B. M. \|last5Chérel \|first5M.\| last6Galland \|first6N. \|last7Montavon \|first7G. \| year2010 \|titleAstatine Standard Redox Potentials and Speciation in Acidic Medium \|journalThe Journal of Physical Chemistry A \|volume114 \|issue1 \|pages576–582 (581) \|doi10.1021/jp9077008\|pmid 20014840\|urlhttp://hal.in2p3.fr/in2p3-00450771 \|bibcode2010JPCA..114..576C \|s2cid= 15738065}}</ref> Astatine has an electronegativity of 2.2 on the revised Pauling scale&nbsp;– lower than that of iodine (2.66) and the same as hydrogen. In hydrogen astatide (HAt), the negative charge is predicted to be on the hydrogen atom, implying that this compound could be referred to as astatine hydride according to certain nomenclatures.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Dolg\|first1M.\|last2Kuchle\|first2W.\|last3Stoll\|first3H.\|last4Preuss\|first4H.\|last5Schwerdtfeger\|first5P.\|titleAb Initio Pseudopotentials for Hg to Rn: II. Molecular Calculations on the Hydrides of Hg to At and the Fluorides of Rn\|journalMolecular Physics\|volume74\|issue6\|pages1265–1285 (1265, 1270, 1282)\|year1991\|doi10.1080/00268979100102951\|bibcode1991MolPh..74.1265D}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|last1Saue\|first1T.\|last2Faegri\|first2K.\|last3Gropen\|first3O.\|titleRelativistic Effects on the Bonding of Heavy and Superheavy Hydrogen Halides\|journalChemical Physics Letters\|volume263\|pages360–366 (361–362)\|year1996\|doi10.1016/S0009-2614(96)01250-X\|issue3–4\|bibcode1996CPL...263..360S}}</ref><ref name"H-">{{cite book\|titleRelativistic Methods for Chemists\|firstM.\|lastBarysz\|page79\|publisherSpringer\|year2010 \| isbn 978-1-4020-9974-8 \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQbDEC3oL7uAC}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|lastThayer\|firstJ. S.\|titleRelativistic Effects and the Chemistry of the Heaviest Main-group elements\|journalJournal of Chemical Education\|volume82\|issue11\|pages1721–1727 (1725)\|year2005\|doi10.1021/ed082p1721\|bibcode2005JChEd..82.1721T}}</ref> That would be consistent with the electronegativity of astatine on the Allred–Rochow scale (1.9) being less than that of hydrogen (2.2).<ref>{{cite book \| title Inorganic Chemistry\| year 2000 \| page 37 \| publisher University Science Books \| isbn 978-1-891389-01-6 \| last1 Wulfsberg \| first1G. }}</ref>{{efn\|The algorithm used to generate the Allred-Rochow scale fails in the case of hydrogen, providing a value that is close to that of oxygen (3.5). Hydrogen is instead assigned a value of 2.2. Despite this shortcoming, the Allred-Rochow scale has achieved a relatively high degree of acceptance.<ref>{{cite book \| title Inorganic Substances: A Prelude to the Study of Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry \| year 1990 \| page [https://archive.org/details/inorganicsubstan0000smit/page/135 135] \| publisher Cambridge University Press \| last Smith \| first D. W.\| isbn 978-0-521-33738-0 \| url https://archive.org/details/inorganicsubstan0000smit\| url-access registration }}</ref>}} However, official IUPAC stoichiometric nomenclature is based on an idealized convention of determining the relative electronegativities of the elements by the mere virtue of their position within the periodic table. According to this convention, astatine is handled as though it is more electronegative than hydrogen, irrespective of its true electronegativity. The electron affinity of astatine, at 233 kJ mol<sup>−1</sup>, is 21% less than that of iodine.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Leimbach \|first1D.\|last2Sundberg \|first2J.\|last3Yangyang\|first3G.\|display-authorsetal\|dateFebruary 2020\|titleThe electron affinity of astatine\|journalNature Communications\|volume11\|issue1\|page3824\|doi10.1038/s41467-020-17599-2\|pmid32733029\|pmc7393155\|arxiv2002.11418\|bibcode2020NatCo..11.3824L}}</ref> In comparison, the value of Cl (349) is 6.4% higher than F (328); Br (325) is 6.9% less than Cl; and I (295) is 9.2% less than Br. The marked reduction for At was predicted as being due to spin–orbit interactions.<ref name"Champion" /> The first ionization energy of astatine is about 899&nbsp;kJ mol<sup>−1</sup>, which continues the trend of decreasing first ionization energies down the halogen group (fluorine, 1681; chlorine, 1251; bromine, 1140; iodine, 1008).<ref name"1IP" /> Compounds {{Main\|Astatine compounds}} Less reactive than iodine, astatine is the least reactive of the halogens;<ref name"Anders">{{cite journal \| journal Annual Review of Nuclear Science \| volume 9 \| pages 203–220 \| year 1959 \| doi 10.1146/annurev.ns.09.120159.001223\|doi-accessfree \| title Technetium and astatine chemistry \| first E. \| last Anders\| bibcode 1959ARNPS...9..203A }} {{subscription required}}</ref> the chemical properties of tennessine, the next-heavier group 17 element, have not yet been investigated, however.<ref name"notgonnabeahalogen">{{Cite web\|author <!--no author; by design-->\|title Superheavy Element 117 Confirmed – On the Way to the "Island of Stability"\|url https://www.superheavies.de/english/research_program/highlights_element_117.htm#Is%20Element%20117%20a%20Metal\|publisher GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research\|access-date 2015-07-26\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20180803133710/https://www.superheavies.de/english/research_program/highlights_element_117.htm#Is%20Element%20117%20a%20Metal\|archive-date 2018-08-03\|url-status dead}}</ref> Astatine compounds have been synthesized in nano-scale amounts and studied as intensively as possible before their radioactive disintegration. The reactions involved have been typically tested with dilute solutions of astatine mixed with larger amounts of iodine. Acting as a carrier, the iodine ensures there is sufficient material for laboratory techniques (such as filtration and precipitation) to work.<ref name"Ru1968" /><ref>{{cite journal \| journalAnalyst\| year 1952\| volume 77 \| pages 774–777\| doi 10.1039/AN9527700774 \| title Section 5: Radiochemical Methods. Analytical Chemistry of Astatine \| first1 A. H. W. Jr. \| last1 Aten\| last2Doorgeest \| first2 T. \| last3Hollstein \| first3 U.\| last4Moeken \| first4 H. P. \| issue920\| bibcode 1952Ana....77..774A}} {{subscription required}}</ref>{{efn\|Iodine can act as a carrier despite it reacting with astatine in water because these reactions require iodide (I<sup>−</sup>), not (only) I<sub>2</sub>.{{sfn\|Zuckerman\|Hagen\|1989\|p31}}{{sfn\|Zuckerman\|Hagen\|1989\|p38}}}} Like iodine, astatine has been shown to adopt odd-numbered oxidation states ranging from −1 to +7.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Chatterjee \|first1Sayandev \|last2Czerwinski \|first2Kenneth R. \|last3Fitzgerald \|first3Hilary A. \|last4Lakes \|first4Andrew L. \|last5Liao \|first5Zuolei \|last6Ludwig \|first6Russell C. \|last7McBride \|first7Katie M. \|last8Vlasenko \|first8Vladislav P. \|date2020 \|titleNovel Platforms for Drug Delivery Applications \|journalWoodhead Publishing Series in Biomaterials \|publisherWoodhead Publishing \|atSubchapter 16.4.2: Redox behavior \|doi=10.1016/B978-0-323-91376-8.00012-4}}</ref> Only a few compounds with metals have been reported, in the form of astatides of sodium,<ref name"Emsley" /> palladium, silver, thallium, and lead.{{sfn\|Kugler\|Keller\|1985\|pp213–214}} Some characteristic properties of silver and sodium astatide, and the other hypothetical alkali and alkaline earth astatides, have been estimated by extrapolation from other metal halides.{{sfn\|Kugler\|Keller\|1985\|pp=214–218}} <!--Image captions don't count for overlinking&nbsp;– see WP:OVERLINK --> space-filling model]] The formation of an astatine compound with hydrogen&nbsp;– usually referred to as hydrogen astatide&nbsp;– was noted by the pioneers of astatine chemistry.{{sfn\|Kugler\|Keller\|1985\|p211}} As mentioned, there are grounds for instead referring to this compound as astatine hydride. It is easily oxidized; acidification by dilute nitric acid gives the At<sup>0</sup> or At<sup>+</sup> forms, and the subsequent addition of silver(I) may only partially, at best, precipitate astatine as silver(I) astatide (AgAt). Iodine, in contrast, is not oxidized, and precipitates readily as silver(I) iodide.<ref name"MoreAtIC" />{{sfn\|Kugler\|Keller\|1985\|pp=109–110, 129, 213}} Astatine is known to bind to boron,<ref>{{cite book\|titleContemporary boron chemistry\|firstM.\|lastDavidson\|page146\|year2000 \| publisher Royal Society of Chemistry\| isbn 978-0-85404-835-9 \|url https://books.google.com/books?idXWgD4uO1VCMC}}</ref> carbon, and nitrogen.{{sfn\|Zuckerman\|Hagen\|1989\|p276}} Various boron cage compounds have been prepared with At–B bonds, these being more stable than At–C bonds.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Elgqvist\|first1J. \|last2Hultborn\|first2R.\|last3Lindegren\|first3S.\|last4Palm\|first4S.\|editor-lastSpeer \|editor-firstS. \|titleTargeted Radionuclide Therapy\|publisherLippincott Williams & Wilkins\|date2011 \|pages380–396 (383)\|chapter=Ovarian cancer: background and clinical perspectives \|isbn978-0-7817-9693-4}}</ref> Astatine can replace a hydrogen atom in benzene to form astatobenzene C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>At; this may be oxidized to C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>AtCl<sub>2</sub> by chlorine. By treating this compound with an alkaline solution of hypochlorite, C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>AtO<sub>2</sub> can be produced.{{sfn\|Zuckerman\|Hagen\|1989\|pp190–191}} The dipyridine-astatine(I) cation, [At(C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>5</sub>N)<sub>2</sub>]<sup>+</sup>, forms ionic compounds with perchlorate{{sfn\|Zuckerman\|Hagen\|1989\|p276}} (a non-coordinating anion<ref>{{Cite journal\|first1 M.\|last1 Brookhart\|author-link1 Maurice Brookhart\|first2 B.\|last2 Grant\|first3 A. F.\|last3 Volpe\|title [(3,5-(CF<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>3</sub>)<sub>4</sub>B]-[H(OEt<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>]<sup>+</sup>: a convenient reagent for generation and stabilization of cationic, highly electrophilic organometallic complexes\|journal Organometallics\|year 1992\|volume 11\|issue 11\|pages 3920–3922\|doi 10.1021/om00059a071}}</ref>) and with nitrate, [At(C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>5</sub>N)<sub>2</sub>]NO<sub>3</sub>.{{sfn\|Zuckerman\|Hagen\|1989\|p276}} This cation exists as a coordination complex in which two dative covalent bonds separately link the astatine(I) centre with each of the pyridine rings via their nitrogen atoms.{{sfn\|Zuckerman\|Hagen\|1989\|p=276}} With oxygen, there is evidence of the species AtO<sup>−</sup> and AtO<sup>+</sup> in aqueous solution, formed by the reaction of astatine with an oxidant such as elemental bromine or (in the last case) by sodium persulfate in a solution of perchloric acid.<ref name"MoreAtIC" />{{sfn\|Kugler\|Keller\|1985\|p111}} The species previously thought to be {{chem2\|AtO2-}} has since been determined to be {{chem2\|AtO(OH)2-}}, a hydrolysis product of AtO<sup>+</sup> (another such hydrolysis product being AtOOH).<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Sergentu \|first1Dumitru-Claudiu \|last2Teze \|first2David \|first3Andréa \|last3Sabatié-Gogova \|first4Cyrille \|last4Alliot \|first5Ning \|last5Guo \|first6Fadel \|last6Bassel \|first7Isidro \|last7Da Silva \|first8David \|last8Deniaud \|first9Rémi \|last9Maurice \|first10Julie \|last10Champion \|first11Nicolas \|last11Galland \|first12Gilles \|last12Montavon \|titleAdvances on the Determination of the Astatine Pourbaix Diagram: Predomination of AtO(OH)<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup> over At<sup>−</sup> in Basic Conditions \|journalChem. Eur. J. \|year2016 \|volume22 \|issue9 \|pages2964–71 \|doi10.1002/chem.201504403\|pmid26773333 }}</ref> The well characterized {{chem2\|AtO3-}} anion can be obtained by, for example, the oxidation of astatine with potassium hypochlorite in a solution of potassium hydroxide.{{sfn\|Zuckerman\|Hagen\|1989\|pp 190–191}}{{sfn\|Kugler\|Keller\|1985\|p222}} Preparation of lanthanum triastatate La(AtO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>, following the oxidation of astatine by a hot Na<sub>2</sub>S<sub>2</sub>O<sub>8</sub> solution, has been reported.{{sfn\|Lavrukhina\|Pozdnyakov\|1970\|p238}} Further oxidation of {{chem2\|AtO3-}}, such as by xenon difluoride (in a hot alkaline solution) or periodate (in a neutral or alkaline solution), yields the perastatate ion {{chem2\|AtO4-}}; this is only stable in neutral or alkaline solutions.{{sfn\|Kugler\|Keller\|1985\|pp112, 192–193}} Astatine is also thought to be capable of forming cations in salts with oxyanions such as iodate or dichromate; this is based on the observation that, in acidic solutions, monovalent or intermediate positive states of astatine coprecipitate with the insoluble salts of metal cations such as silver(I) iodate or thallium(I) dichromate.{{sfn\|Zuckerman\|Hagen\|1989\|pp190–191}}{{sfn\|Kugler\|Keller\|1985\|p219}} Astatine may form bonds to the other chalcogens; these include S<sub>7</sub>At<sup>+</sup> and {{chem2\|At(CSN)2-}} with sulfur, a coordination selenourea compound with selenium, and an astatine–tellurium colloid with tellurium.{{sfn\|Zuckerman\|Hagen\|1989\|pp=192–193}} s and the heaviest known diatomic interhalogen]] Astatine is known to react with its lighter homologs iodine, bromine, and chlorine in the vapor state; these reactions produce diatomic interhalogen compounds with formulas AtI, AtBr, and AtCl.{{sfn\|Zuckerman\|Hagen\|1989\|p31}} The first two compounds may also be produced in water&nbsp;– astatine reacts with iodine/iodide solution to form AtI, whereas AtBr requires (aside from astatine) an iodine/iodine monobromide/bromide solution. The excess of iodides or bromides may lead to {{chem2\|AtBr2-}} and {{chem2\|AtI2-}} ions,{{sfn\|Zuckerman\|Hagen\|1989\|p31}} or in a chloride solution, they may produce species like {{chem2\|AtCl2-}} or {{chem2\|AtBrCl-}} via equilibrium reactions with the chlorides.{{sfn\|Zuckerman\|Hagen\|1989\|p38}} Oxidation of the element with dichromate (in nitric acid solution) showed that adding chloride turned the astatine into a molecule likely to be either AtCl or AtOCl. Similarly, {{chem2\|AtOCl2-}} or {{chem2\|AtCl2-}} may be produced.{{sfn\|Zuckerman\|Hagen\|1989\|p31}} The polyhalides PdAtI<sub>2</sub>, CsAtI<sub>2</sub>, TlAtI<sub>2</sub>,{{sfn\|Zuckerman\|Hagen\|1990\|p212}}<ref>{{cite journal \|first1G. A.\|last1Brinkman \|first2H. W.\|last2Aten\|year1963 \|titleDecomposition of Caesium Diiodo Astatate (I), (CsAtI<sub>2</sub>) \|journalRadiochimica Acta \|volume2 \|issue1\|page48 \|doi10.1524/ract.1963.2.1.48\|s2cid99398848 }}</ref>{{sfn\|Zuckerman\|Hagen\|1990\|p60}} and PbAtI{{sfn\|Zuckerman\|Hagen\|1989\|p426}} are known or presumed to have been precipitated. In a plasma ion source mass spectrometer, the ions [AtI]<sup>+</sup>, [AtBr]<sup>+</sup>, and [AtCl]<sup>+</sup> have been formed by introducing lighter halogen vapors into a helium-filled cell containing astatine, supporting the existence of stable neutral molecules in the plasma ion state.{{sfn\|Zuckerman\|Hagen\|1989\|p31}} No astatine fluorides<!--AtF, AtF5, or whatever else, "no" means "no" (not AtF, not AtF5, not At45F387, or whatever)--> have been discovered yet. Their absence has been speculatively attributed to the extreme reactivity of such compounds, including the reaction of an initially formed fluoride with the walls of the glass container to form a non-volatile product.{{efn\|An initial attempt to fluoridate astatine using chlorine trifluoride resulted in formation of a product which became stuck to the glass. Chlorine monofluoride, chlorine, and tetrafluorosilane were formed. The authors called the effect "puzzling", admitting they had expected formation of a volatile fluoride.<ref>{{cite journal \|first1E. H.\|last1Appelman\|first2E. N.\|last2Sloth\|first3M. H. \|last3Studier \|year1966 \|titleObservation of Astatine Compounds by Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry \|journalInorganic Chemistry \|volume5 \|issue 5\|pages766–769 \|doi10.1021/ic50039a016}}</ref> Ten years later, the compound was predicted to be non-volatile, out of line with the lighter halogens but similar to radon fluoride;<ref>{{cite journal \|first1K. S.\|last1Pitzer\|year1975 \|titleFluorides of Radon and Element 118 \|journalJournal of the Chemical Society, Chemical Communications \|volume5 \|issue 18\|pages760b–761 \|doi10.1039/C3975000760B\|urlhttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/8xz4g1ff}}</ref> by this time, the latter had been shown to be ionic.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia \| last1 Bartlett \| first1 N. \| last2 Sladky \| first2 F. O. \| editor1-first J. C. \| editor1-last Bailar \| editor2-first H. J. \| editor2-last Emeléus \| editor3-first R. \| editor3-last Nyholm \| editor4-first A. F. \| editor4-last Trotman-Dickenson \| display-editors3\| encyclopedia Comprehensive Inorganic Chemistry \| title The Chemistry of Krypton, Xenon and Radon \| year 1973 \| publisher Pergamon \| volume 1 \| isbn 978-0-08-017275-0 \| pages 213–330}}</ref>}} Thus, although the synthesis of an astatine fluoride is thought to be possible, it may require a liquid halogen fluoride solvent, as has already been used for the characterization of radon fluoride.{{sfn\|Zuckerman\|Hagen\|1989\|p31}}{{sfn\|Kugler\|Keller\|1985\|pp112, 192–193}} History {{image frame\|width300\|alignleft\|content{{Superimpose \| base = Periodic table by Mendeleev, 1871.svg \| base_width = 300px \| base_alt = Periodic table by Mendeleev (1871), with astatine missing below chlorine, bromine and iodine ("J") \| base_caption = Mendeleev's table of 1871, with an empty space at the eka-iodine position \| base_link = Periodic_table#History \| base_class = skin-invert-image \| float = Cercle rouge 100%.svg \| float_alt \| float_width 22px \| float_caption = 6989 \| float_link \| x 226 \| y =104}} \|caption={{longitem\|Dmitri Mendeleev's table of 1871, with an empty space at the eka-iodine position}} }} In 1869, when Dmitri Mendeleev published his periodic table, the space under iodine was empty; after Niels Bohr established the physical basis of the classification of chemical elements, it was suggested that the fifth halogen belonged there. Before its officially recognized discovery, it was called "eka-iodine" (from Sanskrit {{tlit\|sa\|eka}} 'one') to imply it was one space under iodine (in the same manner as eka-silicon, eka-boron, and others).<ref>{{cite book\|lastBall\|firstP.\|titleThe Ingredients: A Guided Tour of the Elements\|publisherOxford University Press\|year2002\|pages100–102 \| isbn 978-0-19-284100-1 }}</ref> Scientists tried to find it in nature; given its extreme rarity, these attempts resulted in several false discoveries.{{sfn\|Lavrukhina\|Pozdnyakov\|1970\|pp227–228}} The first claimed discovery of eka-iodine was made by Fred Allison and his associates at the Alabama Polytechnic Institute (now Auburn University) in 1931. The discoverers named element 85 "alabamine", and assigned it the symbol Ab, designations that were used for a few years.<ref>{{cite journal \| title Evidence of the Detection of Element 85 in Certain Substances\| first1 F. \| last1 Allison \| author-link1Fred Allison\| first2 E. J. \| last2Murphy\| first3 E. R. \| last3Bishop\| first4 A. L. \| last4Sommer \| journal Physical Review \| volume 37 \| pages 1178–1180 \| year 1931 \| doi 10.1103/PhysRev.37.1178 \| issue 9\|bibcode 1931PhRv...37.1178A }} {{subscription required}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine \| url http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,743159,00.html \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20070930015028/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,743159,00.html \| url-status dead \| archive-date 30 September 2007 \| title Alabamine & Virginium \|magazineTime \| date15 February 1932}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| title What Happened to Alabamine, Virginium, and Illinium? \| last Trimble \| first R. F. \| journal Journal of Chemical Education \| volume 52 \| page 585 \| year 1975 \| doi10.1021/ed052p585 \| issue 9\|bibcode 1975JChEd..52..585T }} {{subscription required}}</ref> In 1934, H. G. MacPherson of University of California, Berkeley disproved Allison's method and the validity of his discovery.<ref>{{cite journal\| last MacPherson\| first H. G.\| title An Investigation of the Magneto-optic Method of Chemical Analysis\| journal Physical Review\| volume 47\| issue 4\| pages 310–315\|year1934\|doi 10.1103/PhysRev.47.310\|bibcode 1935PhRv...47..310M }}</ref> There was another claim in 1937, by the chemist Rajendralal De. Working in Dacca in British India (now Dhaka in Bangladesh), he chose the name "dakin" for element 85, which he claimed to have isolated as the thorium series equivalent of radium F (polonium-210) in the radium series.<ref name"Mellor" /> The properties he reported for dakin do not correspond to those of astatine,<ref name"Mellor" /> and astatine's radioactivity would have prevented him from handling it in the quantities he claimed.<ref name"findingekaiodine" /> Moreover, astatine is not found in the thorium series, and the true identity of dakin is not known.<ref nameMellor>{{cite book \| firstJ. W. \| lastMellor \| author-linkJoseph William Mellor \| titleA Comprehensive Treatise on Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry \| publisherLongmans, Green \| year1965 \| oclc13842122 \| page[https://archive.org/details/comprehensivetre00mellrich/page/n1081 1066] \| url = https://archive.org/details/comprehensivetre00mellrich }}</ref> In 1936, the team of Romanian physicist Horia Hulubei and French physicist Yvette Cauchois claimed to have discovered element 85 by observing its X-ray emission lines. In 1939, they published another paper which supported and extended previous data. In 1944, Hulubei published a summary of data he had obtained up to that time, claiming it was supported by the work of other researchers. He chose the name "dor", presumably from the Romanian for "longing" [for peace], as World War II had started five years earlier. As Hulubei was writing in French, a language which does not accommodate the "-ine" suffix, dor would likely have been rendered in English as "dorine", had it been adopted. In 1947, Hulubei's claim was effectively rejected by the Austrian chemist Friedrich Paneth, who would later chair the IUPAC committee responsible for recognition of new elements. Even though Hulubei's samples did contain astatine-218, his means to detect it were too weak, by current standards, to enable correct identification; moreover, he could not perform chemical tests on the element.<ref namefindingekaiodine>{{cite journal\|title Finding Eka-Iodine: Discovery Priority in Modern Times\|first1S. C.\|last1 Burdette\|first2B. F.\|last2 Thornton\|journalBulletin for the History of Chemistry \|year2010 \|volume35 \|pages86–96\|urlhttp://www.scs.illinois.edu/~mainzv/HIST/bulletin_open_access/v35-2/v35-2%20p86-96.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.scs.illinois.edu/~mainzv/HIST/bulletin_open_access/v35-2/v35-2%20p86-96.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> He had also been involved in an earlier false claim as to the discovery of element 87 (francium) and this is thought to have caused other researchers to downplay his work.<ref>{{cite book\| title A Tale of 7 Elements\| year 2013\| edition Google Play\| pages [https://archive.org/details/taleofseveneleme0000scer/page/188 188–190, 206]\| first1 E.\| last1 Scerri\| publisher Oxford University Press\| isbn 978-0-19-539131-2\| url = https://archive.org/details/taleofseveneleme0000scer/page/188}}</ref> , one of the discoverers of the main-group element astatine]] In 1940, the Swiss chemist Walter Minder announced the discovery of element 85 as the beta decay product of radium A (polonium-218), choosing the name "helvetium" (from {{lang\|la\|Helvetia}}, the Latin name of Switzerland). Berta Karlik and Traude Bernert were unsuccessful in reproducing his experiments, and subsequently attributed Minder's results to contamination of his radon stream (radon-222 is the parent isotope of polonium-218).<ref>{{cite journal \| doi 10.1007/BF01487965 \| language de \| title Über Eine Vermutete β-Strahlung des Radium A und die Natürliche Existenz des Elementes 85 \| trans-title About a Suspected β-radiation of Radium A, and the Natural Existence of the Element 85 \| year 1942 \| last1 Karlik \| first1 B.\| author-linkBerta Karlik \| journal Naturwissenschaften \| volume 30 \| pages 685–686 \| last2 Bernert \| first2 T.\| issue 44–45\|bibcode 1942NW.....30..685K \| s2cid 6667655 }} {{subscription required}}</ref>{{efn\|In other words, some other substance was undergoing beta decay (to a different end element), not polonium-218.}} In 1942, Minder, in collaboration with the English scientist Alice Leigh-Smith, announced the discovery of another isotope of element 85, presumed to be the product of thorium A (polonium-216) beta decay. They named this substance "anglo-helvetium",<ref>{{cite journal \| title Experimental Evidence of the Existence of Element 85 in the Thorium Family \| author-link1 Alice Leigh-Smith \| first1 A.\| last1 Leigh-Smith \| author-link2 Walter Minder \| first2 W.\| last2 Minder \| journal Nature \| volume 150 \| pages 767–768 \| year 1942 \| doi 10.1038/150767a0 \| issue 3817\|bibcode 1942Natur.150..767L \| s2cid 4121704 }} {{subscription required}}</ref> but Karlik and Bernert were again unable to reproduce these results.<ref name"Ru1968">{{cite journal \| doi 10.1070/RC1968v037n02ABEH001603 \| title Astatine \| year 1968 \| last1 Nefedov \| first1 V. D. \| journal Russian Chemical Reviews \| volume 37 \| pages 87–98 \| last2 Norseev \| first2 Yu. V. \| last3 Toropova \| first3 M. A. \| last4 Khalkin \| first4 Vladimir A. \| issue 2\|bibcode 1968RuCRv..37...87N \| s2cid = 250775410 }} {{subscription required}}</ref> Later in 1940, Dale R. Corson, Kenneth Ross MacKenzie, and Emilio Segrè isolated the element at the University of California, Berkeley. Instead of searching for the element in nature, the scientists created it by bombarding bismuth-209 with alpha particles in a cyclotron (particle accelerator) to produce, after emission of two neutrons, astatine-211.{{sfn\|Corson\|MacKenzie\|Segrè\|1940}} The discoverers, however, did not immediately suggest a name for the element. The reason for this was that at the time, an element created synthetically in "invisible quantities" that had not yet been discovered in nature was not seen as a completely valid one; in addition, chemists were reluctant to recognize radioactive isotopes as legitimately as stable ones.<ref name"Davis-1959">{{Cite book\|urlhttp://nova.wpunj.edu/pardir/Book%20Reviews/The_Chemical_Elements.pdf\|titleThe Chemical Elements\|lastDavis\|firstHelen Miles\|publisherScience Service, Ballantine Books\|year1959\|edition2nd\|pages29\|access-date14 August 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170823203118/http://nova.wpunj.edu/pardir/Book%20Reviews/The_Chemical_Elements.pdf\|archive-date23 August 2017\|url-statusdead}}</ref> In 1943, astatine was found as a product of two naturally occurring decay chains by Berta Karlik and Traude Bernert, first in the so-called uranium series, and then in the actinium series.<ref>{{cite journal \| language de \| title Eine Neue Natürliche α-Strahlung \| trans-title A New Natural α-radiation \| last1 Karlik \| first1 B.\| pages 298–299 \| volume 31 \| issue 25–26 \| year 1943 \| journal Naturwissenschaften \| doi 10.1007/BF01475613 \| last2 Bernert \| first2 T.\|bibcode 1943NW.....31..298K \| s2cid 38193384 }} {{subscription required}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| language de \| title Das Element 85 in den Natürlichen Zerfallsreihen \| trans-title The Element 85 in the Natural Decay Chains \|journal Zeitschrift für Physik \| volume 123 \| issue 1–2 \| year 1943 \| doi 10.1007/BF01375144 \| pages 51–72 \| last1 Karlik \| first1 B.\| last2 Bernert \| first2 T.\|bibcode 1944ZPhy..123...51K \| s2cid 123906708 }} {{subscription required}}</ref> (Since then, astatine was also found in a third decay chain, the neptunium series.<ref>{{cite book \|first1C. M.\|last1Lederer\|first2J. M.\|last2Hollander\|first3I.\|last3Perlman \|year1967 \|titleTable of Isotopes \|edition6th \|pages1–657\|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons}}</ref>) Friedrich Paneth in 1946 called to finally recognize synthetic elements, quoting, among other reasons, recent confirmation of their natural occurrence, and proposed that the discoverers of the newly discovered unnamed elements name these elements. In early 1947, Nature published the discoverers' suggestions; a letter from Corson, MacKenzie, and Segrè suggested the name "astatine"<ref name"Davis-1959" /> coming from the Ancient Greek {{transl\|grc\|astatos}} ({{lang\|grc\|ἄστατος}}) meaning {{gloss\|unstable}}, because of its propensity for radioactive decay, with the ending "-ine", found in the names of the four previously discovered halogens. The name was also chosen to continue the tradition of the four stable halogens, where the name referred to a property of the element.<ref name"Corson2003" /> Corson and his colleagues classified astatine as a metal on the basis of its analytical chemistry.{{sfn\|Corson\|MacKenzie\|Segrè\|1940\|pp672, 677}} Subsequent investigators reported iodine-like,<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Hamilton \|first1J. G. \|last2Soley\|first2M. H. \|year1940 \|titleA Comparison of the Metabolism of Iodine and of Element 85 (Eka-Iodine)\|journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences\|volume26 \|issue8 \|pages483–489\|bibcode 1940PNAS...26..483H \|doi 10.1073/pnas.26.8.483 \|pmc1078214 \|pmid16588388\|doi-accessfree }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Neumann\|first1H. M.\| year1957\| titleSolvent Distribution Studies of the Chemistry of Astatine\|journalJournal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry\|volume4 \|issue5–6 \|pages349–353 \|doi10.1016/0022-1902(57)80018-9 }}</ref> cationic,<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Johnson\|first1G. L. \|last2Leininger \|first2R. F. \|last3Segrè \|first3E. \|s2cid95324453 \|year1949 \|titleChemical Properties of Astatine. I \|journalJournal of Chemical Physics \|volume17 \|issue1 \|pages1–10\|doi10.1063/1.1747034 \|bibcode 1949JChPh..17....1J \|hdl2027/mdp.39015086446914 \|hdl-accessfree }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Dreyer\|first1I. \|last2Dreyer\|first2R. \|last3Chalkin\|first3V. A. \|year1979 \|titleCations of Astatine in Aqueous Solutions; Production and some Characteristics \|journalRadiochemical and Radioanalytical Letters \|languagede\|volume36 \|issue6\|pages389–398}}</ref> or amphoteric behavior.<ref name"Aten">{{cite book \|last1Aten\| first1A. H. W. Jr. \|year1964 \|titleThe Chemistry of Astatine \|volume6 \|pages207–223 \| doi10.1016/S0065-2792(08)60227-7\|seriesAdvances in Inorganic Chemistry and Radiochemistry\|isbn978-0-12-023606-0}}</ref><ref name"Ru1968"/> In a 2003 retrospective, Corson wrote that "some of the properties [of astatine] are similar to iodine&nbsp;... it also exhibits metallic properties, more like its metallic neighbors Po and Bi."<ref name"Corson2003">{{cite journal \|last1Corson \|first1D. R. \|year2003 \|titleAstatine \|journalChemical & Engineering News \|volume81 \|issue36 \|pages158 \|urlhttp://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/print/astatine.html\|doi10.1021/cen-v081n036.p158 }}</ref> Isotopes {{Main\|Isotopes of astatine}} <div style="float:left; margin:0 1.4em 0 0"> {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"font-size:85%; text-align:right" \|+ Alpha decay characteristics for sample astatine isotopes{{efn\|In the table, "alpha decay half-life" refers to the half-life if decay modes other than alpha are omitted.}} \|- ! Mass<br />number ! Half-life<ref name="Audi2003" /> ! Probability<br />of alpha<br />decay<ref name="Audi2003" /> ! Alpha-<br />decay<br />half-life \|- ! style="background:lightyellow;"\| 207 \| {{val\|1.80\|u=h}} \| {{nts\|8.6}}% \| style"background:lightyellow;"\| {{val\|20.9\|uh}} \|- ! style="background:lightyellow;"\| 208 \| {{val\|1.63\|u=h}} \| {{nts\|0.55}}% \| style"background:lightyellow;"\| {{val\|12.3\|ud}} \|- ! style="background:lightyellow;"\| 209 \| {{val\|5.41\|u=h}} \| {{nts\|4.1}}% \| style"background:lightyellow;"\| {{val\|5.5\|ud}} \|- ! style="background:lightyellow;"\| 210 \| {{val\|8.1\|u=h}} \| {{nts\|0.175}}% \| style"background:lightyellow;"\| {{val\|193\|ud}} \|- ! style="background:lightyellow;"\| 211 \| {{val\|7.21\|u=h}} \| {{nts\|41.8}}% \| style"background:lightyellow;"\| {{val\|17.2\|uh}} \|- ! style="background:lightyellow;"\| 212 \| {{val\|0.31\|u=s}} \| {{ntsh\|99.99}}≈100% \| style"background:lightyellow;"\| {{val\|0.31\|us}} \|- ! style="background:lightyellow;"\| 213 \| {{val\|125\|u=ns}} \| {{nts\|100}}%<!-- {{efn\|The alpha probability peak at astatine-213 is because alpha decay produces an isotope that has an unusually stable number of neutrons, 126.}} --> \| style"background:lightyellow;"\| {{val\|125\|uns}} \|- ! style="background:lightyellow;"\| 214 \| {{val\|558\|u=ns}} \| {{nts\|100}}% \| style"background:lightyellow;"\| {{val\|558\|uns}} \|- ! style="background:lightyellow;"\| 219 \| {{val\|56\|u=s}} \| {{nts\|97}}% \| style"background:lightyellow;"\| {{val\|58\|us}} \|- ! style="background:lightyellow;"\| 220 \| {{val\|3.71\|u=min}} \| {{nts\|8}}% \| style"background:lightyellow;"\| {{val\|46.4\|umin}} \|- ! style="background:lightyellow;"\| 221 \| {{val\|2.3\|u=min}} \| {{ntsh\|0}}experimentally<br />alpha-stable \| style="background:lightyellow;"\| {{ntsh\|1e900}}∞ \|}</div> There are 41 known isotopes of astatine, with mass numbers of 188 and 190–229.<ref name"Fry" /><ref nameAt188190>{{cite web \|last1Kokkonen \|first1Henna \|titleDecay properties of the new isotopes 188At and 190At \|urlhttps://jyx.jyu.fi/bitstream/handle/123456789/87126/URN%3ANBN%3Afi%3Ajyu-202305243198.pdf?sequence1 \|publisherUniversity of Jyväskylä \|access-date8 June 2023}}</ref> Theoretical modeling suggests that about 37 more isotopes could exist.<ref name"Fry">{{cite journal \|first1C.\|last1Fry\|first2M.\|last2Thoennessen\|year2013 \|titleDiscovery of the astatine, radon, francium, and radium isotopes \|journalAtomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables \|volume09 \|issue5\|pages497–519 \|doi10.1016/j.adt.2012.05.003\|bibcode 2013ADNDT..99..497F \|arxiv1205.5841\|s2cid12590893}}</ref> No stable or long-lived astatine isotope has been observed, nor is one expected to exist.{{sfn\|Lavrukhina\|Pozdnyakov\|1970\|p=229}} Astatine's alpha decay energies follow the same trend as for other heavy elements.{{sfn\|Lavrukhina\|Pozdnyakov\|1970\|p229}} Lighter astatine isotopes have quite high energies of alpha decay, which become lower as the nuclei become heavier. Astatine-211 has a significantly higher energy than the previous isotope, because it has a nucleus with 126 neutrons, and 126 is a magic number corresponding to a filled neutron shell. Despite having a similar half-life to the previous isotope (8.1&nbsp;hours for astatine-210 and 7.2&nbsp;hours for astatine-211), the alpha decay probability is much higher for the latter: 41.81% against only 0.18%.<ref name"Audi2003" />{{efn\|This means that, if decay modes other than alpha are omitted, then astatine-210 has an alpha decay half-life of 4,628.6&nbsp;hours (128.9&nbsp;days) and astatine-211 has one of only 17.2 hours (0.7&nbsp;days). Therefore, astatine-211 is very much less stable toward alpha decay than astatine-210.}} The two following isotopes release even more energy, with astatine-213 releasing the most energy. For this reason, it is the shortest-lived astatine isotope.{{sfn\|Lavrukhina\|Pozdnyakov\|1970\|p229}} Even though heavier astatine isotopes release less energy, no long-lived astatine isotope exists, because of the increasing role of beta decay (electron emission).{{sfn\|Lavrukhina\|Pozdnyakov\|1970\|p229}} This decay mode is especially important for astatine; as early as 1950 it was postulated that all isotopes of the element undergo beta decay,<ref>{{cite book\|titleIsotope Geology\|edition2nd\|publisherPergamon Press\|page403\|year1956 \| isbn 978-0-470-70800-2 \|firstK.\|lastRankama}}</ref> though nuclear mass measurements indicate that <sup>215</sup>At is in fact beta-stable, as it has the lowest mass of all isobars with A&nbsp;&nbsp;215.<ref name"Audi2003" /> Astatine-210 and most of the lighter isotopes exhibit beta plus decay (positron emission), astatine-217 and heavier isotopes except astatine-218 exhibit beta minus decay, while astatine-211 undergoes electron capture.{{NUBASE2020\|ref}} The most stable isotope is astatine-210, which has a half-life of 8.1&nbsp;hours. The primary decay mode is beta plus, to the relatively long-lived (in comparison to astatine isotopes) alpha emitter polonium-210. In total, only five isotopes have half-lives exceeding one hour (astatine-207 to -211). The least stable ground state isotope is astatine-213, with a half-life of 125 nanoseconds. It undergoes alpha decay to the extremely long-lived bismuth-209.<ref name="Audi2003" /> Astatine has 24 known nuclear isomers, which are nuclei with one or more nucleons (protons or neutrons) in an excited state. A nuclear isomer may also be called a "meta-state", meaning the system has more internal energy than the "ground state" (the state with the lowest possible internal energy), making the former likely to decay into the latter. There may be more than one isomer for each isotope. The most stable of these nuclear isomers is astatine-202m1,{{efn\|"m1" means that this state of the isotope is the next possible one above&nbsp;– with an energy greater than&nbsp;– the ground state. "m2" and similar designations refer to further higher energy states. The number may be dropped if there is only one well-established meta state, such as astatine-216m. Other designation techniques are sometimes used.}} which has a half-life of about 3 minutes, longer than those of all the ground states bar those of isotopes 203–211 and 220. The least stable is astatine-213m1; its half-life of 110 nanoseconds is shorter than 125 nanoseconds for astatine-213, the shortest-lived ground state.{{NUBASE2020\|ref}} Natural occurrence Astatine is the rarest naturally occurring element.{{efn\|Emsley<ref name"Emsley">{{cite book\|lastEmsley\|firstJ.\|titleNature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements\|editionNew\|year2011\|publisherOxford University Press \| isbn 978-0-19-960563-7 \|pages57–58}}</ref> states that this title has been lost to berkelium, "a few atoms of which can be produced in very-highly concentrated uranium-bearing deposits"; however, his assertion is not corroborated by any primary source.}} The total amount of astatine in the Earth's crust (quoted mass 2.36 × 10<sup>25</sup> grams)<ref>{{cite book \| title CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics \| edition 85th \| year 2004 \| pages [https://archive.org/details/crchandbookofche81lide/page/14 14–10] \| publisher CRC Press \| isbn 978-0-8493-0485-9 \| editor-first D. R. \| editor-last Lide \| url https://archive.org/details/crchandbookofche81lide/page/14 }}</ref> is estimated by some to be less than one gram at any given time.<ref name"MoreAtIC" /> Other sources estimate the amount of ephemeral astatine, present on earth at any given moment, to be up to one ounce<ref name"Stwertka" /> (about 28 grams). Any astatine present at the formation of the Earth has long since disappeared; the four naturally occurring isotopes (astatine-215, -217, -218 and -219){{sfn\|Lavrukhina\|Pozdnyakov\|1970\|p228–229}} are instead continuously produced as a result of the decay of radioactive thorium and uranium ores, and trace quantities of neptunium-237. The landmass of North and South America combined, to a depth of 16 kilometers (10 miles), contains only about one trillion astatine-215 atoms at any given time (around 3.5 × 10<sup>−10</sup> grams).<ref>{{cite book\| url https://books.google.com/books?id1RMLAAAAMAAJ \| title Only a Trillion\| first I.\| last Asimov \| author-link Isaac Asimov \| publisher Abelard-Schuman \| year 1957 \| page 24}}</ref> Astatine-217 is produced via the radioactive decay of neptunium-237. Primordial remnants of the latter isotope—due to its relatively short half-life of 2.14 million years—are no longer present on Earth. However, trace amounts occur naturally as a product of transmutation reactions in uranium ores.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia \|editor-last1Kolthoff \|editor-first1 I. M.\|editor-last2Elving \|editor-first2P. J. \|titleTreatise on Analytical Chemistry \|date1964 \|publisherInterscience Encyclopedia \|seriesPart II: Analytical Chemistry of the Elements\|volume4 \|locationNew York \|pages487}}</ref> Astatine-218 was the first astatine isotope discovered in nature.{{sfn\|Kugler\|Keller\|1985\|p4}} Astatine-219, with a half-life of 56 seconds, is the longest lived of the naturally occurring isotopes.<ref name="Audi2003" /> Isotopes of astatine are sometimes not listed as naturally occurring because of misconceptions<ref name"Aten" /> that there are no such isotopes,<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Maiti\|first1M.\|last2Lahiri\|first2S.\|year2011\|titleProduction cross section of At radionuclides from <sup>7</sup>Li+<sup>nat</sup>Pb and <sup>9</sup>Be+<sup>nat</sup>Tl reactions\|journalPhysical Review C\|volume84\|issue6\|pages07601–07604 (07601)\|arxiv1109.6413\|bibcode2011PhRvC..84f7601M\|doi10.1103/PhysRevC.84.067601\|s2cid115321713}}</ref> or discrepancies in the literature. Astatine-216 has been counted as a naturally occurring isotope but reports of its observation{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|2002\|p796}} (which were described as doubtful) have not been confirmed.{{sfn\|Kugler\|Keller\|1985\|p5}} Synthesis Formation <div style"float: left; margin: 0 1em 0 0; font-size: 90%;"> {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Possible reactions after bombarding bismuth-209 with alpha particles !rowspan=2\| Reaction{{efn\|A nuclide is commonly denoted by a symbol of the chemical element this nuclide belongs to, <!--if someone can come up with a better wording, please do, or, if you think it's okay, just remove this message--> preceded by a non-spaced superscript mass number and a subscript atomic number of the nuclide located directly under the mass number. (Neutrons may be considered as nuclei with the atomic mass of 1 and the atomic charge of 0, with the symbol being n.) With the atomic number omitted, it is also sometimes used as a designation of an isotope of an element in isotope-related chemistry.}} !colspan=2\| Energy of alpha particle \|- ! Threshold energy ! Maximum production \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| {{chem\|209\|83\|Bi}} + {{chem\|4\|2\|He}} → {{chem\|211\|85\|At}} + 2 {{chem\|1\|0}}n \| style"text-align:center;"\| 20.7&nbsp;MeV<ref name"Hermanne"/> \| style"text-align:center;"\| 30<ref name"Gyehong"/>–31&nbsp;MeV<ref name="Hermanne"/> \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| {{chem\|209\|83\|Bi}} + {{chem\|4\|2\|He}} → {{chem\|210\|85\|At}} + 3 {{chem\|1\|0}}n \| style"text-align:center;"\| 28.4<ref name"zalutsky"/>–28.6&nbsp;MeV<ref name"Hermanne"/><ref name"Maiti"/> \| style"text-align:center;"\| 37&nbsp;MeV<ref name"Hermanne">{{cite journal \| last1Hermanne \| first1A. \| last2Tárkányi \| first2F. \| last3Takács \| first3S. \| last4Szücs \| first4Z. \| last5Shubin \| first5Yu.N. \| last6Dityuk \| first6A.I. \| titleExperimental study of the cross-sections of α-particle induced reactions on 209Bi \| journalApplied Radiation and Isotopes \| publisherElsevier BV \| volume63 \| issue1 \| year2005 \| issn0969-8043 \| doi10.1016/j.apradiso.2005.01.015 \| pages=1–9}}</ref> \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| {{chem\|209\|83\|Bi}} + {{chem\|4\|2\|He}} → {{chem\|209\|85\|At}} + 4 {{chem\|1\|0}}n \| style"text-align:center;"\| 35.9&nbsp;MeV<ref name"Maiti">{{cite journal \| last1Maiti \| first1Moumita \| last2Lahiri \| first2Susanta \| last3Kumar \| first3Deepak \| last4Choudhury \| first4Dibyasree \| titleSeparation of no-carrier-added astatine radionuclides from α-particle irradiated lead bismuth eutectic target: A classical method \| journalApplied Radiation and Isotopes \| publisherElsevier BV \| volume127 \| year2017 \| issn0969-8043 \| doi10.1016/j.apradiso.2017.06.020 \| pages227–230\| pmid28649020 \| bibcode2017AppRI.127..227M }}</ref> \| style="text-align:center;"\| \|} </div> Astatine was first produced by bombarding bismuth-209 with energetic alpha particles, and this is still the major route used to create the relatively long-lived isotopes astatine-209 through astatine-211. Astatine is only produced in minuscule quantities, with modern techniques allowing production runs of up to 6.6&nbsp;gigabecquerels<ref name"zalutsky"/> (about 86&nbsp;nanograms or 2.47{{e\|14}} atoms). Synthesis of greater quantities of astatine using this method is constrained by the limited availability of suitable cyclotrons and the prospect of melting the target.<ref name"zalutsky"/><ref name"Larsen" />{{efn\|See however Nagatsu et al.<ref>{{cite journal \|first1K.\|last1Nagatsu\|first2K. H.\|last2Minegishi\|first3M. \|last3Fukada \|first4H. \|last4Suzuki \|first5S.\|last5Hasegawa \|first6M. \|last6Zhang\|year2014 \|titleProduction of <sup>211</sup>At by a vertical beam irradiation method\|journalApplied Radiation and Isotopes \|volume94 \|pages363–371 \|doi10.1016/j.apradiso.2014.09.012\|pmid25439168\|bibcode2014AppRI..94..363N }}</ref> who encapsulate the bismuth target in a thin aluminium foil and place it in a niobium holder capable of holding molten bismuth.}} Solvent radiolysis due to the cumulative effect of astatine decay<ref>{{cite book \| title Therapeutic Nuclear Medicine\| year 2014 \| pages 95–104 (99) \| publisher Springer \| isbn 978-3-540-36718-5 \| last1 Barbet \| first1 J. \| last2 Bourgeois \| first2 M.\|first3J.\|last3 Chatal\|editor1 R. P.\|editor2 Baum\|chapterCyclotron-Based Radiopharmaceuticals for Nuclear Medicine Therapy}}</ref> is a related problem. With cryogenic technology, microgram quantities of astatine might be able to be generated via proton irradiation of thorium or uranium to yield radon-211, in turn decaying to astatine-211. Contamination with astatine-210 is expected to be a drawback of this method.<ref name"Wilbur">{{cite journal \| last Wilbur\| first D. S. \| date 2001\| title Overcoming the Obstacles to Clinical Evaluation of <sup>211</sup>At-Labeled Radiopharmaceuticals \| journal The Journal of Nuclear Medicine \| volume 42 \| issue 10 \| pages 1516–1518 \| urlhttp://jnm.snmjournals.org/content/42/10/1516\|pmid11585866}}</ref> The most important isotope is astatine-211, the only one in commercial use. To produce the bismuth target, the metal is sputtered onto a gold, copper, or aluminium surface at 50 to 100 milligrams per square centimeter. Bismuth oxide can be used instead; this is forcibly fused with a copper plate.{{sfn\|Lavrukhina\|Pozdnyakov\|1970\|p233}} The target is kept under a chemically neutral nitrogen atmosphere,<ref name"BiN2">{{cite book\|titleInorganic Chemistry for Undergraduates\|firstR. \|lastGopalan \|year2009\|page547\|publisherUniversities Press \| isbn 978-81-7371-660-7 \| url https://books.google.com/books?idFs4zQ-hNTz8C&pgPA492}}</ref> and is cooled with water to prevent premature astatine vaporization.{{sfn\|Lavrukhina\|Pozdnyakov\|1970\|p233}} In a particle accelerator, such as a cyclotron,<ref>{{cite book\|titleTargeted Radionuclide Tumor Therapy: Biological Aspects\|first1T.\|last1Stigbrand \|first2J. \|last2Carlsson \|first3G. P.\|last3Adams\|year2008\|page150\|publisherSpringer \| isbn 978-1-4020-8695-3 \| url https://books.google.com/books?id-mT0Lthq_54C}}</ref> alpha particles are collided with the bismuth. Even though only one bismuth isotope is used (bismuth-209), the reaction may occur in three possible ways, producing astatine-209, astatine-210, or astatine-211. Although higher energies can produce more astatine-211, it will produce unwanted astatine-210 that decays to toxic polonium-210 as well. Instead, the maximum energy of the particle accelerator is set to be below or slightly above the threshold of astatine-210 production, in order to maximize the production of astatine-211 while keeping the amount of astatine-210 at an acceptable level.<ref name"zalutsky"/><ref name"Gyehong">{{cite journal \|first1G.\|last1Gyehong \|first2K.\|last2Chun\|first3S. H. \|last3Park \|first4B.\|last4Kim\|year2014 \|titleProduction of α-particle emitting <sup>211</sup>At using 45&nbsp;MeV α-beam\| journalPhysics in Medicine and Biology \|volume59 \|issue11\|pages2849–2860\| doi10.1088/0031-9155/59/11/2849\|pmid24819557 \|bibcode 2014PMB....59.2849K \|s2cid21973246 }}</ref> Separation methods Since astatine is the main product of the synthesis, after its formation it must only be separated from the target and any significant contaminants. Several methods are available, "but they generally follow one of two approaches—dry distillation or [wet] acid treatment of the target followed by solvent extraction." The methods summarized below are modern adaptations of older procedures, as reviewed by Kugler and Keller.{{sfn\|Kugler\|Keller\|1985\|pp95–106, 133–139}}{{efn\|See also Lavrukhina and Pozdnyakov.{{sfn\|Lavrukhina\|Pozdnyakov\|1970\|pp243–253}}}} Pre-1985 techniques more often addressed the elimination of co-produced toxic polonium; this requirement is now mitigated by capping the energy of the cyclotron irradiation beam.<ref name"zalutsky"/> Dry The astatine-containing cyclotron target is heated to a temperature of around 650&nbsp;°C. The astatine volatilizes and is condensed in (typically) a cold trap. Higher temperatures of up to around 850&nbsp;°C may increase the yield, at the risk of bismuth contamination from concurrent volatilization. Redistilling the condensate may be required to minimize the presence of bismuth{{sfn\|Kugler\|Keller\|1985\|p97}} (as bismuth can interfere with astatine labeling reactions). The astatine is recovered from the trap using one or more low concentration solvents such as sodium hydroxide, methanol or chloroform. Astatine yields of up to around 80% may be achieved. Dry separation is the method most commonly used to produce a chemically useful form of astatine.<ref name"Larsen">{{cite journal\|last1Larsen\|first1R. H.\|last2Wieland\|first2B. W.\|last3Zalutsky\|first3M. R. J.\|year1996\|titleEvaluation of an Internal Cyclotron Target for the Production of <sup>211</sup>At via the <sup>209</sup>Bi (α,2n)<sup>211</sup>At reaction\|journalApplied Radiation and Isotopes\|volume47\|issue2\|pages135–143\|doi10.1016/0969-8043(95)00285-5\|pmid8852627\|bibcode1996AppRI..47..135L }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|last1Lindegren\|first1S.\|last2Bäck\|first2T.\|last3Jensen\|first3H. J.\|year2001\|titleDry-distillation of Astatine-211 from Irradiated Bismuth Targets: A Time-saving Procedure with High Recovery Yields\|journalApplied Radiation and Isotopes\|volume55\|issue2\|pages157–160\|doi10.1016/S0969-8043(01)00044-6\|pmid11393754\|bibcode2001AppRI..55..157L }}</ref> Wet The irradiated bismuth (or sometimes bismuth trioxide) target is first dissolved in, for example, concentrated nitric or perchloric acid. Following this first step, the acid can be distilled away to leave behind a white residue that contains both bismuth and the desired astatine product. This residue is then dissolved in a concentrated acid, such as hydrochloric acid. Astatine is extracted from this acid using an organic solvent such as dibutyl ether, diisopropyl ether (DIPE), or thiosemicarbazide. Using liquid-liquid extraction, the astatine product can be repeatedly washed with an acid, such as HCl, and extracted into the organic solvent layer. A separation yield of 93% using nitric acid has been reported, falling to 72% by the time purification procedures were completed (distillation of nitric acid, purging residual nitrogen oxides, and redissolving bismuth nitrate to enable liquid–liquid extraction).<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Yordanov\|first1A. T.\|last2Pozzi\|first2O.\|last3Carlin\|first3S.\|last4Akabani\|first4G. J.\|last5Wieland\|first5B.\|last6Zalutsky\|first6M. R.\|year2005\|titleWet Harvesting of No-carrier-added <sup>211</sup>At from an Irradiated <sup>209</sup>Bi Target for Radiopharmaceutical Applications\|urlhttps://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10967-004-0481-z\|journalJournal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry\|volume262\|issue3\|pages593–599\|doi10.1007/s10967-005-0481-7\|bibcode2005JRNC..262..593Y \|s2cid93179195\|url-accesssubscription}}</ref><ref name"Balkin-2013">{{Cite journal\|last1Balkin\|first1Ethan\|last2Hamlin\|first2Donald\|last3Gagnon\|first3Katherine\|last4Chyan\|first4Ming-Kuan\|last5Pal\|first5Sujit\|last6Watanabe\|first6Shigeki\|last7Wilbur\|first7D.\|date2013-09-18\|titleEvaluation of a Wet Chemistry Method for Isolation of Cyclotron Produced [211At]Astatine\|journalApplied Sciences\|languageen\|volume3\|issue3\|pages636–655\|doi10.3390/app3030636\|issn2076-3417\|citeseerx10.1.1.383.1903\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Wet methods involve "multiple radioactivity handling steps" and have not been considered well suited for isolating larger quantities of astatine. However, wet extraction methods are being examined for use in production of larger quantities of astatine-211, as it is thought that wet extraction methods can provide more consistency.<ref name"Balkin-2013" /> They can enable the production of astatine in a specific oxidation state and may have greater applicability in experimental radiochemistry.<ref name"zalutsky"/> Uses and precautions <div style="float: right; margin: 2px; font-size: 90%;"> {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Several <sup>211</sup>At-containing molecules and their experimental uses{{sfn\|Vértes\|Nagy\|Klencsár\|2003\|p=337}} ! Agent ! Applications \|- \| [<sup>211</sup>At]astatine-tellurium colloids \| Compartmental tumors<!-- Please do not add fact tags to the table; all (all) info may be seen in the source in the title of the table --> \|- \| 6-[<sup>211</sup>At]astato-2-methyl-1,4-naphtaquinol diphosphate \| Adenocarcinomas \|- \| <sup>211</sup>At-labeled methylene blue \| Melanomas \|- \| Meta-[<sup>211</sup>At]astatobenzyl guanidine \| Neuroendocrine tumors \|- \| 5-[<sup>211</sup>At]astato-2'-deoxyuridine \| Various \|- \| <sup>211</sup>At-labeled biotin conjugates \| Various pretargeting \|- \| <sup>211</sup>At-labeled octreotide \| Somatostatin receptor \|- \| <sup>211</sup>At-labeled monoclonal antibodies and fragments \| Various \|- \| <sup>211</sup>At-labeled bisphosphonates \| Bone metastases \|} </div> Newly formed astatine-211 is the subject of ongoing research in nuclear medicine.{{sfn\|Vértes\|Nagy\|Klencsár\|2003\|p337}} It must be used quickly as it decays with a half-life of 7.2&nbsp;hours; this is long enough to permit multistep labeling strategies. Astatine-211 has potential for targeted alpha-particle therapy, since it decays either via emission of an alpha particle (to bismuth-207),<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Zalutsky\|first1Michael\|last2Vaidyanathan\|first2Ganesan\|titleAstatine-211-Labeled Radiotherapeutics An Emerging Approach to Targeted Alpha-Particle Radiotherapy\|journalCurrent Pharmaceutical Design\|date1 September 2000\|volume6\|issue14\|pages1433–1455\|doi10.2174/1381612003399275\|pmid10903402}}</ref> or via electron capture (to an extremely short-lived nuclide, polonium-211, which undergoes further alpha decay), very quickly reaching its stable granddaughter lead-207. Polonium X-rays emitted as a result of the electron capture branch, in the range of 77–92&nbsp;keV, enable the tracking of astatine in animals and patients.{{sfn\|Vértes\|Nagy\|Klencsár\|2003\|p337}} Although astatine-210 has a slightly longer half-life, it is wholly unsuitable because it usually undergoes beta plus decay to the extremely toxic polonium-210.<ref>{{cite journal \|lastWilbur \|firstD. Scott \|date20 February 2013 \|titleEnigmatic astatine \|journalNature Chemistry \|volume5 \|issue3 \|pages246 \|doi10.1038/nchem.1580 \|pmid23422568 \|doi-accessfree \|bibcode2013NatCh...5..246W }}</ref> The principal medicinal difference between astatine-211 and iodine-131 (a radioactive iodine isotope also used in medicine) is that iodine-131 emits high-energy beta particles, and astatine does not. Beta particles have much greater penetrating power through tissues than do the much heavier alpha particles. An average alpha particle released by astatine-211 can travel up to 70&nbsp;μm through surrounding tissues; an average-energy beta particle emitted by iodine-131 can travel nearly 30 times as far, to about 2&nbsp;mm.{{sfn\|Lavrukhina\|Pozdnyakov\|1970\|p233}} The short half-life and limited penetrating power of alpha radiation through tissues offers advantages in situations where the "tumor burden is low and/or malignant cell populations are located in close proximity to essential normal tissues."<ref name"zalutsky"/> Significant morbidity in cell culture models of human cancers has been achieved with from one to ten astatine-211 atoms bound per cell.{{sfn\|Vértes\|Nagy\|Klencsár\|2003\|p=338}} {{Quote box \|quote Astatine&nbsp;... [is] miserable to make and hell to work with.<ref name"Fisher" /> \|salign \|source P Durbin, Human Radiation Studies: Remembering the Early Years, 1995 \| bgcolor = Lightyellow \| width = 220px \| style=padding:10px; \| align = left }} Several obstacles have been encountered in the development of astatine-based radiopharmaceuticals for cancer treatment. World War II delayed research for close to a decade. Results of early experiments indicated that a cancer-selective carrier would need to be developed and it was not until the 1970s that monoclonal antibodies became available for this purpose. Unlike iodine, astatine shows a tendency to dehalogenate from molecular carriers such as these, particularly at sp<sup>3</sup> carbon sites{{efn\|In other words, where carbon's one s atomic orbital and three p orbitals hybridize to give four new orbitals shaped as intermediates between the original s and p orbitals.}} (less so from sp<sup>2</sup> sites). Given the toxicity of astatine accumulated and retained in the body, this emphasized the need to ensure it remained attached to its host molecule. While astatine carriers that are slowly metabolized can be assessed for their efficacy, more rapidly metabolized carriers remain a significant obstacle to the evaluation of astatine in nuclear medicine. Mitigating the effects of astatine-induced radiolysis of labeling chemistry and carrier molecules is another area requiring further development. A practical application for astatine as a cancer treatment would potentially be suitable for a "staggering" number of patients; production of astatine in the quantities that would be required remains an issue.<ref name"Wilbur" /><ref>{{cite journal \|first1G. \|last1Vaidyanathan \|first2M. R. \|last2Zalutsky \|year2008 \|titleAstatine Radiopharmaceuticals: Prospects and Problems \|journalCurrent Radiopharmaceuticals \|volume1 \|issue3 \|pages177–196 \| doi10.2174/1874471010801030177 \| pmc2818997 \|pmid20150978}}</ref>{{efn\|"Unfortunately, the conundrum confronting the ... field is that commercial supply of <sup>211</sup>At awaits the demonstration of clinical efficacy; however, the demonstration of clinical efficacy requires a reliable supply of <sup>211</sup>At."<ref name"zalutsky">{{cite journal\|first1M. R.\|last1Zalutsky\|first2M.\|last2Pruszynski\|year2011\|titleAstatine-211: Production and Availability\|pmc3503149\|journalCurrent Radiopharmaceuticals\|volume4\|issue3\|pages177–185\|doi10.2174/1874471011104030177\|pmid22201707}}</ref>}} Animal studies show that astatine, similarly to iodine—although to a lesser extent, perhaps because of its slightly more metallic nature<ref name"Stwertka">Stwertka, Albert. A Guide to the Elements, Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 193. {{ISBN\|0-19-508083-1}}</ref>—is preferentially (and dangerously) concentrated in the thyroid gland. Unlike iodine, astatine also shows a tendency to be taken up by the lungs and spleen, possibly because of in-body oxidation of At<sup>–</sup> to At<sup>+</sup>.<ref name"Guerard" /> If administered in the form of a radiocolloid it tends to concentrate in the liver. Experiments in rats and monkeys suggest that astatine-211 causes much greater damage to the thyroid gland than does iodine-131, with repetitive injection of the nuclide resulting in necrosis and cell dysplasia within the gland.{{sfn\|Lavrukhina\|Pozdnyakov\|1970\|pp232–233}} Early research suggested that injection of astatine into female rodents caused morphological changes in breast tissue;<ref>{{cite book \|last1 Odell \| first1T. T. Jr. \|last2 Upton \|first2A. C. \|year 2013 \|orig-yearSoftcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1961 \|chapter Late Effects of Internally Deposited Radioisotopes \|editor1-lastSchwiegk \| editor1-first H.\|editor2-lastTurba \| editor2-first F. \| titleRadioactive Isotopes in Physiology Diagnostics and Therapy \| trans-title Radioaktive Isotope in Physiologie Diagnostik Und Therapie \| publisherSpringer-Verlag \| pages 375–392 (385)\| isbn978-3-642-49477-2}}</ref> this conclusion remained controversial for many years. General agreement was later reached that this was likely caused by the effect of breast tissue irradiation combined with hormonal changes due to irradiation of the ovaries.<ref name"Fisher">{{cite conference \| first D. \| last Fisher \| year 1995 \| book-title Human Radiation Studies: Remembering the Early Years \| title Oral History of Dr. Patricia Wallace Durbin, PhD\| publisher United States Department of Energy, Office of Human Radiation Experiments \| url https://ehss.energy.gov/ohre/roadmap/histories/0458/0458toc.html#0458_Dr_J \| access-date 25 March 2015}}</ref> Trace amounts of astatine can be handled safely in fume hoods if they are well-aerated; biological uptake of the element must be avoided.<ref name="Ullmann"/> {{clear}} See also {{portal\|Chemistry}} * Radiation protection Notes {{notes\|30em}} References {{reflist\|30em}} Bibliography * {{cite journal \| title Artificially Radioactive Element 85 \| first1 D. R. \| last1 Corson \| author-link1Dale R. Corson \| first2 K. R. \| last2MacKenzie \| author-link2Kenneth Ross MacKenzie \| first3 E. \| last3 Segrè \| author-link3Emilio Segrè \| journal Physical Review \| volume 58 \| pages 672–678 \| year 1940 \| doi 10.1103/PhysRev.58.672 \| issue 8\| bibcode = 1940PhRv...58..672C }} {{subscription required}} * {{cite book \| title Chemistry of the Elements\|edition2nd\| year 2002\| publisher Butterworth-Heinemann \| isbn 978-0-7506-3365-9 \| last1 Greenwood \| first1 N. N. \| last2 Earnshaw \| first2 = A.}} * {{cite book \| series Gmelin Handbook of Inorganic and Organometallic Chemistry \| title 'At, Astatine', System No. 8a \| edition8th \| year 1985 \| publisher Springer-Verlag \| isbn 978-3-540-93516-2 \| last1 Kugler \| first1 H. K. \| last2 Keller \| first2 C. \| volume = 8}} * {{cite book \|titleAnalytical Chemistry of Technetium, Promethium, Astatine, and Francium \|first1Avgusta Konstantinovna \|last1Lavrukhina \|first2Aleksandr Aleksandrovich \|last2Pozdnyakov \|year1970 \|publisherAnn Arbor–Humphrey Science Publishers \|othersTranslated by R. Kondor \|isbn=978-0-250-39923-9}} * {{cite book \|titleA Tale of Seven Elements\|first1 Eric\|last1Scerri\|year2013\|publisher=Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195391312 }} * {{cite book\|titleHandbook of Nuclear Chemistry\|volume4\|first1A.\|last1Vértes \|first2S.\|last2Nagy \|first3Z.\|last3Klencsár\|year2003\|publisherSpringer \| isbn 978-1-4020-1316-4 \| url https://books.google.com/books?id=0skQvMEa8EYC}} * {{cite book \| title Inorganic Reactions and Methods, Volume 3, The Formation of Bonds to Halogens (Part 1)\| first1 J. J. \| last1 Zuckerman \| first2 A. P. \| last2 Hagen \| year 1989 \| publisher John Wiley & Sons \| isbn 978-0-471-18656-4}} * {{cite book \| title Inorganic Reactions and Methods, Volume 4, The Formation of Bonds to Halogens (Part 2)\| first1 J. J. \| last1 Zuckerman \| first2 A. P. \| last2 Hagen \| year 1990 \| publisher John Wiley & Sons \| isbn 978-0-471-18657-1}} External links {{Sister project links \|wiktastatine \|commonsAstatine \|nno \|qno \|sno \|bno \|v=Astatine atom}} * [http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/085.htm Astatine] at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham) * [http://quantumchymist.blogspot.com.au/2014/02/astatine-halogen-or-metal-part-1.html Astatine: Halogen or Metal?] {{Periodic table (navbox)}} {{Astatine compounds}} {{Authority control}} Category:Chemical elements Category:Chemical elements with face-centered cubic structure Category:Halogens Category:Synthetic elements	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astatine	2025-04-05T18:25:26.253126
902	Atom	{{Short description\|Smallest unit of a chemical element}} {{Other uses}} {{pp-semi-indef\|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=August 2024}} {{Infobox \| above = Atom \| abovestyle = background-color:#B5B5CC; \| headerstyle = background-color:#B5B5CC; \| image \| caption An illustration of the helium atom, depicting the nucleus (pink) and the electron cloud distribution (black). The nucleus (upper right) in helium-4 is in reality spherically symmetric and closely resembles the electron cloud, although for more complicated nuclei this is not always the case. The black bar is one angstrom ({{val\|e-10\|um}} or {{val\|100\|ul=pm}}). \| header1 = Classification \| data2 = Smallest recognized division of a chemical element \| header3 = Properties \| label4 = Mass range \| data4 {{val\|1.67\|e-27}} to {{val\|4.52\|e-25\|ukg}} \| label5 = Electric charge \| data5 = zero (neutral), or ion charge \| label6 = Diameter range \| data6 = 62&nbsp;pm (He) to 520&nbsp;pm (Cs) (data&nbsp;page) \| label7 = Components \| data7 = Electrons and a compact nucleus of protons and neutrons }} Atoms are the basic particles of the chemical elements. An atom consists of a nucleus of protons and generally neutrons, surrounded by an electromagnetically bound swarm of electrons. The chemical elements are distinguished from each other by the number of protons that are in their atoms. For example, any atom that contains 11 protons is sodium, and any atom that contains 29 protons is copper. Atoms with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons are called isotopes of the same element. Atoms are extremely small, typically around 100&nbsp;picometers across. A human hair is about a million carbon atoms wide. Atoms are smaller than the shortest wavelength of visible light, which means humans cannot see atoms with conventional microscopes. They are so small that accurately predicting their behavior using classical physics is not possible due to quantum effects. More than 99.9994%<ref>{{cite web \|titleDOE Explains...Nuclei \|urlhttps://www.energy.gov/science/doe-explainsnuclei \|access-date2024-11-05 \|websiteEnergy.gov \|language=en}}</ref> of an atom's mass is in the nucleus. Protons have a positive electric charge and neutrons have no charge, so the nucleus is positively charged. The electrons are negatively charged, and this opposing charge is what binds them to the nucleus. If the numbers of protons and electrons are equal, as they normally are, then the atom is electrically neutral as a whole. If an atom has more electrons than protons, then it has an overall negative charge and is called a negative ion (or anion). Conversely, if it has more protons than electrons, it has a positive charge and is called a positive ion (or cation). The electrons of an atom are attracted to the protons in an atomic nucleus by the electromagnetic force. The protons and neutrons in the nucleus are attracted to each other by the nuclear force. This force is usually stronger than the electromagnetic force that repels the positively charged protons from one another. Under certain circumstances, the repelling electromagnetic force becomes stronger than the nuclear force. In this case, the nucleus splits and leaves behind different elements. This is a form of nuclear decay. Atoms can attach to one or more other atoms by chemical bonds to form chemical compounds such as molecules or crystals. The ability of atoms to attach and detach from each other is responsible for most of the physical changes observed in nature. Chemistry is the science that studies these changes. History of atomic theory {{Main\|History of atomic theory}} In philosophy {{Main\|Atomism}} The basic idea that matter is made up of tiny indivisible particles is an old idea that appeared in many ancient cultures. The word atom is derived from the ancient Greek word atomos,{{efn\|a combination of the negative term "a-" and "τομή," the term for "cut"}} which means "uncuttable". But this ancient idea was based in philosophical reasoning rather than scientific reasoning. Modern atomic theory is not based on these old concepts.<ref>{{cite book\|last1Pullman\|first1Bernard\|titleThe Atom in the History of Human Thought\|date1998\|publisherOxford University Press\|locationOxford, England\|isbn978-0-19-515040-7\|pages31–33\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIQs5hur-BpgC&qLeucippus+Democritus+atom&pgPA56\|access-date25 October 2020\|archive-date5 February 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210205165029/https://books.google.com/books?idIQs5hur-BpgC&qLeucippus+Democritus+atom&pgPA56\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>Melsen (1952). From Atomos to Atom, pp. 18–19</ref> In the early 19th century, the scientist John Dalton found evidence that matter really is composed of discrete units, and so applied the word atom to those units.<ref>Pullman (1998). The Atom in the History of Human Thought, p. 201</ref> Dalton's law of multiple proportions In the early 1800s, John Dalton compiled experimental data gathered by him and other scientists and discovered a pattern now known as the "law of multiple proportions". He noticed that in any group of chemical compounds which all contain two particular chemical elements, the amount of Element A per measure of Element B will differ across these compounds by ratios of small whole numbers. This pattern suggested that each element combines with other elements in multiples of a basic unit of weight, with each element having a unit of unique weight. Dalton decided to call these units "atoms".<ref>Pullman (1998). The Atom in the History of Human Thought, p. 199: "The constant ratios, expressible in terms of integers, of the weights of the constituents in composite bodies could be construed as evidence on a macroscopic scale of interactions at the microscopic level between basic units with fixed weights. For Dalton, this agreement strongly suggested a corpuscular structure of matter, even though it did not constitute definite proof."</ref> For example, there are two types of tin oxide: one is a grey powder that is 88.1% tin and 11.9% oxygen, and the other is a white powder that is 78.7% tin and 21.3% oxygen. Adjusting these figures, in the grey powder there is about 13.5&nbsp;g of oxygen for every 100&nbsp;g of tin, and in the white powder there is about 27&nbsp;g of oxygen for every 100&nbsp;g of tin. 13.5 and 27 form a ratio of 1:2. Dalton concluded that in the grey oxide there is one atom of oxygen for every atom of tin, and in the white oxide there are two atoms of oxygen for every atom of tin (SnO and SnO<sub>2</sub>).<ref>Dalton (1817). A New System of Chemical Philosophy vol. 2, p. 36</ref><ref>Melsen (1952). From Atomos to Atom, p. 137</ref> Dalton also analyzed iron oxides. There is one type of iron oxide that is a black powder which is 78.1% iron and 21.9% oxygen; and there is another iron oxide that is a red powder which is 70.4% iron and 29.6% oxygen. Adjusting these figures, in the black powder there is about 28&nbsp;g of oxygen for every 100&nbsp;g of iron, and in the red powder there is about 42&nbsp;g of oxygen for every 100&nbsp;g of iron. 28 and 42 form a ratio of 2:3. Dalton concluded that in these oxides, for every two atoms of iron, there are two or three atoms of oxygen respectively. These substances are known today as iron(II) oxide and iron(III) oxide, and their formulas are FeO and Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> respectively. Iron(II) oxide's formula is normally written as FeO, but since it is a crystalline substance we could alternately write it as Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>, and when we contrast that with Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, the 2:3 ratio for the oxygen is plain to see.<ref>Dalton (1817). A New System of Chemical Philosophy vol. 2, p. 28</ref><ref>Millington (1906). John Dalton, p. 113</ref> As a final example: nitrous oxide is 63.3% nitrogen and 36.7% oxygen, nitric oxide is 44.05% nitrogen and 55.95% oxygen, and nitrogen dioxide is 29.5% nitrogen and 70.5% oxygen. Adjusting these figures, in nitrous oxide there is 80&nbsp;g of oxygen for every 140&nbsp;g of nitrogen, in nitric oxide there is about 160&nbsp;g of oxygen for every 140&nbsp;g of nitrogen, and in nitrogen dioxide there is 320&nbsp;g of oxygen for every 140&nbsp;g of nitrogen. 80, 160, and 320 form a ratio of 1:2:4. The respective formulas for these oxides are N<sub>2</sub>O, NO, and NO<sub>2</sub>.<ref>Dalton (1808). A New System of Chemical Philosophy vol. 1, pp. 316–319</ref><ref>Holbrow et al. (2010). Modern Introductory Physics, pp. 65–66</ref> Discovery of the electron In 1897, J. J. Thomson discovered that cathode rays can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields, which meant that cathode rays are not a form of light but made of electrically charged particles, and their charge was negative given the direction the particles were deflected in.<ref>{{cite journal \|authorJ. J. Thomson \|urlhttp://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/thomson1897.html \|titleCathode rays \|journalPhilosophical Magazine \|volume44 \|issue269 \|pages293–316 \|year1897}}</ref> He measured these particles to be 1,700 times lighter than hydrogen (the lightest atom).<ref>In his book The Corpuscular Theory of Matter (1907), Thomson estimates electrons to be 1/1700 the mass of hydrogen.</ref> He called these new particles corpuscles but they were later renamed electrons since these are the particles that carry electricity.<ref>[http://library.thinkquest.org/C0111709/English/DC-Circuts/mechanism.html "The Mechanism Of Conduction In Metals"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121025004809/http://library.thinkquest.org/ \|date25 October 2012 }}, Think Quest.</ref> Thomson also showed that electrons were identical to particles given off by photoelectric and radioactive materials.<ref name"Thomson">{{cite journal\|lastThomson\|firstJ.J.\|titleOn bodies smaller than atoms\|journalThe Popular Science Monthly\|pages323–335\|dateAugust 1901\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3CMDAAAAMBAJ&pgPA323\|access-date21 June 2009\|archive-date1 December 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161201152039/https://books.google.com/books?id3CMDAAAAMBAJ&pgPA323\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Thomson explained that an electric current is the passing of electrons from one atom to the next, and when there was no current the electrons embedded themselves in the atoms. This in turn meant that atoms were not indivisible as scientists thought. The atom was composed of electrons whose negative charge was balanced out by some source of positive charge to create an electrically neutral atom. Ions, Thomson explained, must be atoms which have an excess or shortage of electrons.<ref>J. J. Thomson (1907). On the Corpuscular Theory of Matter, p. 26: "The simplest interpretation of these results is that the positive ions are the atoms or groups of atoms of various elements from which one or more corpuscles have been removed [...] while the negative electrified body is one with more corpuscles than the unelectrified one."</ref> Discovery of the nucleus : The extreme scattering of some alpha particles suggested the existence of a nucleus of concentrated charge.]] {{Main\|Rutherford scattering experiments}} The electrons in the atom logically had to be balanced out by a commensurate amount of positive charge, but Thomson had no idea where this positive charge came from, so he tentatively proposed that it was everywhere in the atom, the atom being in the shape of a sphere. This was the mathematically simplest hypothesis to fit the available evidence, or lack thereof. Following from this, Thomson imagined that the balance of electrostatic forces would distribute the electrons throughout the sphere in a more or less even manner.<ref>J. J. Thomson (1907). The Corpuscular Theory of Matter, p. 103: "In default of exact knowledge of the nature of the way in which positive electricity occurs in the atom, we shall consider a case in which the positive electricity is distributed in the way most amenable to mathematical calculation, i.e., when it occurs as a sphere of uniform density, throughout which the corpuscles are distributed."</ref> Thomson's model is popularly known as the plum pudding model, though neither Thomson nor his colleagues used this analogy.<ref nameHonGoldstein2013>{{cite journal \|author1Giora Hon \|author2Bernard R. Goldstein \|date6 September 2013 \|titleJ. J. Thomson's plum-pudding atomic model: The making of a scientific myth \|journalAnnalen der Physik \|volume525 \|issue8–9 \|pagesA129–A133 \|doi 10.1002/andp.201300732 \|bibcode2013AnP...525A.129H \|urlhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/andp.201300732 \| issn=0003-3804}}</ref> Thomson's model was incomplete, it was unable to predict any other properties of the elements such as emission spectra and valencies. It was soon rendered obsolete by the discovery of the atomic nucleus. Between 1908 and 1913, Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden performed a series of experiments in which they bombarded thin foils of metal with a beam of alpha particles. They did this to measure the scattering patterns of the alpha particles. They spotted a small number of alpha particles being deflected by angles greater than 90°. This shouldn't have been possible according to the Thomson model of the atom, whose charges were too diffuse to produce a sufficiently strong electric field. The deflections should have all been negligible. Rutherford proposed that the positive charge of the atom is concentrated in a tiny volume at the center of the atom and that the electrons surround this nucleus in a diffuse cloud. This nucleus carried almost all of the atom's mass. Only such an intense concentration of charge, anchored by its high mass, could produce an electric field that could deflect the alpha particles so strongly.<ref nameHeilbron2003p64-68>Heilbron (2003). Ernest Rutherford and the Explosion of Atoms, pp. 64–68</ref> Bohr model {{Main\|Bohr model}} A problem in classical mechanics is that an accelerating charged particle radiates electromagnetic radiation, causing the particle to lose kinetic energy. Circular motion counts as acceleration, which means that an electron orbiting a central charge should spiral down into that nucleus as it loses speed. In 1913, the physicist Niels Bohr proposed a new model in which the electrons of an atom were assumed to orbit the nucleus but could only do so in a finite set of orbits, and could jump between these orbits only in discrete changes of energy corresponding to absorption or radiation of a photon.<ref namestern20050516 /> This quantization was used to explain why the electrons' orbits are stable and why elements absorb and emit electromagnetic radiation in discrete spectra.<ref namebohr19221211 /> Bohr's model could only predict the emission spectra of hydrogen, not atoms with more than one electron. Discovery of protons and neutrons {{Main\|Atomic nucleus\|Discovery of the neutron}} Back in 1815, William Prout observed that the atomic weights of many elements were multiples of hydrogen's atomic weight, which is in fact true for all of them if one takes isotopes into account. In 1898, J. J. Thomson found that the positive charge of a hydrogen ion is equal to the negative charge of an electron, and these were then the smallest known charged particles.<ref>{{cite journal \|lastJ. J. Thomson \|date1898 \|titleOn the Charge of Electricity carried by the Ions produced by Röntgen Rays \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/londonedinburgh5461898lon/page/528/mode/2up \|journalThe London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science \|series5 \|volume46 \|issue283 \|pages528–545 \|doi10.1080/14786449808621229}}</ref> Thomson later found that the positive charge in an atom is a positive multiple of an electron's negative charge.<ref>J. J. Thomson (1907). The Corpuscular Theory of Matter. p. 26–27: "In an unelectrified atom there are as many units of positive electricity as there are of negative; an atom with a unit of positive charge is a neutral atom which has lost one corpuscle, while an atom with a unit of negative charge is a neutral atom to which an additional corpuscle has been attached."</ref> In 1913, Henry Moseley discovered that the frequencies of X-ray emissions from an excited atom were a mathematical function of its atomic number and hydrogen's nuclear charge. In 1919, Rutherford bombarded nitrogen gas with alpha particles and detected hydrogen ions being emitted from the gas, and concluded that they were produced by alpha particles hitting and splitting the nuclei of the nitrogen atoms.<ref>{{cite journal\|authorRutherford, Ernest\|urlhttp://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/rutherford.html \|titleCollisions of alpha Particles with Light Atoms. IV. An Anomalous Effect in Nitrogen\|journalPhilosophical Magazine\|year1919\|volume37\|page581\|doi10.1080/14786440608635919\|issue=222}}</ref> These observations led Rutherford to conclude that the hydrogen nucleus is a singular particle with a positive charge equal to the electron's negative charge.<ref>The Development of the Theory of Atomic Structure (Rutherford 1936). Reprinted in Background to Modern Science: Ten Lectures at Cambridge arranged by the History of Science Committee 1936:<br />"In 1919 I showed that when light atoms were bombarded by α-particles they could be broken up with the emission of a proton, or hydrogen nucleus. We therefore presumed that a proton must be one of the units of which the nuclei of other atoms were composed..."</ref> He named this particle "proton" in 1920.<ref>{{cite journal \|authorOrme Masson \|date1921 \|titleThe Constitution of Atoms \|journalThe London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science \|volume41 \|issue242 \|pages281–285 \|doi10.1080/14786442108636219 \|url=https://archive.org/details/londonedinburg6411921lond/page/280/mode/2up }}<br />Footnote by Ernest Rutherford: 'At the time of writing this paper in Australia, Professor Orme Masson was not aware that the name "proton" had already been suggested as a suitable name for the unit of mass nearly 1, in terms of oxygen 16, that appears to enter into the nuclear structure of atoms. The question of a suitable name for this unit was discussed at an informal meeting of a number of members of Section A of the British Association at Cardiff this year. The name "baron" suggested by Professor Masson was mentioned, but was considered unsuitable on account of the existing variety of meanings. Finally the name "proton" met with general approval, particularly as it suggests the original term "protyle " given by Prout in his well-known hypothesis that all atoms are built up of hydrogen. The need of a special name for the nuclear unit of mass 1 was drawn attention to by Sir Oliver Lodge at the Sectional meeting, and the writer then suggested the name "proton."'</ref> The number of protons in an atom (which Rutherford called the "atomic number"<ref>Eric Scerri (2020). The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance, p. 185</ref><ref>Helge Kragh (2012). Niels Bohr and the Quantum Atom, p. 33</ref>) was found to be equal to the element's ordinal number on the periodic table and therefore provided a simple and clear-cut way of distinguishing the elements from each other. The atomic weight of each element is higher than its proton number, so Rutherford hypothesized that the surplus weight was carried by unknown particles with no electric charge and a mass equal to that of the proton. In 1928, Walter Bothe observed that beryllium emitted a highly penetrating, electrically neutral radiation when bombarded with alpha particles. It was later discovered that this radiation could knock hydrogen atoms out of paraffin wax. Initially it was thought to be high-energy gamma radiation, since gamma radiation had a similar effect on electrons in metals, but James Chadwick found that the ionization effect was too strong for it to be due to electromagnetic radiation, so long as energy and momentum were conserved in the interaction. In 1932, Chadwick exposed various elements, such as hydrogen and nitrogen, to the mysterious "beryllium radiation", and by measuring the energies of the recoiling charged particles, he deduced that the radiation was actually composed of electrically neutral particles which could not be massless like the gamma ray, but instead were required to have a mass similar to that of a proton. Chadwick now claimed these particles as Rutherford's neutrons.<ref>{{cite journal\|authorJames Chadwick \|year1932\|urlhttp://web.mit.edu/22.54/resources/Chadwick.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://web.mit.edu/22.54/resources/Chadwick.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|url-statuslive \|titlePossible Existence of a Neutron\|doi10.1038/129312a0\|journalNature\|page312\|volume129\|bibcode 1932Natur.129Q.312C\|issue3252\|s2cid4076465\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> The current consensus model In 1925, Werner Heisenberg published the first consistent mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics (matrix mechanics).<ref name"Pais">{{cite book\|lastPais\|firstAbraham\|year1986\|locationNew York\|titleInward Bound: Of Matter and Forces in the Physical World\|publisherOxford University Press\|isbn978-0-19-851971-3\|pages[https://archive.org/details/inwardboundofmat00pais_0/page/228 228–230]\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/inwardboundofmat00pais_0/page/228}}</ref> One year earlier, Louis de Broglie had proposed that all particles behave like waves to some extent,<ref>{{cite book \|titleIntroducing Quantum Theory \|author1McEvoy, J. P. \|author2Zarate, Oscar \|publisherTotem Books \|year2004 \|isbn978-1-84046-577-8 \|pages110–114}}</ref> and in 1926 Erwin Schrödinger used this idea to develop the Schrödinger equation, which describes electrons as three-dimensional waveforms rather than points in space.<ref>{{cite web \|lastKozłowski \|firstMiroslaw \|year2019 \|titleThe Schrödinger equation A History \|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/332241721}}</ref> A consequence of using waveforms to describe particles is that it is mathematically impossible to obtain precise values for both the position and momentum of a particle at a given point in time. This became known as the uncertainty principle, formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1927.<ref name"Pais" /> In this concept, for a given accuracy in measuring a position one could only obtain a range of probable values for momentum, and vice versa.<ref>{{cite web\|authorChad Orzel\|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vTQKELOE9eY4\|titleWhat is the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle?\|websiteTED-Ed\|date16 September 2014\|viaYouTube\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150913185956/https://www.youtube.com/watch?vTQKELOE9eY4\|archive-date13 September 2015\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Thus, the planetary model of the atom was discarded in favor of one that described atomic orbital zones around the nucleus where a given electron is most likely to be found.<ref namebrown2007 /><ref nameharrison2000 /> This model was able to explain observations of atomic behavior that previous models could not, such as certain structural and spectral patterns of atoms larger than hydrogen. Structure Subatomic particles {{Main\|Subatomic particle}} Though the word atom originally denoted a particle that cannot be cut into smaller particles, in modern scientific usage the atom is composed of various subatomic particles. The constituent particles of an atom are the electron, the proton, and the neutron. The electron is the least massive of these particles by four orders of magnitude at {{val\|9.11\|e-31\|ukg}}, with a negative electrical charge and a size that is too small to be measured using available techniques.<ref>{{cite book\|lastDemtröder\|firstWolfgang\|year2002\|titleAtoms, Molecules and Photons: An Introduction to Atomic- Molecular- and Quantum Physics\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/atomsmoleculesph00demt_277\|url-accesslimited\|publisherSpringer\|edition1st\|isbn978-3-540-20631-6\|oclc181435713\|pages=[https://archive.org/details/atomsmoleculesph00demt_277/page/n51 39]–42}}</ref> It was the lightest particle with a positive rest mass measured, until the discovery of neutrino mass. Under ordinary conditions, electrons are bound to the positively charged nucleus by the attraction created from opposite electric charges. If an atom has more or fewer electrons than its atomic number, then it becomes respectively negatively or positively charged as a whole; a charged atom is called an ion. Electrons have been known since the late 19th century, mostly thanks to J.J. Thomson; see history of subatomic physics for details. Protons have a positive charge and a mass of {{val\|1.6726\|e-27\|ukg}}. The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number. Ernest Rutherford (1919) observed that nitrogen under alpha-particle bombardment ejects what appeared to be hydrogen nuclei. By 1920 he had accepted that the hydrogen nucleus is a distinct particle within the atom and named it proton. Neutrons have no electrical charge and have a mass of {{val\|1.6749\|e-27\|ukg}}.<ref>{{cite book\|lastWoan\|firstGraham\|year2000\|titleThe Cambridge Handbook of Physics\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn978-0-521-57507-2\|oclc224032426\|page[https://archive.org/details/cambridgehandboo0000woan/page/8 8]\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/cambridgehandboo0000woan/page/8}}</ref><ref name"2014 CODATA">Mohr, P.J.; Taylor, B.N. and Newell, D.B. (2014), [http://physics.nist.gov/constants "The 2014 CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120211083747/http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/index.html \|date11 February 2012 }} (Web Version 7.0). The database was developed by J. Baker, M. Douma, and S. Kotochigova. (2014). National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899.</ref> Neutrons are the heaviest of the three constituent particles, but their mass can be reduced by the nuclear binding energy. Neutrons and protons (collectively known as nucleons) have comparable dimensions—on the order of {{val\|2.5\|e-15\|um}}—although the 'surface' of these particles is not sharply defined.<ref>{{cite book\|lastMacGregor\|firstMalcolm H.\|year1992\|titleThe Enigmatic Electron\|publisherOxford University Press\|isbn978-0-19-521833-6\|oclc223372888\|pages[https://archive.org/details/astronomyencyclo0000unse/page/33 33–37]\|url=https://archive.org/details/astronomyencyclo0000unse/page/33}}</ref> The neutron was discovered in 1932 by the English physicist James Chadwick. In the Standard Model of physics, electrons are truly elementary particles with no internal structure, whereas protons and neutrons are composite particles composed of elementary particles called quarks. There are two types of quarks in atoms, each having a fractional electric charge. Protons are composed of two up quarks (each with charge +{{sfrac\|2\|3}}) and one down quark (with a charge of −{{sfrac\|1\|3}}). Neutrons consist of one up quark and two down quarks. This distinction accounts for the difference in mass and charge between the two particles.<ref namepdg2002 /><ref nameschombert2006 /> The quarks are held together by the strong interaction (or strong force), which is mediated by gluons. The protons and neutrons, in turn, are held to each other in the nucleus by the nuclear force, which is a residuum of the strong force that has somewhat different range-properties (see the article on the nuclear force for more). The gluon is a member of the family of gauge bosons, which are elementary particles that mediate physical forces.<ref namepdg2002 /><ref nameschombert2006 /> Nucleus {{Main\|Atomic nucleus}} needed for a nucleon to escape the nucleus, for various isotopes]]<!-- A brief explanation is provided here because 'binding energy' is not explained until the end of the section. --> All the bound protons and neutrons in an atom make up a tiny atomic nucleus, and are collectively called nucleons. The radius of a nucleus is approximately equal to <math>1.07 \sqrt[3]{A}</math>&nbsp;femtometres, where <math>A</math> is the total number of nucleons.<ref>{{cite book\|lastJevremovic\|firstTatjana\|year2005\|titleNuclear Principles in Engineering\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/nuclearprinciple00jevr_450\|url-accesslimited\|publisherSpringer\|isbn978-0-387-23284-3\|oclc228384008\|page[https://archive.org/details/nuclearprinciple00jevr_450/page/n83 63]}}</ref> This is much smaller than the radius of the atom, which is on the order of 10<sup>5</sup>&nbsp;fm. The nucleons are bound together by a short-ranged attractive potential called the residual strong force. At distances smaller than 2.5&nbsp;fm this force is much more powerful than the electrostatic force that causes positively charged protons to repel each other.<ref>{{cite book\|last1Pfeffer\|first1Jeremy I.\|last2Nir\|first2Shlomo\|year2000\|titleModern Physics: An Introductory Text\|publisherImperial College Press\|isbn978-1-86094-250-1\|oclc45900880\|pages330–336}}</ref> Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, called the atomic number. Within a single element, the number of neutrons may vary, determining the isotope of that element. The total number of protons and neutrons determine the nuclide. The number of neutrons relative to the protons determines the stability of the nucleus, with certain isotopes undergoing radioactive decay.<ref name=wenner2007 /> The proton, the electron, and the neutron are classified as fermions. Fermions obey the Pauli exclusion principle which prohibits identical fermions, such as multiple protons, from occupying the same quantum state at the same time. Thus, every proton in the nucleus must occupy a quantum state different from all other protons, and the same applies to all neutrons of the nucleus and to all electrons of the electron cloud.<ref name="raymond" /> A nucleus that has a different number of protons than neutrons can potentially drop to a lower energy state through a radioactive decay that causes the number of protons and neutrons to more closely match. As a result, atoms with matching numbers of protons and neutrons are more stable against decay, but with increasing atomic number, the mutual repulsion of the protons requires an increasing proportion of neutrons to maintain the stability of the nucleus.<ref name="raymond" /> (e<sup>+</sup>)—an antimatter electron—is emitted along with an electron neutrino.]] The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus can be modified, although this can require very high energies because of the strong force. Nuclear fusion occurs when multiple atomic particles join to form a heavier nucleus, such as through the energetic collision of two nuclei. For example, at the core of the Sun protons require energies of 3 to 10&nbsp;keV to overcome their mutual repulsion—the coulomb barrier—and fuse together into a single nucleus.<ref namemihos2002 /> Nuclear fission is the opposite process, causing a nucleus to split into two smaller nuclei—usually through radioactive decay. The nucleus can also be modified through bombardment by high energy subatomic particles or photons. If this modifies the number of protons in a nucleus, the atom changes to a different chemical element.<ref namelbnl20070330 /><ref name=makhijani_saleska2001 /> If the mass of the nucleus following a fusion reaction is less than the sum of the masses of the separate particles, then the difference between these two values can be emitted as a type of usable energy (such as a gamma ray, or the kinetic energy of a beta particle), as described by Albert Einstein's mass–energy equivalence formula, E mc<sup>2</sup>, where m is the mass loss and c is the speed of light. This deficit is part of the binding energy of the new nucleus, and it is the non-recoverable loss of the energy that causes the fused particles to remain together in a state that requires this energy to separate.<ref>{{cite book\|last1Shultis\|first1J. Kenneth\|last2Faw\|first2Richard E.\|titleFundamentals of Nuclear Science and Engineering\|year2002\|publisherCRC Press\|isbn978-0-8247-0834-4\|oclc123346507\|pages=10–17}}</ref> The fusion of two nuclei that create larger nuclei with lower atomic numbers than iron and nickel—a total nucleon number of about 60—is usually an exothermic process that releases more energy than is required to bring them together.<ref nameajp63_7_653 /> It is this energy-releasing process that makes nuclear fusion in stars a self-sustaining reaction. For heavier nuclei, the binding energy per nucleon begins to decrease. That means that a fusion process producing a nucleus that has an atomic number higher than about 26, and a mass number higher than about 60, is an endothermic process. Thus, more massive nuclei cannot undergo an energy-producing fusion reaction that can sustain the hydrostatic equilibrium of a star.<ref name"raymond" /> Electron cloud {{Main\|Electron configuration\|Electron shell\|Atomic orbital}}{{See also\|Electronegativity}}, the minimum energy V(x) needed to reach each position x. Classically, a particle with energy E is constrained to a range of positions between x<sub>1</sub> and x<sub>2</sub>.]] The electrons in an atom are attracted to the protons in the nucleus by the electromagnetic force. This force binds the electrons inside an electrostatic potential well surrounding the smaller nucleus, which means that an external source of energy is needed for the electron to escape. The closer an electron is to the nucleus, the greater the attractive force. Hence electrons bound near the center of the potential well require more energy to escape than those at greater separations. Electrons, like other particles, have properties of both a particle and a wave. The electron cloud is a region inside the potential well where each electron forms a type of three-dimensional standing wave—a wave form that does not move relative to the nucleus. This behavior is defined by an atomic orbital, a mathematical function that characterises the probability that an electron appears to be at a particular location when its position is measured.<ref namescience157_3784_13 /> Only a discrete (or quantized) set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus, as other possible wave patterns rapidly decay into a more stable form.<ref nameBrucat2008 /> Orbitals can have one or more ring or node structures, and differ from each other in size, shape and orientation.<ref name=manthey2001 /> atomic orbitals showing probability density and phase (g orbitals and higher are not shown)]] Each atomic orbital corresponds to a particular energy level of the electron. The electron can change its state to a higher energy level by absorbing a photon with sufficient energy to boost it into the new quantum state. Likewise, through spontaneous emission, an electron in a higher energy state can drop to a lower energy state while radiating the excess energy as a photon. These characteristic energy values, defined by the differences in the energies of the quantum states, are responsible for atomic spectral lines.<ref name=Brucat2008 /> The amount of energy needed to remove or add an electron—the electron binding energy—is far less than the binding energy of nucleons. For example, it requires only 13.6&nbsp;eV to strip a ground-state electron from a hydrogen atom,<ref nameherter_8 /> compared to 2.23&nbsp;million eV for splitting a deuterium nucleus.<ref namepr79_2_282 /> Atoms are electrically neutral if they have an equal number of protons and electrons. Atoms that have either a deficit or a surplus of electrons are called ions. Electrons that are farthest from the nucleus may be transferred to other nearby atoms or shared between atoms. By this mechanism, atoms are able to bond into molecules and other types of chemical compounds like ionic and covalent network crystals.<ref>{{cite book\|lastSmirnov\|firstBoris M.\|year2003\|titlePhysics of Atoms and Ions\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/physicsatomsions00smir\|url-accesslimited\|publisherSpringer\|isbn978-0-387-95550-6\|pages[https://archive.org/details/physicsatomsions00smir/page/n262 249]–272}}</ref> Properties Nuclear properties {{Main\|Isotope\|Stable isotope\|List of nuclides\|List of elements by stability of isotopes}} By definition, any two atoms with an identical number of protons in their nuclei belong to the same chemical element. Atoms with equal numbers of protons but a different number of neutrons are different isotopes of the same element. For example, all hydrogen atoms admit exactly one proton, but isotopes exist with no neutrons (hydrogen-1, by far the most common form,<ref namematis2000 /> also called protium), one neutron (deuterium), two neutrons (tritium) and more than two neutrons. The known elements form a set of atomic numbers, from the single-proton element hydrogen up to the 118-proton element oganesson.<ref nameweiss20061017 /> All known isotopes of elements with atomic numbers greater than 82 are radioactive, although the radioactivity of element 83 (bismuth) is so slight as to be practically negligible.<ref names131>{{cite book\|lastSills\|firstAlan D.\|year2003\|titleEarth Science the Easy Way\|publisherBarron's Educational Series\|isbn978-0-7641-2146-3\|oclc51543743\|pages[https://archive.org/details/earthscienceeasy00alan/page/131 131–134]\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/earthscienceeasy00alan/page/131}}</ref><ref name=dume20030423 /> About 339 nuclides occur naturally on Earth,<ref namelidsay20000730 /> of which 251 (about 74%) have not been observed to decay, and are referred to as "stable isotopes". Only 90 nuclides are stable theoretically, while another 161 (bringing the total to 251) have not been observed to decay, even though in theory it is energetically possible. These are also formally classified as "stable". An additional 35 radioactive nuclides have half-lives longer than 100 million years, and are long-lived enough to have been present since the birth of the Solar System. This collection of 286 nuclides are known as primordial nuclides. Finally, an additional 53 short-lived nuclides are known to occur naturally, as daughter products of primordial nuclide decay (such as radium from uranium), or as products of natural energetic processes on Earth, such as cosmic ray bombardment (for example, carbon-14).<ref nametuli2005 /><ref groupnote>For more recent updates see Brookhaven National Laboratory's [http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/chart Interactive Chart of Nuclides] ] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200725182342/https://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat2/ \|date=25 July 2020 }}.</ref><!-- See article list of nuclides. The numbers are derived by WP:CALC (counting the table), which is not WP:OR--> For 80 of the chemical elements, at least one stable isotope exists. As a rule, there is only a handful of stable isotopes for each of these elements, the average being 3.1 stable isotopes per element. Twenty-six "monoisotopic elements" have only a single stable isotope, while the largest number of stable isotopes observed for any element is ten, for the element tin. Elements 43, 61, and all elements numbered 83 or higher have no stable isotopes.<ref name=CRC>CRC Handbook (2002).</ref>{{rp\|1–12}} Stability of isotopes is affected by the ratio of protons to neutrons, and also by the presence of certain "magic numbers" of neutrons or protons that represent closed and filled quantum shells. These quantum shells correspond to a set of energy levels within the shell model of the nucleus; filled shells, such as the filled shell of 50 protons for tin, confers unusual stability on the nuclide. Of the 251 known stable nuclides, only four have both an odd number of protons and odd number of neutrons: hydrogen-2 (deuterium), lithium-6, boron-10, and nitrogen-14. (Tantalum-180m is odd-odd and observationally stable, but is predicted to decay with a very long half-life.) Also, only four naturally occurring, radioactive odd-odd nuclides have a half-life over a billion years: potassium-40, vanadium-50, lanthanum-138, and lutetium-176. Most odd-odd nuclei are highly unstable with respect to beta decay, because the decay products are even-even, and are therefore more strongly bound, due to nuclear pairing effects.<ref>{{cite book \|lastKrane \|firstK. \|year1988 \|titleIntroductory Nuclear Physics \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/introductorynucl00kran \|url-accesslimited \|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons \|isbn978-0-471-85914-7 \|pages[https://archive.org/details/introductorynucl00kran/page/n90 68]}}</ref> Mass {{Main\|Atomic mass\|mass number}} The large majority of an atom's mass comes from the protons and neutrons that make it up. The total number of these particles (called "nucleons") in a given atom is called the mass number. It is a positive integer and dimensionless (instead of having dimension of mass), because it expresses a count. An example of use of a mass number is "carbon-12," which has 12 nucleons (six protons and six neutrons). The actual mass of an atom at rest is often expressed in daltons (Da), also called the unified atomic mass unit (u). This unit is defined as a twelfth of the mass of a free neutral atom of carbon-12, which is approximately {{val\|1.66\|e-27\|ukg}}.<ref nameiupac /> Hydrogen-1 (the lightest isotope of hydrogen which is also the nuclide with the lowest mass) has an atomic weight of 1.007825&nbsp;Da.<ref namechieh2001 /> The value of this number is called the atomic mass. A given atom has an atomic mass approximately equal (within 1%) to its mass number times the atomic mass unit (for example the mass of a nitrogen-14 is roughly 14&nbsp;Da), but this number will not be exactly an integer except (by definition) in the case of carbon-12.<ref namenist_wc /> The heaviest stable atom is lead-208,<ref names131 /> with a mass of {{val\|207.9766521\|uDa}}.<ref nameaudi2003 /> As even the most massive atoms are far too light to work with directly, chemists instead use the unit of moles. One mole of atoms of any element always has the same number of atoms (about {{val\|6.022\|e23}}). This number was chosen so that if an element has an atomic mass of 1&nbsp;u, a mole of atoms of that element has a mass close to one gram. Because of the definition of the unified atomic mass unit, each carbon-12 atom has an atomic mass of exactly 12&nbsp;Da, and so a mole of carbon-12 atoms weighs exactly 0.012&nbsp;kg.<ref nameiupac>{{cite book \|last=Mills \|first=Ian \|author2=Cvitaš, Tomislav \|author3=Homann, Klaus \|author4=Kallay, Nikola \|author5=Kuchitsu, Kozo \|title=Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry \|publisher=International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Commission on Physiochemical Symbols Terminology and Units, Blackwell Scientific Publications \|location=Oxford \|edition=2nd \|year=1993 \|isbn=978-0-632-03583-0 \|oclc=27011505 \|url=https://archive.org/details/quantitiesunitss0000unse/page/70 \|page=[https://archive.org/details/quantitiesunitss0000unse/page/70 70] }}</ref> Shape and size {{Main\|Atomic radius}} Atoms lack a well-defined outer boundary, so their dimensions are usually described in terms of an atomic radius. This is a measure of the distance out to which the electron cloud extends from the nucleus.<ref nameGhosh02>{{cite journal \| author Ghosh, D.C. \|author2Biswas, R. \| title Theoretical calculation of Absolute Radii of Atoms and Ions. Part 1. The Atomic Radii \| journal Int. J. Mol. Sci. \| volume 3 \|issue11 \| pages 87–113 \| year 2002 \| doi10.3390/i3020087\| doi-access free }}</ref> This assumes the atom to exhibit a spherical shape, which is only obeyed for atoms in vacuum or free space. Atomic radii may be derived from the distances between two nuclei when the two atoms are joined in a chemical bond. The radius varies with the location of an atom on the atomic chart, the type of chemical bond, the number of neighboring atoms (coordination number) and a quantum mechanical property known as spin.<ref nameaca32_5_751 /> On the periodic table of the elements, atom size tends to increase when moving down columns, but decrease when moving across rows (left to right).<ref name=dong1998 /> Consequently, the smallest atom is helium with a radius of 32&nbsp;pm, while one of the largest is caesium at 225&nbsp;pm.<ref>{{cite book \|lastZumdahl\|firstSteven S.\|year=2002 \|title=Introductory Chemistry: A Foundation \|edition5th\|publisherHoughton Mifflin \|url=http://college.hmco.com/chemistry/intro/zumdahl/intro_chemistry/5e/students/protected/periodictables/pt/pt/pt_ar5.html \|isbn=978-0-618-34342-3 \|oclc173081482\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080304155935/http://college.hmco.com/chemistry/intro/zumdahl/intro_chemistry/5e/students/protected/periodictables/pt/pt/pt_ar5.html\| archive-date4 March 2008 \| url-status live}}</ref> When subjected to external forces, like electrical fields, the shape of an atom may deviate from spherical symmetry. The deformation depends on the field magnitude and the orbital type of outer shell electrons, as shown by group-theoretical considerations. Aspherical deviations might be elicited for instance in crystals, where large crystal-electrical fields may occur at low-symmetry lattice sites.<ref nameBethe1929>{{cite journal\|author Bethe, Hans\|title Termaufspaltung in Kristallen\|journal Annalen der Physik\|volume 3\|issue 2\|pages 133–208\|year 1929\|doi 10.1002/andp.19293950202\|bibcode 1929AnP...395..133B }}</ref><ref nameZPB1995a>{{cite journal \| author Birkholz, Mario \| title Crystal-field induced dipoles in heteropolar crystals – I. concept \| journal Z. Phys. B \| volume 96 \| issue 3 \| pages 325–332 \| year 1995 \| doi 10.1007/BF01313054 \|bibcode 1995ZPhyB..96..325B \| urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/227050494\| citeseerx 10.1.1.424.5632 \| s2cid 122527743 }}</ref> Significant ellipsoidal deformations have been shown to occur for sulfur ions<ref namepssb2008>{{cite journal \| author Birkholz, M. \| author2 Rudert, R. \| title Interatomic distances in pyrite-structure disulfides – a case for ellipsoidal modeling of sulfur ions \| journal Physica Status Solidi B \| volume 245 \| issue 9 \| pages 1858–1864 \| year 2008 \| url https://www.mariobirkholz.de/pssb2008.pdf \| doi 10.1002/pssb.200879532 \| bibcode 2008PSSBR.245.1858B \| s2cid 97824066 \| access-date 2 May 2021 \| archive-date 2 May 2021 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210502151542/https://www.mariobirkholz.de/pssb2008.pdf \| url-status live }}</ref> and chalcogen ions<ref namemdpi2014>{{cite journal \| author Birkholz, M. \| title Modeling the Shape of Ions in Pyrite-Type Crystals\| journal Crystals \| volume 4 \| issue 3\| pages 390–403 \| year 2014 \| doi 10.3390/cryst4030390\| doi-access free\| bibcode = 2014Cryst...4..390B}}</ref> in pyrite-type compounds. Atomic dimensions are thousands of times smaller than the wavelengths of light (400–700&nbsp;nm) so they cannot be viewed using an optical microscope, although individual atoms can be observed using a scanning tunneling microscope. To visualize the minuteness of the atom, consider that a typical human hair is about 1&nbsp;million carbon atoms in width.<ref nameosu2007 /> A single drop of water contains about 2&nbsp;sextillion ({{val\|2\|e21}}) atoms of oxygen, and twice the number of hydrogen atoms.<ref>{{cite book \|lastPadilla\|firstMichael J. \|author2Miaoulis, Ioannis\|author3 Cyr, Martha\|year = 2002 \|title = Prentice Hall Science Explorer: Chemical Building Blocks \|publisher = Prentice-Hall, Inc. \|location = Upper Saddle River, New Jersey \|isbn = 978-0-13-054091-1 \|oclc47925884\|page32 \|quoteThere are 2,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 (that's 2&nbsp;sextillion) atoms of oxygen in one drop of water—and twice as many atoms of hydrogen.}}</ref> A single carat diamond with a mass of {{val\|2\|e-4\|ukg}} contains about 10&nbsp;sextillion (10<sup>22</sup>) atoms of carbon.<ref groupnote>A carat is 200&nbsp;milligrams. By definition, carbon-12 has 0.012&nbsp;kg per mole. The Avogadro constant defines {{val\|6\|e23}} atoms per mole.</ref> If an apple were magnified to the size of the Earth, then the atoms in the apple would be approximately the size of the original apple.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/I_01.html#Ch1-S2-p3 \|titleThe Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. I Ch. 1: Atoms in Motion \|access-date3 May 2022 \|archive-date30 July 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220730092955/https://www.feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/I_01.html#Ch1-S2-p3 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Radioactive decay {{Main\|Radioactive decay}} (T<sub>{{frac\|1\|2}}</sub>) of various isotopes with Z protons and N neutrons.]] Every element has one or more isotopes that have unstable nuclei that are subject to radioactive decay, causing the nucleus to emit particles or electromagnetic radiation. Radioactivity can occur when the radius of a nucleus is large compared with the radius of the strong force, which only acts over distances on the order of 1&nbsp;fm.<ref name=splung /> The most common forms of radioactive decay are:<ref>{{cite book \|last=L'Annunziata<!-- Note: the single quote mark before the name is correct. --> \|first=Michael F. \|year2003\|titleHandbook of Radioactivity Analysis \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/handbookradioact00lann\|url-accesslimited\|publisherAcademic Press\|isbn978-0-12-436603-9 \|oclc16212955\|pages[https://archive.org/details/handbookradioact00lann/page/n22 3]–56}}</ref><ref name=firestone20000522 /> * Alpha decay: this process is caused when the nucleus emits an alpha particle, which is a helium nucleus consisting of two protons and two neutrons. The result of the emission is a new element with a lower atomic number. * Beta decay (and electron capture): these processes are regulated by the weak force, and result from a transformation of a neutron into a proton, or a proton into a neutron. The neutron to proton transition is accompanied by the emission of an electron and an antineutrino, while proton to neutron transition (except in electron capture) causes the emission of a positron and a neutrino. The electron or positron emissions are called beta particles. Beta decay either increases or decreases the atomic number of the nucleus by one. Electron capture is more common than positron emission, because it requires less energy. In this type of decay, an electron is absorbed by the nucleus, rather than a positron emitted from the nucleus. A neutrino is still emitted in this process, and a proton changes to a neutron. * Gamma decay: this process results from a change in the energy level of the nucleus to a lower state, resulting in the emission of electromagnetic radiation. The excited state of a nucleus which results in gamma emission usually occurs following the emission of an alpha or a beta particle. Thus, gamma decay usually follows alpha or beta decay. Other more rare types of radioactive decay include ejection of neutrons or protons or clusters of nucleons from a nucleus, or more than one beta particle. An analog of gamma emission which allows excited nuclei to lose energy in a different way, is internal conversion—a process that produces high-speed electrons that are not beta rays, followed by production of high-energy photons that are not gamma rays. A few large nuclei explode into two or more charged fragments of varying masses plus several neutrons, in a decay called spontaneous nuclear fission. Each radioactive isotope has a characteristic decay time period—the half-life—that is determined by the amount of time needed for half of a sample to decay. This is an exponential decay process that steadily decreases the proportion of the remaining isotope by 50% every half-life. Hence after two half-lives have passed only 25% of the isotope is present, and so forth.<ref namesplung /> Magnetic moment {{Main\|Electron magnetic moment\|Nuclear magnetic moment}} Elementary particles possess an intrinsic quantum mechanical property known as spin. This is analogous to the angular momentum of an object that is spinning around its center of mass, although strictly speaking these particles are believed to be point-like and cannot be said to be rotating. Spin is measured in units of the reduced Planck constant (ħ), with electrons, protons and neutrons all having spin {{frac\|1\|2}}&nbsp;ħ, or "spin-{{frac\|1\|2}}". In an atom, electrons in motion around the nucleus possess orbital angular momentum in addition to their spin, while the nucleus itself possesses angular momentum due to its nuclear spin.<ref name=hornak2006 /> The magnetic field produced by an atom—its magnetic moment—is determined by these various forms of angular momentum, just as a rotating charged object classically produces a magnetic field, but the most dominant contribution comes from electron spin. Due to the nature of electrons to obey the Pauli exclusion principle, in which no two electrons may be found in the same quantum state, bound electrons pair up with each other, with one member of each pair in a spin up state and the other in the opposite, spin down state. Thus these spins cancel each other out, reducing the total magnetic dipole moment to zero in some atoms with even number of electrons.<ref name=schroeder2 /> In ferromagnetic elements such as iron, cobalt and nickel, an odd number of electrons leads to an unpaired electron and a net overall magnetic moment. The orbitals of neighboring atoms overlap and a lower energy state is achieved when the spins of unpaired electrons are aligned with each other, a spontaneous process known as an exchange interaction. When the magnetic moments of ferromagnetic atoms are lined up, the material can produce a measurable macroscopic field. Paramagnetic materials have atoms with magnetic moments that line up in random directions when no magnetic field is present, but the magnetic moments of the individual atoms line up in the presence of a field.<ref nameschroeder2 /><ref namegoebel20070901 /> The nucleus of an atom will have no spin when it has even numbers of both neutrons and protons, but for other cases of odd numbers, the nucleus may have a spin. Normally nuclei with spin are aligned in random directions because of thermal equilibrium, but for certain elements (such as xenon-129) it is possible to polarize a significant proportion of the nuclear spin states so that they are aligned in the same direction—a condition called hyperpolarization. This has important applications in magnetic resonance imaging.<ref name=yarris1997 /><ref>{{cite book \|last1Liang\|first1Z.-P.\|last2Haacke\|first2E.M. \|editorWebster, J.G.\|year1999 \|volume=2 \|title=Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering: Magnetic Resonance Imaging \|publisher=John Wiley & Sons \|isbn978-0-471-13946-1\|pages412–426}}</ref> Energy levels (5s<sup>2</sup> 4d<sup>10</sup>) inclusively. The top of the diagram is lower than an unbound electron state.]] The potential energy of an electron in an atom is negative relative to when the distance from the nucleus goes to infinity; its dependence on the electron's position reaches the minimum inside the nucleus, roughly in inverse proportion to the distance. In the quantum-mechanical model, a bound electron can occupy only a set of states centered on the nucleus, and each state corresponds to a specific energy level; see time-independent Schrödinger equation for a theoretical explanation. An energy level can be measured by the amount of energy needed to unbind the electron from the atom, and is usually given in units of electronvolts (eV). The lowest energy state of a bound electron is called the ground state, i.e., stationary state, while an electron transition to a higher level results in an excited state.<ref name=zeghbroeck1998 /> The electron's energy increases along with n because the (average) distance to the nucleus increases. Dependence of the energy on {{ell}} is caused not by the electrostatic potential of the nucleus, but by interaction between electrons. For an electron to transition between two different states, e.g. ground state to first excited state, it must absorb or emit a photon at an energy matching the difference in the potential energy of those levels, according to the Niels Bohr model, what can be precisely calculated by the Schrödinger equation. Electrons jump between orbitals in a particle-like fashion. For example, if a single photon strikes the electrons, only a single electron changes states in response to the photon; see Electron properties. The energy of an emitted photon is proportional to its frequency, so these specific energy levels appear as distinct bands in the electromagnetic spectrum.<ref>{{cite book \|lastFowles\|firstGrant R.\|year=1989 \|title=Introduction to Modern Optics \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/introductiontomo00fowl_441\|url-accesslimited\|publisher=Courier Dover Publications \|isbn=978-0-486-65957-2 \|oclc18834711\|pages[https://archive.org/details/introductiontomo00fowl_441/page/n233 227]–233}}</ref> Each element has a characteristic spectrum that can depend on the nuclear charge, subshells filled by electrons, the electromagnetic interactions between the electrons and other factors.<ref name=martin2007 /> When a continuous spectrum of energy is passed through a gas or plasma, some of the photons are absorbed by atoms, causing electrons to change their energy level. Those excited electrons that remain bound to their atom spontaneously emit this energy as a photon, traveling in a random direction, and so drop back to lower energy levels. Thus the atoms behave like a filter that forms a series of dark absorption bands in the energy output. (An observer viewing the atoms from a view that does not include the continuous spectrum in the background, instead sees a series of emission lines from the photons emitted by the atoms.) Spectroscopic measurements of the strength and width of atomic spectral lines allow the composition and physical properties of a substance to be determined.<ref name=avogadro /> Close examination of the spectral lines reveals that some display a fine structure splitting. This occurs because of spin–orbit coupling, which is an interaction between the spin and motion of the outermost electron.<ref namefitzpatrick20070216 /> When an atom is in an external magnetic field, spectral lines become split into three or more components; a phenomenon called the Zeeman effect. This is caused by the interaction of the magnetic field with the magnetic moment of the atom and its electrons. Some atoms can have multiple electron configurations with the same energy level, which thus appear as a single spectral line. The interaction of the magnetic field with the atom shifts these electron configurations to slightly different energy levels, resulting in multiple spectral lines.<ref nameweiss2001 /> The presence of an external electric field can cause a comparable splitting and shifting of spectral lines by modifying the electron energy levels, a phenomenon called the Stark effect.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Beyer\|first1H.F. \|last2Shevelko\|first2V.P. \|year=2003 \|title=Introduction to the Physics of Highly Charged Ions \|publisherCRC Press\|isbn978-0-7503-0481-8 \|oclc47150433\|pages232–236}}</ref> If a bound electron is in an excited state, an interacting photon with the proper energy can cause stimulated emission of a photon with a matching energy level. For this to occur, the electron must drop to a lower energy state that has an energy difference matching the energy of the interacting photon. The emitted photon and the interacting photon then move off in parallel and with matching phases. That is, the wave patterns of the two photons are synchronized. This physical property is used to make lasers, which can emit a coherent beam of light energy in a narrow frequency band.<ref namewatkins_sjsu /> Valence and bonding behavior {{Main\|Valence (chemistry)\|Chemical bond}} Valency is the combining power of an element. It is determined by the number of bonds it can form to other atoms or groups.<ref>{{GoldBookRef\|titlevalence\|fileV06588}}</ref> The outermost electron shell of an atom in its uncombined state is known as the valence shell, and the electrons in that shell are called valence electrons. The number of valence electrons determines the bonding behavior with other atoms. Atoms tend to chemically react with each other in a manner that fills (or empties) their outer valence shells.<ref namereusch20070716 /> For example, a transfer of a single electron between atoms is a useful approximation for bonds that form between atoms with one-electron more than a filled shell, and others that are one-electron short of a full shell, such as occurs in the compound sodium chloride and other chemical ionic salts. Many elements display multiple valences, or tendencies to share differing numbers of electrons in different compounds. Thus, chemical bonding between these elements takes many forms of electron-sharing that are more than simple electron transfers. Examples include the element carbon and the organic compounds.<ref namechemguide /> The chemical elements are often displayed in a periodic table that is laid out to display recurring chemical properties, and elements with the same number of valence electrons form a group that is aligned in the same column of the table. (The horizontal rows correspond to the filling of a quantum shell of electrons.) The elements at the far right of the table have their outer shell completely filled with electrons, which results in chemically inert elements known as the noble gases.<ref namehusted20031211 /><ref namebaum2003 /> States {{Main\|State of matter\|Phase (matter)}} ]] Quantities of atoms are found in different states of matter that depend on the physical conditions, such as temperature and pressure. By varying the conditions, materials can transition between solids, liquids, gases, and plasmas.<ref> {{cite book \|lastGoodstein\|firstDavid L.\|year=2002 \|titleStates of Matter\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/statesmatter00good_082\|url-accesslimited\|publisherCourier Dover Publications \|isbn978-0-13-843557-8\|pages[https://archive.org/details/statesmatter00good_082/page/n445 436]–438 }}</ref> Within a state, a material can also exist in different allotropes. An example of this is solid carbon, which can exist as graphite or diamond.<ref name="pu49_7_719" /> Gaseous allotropes exist as well, such as dioxygen and ozone. At temperatures close to absolute zero, atoms can form a Bose–Einstein condensate, at which point quantum mechanical effects, which are normally only observed at the atomic scale, become apparent on a macroscopic scale.<ref> {{cite book \|lastMyers\|firstRichard\|year=2003 \|titleThe Basics of Chemistry\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/basicschemistry00myer\|url-accesslimited\|publisherGreenwood Press \|isbn=978-0-313-31664-7 \|oclc50164580\|page[https://archive.org/details/basicschemistry00myer/page/n98 85] }}</ref><ref namenist_bec /> This super-cooled collection of atoms then behaves as a single super atom, which may allow fundamental checks of quantum mechanical behavior.<ref namecolton_fyffe1999 /> {{clear}} Identification surface reconstruction image showing the individual atoms making up this gold (100) surface. The surface atoms deviate from the bulk crystal structure and arrange in columns several atoms wide with pits between them.]] While atoms are too small to be seen, devices such as the scanning tunneling microscope (STM) enable their visualization at the surfaces of solids. The microscope uses the quantum tunneling phenomenon, which allows particles to pass through a barrier that would be insurmountable in the classical perspective. Electrons tunnel through the vacuum between two biased electrodes, providing a tunneling current that is exponentially dependent on their separation. One electrode is a sharp tip ideally ending with a single atom. At each point of the scan of the surface the tip's height is adjusted so as to keep the tunneling current at a set value. How much the tip moves to and away from the surface is interpreted as the height profile. For low bias, the microscope images the averaged electron orbitals across closely packed energy levels—the local density of the electronic states near the Fermi level.<ref namejacox1997 /><ref namenf_physics1986 /> Because of the distances involved, both electrodes need to be extremely stable; only then periodicities can be observed that correspond to individual atoms. The method alone is not chemically specific, and cannot identify the atomic species present at the surface. Atoms can be easily identified by their mass. If an atom is ionized by removing one of its electrons, its trajectory when it passes through a magnetic field will bend. The radius by which the trajectory of a moving ion is turned by the magnetic field is determined by the mass of the atom. The mass spectrometer uses this principle to measure the mass-to-charge ratio of ions. If a sample contains multiple isotopes, the mass spectrometer can determine the proportion of each isotope in the sample by measuring the intensity of the different beams of ions. Techniques to vaporize atoms include inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, both of which use a plasma to vaporize samples for analysis.<ref name=sab53_13_1739 /> The atom-probe tomograph has sub-nanometer resolution in 3-D and can chemically identify individual atoms using time-of-flight mass spectrometry.<ref name=rsi39_1_83 /> Electron emission techniques such as X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), which measure the binding energies of the core electrons, are used to identify the atomic species present in a sample in a non-destructive way. With proper focusing both can be made area-specific. Another such method is electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS), which measures the energy loss of an electron beam within a transmission electron microscope when it interacts with a portion of a sample. Spectra of excited states can be used to analyze the atomic composition of distant stars. Specific light wavelengths contained in the observed light from stars can be separated out and related to the quantized transitions in free gas atoms. These colors can be replicated using a gas-discharge lamp containing the same element.<ref namelochner2007 /> Helium was discovered in this way in the spectrum of the Sun 23&nbsp;years before it was found on Earth.<ref namewinter2007 /> Origin and current state Baryonic matter forms about 4% of the total energy density of the observable universe, with an average density of about 0.25&nbsp;particles/m<sup>3</sup> (mostly protons and electrons).<ref name=hinshaw20060210 /> Within a galaxy such as the Milky Way, particles have a much higher concentration, with the density of matter in the interstellar medium (ISM) ranging from 10<sup>5</sup> to 10<sup>9</sup> atoms/m<sup>3</sup>.<ref> {{cite book \|last1Choppin\|first1Gregory R. \|last2Liljenzin\|first2Jan-Olov\|last3Rydberg\|first3Jan \|year2001\|titleRadiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry \|publisherElsevier\|isbn978-0-7506-7463-8 \|oclc162592180\|page441 }}</ref> The Sun is believed to be inside the Local Bubble, so the density in the solar neighborhood is only about 10<sup>3</sup> atoms/m<sup>3</sup>.<ref name=science259_5093_327 /> Stars form from dense clouds in the ISM, and the evolutionary processes of stars result in the steady enrichment of the ISM with elements more massive than hydrogen and helium. Up to 95% of the Milky Way's baryonic matter are concentrated inside stars, where conditions are unfavorable for atomic matter. The total baryonic mass is about 10% of the mass of the galaxy;<ref> {{cite book \|lastLequeux\|firstJames\|year=2005 \|title=The Interstellar Medium \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/interstellarmedi00ryte\|url-accesslimited\|publisherSpringer\|isbn978-3-540-21326-0 \|oclc133157789\|page[https://archive.org/details/interstellarmedi00ryte/page/n411 4] }}</ref> the remainder of the mass is an unknown dark matter.<ref namenigel2000 /> High temperature inside stars makes most "atoms" fully ionized, that is, separates all electrons from the nuclei. In stellar remnants—with exception of their surface layers—an immense pressure make electron shells impossible. Formation {{Main\|Nucleosynthesis}} . Elements beyond iron are made in large stars with slow neutron capture (s-process). Elements heavier than iron may be made in neutron star mergers or supernovae after the r-process.]] Electrons are thought to exist in the Universe since early stages of the Big Bang. Atomic nuclei forms in nucleosynthesis reactions. In about three minutes Big Bang nucleosynthesis produced most of the helium, lithium, and deuterium in the Universe, and perhaps some of the beryllium and boron.<ref namens1794_42 /><ref namescience267_5195_192 /><ref name=hinshaw20051215 /> Ubiquitousness and stability of atoms relies on their binding energy, which means that an atom has a lower energy than an unbound system of the nucleus and electrons. Where the temperature is much higher than ionization potential, the matter exists in the form of plasma—a gas of positively charged ions (possibly, bare nuclei) and electrons. When the temperature drops below the ionization potential, atoms become statistically favorable. Atoms (complete with bound electrons) became to dominate over charged particles 380,000&nbsp;years after the Big Bang—an epoch called recombination, when the expanding Universe cooled enough to allow electrons to become attached to nuclei.<ref name=abbott20070530 /> Since the Big Bang, which produced no carbon or heavier elements, atomic nuclei have been combined in stars through the process of nuclear fusion to produce more of the element helium, and (via the triple-alpha process) the sequence of elements from carbon up to iron;<ref name=mnras106_343 /> see stellar nucleosynthesis for details. Isotopes such as lithium-6, as well as some beryllium and boron are generated in space through cosmic ray spallation.<ref name=nature405_656 /> This occurs when a high-energy proton strikes an atomic nucleus, causing large numbers of nucleons to be ejected. Elements heavier than iron were produced in supernovae and colliding neutron stars through the r-process, and in AGB stars through the s-process, both of which involve the capture of neutrons by atomic nuclei.<ref namemashnik2000 /> Elements such as lead formed largely through the radioactive decay of heavier elements.<ref namekgs20050504 /> Earth Most of the atoms that make up the Earth and its inhabitants were present in their current form in the nebula that collapsed out of a molecular cloud to form the Solar System. The rest are the result of radioactive decay, and their relative proportion can be used to determine the age of the Earth through radiometric dating.<ref nameManuel2001pp511-519>Manuel (2001). Origin of Elements in the Solar System, pp. 40–430, 511–519</ref><ref namegs190_1_205 /> Most of the helium in the crust of the Earth (about 99% of the helium from gas wells, as shown by its lower abundance of helium-3) is a product of alpha decay.<ref name=anderson_foulger_meibom2006 /> There are a few trace atoms on Earth that were not present at the beginning (i.e., not "primordial"), nor are results of radioactive decay. Carbon-14 is continuously generated by cosmic rays in the atmosphere.<ref namepennicott2001 /> Some atoms on Earth have been artificially generated either deliberately or as by-products of nuclear reactors or explosions.<ref nameyarris2001 /><ref namepr119_6_2000 /> Of the transuranic elements—those with atomic numbers greater than 92—only plutonium and neptunium occur naturally on Earth.<ref nameposton1998 /><ref namecz97_10_522 /> Transuranic elements have radioactive lifetimes shorter than the current age of the Earth<ref>{{cite book\|last1Zaider\|first1Marco\|last2Rossi\|first2Harald H.\|year2001\|titleRadiation Science for Physicians and Public Health Workers\|publisherSpringer\|isbn978-0-306-46403-4\|oclc44110319\|page[https://archive.org/details/radiationscience0000zaid/page/17 17]\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/radiationscience0000zaid/page/17}}</ref> and thus identifiable quantities of these elements have long since decayed, with the exception of traces of plutonium-244 possibly deposited by cosmic dust.<ref nameManuel2001pp511-519 /> Natural deposits of plutonium and neptunium are produced by neutron capture in uranium ore.<ref nameofr_cut /> The Earth contains approximately {{val\|1.33\|e50}} atoms.<ref nameweisenberger /> Although small numbers of independent atoms of noble gases exist, such as argon, neon, and helium<!-- note that noble gases exist not only in the atmosphere -->, 99% of the atmosphere is bound in the form of molecules, including carbon dioxide and diatomic oxygen and nitrogen. At the surface of the Earth, an overwhelming majority of atoms combine to form various compounds, including water, salt, silicates, and oxides. Atoms can also combine to create materials that do not consist of discrete molecules, including crystals and liquid or solid metals.<ref namepidwirnyf /><ref namepnas99_22_13966 /> This atomic matter forms networked arrangements that lack the particular type of small-scale interrupted order associated with molecular matter.<ref>{{cite book \|lastPauling\|firstLinus\|year=1960 \|title=The Nature of the Chemical Bond \|publisher=Cornell University Press \|isbn=978-0-8014-0333-0 \|oclc17518275\|pages5–10}}</ref> Rare and theoretical forms Superheavy elements {{Main\|Superheavy element}} All nuclides with atomic numbers higher than 82 (lead) are known to be radioactive. No nuclide with an atomic number exceeding 92 (uranium) exists on Earth as a primordial nuclide, and heavier elements generally have shorter half-lives. Nevertheless, an "island of stability" encompassing relatively long-lived isotopes of superheavy elements<ref namecern28509 /> with atomic numbers 110 to 114 might exist.<ref nameKarpovSHE>{{cite journal\|last1Karpov\|first1A. V.\|last2Zagrebaev\|first2V. I.\|last3Palenzuela\|first3Y. M.\|last4Ruiz\|first4L. F.\|last5Greiner\|first5W.\|titleDecay properties and stability of the heaviest elements\|journalInternational Journal of Modern Physics E\|date2012\|volume21\|issue2\|pages1250013-1–1250013-20<!-- Deny Citation Bot-->\|doi10.1142/S0218301312500139\|urlhttp://nrv.jinr.ru/karpov/publications/Karpov12_IJMPE.pdf\|bibcode2012IJMPE..2150013K\|display-authors3\|access-date24 March 2020\|archive-date3 December 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161203230540/http://nrv.jinr.ru/karpov/publications/Karpov12_IJMPE.pdf\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Predictions for the half-life of the most stable nuclide on the island range from a few minutes to millions of years.<ref namephysorg>{{cite web \|urlhttp://newscenter.lbl.gov/2009/09/24/114-confirmed/ \|titleSuperheavy Element&nbsp;114 Confirmed: A Stepping Stone to the Island of Stability \|date2009 \|publisherBerkeley Lab \|access-date24 March 2020 \|archive-date20 July 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190720200414/https://newscenter.lbl.gov/2009/09/24/114-confirmed/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In any case, superheavy elements (with Z&nbsp;>&nbsp;104) would not exist due to increasing Coulomb repulsion (which results in spontaneous fission with increasingly short half-lives) in the absence of any stabilizing effects.<ref nameliquiddrop>{{cite journal \|lastMöller \|firstP. \|date2016 \|titleThe limits of the nuclear chart set by fission and alpha decay \|journalEPJ Web of Conferences \|volume131 \|pages03002-1–03002-8<!-- Deny Citation Bot--> \|urlhttp://inspirehep.net/record/1502715/files/epjconf-NS160-03002.pdf \|doi10.1051/epjconf/201613103002 \|bibcode2016EPJWC.13103002M \|doi-accessfree \|access-date24 March 2020 \|archive-date11 March 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200311130852/http://inspirehep.net/record/1502715/files/epjconf-NS160-03002.pdf \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Exotic matter {{Main\|1Exotic matter}} Each particle of matter has a corresponding antimatter particle with the opposite electrical charge. Thus, the positron is a positively charged antielectron and the antiproton is a negatively charged equivalent of a proton. When a matter and corresponding antimatter particle meet, they annihilate each other. Because of this, along with an imbalance between the number of matter and antimatter particles, the latter are rare in the universe. The first causes of this imbalance are not yet fully understood, although theories of baryogenesis may offer an explanation. As a result, no antimatter atoms have been discovered in nature.<ref namekoppes1999 /><ref namecromie20010816 /> In 1996, the antimatter counterpart of the hydrogen atom (antihydrogen) was synthesized at the CERN laboratory in Geneva.<ref namenature419_6906_439 /><ref nameBBC20021030 /> Other exotic atoms have been created by replacing one of the protons, neutrons or electrons with other particles that have the same charge. For example, an electron can be replaced by a more massive muon, forming a muonic atom. These types of atoms can be used to test fundamental predictions of physics.<ref namens1728_77 /><ref namepsT112_1_20 /><ref nameripin1998 /> See also {{Portal\|Physics\|Chemistry}} {{cmn\|colwidth=21em\| * History of quantum mechanics * Infinite divisibility * Outline of chemistry * Motion * Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics * Nuclear model * Radionuclide }} Notes {{reflist\|group="note"}} {{notelist}} References <!-- this 'empty' section displays references defined elsewhere --> {{reflist\|30em\|refs<!-- unused <ref nameadp322_8_549>{{cite journal\|lastEinstein\|firstAlbert\|year1905\|titleÜber die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen\|journalAnnalen der Physik\|volume322\|issue8\|pages549–560\|languagede\|urlhttp://www.zbp.univie.ac.at/dokumente/einstein2.pdf\|doi10.1002/andp.19053220806\|bibcode1905AnP...322..549E\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070718202731/http://www.zbp.univie.ac.at/dokumente/einstein2.pdf\|archive-date18 July 2007\|url-statuslive\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> --> <!-- unused <ref namelee_hoon1995>{{cite web\|lastLee\|firstY.K.\|year1995\|author2Hoon, K.\|titleBrownian Motion\|urlhttp://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~nd/surprise_95/journal/vol4/ykl/report.html\|publisherImperial College\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071218061408/http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~nd/surprise_95/journal/vol4/ykl/report.html\|archive-date18 December 2007\|url-status=dead}}</ref> --> <!-- unused <ref namee31_2_50>{{cite journal\|lastPatterson\|firstG.\|year2007 \|titleJean Perrin and the triumph of the atomic doctrine\|journalEndeavour\|volume31\|issue2\|pages50–53\|doi10.1016/j.endeavour.2007.05.003\|pmid=17602746}}</ref> --> <!-- UNUSED 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Van \|year=1998 \|url=http://physics.ship.edu/~mrc/pfs/308/semicon_book/eband2.htm \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050115030639/http://physics.ship.edu/~mrc/pfs/308/semicon_book/eband2.htm \|url-status=dead \|archive-date=15 January 2005 \|title=Energy levels \|publisher=Shippensburg University}}</ref> <ref namemartin2007>{{cite web \|lastMartin\|firstW.C. \|author2Wiese, W.L.\|dateMay 2007 \|urlhttp://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/AtSpec/ \|titleAtomic Spectroscopy: A Compendium of Basic Ideas, Notation, Data, and Formulas \|publisherNational Institute of Standards and Technology\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070208113156/http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/AtSpec/\| archive-date 8 February 2007 \| url-status= live}}</ref> <ref nameavogadro>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.avogadro.co.uk/light/bohr/spectra.htm \|titleAtomic Emission Spectra – Origin of Spectral Lines \|publisherAvogadro Web Site \|access-date10 August 2006 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060228231025/http://www.avogadro.co.uk/light/bohr/spectra.htm \|archive-date28 February 2006 }}</ref> <ref namefitzpatrick20070216>{{cite web \|lastFitzpatrick \|firstRichard \|date16 February 2007 \|urlhttp://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/qm/lectures/node55.html \|titleFine structure \|publisherUniversity of Texas at Austin\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110927021402/http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/qm/lectures/node55.html \|archive-date27 September 2011 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> <ref nameweiss2001>{{cite web \|lastWeiss\|firstMichael\|year2001 \|urlhttp://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/spin/node8.html \|titleThe Zeeman Effect \|publisherUniversity of California-Riverside\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080202143147/http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/spin/node8.html\| archive-date2 February 2008 \| url-status live}}</ref> <ref namewatkins_sjsu>{{cite web \|lastWatkins \|firstThayer \|urlhttp://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/stimem.htm \|titleCoherence in Stimulated Emission \|publisherSan José State University \|access-date23 December 2007 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080112234014/http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/stimem.htm\| archive-date12 January 2008 \| url-status live}}</ref> <ref namereusch20070716>{{cite web\|lastReusch \|firstWilliam \|date16 July 2007 \|urlhttp://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/intro1.htm \|titleVirtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry \|publisherMichigan State University\|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071029211245/http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/intro1.htm \|archive-date29 October 2007 }}</ref> <ref namechemguide>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/bonding/covalent.html \|titleCovalent bonding – Single bonds \|publisherchemguide \|year2000\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081101203444/http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/bonding/covalent.html \|archive-date1 November 2008 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> <ref namehusted20031211>{{cite web \|lastHusted \| firstRobert \|date11 December 2003 \|urlhttp://periodic.lanl.gov/default.htm \|titlePeriodic Table of the Elements \|publisherLos Alamos National Laboratory\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080110103232/http://periodic.lanl.gov/default.htm\| archive-date10 January 2008 \| url-status live\|display-authors=etal}}</ref> <ref namebaum2003>{{cite magazine \|firstRudy \|lastBaum \|year2003 \|urlhttp://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/elements.html \|titleIt's Elemental: The Periodic Table \|magazineChemical & Engineering News\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110406121140/http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/elements.html \|archive-date6 April 2011 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> <ref namepu49_7_719>{{cite journal \|lastBrazhkin\|firstVadim V. \|titleMetastable phases, phase transformations, and phase diagrams in physics and chemistry \|journalPhysics-Uspekhi \|year2006\|volume49 \|issue7\|pages719–724 \|doi10.1070/PU2006v049n07ABEH006013 \|bibcode 2006PhyU...49..719B \|s2cid93168446 }}</ref> <ref namenist_bec>{{cite news \|authorStaff\|date9 October 2001 \|titleBose–Einstein Condensate: A New Form of Matter \|publisherNational Institute of Standards and Technology \|urlhttps://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/releases/bec_background.cfm\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080103192918/https://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/releases/BEC_background.htm\| archive-date 3 January 2008 \| url-status= live}}</ref> <ref namecolton_fyffe1999>{{cite web \|lastColton\|firstImogen\|author2Fyffe, Jeanette \|date3 February 1999 \|urlhttp://www.ph.unimelb.edu.au/~ywong/poster/articles/bec.html \|titleSuper Atoms from Bose–Einstein Condensation \|publisherThe University of Melbourne\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20070829200820/http://www.ph.unimelb.edu.au/~ywong/poster/articles/bec.html\| archive-date 29 August 2007}}</ref> <ref namejacox1997>{{cite web \|lastJacox\|firstMarilyn\|author2Gadzuk, J. 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Sr. \|date23 March 1998 \|titleDo transuranic elements such as plutonium ever occur naturally? \|magazineScientific American \|urlhttp://www.scientificamerican.com/article/do-transuranic-elements-s/\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150327001605/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/do-transuranic-elements-s/ \|archive-date27 March 2015 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> <ref namecz97_10_522>{{cite journal \|lastKeller\|firstC. \|titleNatural occurrence of lanthanides, actinides, and superheavy elements \|journalChemiker Zeitung \|year1973\|volume97\|issue10\|pages522–530 \|osti4353086 }}</ref> <ref nameofr_cut>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.oklo.curtin.edu.au/index.cfm \|titleOklo Fossil Reactors \|publisherCurtin University of Technology \|access-date15 January 2008 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071218194159/http://www.oklo.curtin.edu.au/index.cfm \|archive-date18 December 2007 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> <ref nameweisenberger>{{cite web \|lastWeisenberger \|firstDrew \|urlhttp://education.jlab.org/qa/mathatom_05.html \|titleHow many atoms are there in the world? \|publisherJefferson Lab \|access-date16 January 2008 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071022185850/http://education.jlab.org/qa/mathatom_05.html \|archive-date22 October 2007 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> <ref namepidwirnyf>{{cite web \|lastPidwirny\|firstMichael \|urlhttp://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/contents.html \|titleFundamentals of Physical Geography \|publisherUniversity of British Columbia Okanagan \|access-date16 January 2008 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080121080709/http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/contents.html\| archive-date21 January 2008 \| url-status live}}</ref> <ref namepnas99_22_13966>{{cite journal \|lastAnderson\|firstDon L. \|titleThe inner inner core of Earth \|journalProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences \|year2002\|volume99\|issue22\|pages13966–13968 \|doi10.1073/pnas.232565899 \|pmid12391308 \|pmc137819\|bibcode 2002PNAS...9913966A \|doi-accessfree }}</ref> <ref namecern28509>{{cite journal \|titleSecond postcard from the island of stability \|authorAnonymous\|journalCERN Courier \|date2 October 2001 \|urlhttp://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/28509\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080203031237/http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/28509\| archive-date 3 February 2008 \| url-status= live}}</ref> <ref namekoppes1999>{{cite news \|lastKoppes \|firstSteve \|date1 March 1999 \|titleFermilab Physicists Find New Matter-Antimatter Asymmetry \|publisherUniversity of Chicago \|urlhttp://www-news.uchicago.edu/releases/99/990301.ktev.shtml\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080719211849/http://www-news.uchicago.edu/releases/99/990301.ktev.shtml \|archive-date19 July 2008 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> <ref namecromie20010816>{{cite web \|lastCromie \|firstWilliam J. \|date16 August 2001 \|titleA lifetime of trillionths of a second: Scientists explore antimatter \|websiteHarvard University Gazette \|urlhttp://news.harvard.edu/gazette/2001/08.16/antimatter.html\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060903172020/http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2001/08.16/antimatter.html \|archive-date3 September 2006 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> <ref namenature419_6906_439>{{cite journal \|lastHijmans\|firstTom W. \|titleParticle physics: Cold antihydrogen \|journalNature \|year2002\|volume419 \|pages439–440\|doi=10.1038/419439a \|pmid12368837 \|issue6906 \|bibcode 2002Natur.419..439H \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> <ref nameBBC20021030>{{cite news\|authorStaff\|date30 October 2002\|titleResearchers 'look inside' antimatter\|workBBC News\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2375717.stm\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070222204339/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2375717.stm\|archive-date22 February 2007\|url-status=live}}</ref> <ref namens1728_77>{{cite journal\|lastBarrett \|firstRoger \|titleThe Strange World of the Exotic Atom \|journalNew Scientist \|year1990 \|issue1728 \|pages77–115 \|urlhttp://media.newscientist.com/article/mg12717284.600-the-strange-world-of-the-exotic-atom-physicists-can-nowmake-atoms-and-molecules-containing-negative-particles-other-than-electronsand-use-them-not-just-to-test-theories-but-also-to-fight-cancer-.html\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071221164440/http://media.newscientist.com/article/mg12717284.600-the-strange-world-of-the-exotic-atom-physicists-can-nowmake-atoms-and-molecules-containing-negative-particles-other-than-electronsand-use-them-not-just-to-test-theories-but-also-to-fight-cancer-.html \|archive-date21 December 2007 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> <ref namepsT112_1_20>{{cite journal\|lastIndelicato\|firstPaul\|titleExotic Atoms\|journalPhysica Scripta\|year2004\|volumeT112\|issue1\|pages20–26\|doi10.1238/Physica.Topical.112a00020\|arxivphysics/0409058\|bibcode2004PhST..112...20I\|s2cid11134265\|urlhttps://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00002825\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181104170051/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00002825\|archive-date4 November 2018\|url-status=live}}</ref> <ref nameripin1998>{{cite web \|lastRipin\|firstBarrett H.\|dateJuly 1998 \|urlhttp://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/199807/experiment.cfm.html \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20120723135110/http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/199807/experiment.cfm.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-date23 July 2012 \|titleRecent Experiments on Exotic Atoms \|publisherAmerican Physical Society}}</ref> }} Bibliography * {{cite book \|authorOliver Manuel \|year2001 \|title=Origin of Elements in the Solar System: Implications of Post-1957 Observations \|publisherSpringer\|isbn978-0-306-46562-8 \|oclc228374906 \|refrefManuel2001 }} * {{cite book \|authorAndrew G. van Melsen \|translatorHenry J. Koren \|year2004 \|orig-year1952 \|titleFrom Atomos to Atom: The History of the Concept Atom \|publisherDover Publications \|isbn0-486-49584-1 \|refrefMelsen1952}} * {{cite book \|authorJ.P. Millington \|year1906 \|titleJohn Dalton \|publisherJ. M. Dent & Co. (London); E. P. Dutton & Co. (New York) \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.30924/ \|refrefMillington1906}} * {{cite book\|author1Charles H. Holbrow \|author2James N. Lloyd \|author3Joseph C. Amato \|author4Enrique Galvez \|author5M. Elizabeth Parks \|year2010 \|titleModern Introductory Physics \|publisherSpringer Science & Business Media \|isbn978-0-387-79079-4 \|refrefHolbrowEtAl2010}} * {{cite book \|author=John Dalton \|year=1808 \|title=A New System of Chemical Philosophy vol. 1 \|url=https://library.si.edu/digital-library/book/newsystemofchemi12dalt \|ref=refDalton1808 }} * {{cite book \|author=John Dalton \|year=1817 \|title=A New System of Chemical Philosophy vol. 2 \|url=https://library.si.edu/digital-library/book/newsystemofchemi21dalt \|ref=refDalton1817 }} * {{cite book \|author=John L. Heilbron \|year=2003 \|title=Ernest Rutherford and the Explosion of Atoms \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=0-19-512378-6 \|ref=refHeilbron2003 }} * {{cite book \|author=Jaume Navarro \|year=2012 \|title=A History of the Electron: J. J. and G. P. Thomson \|publisher=Cambridge University Press \|isbn=978-1-107-00522-8 \|ref=refNavarro2012 }} * {{cite book\|authorBernard Pullman \|translatorAxel Reisinger \|year1998 \|titleThe Atom in the History of Human Thought \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn0-19-511447-7 \|ref=refPullman1998}} * {{cite book \|author=Jean Perrin \|year=1910 \|orig-year=1909 \|title=Brownian Movement and Molecular Reality \|translator=F. Soddy \|publisher=Taylor and Francis \|url=https://archive.org/details/brownianmovement00perr \|ref=refPerrin1909 }} * {{cite book\|author-linkEric Scerri \|authorEric R. Scerri \|year2020 \|titleThe Periodic Table, Its Story and Its Significance \|edition2nd \|publisherOxford University Press \|locationNew York \|isbn978-0-190-91436-3}} Further reading {{refbegin}} * {{cite book \|lastGangopadhyaya\|firstMrinalkanti \|title=Indian Atomism: History and Sources \|publisherHumanities Press\|year1981 \|location=Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey \|isbn=978-0-391-02177-8 \|oclc=10916778 }} * {{cite book \|lastIannone\|firstA. Pablo\|year=2001 \|title=Dictionary of World Philosophy \|publisherRoutledge\|isbn978-0-415-17995-9 \|oclc=44541769 }} * {{cite book \|lastKing\|firstRichard\|year=1999 \|title=Indian philosophy: an introduction to Hindu and Buddhist thought \|publisher=Edinburgh University Press \|isbn=978-0-7486-0954-3 }} * {{cite book \|lastMcEvilley\|firstThomas \|title=The shape of ancient thought: comparative studies in Greek and Indian philosophies \|publisherAllworth Press\|year2002 \|isbn=978-1-58115-203-6 }} * {{cite book \|lastSiegfried\|firstRobert\|year=2002 \|title=From Elements to Atoms: A History of Chemical Composition \|publisherDiane\|isbn978-0-87169-924-4 \|oclc=186607849 }} * {{cite book\|lastTeresi\|firstDick\|publisherSimon & Schuster\|titleLost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science\|year2003\|isbn978-0-7432-4379-7\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idpheL_ubbXD0C\|pages213–214\|access-date25 October 2020\|archive-date4 August 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200804145606/https://books.google.com/books?idpheL_ubbXD0C\|url-statuslive}} * {{cite book \|lastWurtz\|firstCharles Adolphe\|year=1881 \|title=The Atomic Theory \|publisher=D. Appleton and company \|location=New York \|isbn=978-0-559-43636-9 }} {{refend}} External links {{Sister project links\|voyno\|wiktatom\|vThe Atom\|nno\|qAtom\|sThe New Student's Reference Work}} * [https://www.feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/I_01.html Atoms in Motion – The Feynman Lectures on Physics] * {{cite web\|firstTim\|lastSharp\|titleWhat is an Atom?\|urlhttps://www.livescience.com/37206-atom-definition.html\|publisherLive Science\|date8 August 2017}} {{particles}} {{Branches of chemistry}} {{biological organisation}} {{Authority control}} Category:Chemistry Category:Articles containing video clips	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom	2025-04-05T18:25:26.344220
903	Arable land	{{short description\|Land capable of being ploughed and used to grow crops}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=March 2025}} like this one in Dorset, England]] Arable land (from the {{langx\|la\|arabilis}}, "able to be ploughed") is any land capable of being ploughed and used to grow crops.<ref name"oed">Oxford English Dictionary, {{nowrap\| 3rd ed.}} "arable, adj. and n." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2013.</ref> Alternatively, for the purposes of agricultural statistics,<ref>The World Bank. Agricultural land (% of land area) http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.AGRI.ZS {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150517075041/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.AGRI.ZS \|date= 17 May 2015 }}</ref> the term often has a more precise definition: {{blockquote\|Arable land is the land under temporary agricultural crops (multiple-cropped areas are counted only once), temporary meadows for mowing or pasture, land under market and kitchen gardens and land temporarily fallow (less than five years). The abandoned land resulting from shifting cultivation is not included in this category. Data for 'Arable land' are not meant to indicate the amount of land that is potentially cultivable.<ref>FAOSTAT. [Statistical database of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations] Glossary. http://faostat3.fao.org/{{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150601235945/http://faostat3.fao.org/mes/glossary/E \|date 1 June 2015 }}</ref>}} A more concise definition appearing in the Eurostat glossary similarly refers to actual rather than potential uses: "land worked (ploughed or tilled) regularly, generally under a system of crop rotation".<ref>Eurostat. Glossary: Arable land. http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Glossary:Arable_land {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150507063241/http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Glossary:Arable_land \|date 7 May 2015 }}</ref> In Britain, arable land has traditionally been contrasted with pasturable land such as heaths, which could be used for sheep-rearing but not as farmland. Arable land is vulnerable to land degradation and some types of un-arable land can be enriched to create useful land. Climate change and biodiversity loss, are driving pressure on arable land.<ref>{{Cite book \|authorIPCC \|urlhttps://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2019/11/SRCCL-Full-Report-Compiled-191128.pdf \|titleIPCC Special Report on Climate Change, Desertification, Land Degradation, Sustainable Land Management, Food Security, and Greenhouse gas fluxes in Terrestrial Ecosystems \|publisherIn press \|year2019 \|editor-last1Shukla \|editor-first1P.R. \|ref{{harvid\|IPCC SRCCL\|2019}} <!-- ipcc:20200204 --> \|author-linkIPCC \|editor-last2Skea \|editor-first2J. \|editor-last3Calvo Buendia \|editor-first3E. \|editor-last4Masson-Delmotte \|editor-first4V. \|editor-last5Pörtner \|editor-first5H.-O. \|editor-last6C. Roberts \|editor-first6D. \|editor-last7Zhai \|editor-first7P. \|editor-last8Slade \|editor-first8R. \|editor-last9Connors \|editor-first9S. \|display-editors4 \|editor-first10R. \|editor-last10van Diemen \|editor-first11M. \|editor-last11Ferrat \|editor-first12E. \|editor-last12Haughey \|editor-first13S. \|editor-last13Luz \|editor-first14S. \|editor-last14Neogi \|editor-first15M. \|editor-last15Pathak \|editor-first16J. \|editor-last16Petzold \|editor-first17J. \|editor-last17Portugal Pereira \|editor-first18P. \|editor-last18Vyas \|editor-first19E. \|editor-last19Huntley \|editor-first20K. \|editor-last20Kissick \|editor-first21M. \|editor-last21Belkacemi \|editor-first22J. \|editor-last22Malley}} https://www.ipcc.ch/report/srccl/.</ref> By country {{Further\|Land use statistics by country}} According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, in 2013, the world's arable land amounted to 1.407&nbsp;billion hectares, out of a total of 4.924&nbsp;billion hectares of land used for agriculture.<ref name"faostat_new">{{Cite web \|titleFAOSTAT Land Use module \|urlhttp://faostat3.fao.org/browse/R/RL/E \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160816210159/http://faostat3.fao.org/browse/R/RL/E \|archive-date16 August 2016 \|access-date8 July 2016 \|publisherFood and Agriculture Organization}}</ref> {\| style="margin: 0 auto;" \| {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+ Arable land area (1000&nbsp;ha)<ref name"faostat_old">{{Cite web \|titleFAOSTAT Land Use module \|urlhttp://faostat.fao.org/site/377/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID377#ancor \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160816084634/http://faostat.fao.org/site/377/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID377#ancor \|archive-date16 August 2016 \|access-date8 July 2016 \|publisherFood and Agriculture Organization}}</ref> \|- ! Rank !! Country or region !! 2015 !! 2016 !! 2017 !! 2018 \|\| 2019 \|- \| 1 \|\| {{flag\|United States}} \|\| 156,645 \|\| 157,191 \|\| 157,737 \|\| 157,737 \|\| 157,737 \|- \| 2 \|\| {{flag\|India}} \|\| 156,413 \|\| 156,317 \|\| 156,317 \|\| 156,317 \|\| 156,067 \|- \| 3 \|\| {{flag\|Russia}} \|\| 121,649 \|\| 121,649 \|\| 121,649 \|\| 121,649 \|\| 121,649 \|- \| 4 \|\| {{flag\|China}} \|\| 119,593 \|\| 119,512 \|\| 119,477 \|\| 119,475 \|\| 119,474 \|- \| 5 \|\| {{flag\|Brazil}} \|\| 54,518 \|\| 55,140 \|\| 55,762 \|\| 55,762 \|\| 55,762 \|- \| 6 \|\| {{flag\|Canada}} \|\| 38,282 \|\| 38,530 \|\| 38,509 \|\| 38,690 \|\| 38,648 \|- \| 7 \|\| {{flag\|Nigeria}} \|\| 34,000 \|\| 34,000 \|\| 34,000 \|\| 34,000 \|\| 34,000 \|- \| 8 \|\| {{flag\|Ukraine}} \|\| 32,775 \|\| 32,776 \|\| 32,773 \|\| 32,889 \|\| 32,924 \|- \| 9 \|\| {{flag\|Argentina}} \|\| 36,688 \|\| 35,337 \|\| 33,985 \|\| 32,633 \|\| 32,633 \|- \| 10 \|\| {{flag\|Australia}} \|\| 31,090 \|\| 30,057 \|\| 30,752 \|\| 30,974 \|\| 30,573 \|- \|} \|} Arable land (hectares per person) in Western Slovakia]] s in Cardejón, Spain]] {\| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" \|+ {{nowrap\|Arable land (hectares per person)<ref name="faostat_old" />}} ! Country Name \|\| 2013 \|- \| Afghanistan \|\| 0.254 \|- \| Albania \|\| 0.213 \|- \| Algeria \|\| 0.196 \|- \| American Samoa \|\| 0.054 \|- \| Andorra \|\| 0.038 \|- \| Angola \|\| 0.209 \|- \| Antigua and Barbuda \|\| 0.044 \|- \| Argentina \|\| 0.933 \|- \| Armenia \|\| 0.150 \|- \| Aruba \|\| 0.019 \|- \| Australia \|\| 1.999 \|- \| Austria \|\| 0.160 \|- \| Azerbaijan \|\| 0.204 \|- \| Bahamas, The \|\| 0.021 \|- \| Bahrain \|\| 0.001 \|- \| Bangladesh \|\| 0.049 \|- \| Barbados \|\| 0.039 \|- \| Belarus \|\| 0.589 \|- \| Belgium \|\| 0.073 \|- \| Belize \|\| 0.227 \|- \| Benin \|\| 0.262 \|- \| Bermuda \|\| 0.005 \|- \| Bhutan \|\| 0.133 \|- \| Bolivia \|\| 0.427 \|- \| Bosnia and Herzegovina \|\| 0.264 \|- \| Botswana \|\| 0.125 \|- \| Brazil \|\| 0.372 \|- \| British Virgin Islands \|\| 0.034 \|- \| Brunei Darussalam \|\| 0.012 \|- \| Bulgaria \|\| 0.479 \|- \| Burkina Faso \|\| 0.363 \|- \| Burundi \|\| 0.115 \|- \| Cabo Verde \|\| 0.108 \|- \| Cambodia \|\| 0.275 \|- \| Cameroon \|\| 0.279 \|- \| Canada \|\| 1.306 \|- \| Cayman Islands \|\| 0.003 \|- \| Central African Republic \|\| 0.382 \|- \| Chad \|\| 0.373 \|- \| Channel Islands \|\| 0.026 \|- \| Chile \|\| 0.074 \|- \| China \|\| 0.078 \|- \| Colombia \|\| 0.036 \|- \| Comoros \|\| 0.086 \|- \| Congo, Dem. Rep. \|\| 0.098 \|- \| Congo, Rep. \|\| 0.125 \|- \| Costa Rica \|\| 0.049 \|- \| Côte d'Ivoire \|\| 0.134 \|- \| Croatia \|\| 0.206 \|- \| Cuba \|\| 0.278 \|- \| Curaçao \|\| \|- \| Cyprus \|\| 0.070 \|- \| Czech Republic \|\| 0.299 \|- \| Denmark \|\| 0.429 \|- \| Djibouti \|\| 0.002 \|- \| Dominica \|\| 0.083 \|- \| Dominican Republic \|\| 0.078 \|- \| Ecuador \|\| 0.076 \|- \| Egypt, Arab Rep. \|\| 0.031 \|- \| El Salvador \|\| 0.120 \|- \| Equatorial Guinea \|\| 0.151 \|- \| Eritrea \|\| \|- \| Estonia \|\| 0.480 \|- \| Ethiopia \|\| 0.160 \|- \| Faroe Islands \|\| 0.062 \|- \| Fiji \|\| 0.187 \|- \| Finland \|\| 0.409 \|- \| France \|\| 0.277 \|- \| French Polynesia \|\| 0.009 \|- \| Gabon \|\| 0.197 \|- \| Gambia, The \|\| 0.236 \|- \| Georgia \|\| 0.119 \|- \| Germany \|\| 0.145 \|- \| Ghana \|\| 0.180 \|- \| Gibraltar \|\| \|- \| Greece \|\| 0.232 \|- \| Greenland \|\| 0.016 \|- \| Grenada \|\| 0.028 \|- \| Guam \|\| 0.006 \|- \| Guatemala \|\| 0.064 \|- \| Guinea \|\| 0.259 \|- \| Guinea-Bissau \|\| 0.171 \|- \| Guyana \|\| 0.552 \|- \| Haiti \|\| 0.103 \|- \| Honduras \|\| 0.130 \|- \| Hong Kong SAR, China \|\| 0.000 \|- \| Hungary \|\| 0.445 \|- \| Iceland \|\| 0.374 \|- \| India \|\| 0.123 \|- \| Indonesia \|\| 0.094 \|- \| Iran, Islamic Rep. \|\| 0.193 \|- \| Iraq \|\| 0.147 \|- \| Ireland \|\| 0.242 \|- \| Isle of Man \|\| 0.253 \|- \| Israel \|\| 0.035 \|- \| Italy \|\| 0.113 \|- \| Jamaica \|\| 0.044 \|- \| Japan \|\| 0.033 \|- \| Jordan \|\| 0.032 \|- \| Kazakhstan \|\| 1.726 \|- \| Kenya \|\| 0.133 \|- \| Kiribati \|\| 0.018 \|- \| Korea, Dem. People's Rep. \|\| 0.094 \|- \| Korea, Rep. \|\| 0.030 \|- \| Kosovo \|\| \|- \| Kuwait \|\| 0.003 \|- \| Kyrgyz Republic \|\| 0.223 \|- \| Lao PDR \|\| 0.226 \|- \| Latvia \|\| 0.600 \|- \| Lebanon \|\| 0.025 \|- \| Lesotho \|\| 0.119 \|- \| Liberia \|\| 0.116 \|- \| Libya \|\| 0.274 \|- \| Liechtenstein \|\| 0.070 \|- \| Lithuania \|\| 0.774 \|- \| Luxembourg \|\| 0.115 \|- \| Macao SAR, China \|\| \|- \| Macedonia, FYR \|\| 0.199 \|- \| Madagascar \|\| 0.153 \|- \| Malawi \|\| 0.235 \|- \| Malaysia \|\| 0.032 \|- \| Maldives \|\| 0.010 \|- \| Mali \|\| 0.386 \|- \| Malta \|\| 0.021 \|- \| Marshall Islands \|\| 0.038 \|- \| Mauritania \|\| 0.116 \|- \| Mauritius \|\| 0.060 \|- \| Mexico \|\| 0.186 \|- \| Micronesia, Fed. Sts. \|\| 0.019 \|- \| Moldova \|\| 0.510 \|- \| Monaco \|\| \|- \| Mongolia \|\| 0.198 \|- \| Montenegro \|\| 0.013 \|- \| Morocco \|\| 0.240 \|- \| Mozambique \|\| 0.213 \|- \| Myanmar \|\| 0.203 \|- \| Namibia \|\| 0.341 \|- \| Nauru \|\| \|- \| Nepal \|\| 0.076 \|- \| Netherlands \|\| 0.062 \|- \| New Caledonia \|\| 0.024 \|- \| New Zealand \|\| 0.123 \|- \| Nicaragua \|\| 0.253 \|- \| Niger \|\| 0.866 \|- \| Nigeria \|\| 0.197 \|- \| Northern Mariana Islands \|\| 0.019 \|- \| Norway \|\| 0.159 \|- \| Oman \|\| 0.010 \|- \| Pakistan \|\| 0.168 \|- \| Palau \|\| 0.048 \|- \| Panama \|\| 0.148 \|- \| Papua New Guinea \|\| 0.041 \|- \| Paraguay \|\| 0.696 \|- \| Peru \|\| 0.136 \|- \| Philippines \|\| 0.057 \|- \| Poland \|\| 0.284 \|- \| Portugal \|\| 0.107 \|- \| Puerto Rico \|\| 0.017 \|- \| Qatar \|\| 0.007 \|- \| Romania \|\| 0.438 \|- \| Russian Federation \|\| 0.852 \|- \| Rwanda \|\| 0.107 \|- \| Samoa \|\| 0.042 \|- \| San Marino \|\| 0.032 \|- \| São Tomé and Príncipe \|\| 0.048 \|- \| Saudi Arabia \|\| 0.102 \|- \| Senegal \|\| 0.229 \|- \| Serbia \|\| 0.460 \|- \| Seychelles \|\| 0.001 \|- \| Sierra Leone \|\| 0.256 \|- \| Singapore \|\| 0.000 \|- \| Sint Maarten (Dutch part) \|\| \|- \| Slovak Republic \|\| 0.258 \|- \| Slovenia \|\| 0.085 \|- \| Solomon Islands \|\| 0.036 \|- \| Somalia \|\| 0.107 \|- \| South Africa \|\| 0.235 \|- \| South Sudan \|\| \|- \| Spain \|\| 0.270 \|- \| Sri Lanka \|\| 0.063 \|- \| St. Kitts and Nevis \|\| 0.092 \|- \| St. Lucia \|\| 0.016 \|- \| St. Martin (French part) \|\| \|- \| St. Vincent and the Grenadines \|\| 0.046 \|- \| Sudan \|\| 0.345 \|- \| Suriname \|\| 0.112 \|- \| Swaziland \|\| 0.140 \|- \| Sweden \|\| 0.270 \|- \| Switzerland \|\| 0.050 \|- \| Syrian Arab Republic \|\| 0.241 \|- \| Tajikistan \|\| 0.106 \|- \| Tanzania \|\| 0.269 \|- \| Thailand \|\| 0.249 \|- \| Timor-Leste \|\| 0.131 \|- \| Togo \|\| 0.382 \|- \| Tonga \|\| 0.152 \|- \| Trinidad and Tobago \|\| 0.019 \|- \| Tunisia \|\| 0.262 \|- \| Turkey \|\| 0.270 \|- \| Turkmenistan \|\| 0.370 \|- \| Turks and Caicos Islands \|\| 0.030 \|- \| Tuvalu \|\| \|- \| Uganda \|\| 0.189 \|- \| Ukraine \|\| 0.715 \|- \| United Arab Emirates \|\| 0.004 \|- \| United Kingdom \|\| 0.098 \|- \| United States \|\| 0.480 \|- \| Uruguay \|\| 0.682 \|- \| Uzbekistan \|\| 0.145 \|- \| Vanuatu \|\| 0.079 \|- \| Venezuela, RB \|\| 0.089 \|- \| Vietnam \|\| 0.071 \|- \| Virgin Islands (US) \|\| 0.010 \|- \| West Bank and Gaza \|\| 0.011 \|- \| Yemen, Rep. \|\| 0.049 \|- \| Zambia \|\| 0.243 \|- \| Zimbabwe \|\| 0.268 \|} Non-arable land {{more citations needed section\|date=February 2014}} in England]] Agricultural land that is not arable according to the FAO definition above includes: * Meadows and pastures{{snd}}land used as pasture and grazed range, and those natural grasslands and sedge meadows that are used for hay production in some regions. * Permanent crop{{snd}}land that produces crops from woody vegetation, e.g. orchard land, vineyards, coffee plantations, rubber plantations, and land producing nut trees; Other non-arable land includes land that is not suitable for any agricultural use. Land that is not arable, in the sense of lacking capability or suitability for cultivation for crop production, has one or more limitations{{snd}}a lack of sufficient freshwater for irrigation, stoniness, steepness, adverse climate, excessive wetness with the impracticality of drainage, excessive salts, or a combination of these, among others.<ref>United States Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 1961. Land capability classification. Agriculture Handbook 210. 21 pp.</ref> Although such limitations may preclude cultivation, and some will in some cases preclude any agricultural use, large areas unsuitable for cultivation may still be agriculturally productive. For example, United States NRCS statistics indicate that about 59 percent of US non-federal pasture and unforested rangeland is unsuitable for cultivation, yet such land has value for grazing of livestock.<ref>NRCS. 2013. Summary report 2010 national resources inventory. The United States Natural Resources Conservation Service. 163 pp.</ref> In British Columbia, Canada, 41 percent of the provincial Agricultural Land Reserve area is unsuitable for the production of cultivated crops, but is suitable for uncultivated production of forage usable by grazing livestock.<ref name"ALCALRFS">Agricultural Land Commission. Agriculture Capability and the ALR Fact Sheet. http://www.alc.gov.bc.ca/alc/DownloadAsset?assetId72876D8604EC45279B8D3C1B14428CF8&filenameagriculture_capability__the_alr_fact_sheet_2013.pdf{{Dead link\|dateFebruary 2024 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> Similar examples can be found in many rangeland areas elsewhere. Changes in arability Land conversion Land incapable of being cultivated for the production of crops can sometimes be converted to arable land. New arable land makes more food and can reduce starvation. This outcome also makes a country more self-sufficient and politically independent, because food importation is reduced. Making non-arable land arable often involves digging new irrigation canals and new wells, aqueducts, desalination plants, planting trees for shade in the desert, hydroponics, fertilizer, nitrogen fertilizer, pesticides, reverse osmosis water processors, PET film insulation or other insulation against heat and cold, digging ditches and hills for protection against the wind, and installing greenhouses with internal light and heat for protection against the cold outside and to provide light in cloudy areas. Such modifications are often prohibitively expensive. An alternative is the seawater greenhouse, which desalinates water through evaporation and condensation using solar energy as the only energy input. This technology is optimized to grow crops on desert land close to the sea. The use of artifices does not make the land arable. Rock still remains rock, and shallow{{snd}}less than {{convert\|6\|feet\|abbroff}}{{snd}}turnable soil is still not considered toilable. The use of artifice is an open-air non-recycled water hydroponics relationship.{{clarify \|dateNovember 2019 \|reason=Unclear what this sentence means}} The below described circumstances are not in perspective, have limited duration, and have a tendency to accumulate trace materials in soil that either there or elsewhere cause deoxygenation. The use of vast amounts of fertilizer may have unintended consequences for the environment by devastating rivers, waterways, and river endings through the accumulation of non-degradable toxins and nitrogen-bearing molecules that remove oxygen and cause non-aerobic processes to form. Examples of infertile non-arable land being turned into fertile arable land include: * Aran Islands: These islands off the west coast of Ireland (not to be confused with the Isle of Arran in Scotland's Firth of Clyde) were unsuitable for arable farming because they were too rocky. The people covered the islands with a shallow layer of seaweed and sand from the ocean. Today,{{When\|date=July 2021}} crops are grown there, even though the islands are still considered non-arable. * Israel: The construction of desalination plants along Israel's coast allowed agriculture in some areas that were formerly desert. The desalination plants, which remove the salt from ocean water, have produced a new source of water for farming, drinking, and washing. * Slash and burn agriculture uses nutrients from the wood ash, but these are exhausted within a few years. * Terra preta, fertile tropical soils produced by adding charcoal. Land degradation {{Excerpt\|Land degradation}} Examples Examples of fertile arable land being turned into infertile land include: * Droughts such as the "Dust Bowl" of the Great Depression in the US turned farmland into desert. * Each year, arable land is lost due to desertification and human-induced erosion. Improper irrigation of farmland can wick the sodium, calcium, and magnesium from the soil and water to the surface. This process steadily concentrates salt in the root zone, decreasing productivity for crops that are not salt-tolerant. * Rainforest deforestation: The fertile tropical forests are converted into infertile desert land. For example, Madagascar's central highland plateau has become virtually totally barren (about ten percent of the country) as a result of slash-and-burn deforestation, an element of shifting cultivation practiced by many natives. See also * Development easement * Land use statistics by country * List of environment topics * Soil fertility References {{Reflist\|30em}} External links {{wiktionary\|arable}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120302133333/http://technorati.com/business/finance/article/arable-land-shortage-and-the-case/ Article] from Technorati on Shrinking Arable Farmland in the world * [https://web.archive.org/web/20041031145545/http://pages.prodigy.net/jhonig/bignum/qland2.html Surface area of the Earth] {{Natural resources}} {{Authority control}} Category:Agricultural land	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arable_land	2025-04-05T18:25:26.375683
904	Aluminium	{{other uses}} {{pp-vandalism\|small=yes}} {{good article}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=September 2024}} <!--About the spelling of 'aluminium': this article is written using the IUPAC spelling of "aluminium" and so "-ium" should be used. The article follows Wikipedia:Naming conventions (chemistry)#Element names for conventions on chemical names, so "sulfur", etc. should be maintained.--> {{Infobox aluminium}} Aluminium (or aluminum in North American English) is a chemical element; it has symbol&nbsp;Al and atomic number&nbsp;13. It has a density lower than that of other common metals, about one-third that of steel. Aluminium has a great affinity towards oxygen, forming a protective layer of oxide on the surface when exposed to air. It visually resembles silver, both in its color and in its great ability to reflect light. It is soft, nonmagnetic, and ductile. It has one stable isotope, <sup>27</sup>Al, which is highly abundant, making aluminium the 12th-most abundant element in the universe. The radioactivity of <sup>26</sup>Al leads to it being used in radiometric dating. Chemically, aluminium is a post-transition metal in the boron group; as is common for the group, aluminium forms compounds primarily in the +3 oxidation state. The aluminium cation Al<sup>3+</sup> is small and highly charged; as such, it has more polarizing power, and bonds formed by aluminium have a more covalent character. The strong affinity of aluminium for oxygen leads to the common occurrence of its oxides in nature. Aluminium is found on Earth primarily in rocks in the crust, where it is the third-most abundant element, after oxygen and silicon, rather than in the mantle, and virtually never as the free metal. It is obtained industrially by mining bauxite, a sedimentary rock rich in aluminium minerals. The discovery of aluminium was announced in 1825 by Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted. The first industrial production of aluminium was initiated by French chemist Henri Étienne Sainte-Claire Deville in 1856. Aluminium became much more available to the public with the Hall–Héroult process developed independently by French engineer Paul Héroult and American engineer Charles Martin Hall in 1886, and the mass production of aluminium led to its extensive use in industry and everyday life. In the First and Second World Wars, aluminium was a crucial strategic resource for aviation. In 1954, aluminium became the most produced non-ferrous metal, surpassing copper. In the 21st century, most aluminium was consumed in transportation, engineering, construction, and packaging in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan. Despite its prevalence in the environment, no living organism is known to metabolize aluminium salts, but this aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of the abundance of these salts, the potential for a biological role for them is of interest, and studies are ongoing. Physical characteristics Isotopes {{Main\|Isotopes of aluminium}} Of aluminium isotopes, only {{SimpleNuclide\|Aluminium}} is stable. This situation is common for elements with an odd atomic number.{{efn\|No elements with odd atomic numbers have more than two stable isotopes; even-numbered elements have multiple stable isotopes, with tin (element 50) having the highest number of stable isotopes of all elements, ten. The single exception is beryllium which is even-numbered but has only one stable isotope.<ref name"IAEA" /> See Even and odd atomic nuclei for more details.}} It is the only primordial aluminium isotope, i.e. the only one that has existed on Earth in its current form since the formation of the planet. It is therefore a mononuclidic element and its standard atomic weight is virtually the same as that of the isotope. This makes aluminium very useful in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), as its single stable isotope has a high NMR sensitivity.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp242–252}} The standard atomic weight of aluminium is low in comparison with many other metals.{{efn\|Most other metals have greater standard atomic weights: for instance, that of iron is {{val\|55.845}}; copper {{val\|63.546}}; lead {{val\|207.2}}.{{CIAAW2021}} which has consequences for the element's properties (see below)}} All other isotopes of aluminium are radioactive. The most stable of these is <sup>26</sup>Al: while it was present along with stable <sup>27</sup>Al in the interstellar medium from which the Solar System formed, having been produced by stellar nucleosynthesis as well, its half-life is only 717,000&nbsp;years and therefore a detectable amount has not survived since the formation of the planet.<ref>{{cite web \|url=https://ciaaw.org/aluminium.htm \|title=Aluminium \|publisherThe Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights\|access-date20 October 2020 \|archive-date23 September 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200923154544/https://www.ciaaw.org/aluminium.htm\|url-status=live}} </ref> However, minute traces of <sup>26</sup>Al are produced from argon in the atmosphere by spallation caused by cosmic ray protons. The ratio of <sup>26</sup>Al to <sup>10</sup>Be has been used for radiodating of geological processes over 10<sup>5</sup> to 10<sup>6</sup>&nbsp;year time scales, in particular transport, deposition, sediment storage, burial times, and erosion.<ref>{{cite book \|chapter-url=http://www.onafarawayday.com/Radiogenic/Ch14/Ch14-6.htm \|title=Radiogenic Isotope Geology \|last1Dickin\|first1A.P.\|date=2005 \|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn978-0-521-53017-0\|chapter=In situ Cosmogenic Isotopes \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081206010805/http://www.onafarawayday.com/Radiogenic/Ch14/Ch14-6.htm\|archive-date6 December 2008\|url-status=dead \|access-date=16 July 2008}} </ref> Most meteorite scientists believe that the energy released by the decay of <sup>26</sup>Al was responsible for the melting and differentiation of some asteroids after their formation 4.55&nbsp;billion years ago.<ref>{{cite book \|title=Thunderstones and Shooting Stars \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/thunderstonessho00dodd_673\|url-accesslimited \|last1Dodd\|first1R.T.\|date=1986 \|publisherHarvard University Press\|isbn978-0-674-89137-1\|pages=[https://archive.org/details/thunderstonessho00dodd_673/page/n99 89]–90}}</ref> The remaining isotopes of aluminium, with mass numbers ranging from 21 to 43, all have half-lives well under an hour. Three metastable states are known, all with half-lives under a minute.<ref name="IAEA">{{cite web \|url=https://www-nds.iaea.org/relnsd/vcharthtml/VChartHTML.html \|title=Livechart – Table of Nuclides – Nuclear structure and decay data \|authorIAEA – Nuclear Data Section\|year2017\|websitewww-nds.iaea.org\|publisherInternational Atomic Energy Agency\|access-date=31 March 2017 \|archive-date23 March 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190323230752/https://www-nds.iaea.org/relnsd/vcharthtml/VChartHTML.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Electron shell An aluminium atom has 13 electrons, arranged in an electron configuration of {{nowrap\|{{bracket\|Ne}} 3s<sup>2</sup> 3p<sup>1</sup>}},{{sfn\|Dean\|1999\|p4.2}} with three electrons beyond a stable noble gas configuration. Accordingly, the combined first three ionization energies of aluminium are far lower than the fourth ionization energy alone.{{sfn\|Dean\|1999\|p4.6}} Such an electron configuration is shared with the other well-characterized members of its group, boron, gallium, indium, and thallium; it is also expected for nihonium. Aluminium can surrender its three outermost electrons in many chemical reactions (see below). The electronegativity of aluminium is 1.61 (Pauling scale).{{sfn\|Dean\|1999\|p4.29}} -HAADF micrograph of Al atoms viewed along the [001] zone axis.]] A free aluminium atom has a radius of 143&nbsp;pm.{{sfn\|Dean\|1999\|p4.30}} With the three outermost electrons removed, the radius shrinks to 39&nbsp;pm for a 4-coordinated atom or 53.5&nbsp;pm for a 6-coordinated atom.{{sfn\|Dean\|1999\|p4.30}} At standard temperature and pressure, aluminium atoms (when not affected by atoms of other elements) form a face-centered cubic crystal system bound by metallic bonding provided by atoms' outermost electrons; hence aluminium (at these conditions) is a metal.<ref name"Enghag2008" /> This crystal system is shared by many other metals, such as lead and copper; the size of a unit cell of aluminium is comparable to that of those other metals.<ref name"Enghag2008">{{cite book \|lastEnghag\|firstPer\|title=Encyclopedia of the Elements: Technical Data – History – Processing – Applications \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idfUmTX8yKU4gC\|date=2008 \|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons\|isbn978-3-527-61234-5\|pages139, 819, 949\|access-date7 December 2017 \|archive-date25 December 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191225132056/https://books.google.com/books?idfUmTX8yKU4gC\|url-statuslive}} </ref> The system, however, is not shared by the other members of its group: boron has ionization energies too high to allow metallization, thallium has a hexagonal close-packed structure, and gallium and indium have unusual structures that are not close-packed like those of aluminium and thallium. The few electrons that are available for metallic bonding in aluminium are a probable cause for it being soft with a low melting point and low electrical resistivity.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp222–224}} Bulk Aluminium metal has an appearance ranging from silvery white to dull gray depending on its surface roughness.{{efn\|The two sides of aluminium foil differ in their luster: one is shiny and the other is dull. The difference is due to the small mechanical damage on the surface of dull side arising from the technological process of aluminium foil manufacturing.<ref name"ReynoldsKitchens">{{Cite web \|title=Heavy Duty Foil \|urlhttps://www.reynoldskitchens.com/products/aluminum-foil/heavy-duty-foil/\|websiteReynolds Kitchens\|languageen\|access-date20 September 2020 \|archive-date23 September 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200923185810/https://www.reynoldskitchens.com/products/aluminum-foil/heavy-duty-foil/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Both sides reflect similar amounts of visible light, but the shiny side reflects a far greater share of visible light specularly whereas the dull side almost exclusively diffuses light. Both sides of aluminium foil serve as good reflectors (approximately 86%) of visible light and an excellent reflector (as much as 97%) of medium and far infrared radiation.<ref name"Pozzobon">{{Cite journal \|last1Pozzobon\|first1V.\|last2Levasseur\|first2W.\|last3Do\|first3Kh.-V.\|display-authors3\|last4Palpant\|first4Bruno\|last5Perré\|first5Patrick\|date2020 \|title=Household aluminum foil matte and bright side reflectivity measurements: Application to a photobioreactor light concentrator design \|journalBiotechnology Reports\|languageen\|volume25\|pagese00399\|doi10.1016/j.btre.2019.e00399\|pmc6906702\|pmid31867227 \| issn2215-017X }}</ref>}} Aluminium mirrors are the most reflective of all metal mirrors for near ultraviolet and far infrared light. It is also one of the most reflective for light in the visible spectrum, nearly on par with silver in this respect, and the two therefore look similar. Aluminium is also good at reflecting solar radiation, although prolonged exposure to sunlight in air adds wear to the surface of the metal; this may be prevented if aluminium is anodized, which adds a protective layer of oxide on the surface.{{citation needed\|dateMarch 2025\|reasonWhile may be intuitive, this should have a source supporting this claim}} The density of aluminium is 2.70&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>, about 1/3 that of steel, much lower than other commonly encountered metals, making aluminium parts easily identifiable through their lightness.{{sfn\|Lide\|2004\|p=4-3}} Aluminium's low density compared to most other metals arises from the fact that its nuclei are much lighter, while difference in the unit cell size does not compensate for this difference. The only lighter metals are the metals of groups 1 and 2, which apart from beryllium and magnesium are too reactive for structural use (and beryllium is very toxic).<ref>{{cite journal \|titleA brighter beryllium\|date2011\|last1Puchta\|first1Ralph \|journalNature Chemistry\|volume3\|issue5\|pages416\|pmid21505503\|bibcode2011NatCh...3..416P\|doi10.1038/nchem.1033\|doi-accessfree}} </ref> Aluminium is not as strong or stiff as steel, but the low density makes up for this in the aerospace industry and for many other applications where light weight and relatively high strength are crucial.{{sfn\|Davis\|1999\|pp=1–3}} Pure aluminium is quite soft and lacking in strength. In most applications various aluminium alloys are used instead because of their higher strength and hardness.{{sfn\|Davis\|1999\|p2}} The yield strength of pure aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa.<ref name"Polmear1995">{{cite book \|last1Polmear\|first1I.J.\|date=1995 \|title=Light Alloys: Metallurgy of the Light Metals \|edition3\|publisherButterworth-Heinemann\|isbn=978-0-340-63207-9}} </ref> Aluminium is ductile, with a percent elongation of 50–70%,<ref name="Cardarelli 2008 p158-163">{{Cite book \|lastCardarelli\|firstFrançois\|titleMaterials handbook : a concise desktop reference\|date2008 \|publisherSpringer\|isbn978-1-84628-669-8\|edition2nd\|locationLondon\|pages158–163\|oclc261324602}} </ref> and malleable allowing it to be easily drawn and extruded.{{sfn\|Davis\|1999\|p4}} It is also easily machined and cast.{{sfn\|Davis\|1999\|p4}} Aluminium is an excellent thermal and electrical conductor, having around 60% the conductivity of copper, both thermal and electrical, while having only 30% of copper's density.{{sfn\|Davis\|1999\|pp=2–3}} Aluminium is capable of superconductivity, with a superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin and a critical magnetic field of about 100 gauss (10 milliteslas).<ref> {{cite journal \|last1Cochran \|first1J.F. \|last2Mapother \|first2D.E. \|date=1958 \|title=Superconducting Transition in Aluminum \|journal=Physical Review \|volume111 \|issue1 \|pages=132–142 \|bibcode=1958PhRv..111..132C \|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.111.132 }}</ref> It is paramagnetic and thus essentially unaffected by static magnetic fields.{{sfn\|Schmitz\|2006\|p6}} The high electrical conductivity, however, means that it is strongly affected by alternating magnetic fields through the induction of eddy currents.{{sfn\|Schmitz\|2006\|p161}} Chemistry {{main\|Compounds of aluminium}} Aluminium combines characteristics of pre- and post-transition metals. Since it has few available electrons for metallic bonding, like its heavier group 13 congeners, it has the characteristic physical properties of a post-transition metal, with longer-than-expected interatomic distances.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp222–224}} Furthermore, as Al<sup>3+</sup> is a small and highly charged cation, it is strongly polarizing and bonding in aluminium compounds tends towards covalency;{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp224–227}} this behavior is similar to that of beryllium (Be<sup>2+</sup>), and the two display an example of a diagonal relationship.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp=112–113}} The underlying core under aluminium's valence shell is that of the preceding noble gas, whereas those of its heavier congeners gallium, indium, thallium, and nihonium also include a filled d-subshell and in some cases a filled f-subshell. Hence, the inner electrons of aluminium shield the valence electrons almost completely, unlike those of aluminium's heavier congeners. As such, aluminium is the most electropositive metal in its group, and its hydroxide is in fact more basic than that of gallium.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp224–227}}{{efn\|In fact, aluminium's electropositive behavior, high affinity for oxygen, and highly negative standard electrode potential are all better aligned with those of scandium, yttrium, lanthanum, and actinium, which like aluminium have three valence electrons outside a noble gas core; this series shows continuous trends whereas those of group 13 is broken by the first added d-subshell in gallium and the resulting d-block contraction and the first added f-subshell in thallium and the resulting lanthanide contraction.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp224–227}}}} Aluminium also bears minor similarities to the metalloid boron in the same group: AlX<sub>3</sub> compounds are valence isoelectronic to BX<sub>3</sub> compounds (they have the same valence electronic structure), and both behave as Lewis acids and readily form adducts.{{sfn\|King\|1995\|p241}} Additionally, one of the main motifs of boron chemistry is regular icosahedral structures, and aluminium forms an important part of many icosahedral quasicrystal alloys, including the Al–Zn–Mg class.{{sfn\|King\|1995\|pp235–236}} Aluminium has a high chemical affinity to oxygen, which renders it suitable for use as a reducing agent in the thermite reaction. A fine powder of aluminium reacts explosively on contact with liquid oxygen; under normal conditions, however, aluminium forms a thin oxide layer (~5&nbsp;nm at room temperature)<ref>{{Cite book \|lastHatch\|firstJohn E.\|titleAluminum : properties and physical metallurgy\|date1984 \|publisherAmerican Society for Metals, Aluminum Association \|locationMetals Park, Ohio\|pages=242 \|oclc759213422\|isbn978-1-61503-169-6}} </ref> that protects the metal from further corrosion by oxygen, water, or dilute acid, a process termed passivation.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp224–227}}<ref name"CorrAl">{{cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNAABS5KrVDYC&pg=PA81 \|titleCorrosion of Aluminium\|lastVargel\|firstChristian\|date2004 \|publisherElsevier\|isbn978-0-08-044495-6\|orig-year=French edition published 1999 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160521212331/https://books.google.com/books?idNAABS5KrVDYC&pgPA81\|archive-date21 May 2016\|url-status=live}} </ref> Because of its general resistance to corrosion, aluminium is one of the few metals that retains silvery reflectance in finely powdered form, making it an important component of silver-colored paints.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Macleod\|first1H.A.\|titleThin-film optical filters\|date2001 \|publisherCRC Press\|isbn978-0-7503-0688-1\|pages=158–159}} </ref> Aluminium is not attacked by oxidizing acids because of its passivation. This allows aluminium to be used to store reagents such as nitric acid, concentrated sulfuric acid, and some organic acids.<ref name="Ullmann">{{cite book \|last1Frank\|first1W.B.\|titleUllmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry\|title-linkUllmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry\|date=2009 \|publisherWiley-VCH\|isbn978-3-527-30673-2\|chapterAluminum\|doi10.1002/14356007.a01_459.pub2}}</ref> In hot concentrated hydrochloric acid, aluminium reacts with water with evolution of hydrogen, and in aqueous sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide at room temperature to form aluminates—protective passivation under these conditions is negligible.<ref name"Beal1999" /> Aqua regia also dissolves aluminium.<ref name"Ullmann" /> Aluminium is corroded by dissolved chlorides, such as common sodium chloride, which is why household plumbing is never made from aluminium.<ref name"Beal1999">{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAskwi3lXdlcC&pgPA90\|titleEngine Coolant Testing : Fourth Volume\|lastBeal\|firstRoy E.\|year1999\|publisherASTM International\|isbn978-0-8031-2610-7\|page90\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160424071051/https://books.google.com/books?idAskwi3lXdlcC&pgPA90\|archive-date24 April 2016\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The oxide layer on aluminium is also destroyed by contact with mercury due to amalgamation or with salts of some electropositive metals.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp224–227}} As such, the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion-resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper,<ref name"Polmear1995" /> and aluminium's corrosion resistance is greatly reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp= 222–224}} Aluminium reacts with most nonmetals upon heating, forming compounds such as aluminium nitride (AlN), aluminium sulfide (Al<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>), and the aluminium halides (AlX<sub>3</sub>). It also forms a wide range of intermetallic compounds involving metals from every group on the periodic table.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp224–227}} Inorganic compounds The vast majority of compounds, including all aluminium-containing minerals and all commercially significant aluminium compounds, feature aluminium in the oxidation state 3+. The coordination number of such compounds varies, but generally Al<sup>3+</sup> is either six- or four-coordinate. Almost all compounds of aluminium(III) are colorless.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp224–227}} thumb\|upright=1.0\|right\|Aluminium hydrolysis as a function of pH. Coordinated water molecules are omitted.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Baes\|first1C. F. \|last2Mesmer\|first2R. E. \|titleThe Hydrolysis of Cations\|year1986\|orig-year=1976 \|publisherRobert E. Krieger\|isbn978-0-89874-892-5}}</ref> In aqueous solution, Al<sup>3+</sup> exists as the hexaaqua cation [Al(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>6</sub>]<sup>3+</sup>, which has an approximate K<sub>a</sub> of 10<sup>−5</sup>.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp=242–252}} Such solutions are acidic as this cation can act as a proton donor and progressively hydrolyze until a precipitate of aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH)<sub>3</sub>, forms. This is useful for clarification of water, as the precipitate nucleates on suspended particles in the water, hence removing them. Increasing the pH even further leads to the hydroxide dissolving again as aluminate, [Al(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>2</sub>(OH)<sub>4</sub>]<sup>−</sup>, is formed. Aluminium hydroxide forms both salts and aluminates and dissolves in acid and alkali, as well as on fusion with acidic and basic oxides.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp224–227}} This behavior of Al(OH)<sub>3</sub> is termed amphoterism and is characteristic of weakly basic cations that form insoluble hydroxides and whose hydrated species can also donate their protons. One effect of this is that aluminium salts with weak acids are hydrolyzed in water to the aquated hydroxide and the corresponding nonmetal hydride: for example, aluminium sulfide yields hydrogen sulfide. However, some salts like aluminium carbonate exist in aqueous solution but are unstable as such; and only incomplete hydrolysis takes place for salts with strong acids, such as the halides, nitrate, and sulfate. For similar reasons, anhydrous aluminium salts cannot be made by heating their "hydrates": hydrated aluminium chloride is in fact not AlCl<sub>3</sub>·6H<sub>2</sub>O but [Al(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>6</sub>]Cl<sub>3</sub>, and the Al–O bonds are so strong that heating is not sufficient to break them and form Al–Cl bonds. This reaction is observed instead:{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp224–227}} :2[Al(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>6</sub>]Cl<sub>3</sub> {{overunderset\|→\|heat\|&nbsp;}} Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> + 6 HCl + 9 H<sub>2</sub>O All four trihalides are well known. Unlike the structures of the three heavier trihalides, aluminium fluoride (AlF<sub>3</sub>) features six-coordinate aluminium, which explains its involatility and insolubility as well as high heat of formation. Each aluminium atom is surrounded by six fluorine atoms in a distorted octahedral arrangement, with each fluorine atom being shared between the corners of two octahedra. Such {AlF<sub>6</sub>} units also exist in complex fluorides such as cryolite, Na<sub>3</sub>AlF<sub>6</sub>.{{efn\|These should not be considered as [AlF<sub>6</sub>]<sup>3−</sup> complex anions as the Al–F bonds are not significantly different in type from the other M–F bonds.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp233–237}}}} AlF<sub>3</sub> melts at {{convert\|1290\|°C\|0\|abbron}} and is made by reaction of aluminium oxide with hydrogen fluoride gas at {{convert\|700\|°C\|-2\|abbron}}.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp233–237}} With heavier halides, the coordination numbers are lower. The other trihalides are dimeric or polymeric with tetrahedral four-coordinate aluminium centers.{{efn\|Such differences in coordination between the fluorides and heavier halides are not unusual, occurring in Sn<sup>IV</sup> and Bi<sup>III</sup>, for example; even bigger differences occur between CO<sub>2</sub> and SiO<sub>2</sub>.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp233–237}}}} Aluminium trichloride (AlCl<sub>3</sub>) has a layered polymeric structure below its melting point of {{convert\|192.4\|°C\|0\|abbron}} but transforms on melting to Al<sub>2</sub>Cl<sub>6</sub> dimers. At higher temperatures those increasingly dissociate into trigonal planar AlCl<sub>3</sub> monomers similar to the structure of BCl<sub>3</sub>. Aluminium tribromide and aluminium triiodide form Al<sub>2</sub>X<sub>6</sub> dimers in all three phases and hence do not show such significant changes of properties upon phase change.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp233–237}} These materials are prepared by treating aluminium with the halogen. The aluminium trihalides form many addition compounds or complexes; their Lewis acidic nature makes them useful as catalysts for the Friedel–Crafts reactions. Aluminium trichloride has major industrial uses involving this reaction, such as in the manufacture of anthraquinones and styrene; it is also often used as the precursor for many other aluminium compounds and as a reagent for converting nonmetal fluorides into the corresponding chlorides (a transhalogenation reaction).{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp233–237}} Aluminium forms one stable oxide with the chemical formula Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, commonly called alumina.<ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMYAABAAAQBAJ&qAluminium+forms+one+stable+oxide,+known+by+its+mineral+name+corundum&pgPA14\|title=Pigment Compendium \|last1Eastaugh\|first1Nicholas\|last2Walsh\|first2Valentine\|last3Chaplin\|first3Tracey\|last4Siddall\|first4Ruth\|date=2008 \|publisherRoutledge\|isbn978-1-136-37393-0\|languageen\|access-date1 October 2020 \|archive-date15 April 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210415083327/https://books.google.com/books?idMYAABAAAQBAJ&qAluminium+forms+one+stable+oxide,+known+by+its+mineral+name+corundum&pgPA14\|url-statuslive}} </ref> It can be found in nature in the mineral corundum, α-alumina;<ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idX2NZAAAAYAAJ&qAluminium+forms+one+stable+oxide,+known+by+its+mineral+name+corundum&pgPA718 \|titleA treatise on chemistry\|last1Roscoe\|first1Henry Enfield\|last2Schorlemmer\|first2Carl\|date1913 \|publisherMacmillan\|languageen\|access-date=1 October 2020 \|archive-date15 April 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210415111928/https://books.google.com/books?idX2NZAAAAYAAJ&qAluminium+forms+one+stable+oxide,+known+by+its+mineral+name+corundum&pgPA718\|url-statuslive}} </ref> there is also a γ-alumina phase.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp242–252}} Its crystalline form, corundum, is very hard (Mohs hardness 9), has a high melting point of {{convert\|2045\|°C\|0\|abbron}}, has very low volatility, is chemically inert, and a good electrical insulator, it is often used in abrasives (such as toothpaste), as a refractory material, and in ceramics, as well as being the starting material for the electrolytic production of aluminium. Sapphire and ruby are impure corundum contaminated with trace amounts of other metals.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp242–252}} The two main oxide-hydroxides, AlO(OH), are boehmite and diaspore. There are three main trihydroxides: bayerite, gibbsite, and nordstrandite, which differ in their crystalline structure (polymorphs). Many other intermediate and related structures are also known.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp242–252}} Most are produced from ores by a variety of wet processes using acid and base. Heating the hydroxides leads to formation of corundum. These materials are of central importance to the production of aluminium and are themselves extremely useful. Some mixed oxide phases are also very useful, such as spinel (MgAl<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>), Na-β-alumina (NaAl<sub>11</sub>O<sub>17</sub>), and tricalcium aluminate (Ca<sub>3</sub>Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>6</sub>, an important mineral phase in Portland cement).{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp=242–252}} The only stable chalcogenides under normal conditions are aluminium sulfide (Al<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>), selenide (Al<sub>2</sub>Se<sub>3</sub>), and telluride (Al<sub>2</sub>Te<sub>3</sub>). All three are prepared by direct reaction of their elements at about {{convert\|1000\|°C\|-2\|abbron}} and quickly hydrolyze completely in water to yield aluminium hydroxide and the respective hydrogen chalcogenide. As aluminium is a small atom relative to these chalcogens, these have four-coordinate tetrahedral aluminium with various polymorphs having structures related to wurtzite, with two-thirds of the possible metal sites occupied either in an orderly (α) or random (β) fashion; the sulfide also has a γ form related to γ-alumina, and an unusual high-temperature hexagonal form where half the aluminium atoms have tetrahedral four-coordination and the other half have trigonal bipyramidal five-coordination.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp252–257}} Four pnictides – aluminium nitride (AlN), aluminium phosphide (AlP), aluminium arsenide (AlAs), and aluminium antimonide (AlSb) – are known. They are all III-V semiconductors isoelectronic to silicon and germanium, all of which but AlN have the zinc blende structure. All four can be made by high-temperature (and possibly high-pressure) direct reaction of their component elements.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp=252–257}} <!-- Aluminium carbide (Al<sub>4</sub>C<sub>3</sub>) is made by heating a mixture of the elements above {{convert\|1000\|°C\|-2\|abbr=on}}. The pale yellow crystals consist of tetrahedral aluminium centers. It reacts with water or dilute acids to give methane. The acetylide, Al<sub>2</sub>(C<sub>2</sub>)<sub>3</sub>, is made by passing acetylene over heated aluminium. Aluminium nitride (AlN) is the only nitride known for aluminium. Unlike the oxides, it features tetrahedral Al centers. It can be made from the elements at {{convert\|800\|°C\|-2\|abbr=on}}. It is air-stable material with a usefully high thermal conductivity. Aluminium phosphide (AlP) is made similarly; it hydrolyses to give phosphine: : AlP + 3 H<sub>2</sub>O → Al(OH)<sub>3</sub> + PH<sub>3</sub>--> Aluminium alloys well with most other metals (with the exception of most alkali metals and group 13 metals) and over 150 intermetallics with other metals are known. Preparation involves heating fixed metals together in certain proportion, followed by gradual cooling and annealing. Bonding in them is predominantly metallic and the crystal structure primarily depends on efficiency of packing.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastDowns\|firstA. J. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idv-04Kn758yIC&qintermetallic+aluminium&pgPA218 \|titleChemistry of Aluminium, Gallium, Indium and Thallium\|date1993 \|publisherSpringer Science & Business Media\|isbn978-0-7514-0103-5\|pages218\|languageen\|access-date=1 October 2020 \|archive-date15 April 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210415115039/https://books.google.com/books?idv-04Kn758yIC&qintermetallic+aluminium&pgPA218\|url-statuslive}}</ref> There are few compounds with lower oxidation states. A few aluminium(I) compounds exist: AlF, AlCl, AlBr, and AlI exist in the gaseous phase when the respective trihalide is heated with aluminium, and at cryogenic temperatures.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp233–237}} A stable derivative of aluminium monoiodide is the cyclic adduct formed with triethylamine, Al<sub>4</sub>I<sub>4</sub>(NEt<sub>3</sub>)<sub>4</sub>. Al<sub>2</sub>O and Al<sub>2</sub>S also exist but are very unstable.<ref name"al1">{{cite journal \|last1Dohmeier \|first1C. \|last2Loos \|first2D. \|last3Schnöckel \|first3H. \|date=1996 \|title=Aluminum(I) and Gallium(I) Compounds: Syntheses, Structures, and Reactions \|journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition \|volume35 \|issue2 \|pages=129–149 \|doi=10.1002/anie.199601291 }}</ref> Very simple aluminium(II) compounds are invoked or observed in the reactions of Al metal with oxidants. For example, aluminium monoxide, AlO, has been detected in the gas phase after explosion<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Tyte \|first1D.C. \|date=1964 \|title=Red (B2Π–A2σ) Band System of Aluminium Monoxide \|journal=Nature \|volume202 \|issue4930 \|pages=383–384 \|bibcode=1964Natur.202..383T \|doi=10.1038/202383a0 \|s2cid=4163250 }}</ref> and in stellar absorption spectra.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Merrill \|first1P.W. \|last2Deutsch \|first2A.J. \|last3Keenan \|first3P.C. \|date=1962 \|title=Absorption Spectra of M-Type Mira Variables \|journal=The Astrophysical Journal \|volume136 \|page21 \|bibcode=1962ApJ...136...21M \|doi=10.1086/147348 }}</ref> More thoroughly investigated are compounds of the formula R<sub>4</sub>Al<sub>2</sub> which contain an Al–Al bond and where R is a large organic ligand.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastUhl \|firstW. \|title=Advances in Organometallic Chemistry Volume 51 \|chapter=Organoelement Compounds Possessing AlAl, GaGa, InIn, and TlTl Single Bonds \|date=2004 \|volume51 \|pages53–108 \|doi=10.1016/S0065-3055(03)51002-4 \|isbn=978-0-12-031151-4 }}</ref> Organoaluminium compounds and related hydrides {{main\|Organoaluminium chemistry}} , a compound that features five-coordinate carbon.]] A variety of compounds of empirical formula AlR<sub>3</sub> and AlR<sub>1.5</sub>Cl<sub>1.5</sub> exist.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Elschenbroich \|first1C. \|date=2006 \|title=Organometallics \|publisher=Wiley-VCH \|isbn=978-3-527-29390-2 }}</ref> The aluminium trialkyls and triaryls are reactive, volatile, and colorless liquids or low-melting solids. They catch fire spontaneously in air and react with water, thus necessitating precautions when handling them. They often form dimers, unlike their boron analogues, but this tendency diminishes for branched-chain alkyls (e.g. Pr<sup>i</sup>, Bu<sup>i</sup>, Me<sub>3</sub>CCH<sub>2</sub>); for example, triisobutylaluminium exists as an equilibrium mixture of the monomer and dimer.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp=257–67}}<ref>{{cite journal \|titleThe monomer-dimer equilibria of liquid aluminum alkyls\|year1970\|last1Smith\|first1Martin B. \|journalJournal of Organometallic Chemistry\|pages273–281\|issue2\|doi10.1016/S0022-328X(00)86043-X\|volume=22}} </ref> These dimers, such as trimethylaluminium (Al<sub>2</sub>Me<sub>6</sub>), usually feature tetrahedral Al centers formed by dimerization with some alkyl group bridging between both aluminium atoms. They are hard acids and react readily with ligands, forming adducts. In industry, they are mostly used in alkene insertion reactions, as discovered by Karl Ziegler, most importantly in "growth reactions" that form long-chain unbranched primary alkenes and alcohols, and in the low-pressure polymerization of ethene and propene. There are also some heterocyclic and cluster organoaluminium compounds involving Al–N bonds.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp=257–67}} The industrially most important aluminium hydride is lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH<sub>4</sub>), which is used as a reducing agent in organic chemistry. It can be produced from lithium hydride and aluminium trichloride.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp227–232}} The simplest hydride, aluminium hydride or alane, is not as important. It is a polymer with the formula (AlH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>n</sub>, in contrast to the corresponding boron hydride that is a dimer with the formula (BH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>.{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp227–232}} Natural occurrence {{See also\|List of countries by bauxite production}} Space Aluminium's per-particle abundance in the Solar System is 3.15 ppm (parts per million).<ref name="Lodders">{{cite journal \|last1Lodders\|first1K.\|author1-linkKatharina Lodders\|titleSolar System abundances and condensation temperatures of the elements \|urlhttp://solarsystem.wustl.edu/wp-content/uploads/reprints/2003/Lodders%202003%20ApJ%20Elemental%20abundances.pdf\|year2003\|pages=1220–1247 \|journalThe Astrophysical Journal\|volume591\|issue2\|issn0004-637X\|doi10.1086/375492\|bibcode2003ApJ...591.1220L\|s2cid42498829 \|access-date15 June 2018 \|archive-date12 April 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190412090136/http://solarsystem.wustl.edu/wp-content/uploads/reprints/2003/Lodders%202003%20ApJ%20Elemental%20abundances.pdf\|url-status=live}} </ref>{{efn\|Abundances in the source are listed relative to silicon rather than in per-particle notation. The sum of all elements per 10<sup>6</sup> parts of silicon is 2.6682{{e\|10}} parts; aluminium comprises 8.410{{e\|4}} parts.}} It is the twelfth most abundant of all elements and third most abundant among the elements that have odd atomic numbers, after hydrogen and nitrogen.<ref name"Lodders" /> The only stable isotope of aluminium, <sup>27</sup>Al, is the eighteenth most abundant nucleus in the universe. It is created almost entirely after fusion of carbon in massive stars that will later become Type II supernovas: this fusion creates <sup>26</sup>Mg, which upon capturing free protons and neutrons, becomes aluminium. Some smaller quantities of <sup>27</sup>Al are created in hydrogen burning shells of evolved stars, where <sup>26</sup>Mg can capture free protons.<ref name"Clayton" /> Essentially all aluminium now in existence is <sup>27</sup>Al. <sup>26</sup>Al was present in the early Solar System with abundance of 0.005% relative to <sup>27</sup>Al but its half-life of 728,000 years is too short for any original nuclei to survive; <sup>26</sup>Al is therefore extinct.<ref name="Clayton">{{Cite book \|lastClayton\|firstD.\|titleHandbook of Isotopes in the Cosmos : Hydrogen to Gallium.\|date2003 \|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/609856530 \|publisherCambridge University Press\|locationLeiden\|pages129–137\|oclc609856530\|isbn978-0-511-67305-4\|access-date13 September 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210611060733/https://www.worldcat.org/title/handbook-of-isotopes-in-the-cosmos-hydrogen-to-gallium/oclc/609856530\|archive-date11 June 2021\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Unlike for <sup>27</sup>Al, hydrogen burning is the primary source of <sup>26</sup>Al, with the nuclide emerging after a nucleus of <sup>25</sup>Mg catches a free proton. However, the trace quantities of <sup>26</sup>Al that do exist are the most common gamma ray emitter in the interstellar gas;<ref name"Clayton" /> if the original <sup>26</sup>Al were still present, gamma ray maps of the Milky Way would be brighter.<ref name"Clayton" /> Earth , a major aluminium ore. The red-brown color is due to the presence of iron oxide minerals.]] Overall, the Earth is about 1.59% aluminium by mass (seventh in abundance by mass).<ref name"mit1">William F McDonough [https://web.archive.org/web/20110928074153/http://quake.mit.edu/hilstgroup/CoreMantle/EarthCompo.pdf The composition of the Earth]. quake.mit.edu, archived by the Internet Archive Wayback Machine.</ref> Aluminium occurs in greater proportion in the Earth's crust than in the universe at large. This is because aluminium easily forms the oxide and becomes bound into rocks and stays in the Earth's crust, while less reactive metals sink to the core.<ref name"Clayton" /> In the Earth's crust, aluminium is the most abundant metallic element (8.23% by mass<ref name"Cardarelli 2008 p158-163" />) and the third most abundant of all elements (after oxygen and silicon).{{sfn\|Greenwood\|Earnshaw\|1997\|pp217–219}} A large number of silicates in the Earth's crust contain aluminium.<ref name="WadeBanister2016">{{cite book \|last1Wade\|first1K.\|last2Banister\|first2A.J.\|title=The Chemistry of Aluminium, Gallium, Indium and Thallium: Comprehensive Inorganic Chemistry \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQwNPDAAAQBAJ&pgPA1049\|year2016 \|publisherElsevier\|isbn978-1-4831-5322-3\|page1049\|access-date17 June 2018 \|archive-date30 November 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191130020257/https://books.google.com/books?idQwNPDAAAQBAJ&pgPA1049\|url-status=live}}</ref> In contrast, the Earth's mantle is only 2.38% aluminium by mass.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Palme\|first1H.\|last2O'Neill\|first2Hugh St. C.\|title=The Mantle and Core \|editor-lastCarlson\|editor-firstRichard W.\|year2005\|publisherElseiver \|chapter-urlhttps://www.geol.umd.edu/~mcdonoug/KITP%20Website%20for%20Bill/papers/Earth_Models/3.1%20Palme%20&%20O'Neill%20Primative%20mantle%20(1).pdf\|page14 \|access-date11 June 2021\|chapterCosmochemical Estimates of Mantle Composition \|archive-date3 April 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210403101355/https://www.geol.umd.edu/~mcdonoug/KITP%20Website%20for%20Bill/papers/Earth_Models/3.1%20Palme%20%26%20O%27Neill%20Primative%20mantle%20%281%29.pdf\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Aluminium also occurs in seawater at a concentration of 0.41 μg/kg.<ref>{{cite journal \| doi10.3389/fmars.2020.00468 \| doi-accessfree \| titleA First Global Oceanic Compilation of Observational Dissolved Aluminum Data with Regional Statistical Data Treatment \| date2020 \| last1Menzel Barraqueta \| first1Jan-Lukas \| last2Samanta \| first2Saumik \| last3Achterberg \| first3Eric P. \| last4Bowie \| first4Andrew R. \| last5Croot \| first5Peter \| last6Cloete \| first6Ryan \| last7De Jongh \| first7Tara \| last8Gelado-Caballero \| first8Maria D. \| last9Klar \| first9Jessica K. \| last10Middag \| first10Rob \| last11Loock \| first11Jean C. \| last12Remenyi \| first12Tomas A. \| last13Wenzel \| first13Bernhard \| last14Roychoudhury \| first14Alakendra N. \| journalFrontiers in Marine Science \| volume7 \| page468 \| bibcode2020FrMaS...7..468M \| hdl10553/74194 \| hdl-access=free }}</ref> Because of its strong affinity for oxygen, aluminium is almost never found in the elemental state; instead it is found in oxides or silicates. Feldspars, the most common group of minerals in the Earth's crust, are aluminosilicates. Aluminium also occurs in the minerals beryl, cryolite, garnet, spinel, and turquoise.<ref>{{Cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idv-04Kn758yIC&pgPA17\|titleChemistry of Aluminium, Gallium, Indium and Thallium\|lastDowns\|firstA.J.\|date1993\|publisherSpringer Science & Business Media\|isbn978-0-7514-0103-5\|languageen\|access-date14 June 2017\|archive-date25 July 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200725044500/https://books.google.com/books?idv-04Kn758yIC&pgPA17\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Impurities in Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, such as chromium and iron, yield the gemstones ruby and sapphire, respectively.<ref name"KotzTreichel2012">{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ideUwJAAAAQBAJ&pgPA300\|titleChemistry and Chemical Reactivity\|last1Kotz\|first1John C.\|last2Treichel\|first2Paul M.\|last3Townsend\|first3John\|publisherCengage Learning\|year2012\|isbn978-1-133-42007-1\|page300\|access-date17 June 2018\|archive-date22 December 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191222050939/https://books.google.com/books?ideUwJAAAAQBAJ&pgPA300\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Native aluminium metal is extremely rare and can only be found as a minor phase in low oxygen fugacity environments, such as the interiors of certain volcanoes.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://webmineral.com/data/Aluminum.shtml\|titleAluminum Mineral Data\|last1Barthelmy\|first1D.\|websiteMineralogy Database\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080704001129/http://webmineral.com/data/Aluminum.shtml\|archive-date4 July 2008\|url-statuslive\|access-date9 July 2008}}</ref> Native aluminium has been reported in cold seeps in the northeastern continental slope of the South China Sea. It is possible that these deposits resulted from bacterial reduction of tetrahydroxoaluminate Al(OH)<sub>4</sub><sup>−</sup>.<ref name"Chen 2011">{{cite journal\|last1Chen\|first1Z.\|last2Huang\|first2Chi-Yue\|last3Zhao\|first3Meixun\|last4Yan\|first4Wen\|last5Chien\|first5Chih-Wei\|last6Chen\|first6Muhong\|last7Yang\|first7Huaping\|last8Machiyama\|first8Hideaki\|last9Lin\|first9Saulwood\|date2011\|titleCharacteristics and possible origin of native aluminum in cold seep sediments from the northeastern South China Sea\|journalJournal of Asian Earth Sciences\|volume40\|issue1\|pages363–370\|bibcode2011JAESc..40..363C\|doi=10.1016/j.jseaes.2010.06.006}}</ref> Although aluminium is a common and widespread element, not all aluminium minerals are economically viable sources of the metal. Almost all metallic aluminium is produced from the ore bauxite (AlO<sub>x</sub>(OH)<sub>3–2x</sub>). Bauxite occurs as a weathering product of low iron and silica bedrock in tropical climatic conditions.<ref>{{cite book\|titleThe Geology of Ore Deposits\|last1Guilbert\|first1J.F.\|last2Park\|first2C.F.\|date1986\|publisherW.H. Freeman\|isbn978-0-7167-1456-9\|pages774–795}}</ref> In 2017, most bauxite was mined in Australia, China, Guinea, and India.<ref>{{cite web \|authorUnited States Geological Survey \|titleBauxite and alumina \|year2018 \|urlhttps://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/bauxite/mcs-2018-bauxi.pdf \|access-date17 June 2018 \|seriesMineral Commodities Summaries \|archive-date11 March 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180311202117/https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/bauxite/mcs-2018-bauxi.pdf \|url-statuslive }}</ref> History {{main\|History of aluminium}} , the chemist who first thoroughly described metallic elemental aluminium]] The history of aluminium has been shaped by usage of alum. The first written record of alum, made by Greek historian Herodotus, dates back to the 5th century BCE.{{sfn\|Drozdov\|2007\|p12}} The ancients are known to have used alum as a dyeing mordant and for city defense.{{sfn\|Drozdov\|2007\|pp12-14}} After the Crusades, alum, an indispensable good in the European fabric industry,<ref name"ClaphamPower1941">{{cite book\|last1Clapham\|first1John Harold\|last2Power\|first2Eileen Edna\|titleThe Cambridge Economic History of Europe: From the Decline of the Roman Empire\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgBw9AAAAIAAJ&pgPA682\|year1941\|publisherCUP Archive\|isbn978-0-521-08710-0\|page207}}</ref> was a subject of international commerce;{{sfn\|Drozdov\|2007\|p16}} it was imported to Europe from the eastern Mediterranean until the mid-15th century.<ref>{{Cite book\|titleThe papacy and the Levant: 1204-1571. 1 The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries\|lastSetton\|firstKenneth M.\|date1976\|publisherAmerican Philosophical Society\|isbn978-0-87169-127-9\|oclc=165383496}}</ref> The nature of alum remained unknown. Around 1530, Swiss physician Paracelsus suggested alum was a salt of an earth of alum.{{sfn\|Drozdov\|2007\|p25}} In 1595, German doctor and chemist Andreas Libavius experimentally confirmed this.<ref name"Weeks1968">{{cite book\|lastWeeks\|firstMary Elvira\|titleDiscovery of the elements\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ids6kPAQAAMAAJ\|year1968\|volume1\|edition7\|publisherJournal of chemical education\|page187\|isbn9780608300177}}</ref> In 1722, German chemist Friedrich Hoffmann announced his belief that the base of alum was a distinct earth.{{sfn\|Richards\|1896\|p2}} In 1754, German chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf synthesized alumina by boiling clay in sulfuric acid and subsequently adding potash.{{sfn\|Richards\|1896\|p=2}} Attempts to produce aluminium date back to 1760.{{sfn\|Richards\|1896\|p3}} The first successful attempt, however, was completed in 1824 by Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Ørsted. He reacted anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium amalgam, yielding a lump of metal looking similar to tin.<ref>{{cite conference\|last1Örsted\|first1H. C.\|date1825\|titleOversigt over det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Forhanlingar og dets Medlemmerz Arbeider, fra 31 Mai 1824 til 31 Mai 1825\|trans-titleOverview of the Royal Danish Science Society's Proceedings and the Work of its Members, from 31 May 1824 to 31 May 1825\|urlhttps://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?idosu.32435054254693&view1up&seq17\|languageda\|pages15–16\|conference\|access-date27 February 2020\|archive-date16 March 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200316113549/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?idosu.32435054254693&view1up&seq17\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"(København)1827">{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idL2BFAAAAcAAJ&pgPR25\|titleDet Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs philosophiske og historiske afhandlinger\|authorRoyal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters\|author-linkRoyal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters\|publisherPopp\|year1827\|pagesxxv–xxvi\|languageda\|trans-titleThe philosophical and historical dissertations of the Royal Danish Science Society\|access-date11 March 2016\|archive-date24 March 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170324064522/https://books.google.com/books?idL2BFAAAAcAAJ&pgPR25\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"woehler">{{cite journal\|lastWöhler\|firstFriedrich\|date1827\|titleUeber das Aluminium\|urlhttp://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?iduc1.b4433551;view1up;seq162\|journalAnnalen der Physik und Chemie\|series2\|volume11\|issue9\|pages146–161\|bibcode1828AnP....87..146W\|doi10.1002/andp.18270870912\|s2cid122170259 \|access-date11 March 2016\|archive-date11 June 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210611060735/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?iduc1.b4433551&view1up&seq162\|url-statuslive}}</ref> He presented his results and demonstrated a sample of the new metal in 1825.{{sfn\|Drozdov\|2007\|p36}}<ref name"FontaniCosta2014">{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCk9jBAAAQBAJ&pgPA30\|titleThe Lost Elements: The Periodic Table's Shadow Side\|last1Fontani\|first1Marco\|last2Costa\|first2Mariagrazia\|last3Orna\|first3Mary Virginia\|publisherOxford University Press\|year2014\|isbn978-0-19-938334-4\|page30}}</ref> In 1827, German chemist Friedrich Wöhler repeated Ørsted's experiments but did not identify any aluminium.<ref name"Venetski">{{cite journal\|last1Venetski\|first1S.\|date1969\|title'Silver' from clay\|journalMetallurgist\|volume13\|issue7\|pages451–453\|doi10.1007/BF00741130\|s2cid137541986}}</ref> (The reason for this inconsistency was only discovered in 1921.){{sfn\|Drozdov\|2007\|p38}} He conducted a similar experiment in the same year by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium (the Wöhler process) and produced a powder of aluminium.<ref name"woehler" /> In 1845, he was able to produce small pieces of the metal and described some physical properties of this metal.{{sfn\|Drozdov\|2007\|p38}} For many years thereafter, Wöhler was credited as the discoverer of aluminium.<ref name"Holmes1936">{{Cite journal\|lastHolmes\|firstHarry N.\|date1936\|titleFifty Years of Industrial Aluminum\|journalThe Scientific Monthly\|volume42\|issue3\|pages236–239\|jstor15938\|bibcode=1936SciMo..42..236H}}</ref> in Piccadilly Circus, London, was made in 1893 and is one of the first statues cast in aluminium.]] As Wöhler's method could not yield great quantities of aluminium, the metal remained rare; its cost exceeded that of gold.<ref name"Venetski" /> The first industrial production of aluminium was established in 1856 by French chemist Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville and companions.{{sfn\|Drozdov\|2007\|p39}} Deville had discovered that aluminium trichloride could be reduced by sodium, which was more convenient and less expensive than potassium, which Wöhler had used.<ref>{{cite book \|lastSainte-Claire Deville\|firstH.E.\|date1859\|titleDe l'aluminium, ses propriétés, sa fabrication \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrCoKAAAAIAAJ \|publisherMallet-Bachelier\|locationParis\|url-status=live \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160430001812/https://books.google.com/books?idrCoKAAAAIAAJ\|archive-date30 April 2016}}</ref> Even then, aluminium was still not of great purity and produced aluminium differed in properties by sample.{{sfn\|Drozdov\|2007\|p46}} Because of its electricity-conducting capacity, aluminium was used as the cap of the Washington Monument, completed in 1885, the tallest building in the world at the time. The non-corroding metal cap was intended to serve as a lightning rod peak. The first industrial large-scale production method was independently developed in 1886 by French engineer Paul Héroult and American engineer Charles Martin Hall; it is now known as the Hall–Héroult process.{{sfn\|Drozdov\|2007\|pp55–61}} The Hall–Héroult process converts alumina into metal. Austrian chemist Carl Joseph Bayer discovered a way of purifying bauxite to yield alumina, now known as the Bayer process, in 1889.{{sfn\|Drozdov\|2007\|p74}} Modern production of aluminium is based on the Bayer and Hall–Héroult processes.<ref name="aluminiumleader">{{Cite web \|urlhttps://aluminiumleader.com/history/industry_history/\|titleAluminium history\|websiteAll about aluminium\|access-date7 November 2017 \|archive-date7 November 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171107222100/https://aluminiumleader.com/history/industry_history/\|url-status=live}}</ref> As large-scale production caused aluminium prices to drop, the metal became widely used in jewelry, eyeglass frames, optical instruments, tableware, and foil, and other everyday items in the 1890s and early 20th century. Aluminium's ability to form hard yet light alloys with other metals provided the metal with many uses at the time.{{sfn\|Drozdov\|2007\|pp64–69}} During World War I, major governments demanded large shipments of aluminium for light strong airframes;<ref>{{cite book \|lastIngulstad\|firstMats\|year2012 \|chapter'We Want Aluminum, No Excuses': Business-Government Relations in the American Aluminum Industry, 1917–1957\|pages33–68 \|title=From Warfare to Welfare: Business-Government Relations in the Aluminium Industry \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTFS6NAEACAAJ \|editor1-firstMats\|editor1-lastIngulstad\|editor2-firstHans Otto\|editor2-lastFrøland \|publisherTapir Academic Press\|isbn978-82-321-0049-1\|access-date=7 May 2020 \|archive-date25 July 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200725055556/https://books.google.com/books?idTFS6NAEACAAJ\|url-statuslive}} </ref> during World War II, demand by major governments for aviation was even higher.<ref name="Seldes2009">{{cite book \|lastSeldes\|firstGeorge\|urlhttps://archive.org/stream/FactsAndFascism/FactsandFascism_djvu.txt\|titleFacts and Fascism\|publisherIn Fact, Inc.\|year1943\|edition5\|page261\|author-linkGeorge Seldes}}</ref><ref name"Thorsheim2015">{{cite book\|lastThorsheim\|firstPeter\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduUlLCgAAQBAJ&pgPA66\|titleWaste into Weapons\|publisherCambridge University Press\|year2015\|isbn978-1-107-09935-7\|pages66–69\|access-date7 January 2021\|archive-date6 April 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200406160604/https://books.google.com/books?iduUlLCgAAQBAJ&pgPA66\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Weeks20042">{{cite book\|lastWeeks\|firstAlbert Loren\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idz3hP33KprskC&pgPA135\|titleRussia's Life-saver: Lend-lease Aid to the U.S.S.R. in World War II\|publisherLexington Books\|year2004\|isbn978-0-7391-0736-2\|page135\|access-date7 January 2021\|archive-date6 April 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200406160618/https://books.google.com/books?idz3hP33KprskC&pgPA135\|url-status=live}}</ref> From the early 20th century to 1980, the aluminium industry was characterized by cartelization, as aluminium firms colluded to keep prices high and stable.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastBertilorenzi \|firstMarco \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPASQCgAAQBAJ \|titleThe International Aluminium Cartel: The Business and Politics of a Cooperative Industrial Institution (1886-1978) \|date2015 \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn978-1-317-80483-3 \|languageen}}</ref> The first aluminium cartel, the Aluminium Association, was founded in 1901 by the Pittsburgh Reduction Company (renamed Alcoa in 1907) and Aluminium Industrie AG.<ref name":0">{{Cite journal \|lastFridenson \|firstPatrick \|date2024 \|titleIndustrial Consumers Versus Cartelized Producers: The French Carmaker Louis Renault and the Aluminium Cartel, 1911–1944 \|urlhttps://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/business-history-review/article/industrial-consumers-versus-cartelized-producers-the-french-carmaker-louis-renault-and-the-aluminium-cartel-19111944/D68235FD7E04D7F7C7E4DC52C27B83E1 \|journalBusiness History Review \|languageen \|volume98 \|issue3 \|pages637–655 \|doi10.1017/S0007680524000692 \|issn0007-6805}}</ref> The British Aluminium Company, Produits Chimiques d’Alais et de la Camargue, and Société Electro-Métallurgique de Froges also joined the cartel.<ref name=":0" /> By the mid-20th century, aluminium had become a part of everyday life and an essential component of housewares.{{sfn\|Drozdov\|2007\|pp69–70}} In 1954, production of aluminium surpassed that of copper,{{efn\|Compare annual statistics of aluminium<ref name"USGS" /> and copper<ref name"USGS Copper">{{Cite report\|chapter-urlhttps://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/historical-statistics/\|titleHistorical Statistics for Mineral Commodities in the United States\|chapterCopper. Supply-Demand Statistics\|year2017\|publisherUnited States Geological Survey\|languageen\|access-date4 June 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180308171100/https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/historical-statistics/\|archive-date8 March 2018\|url-statuslive}}</ref> production by USGS.}} historically second in production only to iron,<ref>{{Cite web\|lastGregersen\|firstErik\|titleCopper\|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/science/copper\|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica\|languageen\|access-date4 June 2019\|archive-date22 June 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190622234613/https://www.britannica.com/science/copper\|url-statuslive}}</ref> making it the most produced non-ferrous metal. During the mid-20th century, aluminium emerged as a civil engineering material, with building applications in both basic construction and interior finish work,{{sfn\|Drozdov\|2007\|pp165–166}} and increasingly being used in military engineering, for both airplanes and land armor vehicle engines.{{sfn\|Drozdov\|2007\|p85}} Earth's first artificial satellite, launched in 1957, consisted of two separate aluminium semi-spheres joined and all subsequent space vehicles have used aluminium to some extent.<ref name"aluminiumleader" /> The aluminium can was invented in 1956 and employed as a storage for drinks in 1958.{{sfn\|Drozdov\|2007\|p=135}} Throughout the 20th century, the production of aluminium rose rapidly: while the world production of aluminium in 1900 was 6,800 metric tons, the annual production first exceeded 100,000 metric tons in 1916; 1,000,000 tons in 1941; 10,000,000 tons in 1971.<ref name"USGS">{{Cite report\|chapter-urlhttps://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/historical-statistics/\|titleHistorical Statistics for Mineral Commodities in the United States\|chapterAluminum\|year2017\|publisherUnited States Geological Survey\|languageen\|access-date9 November 2017\|archive-date8 March 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180308171100/https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/historical-statistics/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In the 1970s, the increased demand for aluminium made it an exchange commodity; it entered the London Metal Exchange, the oldest industrial metal exchange in the world, in 1978.<ref name"aluminiumleader" /> The output continued to grow: the annual production of aluminium exceeded 50,000,000 metric tons in 2013.<ref name="USGS" /> The real price for aluminium declined from $14,000 per metric ton in 1900 to $2,340 in 1948 (in 1998 United States dollars).<ref name"USGS" /> Extraction and processing costs were lowered over technological progress and the scale of the economies. However, the need to exploit lower-grade poorer quality deposits and the use of fast increasing input costs (above all, energy) increased the net cost of aluminium;{{sfn\|Nappi\|2013\|p9}} the real price began to grow in the 1970s with the rise of energy cost.{{sfn\|Nappi\|2013\|pp9–10}} Production moved from the industrialized countries to countries where production was cheaper.{{sfn\|Nappi\|2013\|p10}} Production costs in the late 20th century changed because of advances in technology, lower energy prices, exchange rates of the United States dollar, and alumina prices.{{sfn\|Nappi\|2013\|pp14–15}} The BRIC countries' combined share in primary production and primary consumption grew substantially in the first decade of the 21st century.{{sfn\|Nappi\|2013\|p17}} China is accumulating an especially large share of the world's production thanks to an abundance of resources, cheap energy, and governmental stimuli;{{sfn\|Nappi\|2013\|p20}} it also increased its consumption share from 2% in 1972 to 40% in 2010.{{sfn\|Nappi\|2013\|p22}} In the United States, Western Europe, and Japan, most aluminium was consumed in transportation, engineering, construction, and packaging.{{sfn\|Nappi\|2013\|p23}} In 2021, prices for industrial metals such as aluminium have soared to near-record levels as energy shortages in China drive up costs for electricity.<ref>{{cite news \|titleAluminum prices hit 13-year high amid power shortage in China \|urlhttps://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Markets/Commodities/Aluminum-prices-hit-13-year-high-amid-power-shortage-in-China \|workNikkei Asia \|date22 September 2021}}</ref> Etymology The names aluminium and aluminum are derived from the word alumine, an obsolete term for alumina,{{efn\|The spelling alumine comes from French, whereas the spelling alumina comes from Latin.<ref>{{cite book\|lastBlack\|firstJ.\|urlhttp://archive.org/details/2543060RX2.nlm.nih.gov\|titleLectures on the elements of chemistry: delivered in the University of Edinburgh\|date1806\|publisherGraves, B.\|page291\|volume=2}} {{blockquote\|The French chemists have given a new name to this pure earth; alumine in French, and alumina in Latin. I confess I do not like this alumina.}}</ref>}} the primary naturally occurring oxide of aluminium.<ref name"OEDaluminium-origin">{{cite web \|websiteOxford English Dictionary, third edition \|titlealuminium, n. \|urlhttps://www.oed.com/view/Entry/5889 \|publisherOxford University Press \|dateDecember 2011 \|access-date30 December 2020\|archive-date11 June 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210611060750/https://www.oed.com/start;jsessionid103D1FF8ECD2A058B7F6241C7F97B88D?authRejectiontrue&url%2Fview%2FEntry%2F5889 \|url-status=live }} {{blockquote\|Origin: Formed within English, by derivation. Etymons: {{smallcaps\|alumine}}n., {{smallcaps\|-ium}} suffix, {{smallcaps\|aluminum}} n.}}</ref> Alumine was borrowed from French, which in turn derived it from alumen, the classical Latin name for alum, the mineral from which it was collected.<ref name"OEDalumine">{{cite web \|websiteOxford English Dictionary, third edition \|titlealumine, n. \|urlhttps://www.oed.com/view/Entry/5880 \|publisherOxford University Press \|dateDecember 2011 \|access-date30 December 2020 \|archive-date11 June 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210611060739/https://www.oed.com/start;jsessionid2B8662831CD405D28E3F852F18211FD4?authRejectiontrue&url%2Fview%2FEntry%2F5880 \|url-status=live }} {{blockquote\|Etymology: < French alumine (L. B. Guyton de Morveau 1782, Observ. sur la Physique 19 378) < classical Latin alūmin-, alūmen {{smallcaps\|alum}} n.<sup>1</sup>, after French -ine {{smallcaps\|-ine}} suffix<sup>4</sup>.}}</ref> The Latin word alumen stems from the Proto-Indo-European root alu- meaning "bitter" or "beer".<ref>{{cite book \|lastPokorny \|firstJulius \|author-linkJulius Pokorny \|titleIndogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch \|trans-titleIndo-European etymological dictionary \|languagede \|urlhttps://indo-european.info/pokorny-etymological-dictionary/whnjs.htm \|date1959 \|publisherA. Francke Verlag \|pages33–34 \|entryalu- (-d-, -t-) \|access-date13 November 2017 \|archive-date23 November 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171123145109/https://indo-european.info/pokorny-etymological-dictionary/whnjs.htm \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Origins British chemist Humphry Davy, who performed a number of experiments aimed to isolate the metal, is credited as the person who named the element. The first name proposed for the metal to be isolated from alum was alumium, which Davy suggested in an 1808 article on his electrochemical research, published in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.<ref name"Davy1808">{{Cite journal\|last1Davy\|first1Humphry\|date1808\|titleElectro Chemical Researches, on the Decomposition of the Earths; with Observations on the Metals obtained from the alkaline Earths, and on the Amalgam procured from Ammonia\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKg9GAAAAMAAJ&pgRA1-PA353\|journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society\|volume98\|page353\|doi10.1098/rstl.1808.0023\|access-date10 December 2009\|doi-accessfree\|bibcode1808RSPT...98..333D\|archive-date15 April 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210415111945/https://books.google.com/books?idKg9GAAAAMAAJ&pgRA1-PA353\|url-statuslive}}</ref> It appeared that the name was created from the English word alum and the Latin suffix -ium; but it was customary then to give elements names originating in Latin, so this name was not adopted universally. This name was criticized by contemporary chemists from France, Germany, and Sweden, who insisted the metal should be named for the oxide, alumina, from which it would be isolated.{{sfn\|Richards\|1896\|pp3–4}} The English name alum does not come directly from Latin, whereas alumine/alumina comes from the Latin word alumen (upon declension, alumen changes to alumin-). One example was Essai sur la Nomenclature chimique (July 1811), written in French by a Swedish chemist, Jöns Jacob Berzelius, in which the name aluminium is given to the element that would be synthesized from alum.<ref name"berzelius">{{cite journal\|lastBerzelius\|firstJ. J.\|titleEssai sur la nomenclature chimique\|journalJournal de Physique\|volume73\|pages253–286\|year1811\|author-linkJöns Jakob Berzelius\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHpfOAAAAMAAJ&pgPA253\|access-date27 December 2020\|archive-date15 April 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210415120753/https://books.google.com/books?idHpfOAAAAMAAJ&pgPA253\|url-statuslive}}.</ref>{{efn\|Davy discovered several other elements, including those he named sodium and potassium, after the English words soda and potash. Berzelius referred to them as to natrium and kalium. Berzelius's suggestion was expanded in 1814<ref>{{cite journal\|lastBerzelius\|firstJ.\|author-linkJöns Jacob Berzelius\|titleEssay on the Cause of Chemical Proportions, and on some Circumstances relating to them: together with a short and easy Method of expressing them\|editor-lastThomson\|editor-firstTh.\|editor-linkThomas Thomson (chemist)\|year1814\|publisherBaldwin, R.\|journalAnnals of Philosophy\|volumeIII\|pages51–62\|urlhttps://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/54032#page/5/mode/1up\|access-date13 December 2014\|archive-date15 July 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140715120636/http://biodiversitylibrary.org/item/54032#page/5/mode/1up\|url-statuslive}}</ref> with his proposed system of one or two-letter chemical symbols, which are used up to the present day; sodium and potassium have the symbols Na and K, respectively, after their Latin names.}} (Another article in the same journal issue also refers to the metal whose oxide is the basis of sapphire, i.e. the same metal, as to aluminium.)<ref>{{cite journal\|lastDelaméntherie\|firstJ.-C.\|titleLeçonse de minéralogie. Données au collége de France\|journalJournal de Physique\|volume73\|pages469–470\|year1811\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHpfOAAAAMAAJ&pgPA470\|access-date27 December 2020\|archive-date15 April 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210415114959/https://books.google.com/books?idHpfOAAAAMAAJ&pgPA470\|url-statuslive}}.</ref> A January 1811 summary of one of Davy's lectures at the Royal Society mentioned the name aluminium as a possibility.<ref>{{Cite journal\|dateJanuary 1811\|titlePhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. For the Year 1810. — Part I\|journalThe Critical Review: Or, Annals of Literature\|seriesThe Third\|volumeXXII\|pages9\|hdl2027/chi.36013662?urlappend%3Bseq17\|languageen}}{{blockquote\|Potassium, acting upon alumine and glucine, produces pyrophoric substances of a dark grey colour, which burnt, throwing off brilliant sparks, and leaving behind alkali and earth, and which, when thrown into water, decomposed it with great violence. The result of this experiment is not wholly decisive as to the existence of what might be called aluminium and glucinium}}</ref> The next year, Davy published a chemistry textbook in which he used the spelling aluminum.<ref name"Davy1812">{{cite book\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYjMwAAAAYAAJ&pgPA201\|titleElements of Chemical Philosophy: Part 1\|lastDavy\|firstHumphry\|publisherBradford and Inskeep\|year1812\|volume1\|page201\|chapterOf metals; their primary compositions with other uncompounded bodies, and with each other\|author-linkHumphry Davy\|access-date4 March 2020\|archive-date14 March 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200314113620/https://books.google.com/books?idYjMwAAAAYAAJ&pgPA201\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Both spellings have coexisted since. Their usage is currently regional: aluminum dominates in the United States and Canada; aluminium is prevalent in the rest of the English-speaking world.<ref name="OEDaluminium-usage">{{cite web \|website=Oxford English Dictionary, third edition \|title=aluminium, n. \|url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/5889 \|publisherOxford University Press\|dateDecember 2011\|access-date=30 December 2020 \|archive-date11 June 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210611060736/https://www.oed.com/start;jsessionid7486FA56257A57791FB5DF1C726BAE1F?authRejectiontrue&url%2Fview%2FEntry%2F5889\|url-statuslive}} {{blockquote\|{{smallcaps\|aluminium}} n. coexisted with its synonym {{smallcaps\|aluminum}} n. throughout the 19th cent. From the beginning of the 20th cent., aluminum gradually became the predominant form in North America; it was adopted as the official name of the metal in the United States by the American Chemical Society in 1925. Elsewhere, aluminum was gradually superseded by aluminium, which was accepted as international standard by IUPAC in 1990.}}</ref> Spelling In 1812, British scientist Thomas Young<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.rc.umd.edu/reference/qr/index/15.html#contents\|titleQuarterly Review Archive\|last1Cutmore\|first1Jonathan\|websiteRomantic Circles\|publisherUniversity of Maryland\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170301094017/http://www.rc.umd.edu/reference/qr/index/15.html\|archive-date1 March 2017\|url-statuslive\|dateFebruary 2005\|access-date28 February 2017}}</ref> wrote an anonymous review of Davy's book, in which he proposed the name aluminium instead of aluminum, which he thought had a "less classical sound".<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Young\|first1Thomas\|date1812\|titleElements of Chemical Philosophy By Sir Humphry Davy\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduGykjvn032IC&pgPA72\|journalQuarterly Review\|volumeVIII\|issue15\|page72\|isbn978-0-217-88947-6\|id210\|access-date10 December 2009\|archive-date25 July 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200725043632/https://books.google.com/books?iduGykjvn032IC&pgPA72\|url-statuslive}}</ref> This name persisted: although the {{nowrap\|-um}} spelling was occasionally used in Britain, the American scientific language used {{nowrap\|-ium}} from the start.<ref name="Quinion2005" /> Ludwig Wilhelm Gilbert had proposed Thonerde-metall, after the German "Thonerde"{{efn\|a historic spelling, nowadays spelled "Tonerde"}} for alumina, in his Annalen der Physik but that name never caught on at all even in Germany.<ref nameRichards1891/> Joseph W. Richards{{efn\|founder and later president of the Electrochemical Society}} in 1891 found just one occurrence of argillium in Swedish, from the French "argille"{{efn\|nowadays spelled "argile"}} for clay.<ref nameRichards1891/> The French themselves had used aluminium from the start.<ref nameRichards1891/> However, in England and Germany Davy's spelling aluminum was initially used; until German chemist Friedrich Wöhler published his account of the Wöhler process in 1827 in which he used the spelling aluminium{{efn\|Wöhler had previously used aluminium in 1824, when translating a paper by Jöns Jacob Berzelius from Swedish.<ref nameRichards1891/>}}, which caused that spelling's largely wholesale adoption in England and Germany, with the exception of a small number of what Richards characterized as "patriotic" English chemists that were "averse to foreign innovations" who occasionally still used aluminum.<ref nameRichards1891>{{cite journal\|journalJournal of the Franklin Institute\|volume131\|issue3\|seriesAmerican periodical series, 1800&ndash;1850\|publisherPergamon Press\|dateMarch 1891\|author1-firstJoseph W.\|author1-lastRichards\|titleThe Aluminium Problem\|pages190&ndash;191\|doi10.1016/0016-0032(91)90249-3}}</ref> Most scientists throughout the world used {{nowrap\|-ium}} in the 19th century;<ref name"OEDaluminium-usage" /> and it was entrenched in several other European languages, such as French, German, and Dutch.{{Efn\|Some European languages, like Spanish or Italian, use a different suffix from the Latin -um/-ium to form a name of a metal, some, like Polish or Czech, have a different base for the name of the element, and some, like Russian or Greek, do not use the Latin script altogether.\|name\|group=}} In 1828, an American lexicographer, Noah Webster, entered only the aluminum spelling in his American Dictionary of the English Language.<ref>{{Cite book\|urlhttp://webstersdictionary1828.com/Dictionary/aluminum\|titleAmerican Dictionary of the English Language\|lastWebster\|firstNoah\|year1828\|entryaluminum\|author-linkNoah Webster\|access-date13 November 2017\|archive-date13 November 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171113222259/http://webstersdictionary1828.com/Dictionary/aluminum\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In the 1830s, the {{nowrap\|-um}} spelling gained usage in the United States; by the 1860s, it had become the more common spelling there outside science.<ref name"Quinion2005">{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJs-PbsEjKSQC&pgPT23\|titlePort Out, Starboard Home: The Fascinating Stories We Tell About the words We Use\|lastQuinion\|firstMichael\|publisherPenguin Books Limited\|year2005\|isbn978-0-14-190904-2\|pages23–24}}</ref> In 1892, Hall used the {{nowrap\|-um}} spelling in his advertising handbill for his new electrolytic method of producing the metal, despite his constant use of the {{nowrap\|-ium}} spelling in all the patents he filed between 1886 and 1903. It is unknown whether this spelling was introduced by mistake or intentionally, but Hall preferred aluminum since its introduction because it resembled platinum, the name of a prestigious metal.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastKean\|firstS.\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqy40DwAAQBAJ&qaluminium+aluminum+hall+typo+spelling&pgPT120\|titleThe Disappearing Spoon: And Other True Tales of Rivalry, Adventure, and the History of the World from the Periodic Table of the Elements\|date2018\|publisherLittle, Brown Books for Young Readers\|isbn978-0-316-38825-2\|pages<!--the book does not use page numbers-->\|languageen\|chapterElements as money\|editionYoung Readers\|access-date14 January 2021\|archive-date15 April 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210415111942/https://books.google.com/books?idqy40DwAAQBAJ&qaluminium+aluminum+hall+typo+spelling&pgPT120\|url-statuslive}}</ref> By 1890, both spellings had been common in the United States, the {{nowrap\|-ium}} spelling being slightly more common; by 1895, the situation had reversed; by 1900, aluminum had become twice as common as aluminium; in the next decade, the {{nowrap\|-um}} spelling dominated American usage. In 1925, the American Chemical Society adopted this spelling.<ref name"OEDaluminium-usage" /> The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) adopted aluminium as the standard international name for the element in 1990.<ref name"Emsley2011" /> In 1993, they recognized aluminum as an acceptable variant;<ref name"Emsley2011">{{cite book\|lastEmsley\|firstJohn\|author-linkJohn Emsley\|titleNature's Building Blocks: An A–Z Guide to the Elements\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2EfYXzwPo3UC&pgPA24\|year2011\|publisherOUP Oxford\|isbn978-0-19-960563-7\|pages24–30\|access-date16 November 2017\|archive-date22 December 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191222070959/https://books.google.com/books?id2EfYXzwPo3UC&pgPA24\|url-statuslive}}</ref> the most recent 2005 edition of the IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry also acknowledges this spelling.<ref>{{Cite book\|urlhttps://www.iupac.org/fileadmin/user_upload/databases/Red_Book_2005.pdf\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141222172055/http://www.iupac.org/fileadmin/user_upload/databases/Red_Book_2005.pdf\|url-statusdead\|archive-date22 December 2014\|editor1-firstNeil G.\|editor1-lastConnelly\|editor2-firstTure\|editor2-lastDamhus\|titleNomenclature of inorganic chemistry. IUPAC Recommendations 2005\|publisherRSC Publishing\|year2005\|isbn978-0-85404-438-2\|page249}}</ref> IUPAC official publications use the {{nowrap\|-ium}} spelling as primary, and they list both where it is appropriate.{{efn\|For instance, see the November–December 2013 issue of Chemistry International: in a table of (some) elements, the element is listed as "aluminium (aluminum)".<ref>{{cite journal \|titleStandard Atomic Weights Revised\|author<!--none listed-->\|pages=17–18 \|url=https://www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2013/3506/nov13.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140211093133/http://www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2013/3506/nov13.pdf\|url-statusdead\|archive-date=11 February 2014 \|journalChemistry International\|volume35\|issue6\|issn0193-6484}}</ref>}} Production and refinement {{See also\|List of countries by primary aluminium production}} <div style="float: right; margin: 2px; font-size:85%; margin-left:18px; margin-bottom:18px> {\| class="wikitable sortable collapsible" \|+'''World's largest producing countries of aluminium, 2024'''<ref name="usgs"/> ! Country !! data-sort-type="number"\|Output<br />(thousand<br /> tons) \|- \| {{flagu\|China}} \|\| align="right"\|43,000 \|- \| {{flagu\|India}} \|\| align="right"\|4,200 \|- \| {{flagu\|Russia}} \|\| align="right"\|3,800 \|- \| {{flagu\|Canada}} \|\| align="right"\|3,300 \|- \| {{flagu\|United Arab Emirates}} \|\| align="right"\|2,700 \|- \| {{flagu\|Bahrain}} \|\| align="right"\|1,600 \|- \| {{flagu\|Australia}} \|\| align="right"\|1,500 \|- \| {{flagu\|Norway}} \|\| align="right"\|1,300 \|- \| {{flagu\|Brazil}} \|\| align="right"\|1,100 \|- \| {{flagu\|Malaysia}} \|\| align="right"\|870 \|- \| {{flagu\|Iceland}} \|\| align="right"\|780 \|- \| {{flagu\|United States}} \|\| align="right"\|670 \|- \| Other countries \|\| align="right"\|6,800 \|- \| Total \|\| align="right"\|72,000 \|} </div> The production of aluminium starts with the extraction of bauxite rock from the ground. The bauxite is processed and transformed using the Bayer process into alumina, which is then processed using the Hall–Héroult process, resulting in the final aluminium. Aluminium production is highly energy-consuming, and so the producers tend to locate smelters in places where electric power is both plentiful and inexpensive.<ref name"WMP">{{cite book\|urlhttp://www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/start.cfm?id1388\|titleWorld Mineral Production 2003–2007\|last1Brown\|first1T.J.\|date2009\|publisherBritish Geological Survey\|access-date1 December 2014\|archive-date13 July 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190713005219/http://www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/start.cfm%3Fid%3D1388\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Production of one&nbsp;kilogram of aluminium requires 7&nbsp;kilograms of oil energy equivalent, as compared to 1.5&nbsp;kilograms for steel and 2&nbsp;kilograms for plastic.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastLama \|firstF. \|titleWhy the West Can't Win: From Bretton Woods to a Multipolar World \|publisherClarity Press, Inc. \|year2023 \|isbn978-1-949762-74-7 \|pages19}}</ref> As of 2024, the world's largest producers of aluminium were China, Russia, India, Canada, and the United Arab Emirates,<ref name"usgs">{{Cite journal \|date2025 \|titleUSGS Minerals Information: Mineral Commodity Summaries \|urlhttps://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2025/mcs2025.pdf \|languageen \|doi10.3133/mcs2025 \|archive-url \|archive-date\|access-date2 April 2025 \|websiteminerals.usgs.gov \|author1National Minerals Information Center }}</ref> while China is by far the top producer of aluminium with a world share of over 55%. According to the International Resource Panel's Metal Stocks in Society report, the global per capita stock of aluminium in use in society (i.e. in cars, buildings, electronics, etc.) is {{convert\|80\|kg\|abbron}}. Much of this is in more-developed countries ({{convert\|350\|–\|500\|kg\|abbron}} per capita) rather than less-developed countries ({{convert\|35\|kg\|abbr=on}} per capita).<ref>{{cite report \|last1Graedel\|first1T.E.\|titleMetal stocks in Society&nbsp;– Scientific Synthesis\|year2010 \|url=http://www.unep.fr/shared/publications/pdf/DTIx1264xPA-Metal%20stocks%20in%20society.pdf \|isbn978-92-807-3082-1\|publisherInternational Resource Panel\|page17\|display-authorsetal<!--only mentions the lead author; others are not named-->\|access-date18 April 2017\|archive-date26 April 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180426184751/http://www.unep.fr/shared/publications/pdf/DTIx1264xPA-Metal%20stocks%20in%20society.pdf\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Bayer process {{Main\|Bayer process}} {{See also\|List of countries by bauxite production}} Bauxite is converted to alumina by the Bayer process. Bauxite is blended for uniform composition and then is grounded. The resulting slurry is mixed with a hot solution of sodium hydroxide; the mixture is then treated in a digester vessel at a pressure well above atmospheric, dissolving the aluminium hydroxide in bauxite while converting impurities into relatively insoluble compounds:<ref name="UllmannOxide" /> {{block indent\|Al(OH)<sub>3</sub> + Na<sup>+</sup> + OH<sup>−</sup> → Na<sup>+</sup> + [Al(OH)<sub>4</sub>]<sup>−</sup>}} After this reaction, the slurry is at a temperature above its atmospheric boiling point. It is cooled by removing steam as pressure is reduced. The bauxite residue is separated from the solution and discarded. The solution, free of solids, is seeded with small crystals of aluminium hydroxide; this causes decomposition of the [Al(OH)<sub>4</sub>]<sup>−</sup> ions to aluminium hydroxide. After about half of aluminium has precipitated, the mixture is sent to classifiers. Small crystals of aluminium hydroxide are collected to serve as seeding agents; coarse particles are converted to alumina by heating; the excess solution is removed by evaporation, (if needed) purified, and recycled.<ref name="UllmannOxide">{{Ullmann \|last1Hudson\|first1L. Keith\|last2Misra\|first2Chanakya\|last3Perrotta\|first3Anthony J.\|last4Wefers\|first4Karl\|last5Williams\|first5F.S.\|date=2005 \|publisherWiley-VCH\|titleAluminum Oxide\|display-authors3\|doi10.1002/14356007.a01_557}}</ref> Hall–Héroult process billets of aluminium]] {{Main\|Hall–Héroult process\|Aluminium smelting}} {{See also\|List of countries by aluminium oxide production}} The conversion of alumina to aluminium is achieved by the Hall–Héroult process. In this energy-intensive process, a solution of alumina in a molten ({{convert\|940\|and\|970\|C\|F}}) mixture of cryolite (Na<sub>3</sub>AlF<sub>6</sub>) with calcium fluoride is electrolyzed to produce metallic aluminium. The liquid aluminium sinks to the bottom of the solution and is tapped off, and usually cast into large blocks called aluminium billets for further processing.<ref name="Ullmann" /> Anodes of the electrolysis cell are made of carbon—the most resistant material against fluoride corrosion—and either bake at the process or are prebaked. The former, also called Söderberg anodes, are less power-efficient and fumes released during baking are costly to collect, which is why they are being replaced by prebaked anodes even though they save the power, energy, and labor to prebake the cathodes. Carbon for anodes should be preferably pure so that neither aluminium nor the electrolyte is contaminated with ash. Despite carbon's resistivity against corrosion, it is still consumed at a rate of 0.4–0.5&nbsp;kg per each kilogram of produced aluminium. Cathodes are made of anthracite; high purity for them is not required because impurities leach only very slowly. The cathode is consumed at a rate of 0.02–0.04&nbsp;kg per each kilogram of produced aluminium. A cell is usually terminated after 2–6 years following a failure of the cathode.<ref name="Ullmann" /> The Hall–Heroult process produces aluminium with a purity of above 99%. Further purification can be done by the Hoopes process. This process involves the electrolysis of molten aluminium with a sodium, barium, and aluminium fluoride electrolyte. The resulting aluminium has a purity of 99.99%.<ref name="Ullmann" /><ref>{{cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKpgTrFloOq0C&pgPA40\|titleHandbook of Aluminum\|last1Totten\|first1G.E.\|last2Mackenzie\|first2D.S.\|date=2003 \|publisherMarcel Dekker\|isbn978-0-8247-4843-2\|page=40 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160615132126/https://books.google.com/books?idKpgTrFloOq0C&pgPA40\|archive-date15 June 2016\|url-status=live}}</ref> Electric power represents about 20 to 40% of the cost of producing aluminium, depending on the location of the smelter. Aluminium production consumes roughly 5% of electricity generated in the United States.<ref name"Emsley2011" /> Because of this, alternatives to the Hall–Héroult process have been researched, but none has turned out to be economically feasible.<ref name"Ullmann" /> Recycling {{Main\|Aluminium recycling}} Recovery of the metal through recycling has become an important task of the aluminium industry. Recycling was a low-profile activity until the late 1960s, when the growing use of aluminium beverage cans brought it to public awareness.<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDtX1nbel49kC\|titleAluminum Recycling\|lastSchlesinger\|firstMark\|publisherCRC Press\|year2006\|isbn978-0-8493-9662-5\|page248\|access-date25 June 2018\|archive-date15 February 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170215051211/https://books.google.com/books?idDtX1nbel49kC\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Recycling involves melting the scrap, a process that requires only 5% of the energy used to produce aluminium from ore, though a significant part (up to 15% of the input material) is lost as dross (ash-like oxide).<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.dnr.state.oh.us/recycling/awareness/facts/benefits.htm\|titleBenefits of Recycling\|publisherOhio Department of Natural Resources\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20030624162738/http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/recycling/awareness/facts/benefits.htm\|archive-date24 June 2003\|url-statusdead}}</ref> An aluminium stack melter produces significantly less dross, with values reported below 1%.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.afsinc.org/files/best%20practice%20energy-schifo-radia-may%202004.pdf\|titleTheoretical/Best Practice Energy Use in Metalcasting Operations\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131031072356/http://www.afsinc.org/files/best%20practice%20energy-schifo-radia-may%202004.pdf\|archive-date31 October 2013\|url-statusdead\|access-date28 October 2013}}</ref> White dross from primary aluminium production and from secondary recycling operations still contains useful quantities of aluminium that can be extracted industrially. The process produces aluminium billets, together with a highly complex waste material. This waste is difficult to manage. It reacts with water, releasing a mixture of gases including, among others, acetylene,<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Manfredi \|first1O. \|last2Wuth \|first2W. \|last3Bohlinger \|first3I. \|dateNovember 1997 \|titleCharacterizing the physical and chemical properties of aluminum dross \|urlhttps://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11837-997-0012-9 \|journalJOM \|languageen \|volume49 \|issue11 \|page51 \|doi10.1007/s11837-997-0012-9 \|bibcode1997JOM....49k..48M \|issn1047-4838}}</ref> hydrogen sulfide and significant amounts of ammonia.<ref name drossgas>{{Cite journal \|last1Mahinroosta \|first1Mostafa \|last2Allahverdi \|first2Ali \|dateOctober 2018 \|titleHazardous aluminum dross characterization and recycling strategies: A critical review \|urlhttps://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0301479718307205 \|journalJournal of Environmental Management \|languageen \|volume223 \|pages457–458 \|doi10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.06.068\|pmid29957419 \|bibcode2018JEnvM.223..452M }}</ref> Despite these difficulties, the waste is used as a filler in asphalt and concrete.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://aggregain.wrap.org.uk/document.rm?id1753\|archive-urlhttp://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100402111522/http://www.wrap.org.uk/downloads/BRE_Added_value_study_report.4ca28919.1753.pdf\|url-statusdead\|archive-date2 April 2010\|titleAdded value of using new industrial waste streams as secondary aggregates in both concrete and asphalt\|last1Dunster\|first1A.M.\|date2005\|publisherWaste & Resources Action Programme\|display-authorsetal}}</ref> Its potential for hydrogen production has also been considered and researched.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1David \|first1E. \|last2Kopac \|first2J. \|dateMarch 2012 \|titleHydrolysis of aluminum dross material to achieve zero hazardous waste \|urlhttps://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0304389412000957 \|journalJournal of Hazardous Materials \|languageen \|volume209-210 \|pages501–509 \|doi10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.01.064\|pmid22326245 \|bibcode2012JHzM..209..501D }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Meshram \|first1Arunabh \|last2Jain \|first2Anant \|last3Rao \|first3Mudila Dhanunjaya \|last4Singh \|first4Kamalesh Kumar \|dateJuly 2019 \|titleFrom industrial waste to valuable products: preparation of hydrogen gas and alumina from aluminium dross \|urlhttp://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10163-019-00856-y \|journalJournal of Material Cycles and Waste Management \|languageen \|volume21 \|issue4 \|pages984–993 \|doi10.1007/s10163-019-00856-y \|bibcode2019JMCWM..21..984M \|issn1438-4957}}</ref> {{Clear}} Applications (c. 1951)]] Metal {{See also\|Aluminium alloy}} The global production of aluminium in 2016 was 58.8&nbsp;million metric tons. It exceeded that of any other metal except iron (1,231&nbsp;million metric tons).<ref name"BGS2018">{{cite book\|urlhttps://www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/start.cfm?id3396\|titleWorld Mineral Production: 2012–2016\|last1Brown\|first1T.J.\|last2Idoine\|first2N.E.\|last3Raycraft\|first3E.R.\|last4Shaw\|first4R.A.\|last5Hobbs\|first5S.F.\|last6Everett\|first6P.\|last7Deady\|first7E.A.\|last8Bide\|first8T.\|display-authors3\|date2018\|publisherBritish Geological Survey\|isbn978-0-85272-882-6\|access-date10 July 2018\|archive-date16 May 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200516174440/https://www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/directDownload.cfm?id3396&noexcltrue&tWorld%20Mineral%20Production%202012%20to%202016\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia\|titleAluminum\|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica\|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/17944/aluminum-Al\|access-date6 March 2012\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120312125740/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/17944/aluminum-Al\|archive-date12 March 2012\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Aluminium is almost always alloyed, which markedly improves its mechanical properties, especially when tempered. For example, the common aluminium foils and beverage cans are alloys of 92% to 99% aluminium.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Aluminum-Foil.html\|titleAluminum Foil\|last1Millberg\|first1L.S.\|websiteHow Products are Made\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070713102210/http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Aluminum-Foil.html\|archive-date13 July 2007\|url-statuslive\|volume1\|access-date11 August 2007}}</ref> The main alloying agents are copper, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and silicon (e.g., duralumin) with the levels of other metals in a few percent by weight.<ref>{{cite book\|titleUllmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry\|last1Lyle\|first1J.P.\|last2Granger\|first2D.A.\|last3Sanders\|first3R.E.\|date2005\|publisherWiley-VCH\|chapterAluminum Alloys\|doi10.1002/14356007.a01_481\|title-linkUllmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry\|isbn978-3-527-30673-2}}</ref> Aluminium, both wrought and cast, has been alloyed with: manganese, silicon, magnesium, copper and zinc among others.<ref name"ross13">{{cite book \|last1Ross\|first1R.B.\|titleMetallic Materials Specification Handbook\|date2013 \|publisherSpringer Science & Business Media\|isbn9781461534822 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idv171BwAAQBAJ\|access-date=3 June 2021 \|archive-date11 June 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210611060734/https://books.google.com/books?idv171BwAAQBAJ\|url-statuslive}}</ref> ]] The major uses for aluminium are in:{{sfn\|Davis\|1999\|pp=17–24}} * Transportation (automobiles, aircraft, trucks, railway cars, marine vessels, bicycles, spacecraft, etc.). Aluminium is used because of its low density; * Packaging (cans, foil, frame, etc.). Aluminium is used because it is non-toxic (see below), non-adsorptive, and splinter-proof; * Building and construction (windows, doors, siding, building wire, sheathing, roofing, etc.). Since steel is cheaper, aluminium is used when lightness, corrosion resistance, or engineering features are important; * Electricity-related uses (conductor alloys, motors, and generators, transformers, capacitors, etc.). Aluminium is used because it is relatively cheap, highly conductive, has adequate mechanical strength and low density, and resists corrosion; * A wide range of household items, from cooking utensils to furniture. Low density, good appearance, ease of fabrication, and durability are the key factors of aluminium usage; * Machinery and equipment (processing equipment, pipes, tools). Aluminium is used because of its corrosion resistance, non-pyrophoricity, and mechanical strength. Compounds The great majority (about 90%) of aluminium oxide is converted to metallic aluminium.<ref name"UllmannOxide" /> Being a very hard material (Mohs hardness 9),<ref name"Lumley2010">{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idmXpwAgAAQBAJ&pgPA42\|titleFundamentals of Aluminium Metallurgy: Production, Processing and Applications\|lastLumley\|firstRoger\|publisherElsevier Science\|year2010\|isbn978-0-85709-025-6\|page42\|access-date13 July 2018\|archive-date22 December 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191222153110/https://books.google.com/books?idmXpwAgAAQBAJ&pgPA42\|url-statuslive}}</ref> alumina is widely used as an abrasive;<ref name"Mortensen2006">{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idzs_lGeGsuaAC&pgPA281\|titleConcise Encyclopedia of Composite Materials\|lastMortensen\|firstAndreas\|publisherElsevier\|year2006\|isbn978-0-08-052462-7\|page281\|access-date13 July 2018\|archive-date20 December 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191220232017/https://books.google.com/books?idzs_lGeGsuaAC&pgPA281\|url-statuslive}}</ref> being extraordinarily chemically inert, it is useful in highly reactive environments such as high pressure sodium lamps.<ref name"Japan2012">{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idy8NNHruBKVQC&pgPA541\|titleAdvanced Ceramic Technologies & Products\|authorThe Ceramic Society of Japan\|year2012\|publisherSpringer Science & Business Media\|isbn978-4-431-54108-0\|page541\|access-date13 July 2018\|archive-date29 November 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191129220847/https://books.google.com/books?idy8NNHruBKVQC&pgPA541\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Aluminium oxide is commonly used as a catalyst for industrial processes;<ref name"UllmannOxide" /> e.g. the Claus process to convert hydrogen sulfide to sulfur in refineries and to alkylate amines.<ref name"Slesser1988">{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkUOvCwAAQBAJ&pgPA138\|titleDictionary of Energy\|lastSlesser\|firstMalcolm\|publisherPalgrave Macmillan UK\|year1988\|isbn978-1-349-19476-6\|page138\|access-date13 July 2018\|archive-date11 June 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210611060750/https://books.google.com/books?idkUOvCwAAQBAJ&pgPA138\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Supp2013">{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvi3wCAAAQBAJ&pgPA165\|titleHow to Produce Methanol from Coal\|lastSupp\|firstEmil\|publisherSpringer Science & Business Media\|year2013\|isbn978-3-662-00895-9\|pages164–165\|access-date13 July 2018\|archive-date26 December 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191226154639/https://books.google.com/books?idvi3wCAAAQBAJ&pgPA165\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Many industrial catalysts are supported by alumina, meaning that the expensive catalyst material is dispersed over a surface of the inert alumina.<ref name"ErtlKnözinger2008">{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idev47CMLmM2sC&pgPA80\|titlePreparation of Solid Catalysts\|last1Ertl\|first1Gerhard\|last2Knözinger\|first2Helmut\|last3Weitkamp\|first3Jens\|year2008\|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons\|isbn978-3-527-62068-5\|page80\|access-date13 July 2018\|archive-date24 December 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191224115243/https://books.google.com/books?idev47CMLmM2sC&pgPA80\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Another principal use is as a drying agent or absorbent.<ref name"UllmannOxide" /><ref name"ArmaregoChai2009">{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPTXyS7Yj6zUC&pgPA155\|titlePurification of Laboratory Chemicals\|last1Armarego\|first1W.L.F.\|last2Chai\|first2Christina\|year2009\|publisherButterworth-Heinemann\|isbn978-0-08-087824-9\|pages73, 109, 116, 155\|access-date13 July 2018\|archive-date22 December 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191222155719/https://books.google.com/books?idPTXyS7Yj6zUC&pgPA155\|url-status=live}}</ref> Several sulfates of aluminium have industrial and commercial application. Aluminium sulfate (in its hydrate form) is produced on the annual scale of several millions of metric tons.<ref name"UllmannInorganic">{{cite book\|titleUllmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry\|lastHelmboldt\|firstO.\|date2007\|publisherWiley-VCH\|chapterAluminum Compounds, Inorganic\|doi10.1002/14356007.a01_527.pub2\|title-linkUllmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry\|pages1–17 \|isbn978-3-527-30673-2}}</ref> About two-thirds is consumed in water treatment.<ref name"UllmannInorganic" /> The next major application is in the manufacture of paper.<ref name"UllmannInorganic" /> It is also used as a mordant in dyeing, in pickling seeds, deodorizing of mineral oils, in leather tanning, and in production of other aluminium compounds.<ref name"UllmannInorganic" /> Two kinds of alum, ammonium alum and potassium alum, were formerly used as mordants and in leather tanning, but their use has significantly declined following availability of high-purity aluminium sulfate.<ref name"UllmannInorganic" /> Anhydrous aluminium chloride is used as a catalyst in chemical and petrochemical industries, the dyeing industry, and in synthesis of various inorganic and organic compounds.<ref name"UllmannInorganic" /> Aluminium hydroxychlorides are used in purifying water, in the paper industry, and as antiperspirants.<ref name"UllmannInorganic" /> Sodium aluminate is used in treating water and as an accelerator of solidification of cement.<ref name"UllmannInorganic" /> Many aluminium compounds have niche applications, for example: * Aluminium acetate in solution is used as an astringent.<ref name="WHO Formulary 2008">{{cite book \|titleWHO Model Formulary 2008\|year2009\|vauthors((World Health Organization))\|veditorsStuart MC, Kouimtzi M, Hill SR \|isbn9789241547659\|hdl10665/44053\|author-linkWorld Health Organization\|publisherWorld Health Organization\|hdl-access=free}}</ref> * Aluminium phosphate is used in the manufacture of glass, ceramic, pulp and paper products, cosmetics, paints, varnishes, and in dental cement.<ref>{{Cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idueRsAAAAMAAJ&qAluminium+phosphate+used+in+the+manufacture+of+glass,+ceramic,+pulp+and+paper+products,+cosmetics,+paints,+varnishes,+and+in+dental+cement.\|titleOccupational Skin Disease\|date1983\|publisherGrune & Stratton\|isbn978-0-8089-1494-5\|languageen\|access-date14 June 2017\|archive-date15 April 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210415120754/https://books.google.com/books?idueRsAAAAMAAJ&qAluminium+phosphate+used+in+the+manufacture+of+glass,+ceramic,+pulp+and+paper+products,+cosmetics,+paints,+varnishes,+and+in+dental+cement.\|url-statuslive}}</ref> * Aluminium hydroxide is used as an antacid, and mordant; it is used also in water purification, the manufacture of glass and ceramics, and in the waterproofing of fabrics.<ref>{{cite book\|titleFundamentals of pharmacology: a text for nurses and health professionals\|author1Galbraith, A\|author2Bullock, S\|author3Manias, E\|author4Hunt, B\|author5Richards, A\|publisherPearson\|year1999\|locationHarlow\|pages482}}</ref><ref name"papich">{{Cite book\|titleSaunders Handbook of Veterinary Drugs\|lastPapich\|firstMark G.\|date2007\|publisherSaunders/Elsevier\|isbn978-1-4160-2888-8\|edition2nd\|locationSt. Louis, Mo\|pages15–16\|chapter=Aluminum Hydroxide and Aluminum Carbonate}}</ref> * Lithium aluminium hydride is a powerful reducing agent used in organic chemistry.<ref>{{Citation\|lastBrown\|firstWeldon G.\|titleReductions by Lithium Aluminum Hydride\|date15 March 2011\|urlhttp://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/0471264180.or006.10\|workOrganic Reactions\|pages469–510\|editor-lastJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc.\|placeHoboken, NJ, USA\|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc.\|languageen\|doi10.1002/0471264180.or006.10\|isbn978-0-471-26418-7\|access-date22 May 2021\|archive-date11 June 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210611060736/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/0471264180.or006.10\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia\|year2007\|titleLithium Aluminium Hydride\|encyclopediaSASOL Encyclopaedia of Science and Technology\|publisherNew Africa Books\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1wS3aWR5SO4C&pgPA143\|page143\|isbn978-1-86928-384-1\|author1Gerrans, G.C.\|author2Hartmann-Petersen, P.\|access-date6 September 2017\|archive-date23 August 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170823221511/https://books.google.com/books?id1wS3aWR5SO4C&pgPA143\|url-statuslive}}</ref> * Organoaluminiums are used as Lewis acids and co-catalysts.<ref>{{cite journal\|author1M. Witt\|author2H.W. Roesky\|year2000\|titleOrganoaluminum chemistry at the forefront of research and development\|urlhttp://tejas.serc.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/feb252000/NMC2.pdf\|journalCurr. Sci.\|volume78\|issue4\|pages410\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141006124655/http://tejas.serc.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/feb252000/NMC2.pdf\|archive-date6 October 2014}}</ref> * Methylaluminoxane is a co-catalyst for Ziegler–Natta olefin polymerization to produce vinyl polymers such as polyethene.<ref>{{cite journal\|author1A. Andresen\|author2H.G. Cordes\|author3J. Herwig\|author4W. Kaminsky\|author5A. Merck\|author6R. Mottweiler\|author7J. Pein\|author8H. Sinn\|author9H.J. Vollmer\|year1976\|titleHalogen-free Soluble Ziegler-Catalysts for the Polymerization of Ethylene\|journalAngew. Chem. Int. Ed.\|volume15\|issue10\|pages630–632\|doi10.1002/anie.197606301}}</ref> * Aqueous aluminium ions (such as aqueous aluminium sulfate) are used to treat against fish parasites such as Gyrodactylus salaris.<ref name"AasKlemetsen2011">{{cite book\|last1Aas\|first1Øystein\|last2Klemetsen\|first2Anders\|last3Einum\|first3Sigurd\|last4Skurdal\|first4Jostein\|display-authors3\|titleAtlantic Salmon Ecology\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9lMZnUdUGZUC&pgPA240\|year2011\|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons\|isbn978-1-4443-4819-4\|page240\|access-date14 July 2018\|archive-date21 December 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191221202430/https://books.google.com/books?id9lMZnUdUGZUC&pgPA240\|url-statuslive}}</ref> * In many vaccines, certain aluminium salts serve as an immune adjuvant (immune response booster) to allow the protein in the vaccine to achieve sufficient potency as an immune stimulant.<ref name"Singh2007">{{cite book\|lastSingh\|firstManmohan\|titleVaccine Adjuvants and Delivery Systems\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7QKRrTPwuDYC&pgPA112\|year2007\|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons\|isbn978-0-470-13492-4\|pages81–109\|access-date14 July 2018\|archive-date20 December 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191220055221/https://books.google.com/books?id7QKRrTPwuDYC&pgPA112\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Until 2004, most of the adjuvants used in vaccines were aluminium-adjuvanted.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Lindblad \|first1Erik B \|titleAluminium compounds for use in vaccines \|journalImmunology & Cell Biology \|dateOctober 2004 \|volume82 \|issue5 \|pages497–505 \|doi10.1111/j.0818-9641.2004.01286.x\|pmid15479435 \|s2cid21284189 }}</ref> Biology Despite its widespread occurrence in the Earth's crust, aluminium has no known function in biology.<ref name"Ullmann" /> At pH 6–9 (relevant for most natural waters), aluminium precipitates out of water as the hydroxide and is hence not available; most elements behaving this way have no biological role or are toxic.<ref name"wou">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.wou.edu/las/physci/ch412/natwater.htm\|websiteWestern Oregon University \|title=Environmental Applications. Part I. Common Forms of the Elements in Water \|publisherWestern Oregon University\|access-date30 September 2019 \|archive-date11 December 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181211082553/http://www.wou.edu/las/physci/ch412/natwater.htm\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Aluminium sulfate has an LD<sub>50</sub> of 6207&nbsp;mg/kg (oral, mouse), which corresponds to 435 grams (about one pound) for a {{convert\|70\|kg\|abbron}} mouse. Toxicity Aluminium is classified as a non-carcinogen by the United States Department of Health and Human Services.<ref name"Piero3">{{cite journal\|lastDolara\|firstPiero\|date21 July 2014\|titleOccurrence, exposure, effects, recommended intake and possible dietary use of selected trace compounds (aluminium, bismuth, cobalt, gold, lithium, nickel, silver)\|journalInternational Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition\|volume65\|issue8\|pages911–924\|doi10.3109/09637486.2014.937801\|issn1465-3478\|pmid25045935\|s2cid43779869}}</ref>{{efn\|While aluminium per se is not carcinogenic, Söderberg aluminium production is, as is noted by the International Agency for Research on Cancer,<ref name"worldcat">{{Cite book\|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/11527472\|titlePolynuclear aromatic compounds. part 3, Industrial exposures in aluminium production, coal gasification, coke production, and iron and steel founding.\|date1984\|publisherInternational Agency for Research on Cancer \|isbn92-832-1534-6\|oclc11527472\|pages51–59\|access-date7 January 2021\|archive-date11 June 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210611060739/https://www.worldcat.org/title/polynuclear-aromatic-compounds-part-3-industrial-exposures-in-aluminium-production-coal-gasification-coke-production-and-iron-and-steel-founding/oclc/11527472\|url-statuslive}}</ref> likely due to exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Wesdock\|first1J. C.\|last2Arnold\|first2I. M. F.\|date2014\|titleOccupational and Environmental Health in the Aluminum Industry\|url \|journalJournal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine\|languageen-US\|volume56\|issue5 Suppl\|pagesS5–S11\|doi10.1097/JOM.0000000000000071\|pmid24806726\|pmc4131940\|issn1076-2752}}</ref>}} A review published in 1988 said that there was little evidence that normal exposure to aluminium presents a risk to healthy adult,<ref name"gitelman88">{{cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idwRnOytsi8boC&pgPA90 \|titlePhysiology of Aluminum in Man \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160519101650/https://books.google.com/books?idwRnOytsi8boC&pgPA90\|archive-date19 May 2016 \|seriesAluminum and Health \|publisherCRC Press \|year1988 \|isbn0-8247-8026-4 \|page90 }}</ref> and a 2014 multi-element toxicology review was unable to find deleterious effects of aluminium consumed in amounts not greater than 40&nbsp;mg/day per kg of body mass.<ref name"Piero3" /> Most aluminium consumed will leave the body in feces; most of the small part of it that enters the bloodstream, will be excreted via urine;<ref name"atsdr">{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/phs/phs.asp?id1076&tid34\|titlePublic Health Statement: Aluminum\|websiteATSDR \|languageen\|access-date18 July 2018\|archive-date12 December 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161212212014/https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/phs/phs.asp?id1076&tid34\|url-statuslive}}</ref> nevertheless some aluminium does pass the blood-brain barrier and is lodged preferentially in the brains of Alzheimer's patients.<ref name"xu92">{{cite journal \|pmid1302300\|year1992\|last1Xu\|first1N.\|last2Majidi\|first2V.\|last3Markesbery\|first3W. R.\|last4Ehmann\|first4W. D.\|titleBrain aluminum in Alzheimer's disease using an improved GFAAS method\|journalNeurotoxicology\|volume13\|issue4\|pages735–743}}</ref><ref name"yumoto09">{{cite journal \|titleDemonstration of aluminum in amyloid fibers in the cores of senile plaques in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease\|year2009 \|last1Yumoto\|first1Sakae\|last2Kakimi\|first2Shigeo\|last3Ohsaki\|first3Akihiro\|last4Ishikawa\|first4Akira \|journalJournal of Inorganic Biochemistry\|volume103\|issue11\|pages1579–1584\|pmid19744735\|doi10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2009.07.023}} </ref> Evidence published in 1989 indicates that, for Alzheimer's patients, aluminium may act by electrostatically crosslinking proteins, thus down-regulating genes in the superior temporal gyrus.<ref name="mclachlan15">{{cite journal \|doi10.1017/S0317167100029826\|titleNew Evidence for an Active Role of Aluminum in Alzheimer's Disease\|year1989\|last1Crapper Mclachlan\|first1D.R.\|last2Lukiw\|first2W.J.\|last3Kruck\|first3T.P.A.\|journalCanadian Journal of Neurological Sciences\|volume16\|issue4 Suppl\|pages490–497\|pmid2680008\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Effects Aluminium, although rarely, can cause vitamin D-resistant osteomalacia, erythropoietin-resistant microcytic anemia, and central nervous system alterations. People with kidney insufficiency are especially at a risk.<ref name"Piero3" /> Chronic ingestion of hydrated aluminium silicates (for excess gastric acidity control) may result in aluminium binding to intestinal contents and increased elimination of other metals, such as iron or zinc; sufficiently high doses (>50 g/day) can cause anemia.<ref name="Piero3" /> through five major routes: (1) paracellular; (2) transcellular; (3) active transport; (4) channels; (5) adsorptive or receptor-mediated endocytosis.<ref name="health1" />]] During the 1988 Camelford water pollution incident people in Camelford had their drinking water contaminated with aluminium sulfate for several weeks. A final report into the incident in 2013 concluded it was unlikely that this had caused long-term health problems.<ref>{{cite web \|title=Lowermoor Water Pollution incident "unlikely" to have caused long term health effects \|publisherCommittee on Toxicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and the Environment\|date18 April 2013 \|urlhttps://cot.food.gov.uk/sites/default/files/cot/cotpnlwpirv2.pdf\|access-date21 December 2019\|url-status=live \|archive-date21 December 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191221033817/https://cot.food.gov.uk/sites/default/files/cot/cotpnlwpirv2.pdf}}</ref> Aluminium has been suspected of being a possible cause of Alzheimer's disease,<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastTomljenovic\|firstLucija\|date21 March 2011\|titleAluminum and Alzheimer's Disease: After a Century of Controversy, Is there a Plausible Link?\|urlhttps://www.medra.org/servlet/aliasResolver?aliasiospress&doi10.3233/JAD-2010-101494\|journalJournal of Alzheimer's Disease\|volume23\|issue4\|pages567–598\|doi10.3233/JAD-2010-101494\|pmid21157018\|access-date11 June 2021\|archive-date11 June 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210611060821/https://content.iospress.com/articles/journal-of-alzheimers-disease/jad101494\|url-statuslive}}</ref> but research into this for over 40 years has found, {{as of\|2018\|lcyes}}, no good evidence of causal effect.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAluminum and dementia: Is there a link?\|date24 August 2018 \|publisher=Alzheimer Society Canada \|urlhttps://alzheimer.ca/en/Home/About-dementia/Alzheimer-s-disease/Risk-factors/Aluminum\|access-date21 December 2019\|url-status=live \|archive-date21 December 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191221040250/https://alzheimer.ca/en/Home/About-dementia/Alzheimer-s-disease/Risk-factors/Aluminum}} </ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Santibáñez\|first1Miguel\|last2Bolumar\|first2Francisco\|last3García\|first3Ana M\|date2007\|titleOccupational risk factors in Alzheimer's disease: a review assessing the quality of published epidemiological studies\|journalOccupational and Environmental Medicine\|volume64\|issue11\|pages723–732\|doi10.1136/oem.2006.028209\|issn1351-0711\|pmc2078415\|pmid17525096}}</ref> Aluminium increases estrogen-related gene expression in human breast cancer cells cultured in the laboratory.<ref>{{cite journal \|titleMetalloestrogens: an emerging class of inorganic xenoestrogens with potential to add to the oestrogenic burden of the human breast\|date2006 \|last1Darbre\|first1P.D. \|journalJournal of Applied Toxicology\|volume26\|pages191–197\|pmid16489580\|issue3\|s2cid26291680\|doi=10.1002/jat.1135}} </ref> In very high doses, aluminium is associated with altered function of the blood–brain barrier.<ref>{{cite journal \|authorBanks, W.A.\|date1989\|titleAluminum-induced neurotoxicity: alterations in membrane function at the blood–brain barrier\|last2Kastin\|first2=A.J. \|journalNeurosci Biobehav Rev\|volume13\|issue1\|pages47–53\|doi10.1016/S0149-7634(89)80051-X\|pmid2671833\|s2cid=46507895}} </ref> A small percentage of people<ref name="BinghamCohrssen2012">{{cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1mk3lFVtBSQC&pgPA244\|titlePatty's Toxicology, 6 Volume Set\|last1Bingham\|first1Eula\|last2Cohrssen\|first2Barbara\|year2012\|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons\|isbn978-0-470-41081-3\|page244\|access-date23 July 2018\|archive-date20 December 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191220172223/https://books.google.com/books?id1mk3lFVtBSQC&pgPA244\|url-statuslive}}</ref> have contact allergies to aluminium and experience itchy red rashes, headache, muscle pain, joint pain, poor memory, insomnia, depression, asthma, irritable bowel syndrome, or other symptoms upon contact with products containing aluminium.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://allergy-symptoms.org/aluminum-allergy/\|titleAluminum Allergy Symptoms and Diagnosis\|date20 September 2016\|workAllergy-symptoms.org\|access-date=23 July 2018 \|languageen-US\|archive-date23 July 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180723152243/https://allergy-symptoms.org/aluminum-allergy/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Exposure to powdered aluminium or aluminium welding fumes can cause pulmonary fibrosis.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1al-Masalkhi\|first1A.\|last2Walton\|first2S.P.\|date1994\|titlePulmonary fibrosis and occupational exposure to aluminum\|journalThe Journal of the Kentucky Medical Association\|volume92\|issue2\|pages59–61\|issn0023-0294\|pmid8163901}}</ref> Fine aluminium powder can ignite or explode, posing another workplace hazard.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0022.html\|titleCDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Aluminum\|websitewww.cdc.gov\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150530203735/http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0022.html\|archive-date30 May 2015\|url-statuslive\|access-date11 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0023.html\|titleCDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Aluminum (pyro powders and welding fumes, as Al)\|websitewww.cdc.gov\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150530205127/http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0023.html\|archive-date30 May 2015\|url-statuslive\|access-date11 June 2015}}</ref> Exposure routes Food is the main source of aluminium. Drinking water contains more aluminium than solid food;<ref name"Piero3" /> however, aluminium in food may be absorbed more than aluminium from water.<ref name"Yokel2008">{{cite journal\|authorYokel R.A.\|author2Hicks C.L.\|author3Florence R.L.\|date2008\|titleAluminum bioavailability from basic sodium aluminum phosphate, an approved food additive emulsifying agent, incorporated in cheese\|journalFood and Chemical Toxicology\|volume46\|issue6\|pages2261–2266\|doi10.1016/j.fct.2008.03.004\|pmc2449821\|pmid18436363}}</ref> Major sources of human oral exposure to aluminium include food (due to its use in food additives, food and beverage packaging, and cooking utensils), drinking water (due to its use in municipal water treatment), and aluminium-containing medications (particularly antacid/antiulcer and buffered aspirin formulations).<ref>{{Cite report\|authorUnited States Department of Health and Human Services\|urlhttp://abcmt.org/tp22.pdf\|titleToxicological profile for aluminum\|date1999\|access-date3 August 2018\|archive-date9 May 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200509192819/http://abcmt.org/tp22.pdf\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Dietary exposure in Europeans averages to 0.2–1.5&nbsp;mg/kg/week but can be as high as 2.3&nbsp;mg/kg/week.<ref name"Piero3" /> Higher exposure levels of aluminium are mostly limited to miners, aluminium production workers, and dialysis patients.{{cn\|dateMarch 2025}} Consumption of antacids, antiperspirants, vaccines, and cosmetics provide possible routes of exposure.<ref name"ChenThyssen2018">{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhKlVDwAAQBAJ&pgPA333\|titleMetal Allergy: From Dermatitis to Implant and Device Failure\|last1Chen\|first1Jennifer K.\|last2Thyssen\|first2Jacob P.\|publisherSpringer\|year2018\|isbn978-3-319-58503-1\|page333\|access-date23 July 2018\|archive-date26 December 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191226141303/https://books.google.com/books?idhKlVDwAAQBAJ&pgPA333\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Consumption of acidic foods or liquids with aluminium enhances aluminium absorption,<ref>{{cite journal\|authorSlanina, P.\|last2French\|first2W.\|last3Ekström\|first3L.G.\|last4Lööf\|first4L.\|last5Slorach\|first5S.\|last6Cedergren\|first6A.\|date1986\|titleDietary citric acid enhances absorption of aluminum in antacids\|journalClinical Chemistry\|volume32\|issue3\|pages539–541\|pmid3948402\|doi10.1093/clinchem/32.3.539}}</ref> and maltol has been shown to increase the accumulation of aluminium in nerve and bone tissues.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Van Ginkel\|first1M.F.\|last2Van Der Voet\|first2G.B.\|last3D'haese\|first3P.C.\|last4De Broe\|first4M.E.\|last5De Wolff\|first5F.A.\|date1993\|titleEffect of citric acid and maltol on the accumulation of aluminum in rat brain and bone\|journalThe Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine\|volume121\|issue3\|pages453–460\|pmid8445293}}</ref> Treatment In case of suspected sudden intake of a large amount of aluminium, the only treatment is deferoxamine mesylate which may be given to help eliminate aluminium from the body by chelation therapy.<ref name"Toxicity">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.arltma.com/Articles/AlumToxDoc.htm\|titleARL: Aluminum Toxicity\|websitewww.arltma.com\|access-date24 July 2018\|archive-date31 August 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190831154809/http://www.arltma.com/Articles/AlumToxDoc.htm\|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>[http://www.med.nyu.edu/content?ChunkIID164929 Aluminum Toxicity] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140203055539/http://www.med.nyu.edu/content?ChunkIID164929\|date3 February 2014}} from NYU Langone Medical Center. Last reviewed November 2012 by Igor Puzanov, MD</ref> However, this should be applied with caution as this reduces not only aluminium body levels, but also those of other metals such as copper or iron.<ref name"Toxicity" /> Environmental effects " storage facility in Stade, Germany. The aluminium industry generates about 70 million tons of this waste annually.]] High levels of aluminium occur near mining sites; small amounts of aluminium are released to the environment at coal-fired power plants or incinerators.<ref name"atsdr"/> Aluminium in the air is washed out by the rain or normally settles down but small particles of aluminium remain in the air for a long time.<ref name"atsdr" /> Acidic precipitation is the main natural factor to mobilize aluminium from natural sources<ref name"Piero3" /> and the main reason for the environmental effects of aluminium;<ref name"RosselandEldhuset1990">{{cite journal\|last1Rosseland\|first1B.O.\|last2Eldhuset\|first2T.D.\|last3Staurnes\|first3M.\|year1990\|titleEnvironmental effects of aluminium\|journalEnvironmental Geochemistry and Health\|volume12\|issue1–2\|pages17–27\|doi10.1007/BF01734045\|pmid24202562\|bibcode1990EnvGH..12...17R \|s2cid23714684\|issn0269-4042}}</ref> however, the main factor of presence of aluminium in salt and freshwater are the industrial processes that also release aluminium into air.<ref name"Piero3" /> In water, aluminium acts as a toxiс agent on gill-breathing animals such as fish when the water is acidic, in which aluminium may precipitate on gills,<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Baker\|first1Joan P.\|last2Schofield\|first2Carl L.\|date1982\|titleAluminum toxicity to fish in acidic waters\|urlhttp://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF02419419\|journalWater, Air, and Soil Pollution\|languageen\|volume18\|issue1–3\|pages289–309\|doi10.1007/BF02419419\|bibcode1982WASP...18..289B\|s2cid98363768\|issn0049-6979\|access-date27 December 2020\|archive-date11 June 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210611060738/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02419419\|url-statuslive}}</ref> which causes loss of plasma- and hemolymph ions leading to osmoregulatory failure.<ref name"RosselandEldhuset1990" /> Organic complexes of aluminium may be easily absorbed and interfere with metabolism in mammals and birds, even though this rarely happens in practice.<ref name"RosselandEldhuset1990" /> Aluminium is primary among the factors that reduce plant growth on acidic soils. Although it is generally harmless to plant growth in pH-neutral soils, in acid soils the concentration of toxic Al<sup>3+</sup> cations increases and disturbs root growth and function.<ref>{{cite journal \|title=Effect of aluminum on δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALA-D) and the development of cucumber (Cucumis sativus) \|first1Luciane\|last1Belmonte Pereira \|first2Luciane\|last2Aimed Tabaldi \|first3Jamile\|last3Fabbrin Gonçalves \|first4Gladis Oliveira\|last4Jucoski \|first5Mareni Maria\|last5Pauletto \|first6Simone\|last6Nardin Weis \|first7Fernando\|last7Texeira Nicoloso \|first8Denise\|last8 Brother \|first9João\|last9Batista Teixeira Rocha \|first10Maria Rosa Chitolina\|last10Chitolina Schetinger \|journalEnvironmental and Experimental Botany\|volume57\|issue1–2\|pages106–115\|date2006\|doi 10.1016/j.envexpbot.2005.05.004\|bibcode=2006EnvEB..57..106P }} </ref><ref>{{cite journal \|titleToxicity and tolerance of aluminium in vascular plants\|firstMaud\|last=Andersson \|journalWater, Air, & Soil Pollution\|volume39\|issue3–4\|pages439–462\|date=1988 \|urlhttps://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00279487\|url-statuslive \|doi10.1007/BF00279487\|bibcode1988WASP...39..439A\|s2cid82896081\|access-date28 February 2020 \|archive-date28 February 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200228160931/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00279487}} </ref><ref>{{cite journal \|title=The role of the apoplast in aluminium toxicity and resistance of higher plants: A review \|firstWalter J.\|lastHorst \|journalZeitschrift für Pflanzenernährung und Bodenkunde\|volume158\|issue5\|pages419–428\|date1995\|doi10.1002/jpln.19951580503}} </ref><ref>{{cite journal \|title = Aluminium tolerance in plants and the complexing role of organic acids \|first1 = Jian Feng \|last1 = Ma \|journal = Trends in Plant Science \|volume = 6 \|issue = 6 \|pages = 273–278 \|date = 2001 \|doi = 10.1016/S1360-1385(01)01961-6 \|pmid = 11378470 \|last2 = Ryan \|first2 = P.R. \|last3 = Delhaize \|first3 E.\|bibcode 2001TPS.....6..273M }} </ref> Wheat has developed a tolerance to aluminium, releasing organic compounds that bind to harmful aluminium cations. Sorghum is believed to have the same tolerance mechanism.<ref>{{cite journal \|title = Comparative Mapping of a Major Aluminum Tolerance Gene in Sorghum and Other Species in the Poaceae \|first8 L.V.\|last8 Kochian \|first7 L.\|last7 Li \|first6 R.E.\|last6 Schaffert \|first5 P.E.\|last5 Klein \|first4 M.E.\|last4 Sorrells\|first3 Y.\|last3 Wang\|first2 D.F.\|last2 Garvin\|author = Magalhaes, J.V. \|journal Genetics\|volume 167\| issue 4\|date 2004\|pmid 15342528\|pmc 1471010\|doi 10.1534/genetics.103.023580\|pages 1905–1914}}</ref> Aluminium production possesses its own challenges to the environment on each step of the production process. The major challenge is the emission of greenhouse gases. These gases result from electrical consumption of the smelters and the byproducts of processing.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Saevarsdottir \|first1Gudrun \|last2Kvande \|first2Halvor \|last3Welch \|first3Barry J. \|date2020 \|titleAluminum Production in the Times of Climate Change: The Global Challenge to Reduce the Carbon Footprint and Prevent Carbon Leakage \|urlhttp://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11837-019-03918-6 \|journalJOM \|languageen \|volume72 \|issue1 \|pages296–308 \|doi10.1007/s11837-019-03918-6 \|issn1047-4838}}</ref> The most potent of these gases are perfluorocarbons, namely CF<sub>4</sub> and C<sub>2</sub>F<sub>6</sub>, from the smelting process.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastAbrahamson \|firstDean \|date1992 \|titleAluminium and global warming \|urlhttps://www.nature.com/articles/356484a0 \|journalNature \|languageen \|volume356 \|issue6369 \|pages484 \|doi10.1038/356484a0 \|bibcode1992Natur.356..484A \|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> Biodegradation of metallic aluminium is extremely rare; most aluminium-corroding organisms do not directly attack or consume the aluminium, but instead produce corrosive wastes.<ref>{{cite web\|publisherDuncan Aviation \|titleFuel System Contamination & Starvation \|date2011 \|urlhttp://www.duncanaviation.aero/intelligence/201102/fuel_starvation_system_contamination.php \|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150225051128/http://www.duncanaviation.aero/intelligence/201102/fuel_starvation_system_contamination.php \|archive-date25 February 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|quoteA Geotrichum-type arthroconidial fungus was isolated by the authors from a deteriorated compact disc found in Belize (Central America)....In the present paper, we report the purification and characterization of an H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>-generating extracellular oxidase produced by this fungus, which shares catalytic properties with both P. eryngii AAO and P. simplicissimum VAO.\|volumeProteins and Proteomics 1794\|issue4\|dateApril 2009\|pages689–697\|titleNew oxidase from Bjerkandera arthroconidial anamorph that oxidizes both phenolic and nonphenolic benzyl alcohols\|first1Elvira\|last1Romero\|first2Patricia\|last2Ferreira\|first3Ángel&nbsp;T.\|last3Martínez\|first4María\|last4Jesús&nbsp;Martínez\|journalBiochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Proteins and Proteomics \|doi10.1016/j.bbapap.2008.11.013\|pmid19110079 }} See also the abstract of {{harvnb\|Romero\|Speranza\|García-Guinea\|Martínez\|2007}}.</ref> The fungus Geotrichum candidum can consume the aluminium in compact discs.<ref>{{Cite journal\|doi10.1038/news010628-11 \|authorBosch, Xavier \|titleFungus eats CD \|date27 June 2001 \|journalNature \|pagesnews010628–11 \|urlhttp://www.nature.com/news/2001/010627/full/news010628-11.html \|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101231163222/http://www.nature.com/news/2001/010627/full/news010628-11.html \|archive-date31 December 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|journalNaturwissenschaften\|year2001\|volume88\|pages351–354\|doi10.1007/s001140100249\|departmentShort Communication\|first1Javier\|last1Garcia-Guinea\|first2Victor\|last2Cárdenes\|first3Angel&nbsp;T.\|last3Martínez\|first4Maria\|last4Jesús&nbsp;Martínez\|titleFungal bioturbation paths in a compact disk\|issue8 \|pmid11572018 \|bibcode2001NW.....88..351G \|s2cid7599290 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|titleAn anamorph of the white-rot fungus Bjerkandera adusta capable of colonizing and degrading compact disc components\|first1Elvira\|last1Romero\|first2Mariela\|last2Speranza\|first3Javier\|last3García-Guinea\|first4Ángel&nbsp;T.\|last4Martínez\|first5María\|last5Jesús&nbsp;Martínez\|date8 August 2007\|doi10.1111/j.1574-6968.2007.00876.x\|editor-firstBernard\|editor-lastPrior\|journalFEMS Microbiol Lett\|volume275\|issue1 \|pages122–129\|publisherBlackwell Publishing Ltd.\|pmid17854471 \|doi-accessfree\|hdl10261/47650\|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the fungus Cladosporium resinae are commonly detected in aircraft fuel tanks that use kerosene-based fuels (not avgas), and laboratory cultures can degrade aluminium.<ref>{{cite journal \|urlhttp://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-Bio19Tuat01-t1-body-d4.html \|journalTuatara \|titleStudies on the "Kerosene Fungus" Cladosporium resinae (Lindau) De Vries: Part I. The Problem of Microbial Contamination of Aviation Fuels \|page29 \|author1Sheridan, J.E. \|author2Nelson, Jan \|author3Tan, Y.L. \|volume19 \|issue1 \|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131213140543/http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-Bio19Tuat01-t1-body-d4.html \|archive-date13 December 2013 }}</ref> See also {{Portal\|Chemistry}} * Aluminium granules * Aluminium joining * Aluminium–air battery * Aluminized steel, for corrosion resistance and other properties * Aluminized screen, for display devices * Aluminized cloth, to reflect heat * Aluminized mylar, to reflect heat * Panel edge staining * Quantum clock Notes {{notelist}} References {{Reflist}} Bibliography * {{cite book \|lastDavis\|firstJ. R.\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiEeiQEeLOmYC\|titleCorrosion of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys\|date1999\|publisherASM International\|isbn978-1-61503-238-9\|language=en}} * {{cite book \|titleLange's handbook of chemistry \|lastDean \|firstJ. A. \|date1999 \|publisherMcGraw-Hill \|isbn978-0-07-016384-3 \|edition15 \|oclc40213725}} * {{cite book \|last Drozdov \|first A. \|year 2007 \|title Aluminium: The Thirteenth Element \|title-link Aluminium: The Thirteenth Element \|publisher RUSAL Library \|isbn = 978-5-91523-002-5}} * {{cite book \|last1Greenwood \|first1N. N. \|author-link1Norman Greenwood \|last2Earnshaw \|first2A. \|year1997 \|titleChemistry of the Elements \|edition2nd \|publisherButterworth-Heinemann \|isbn978-0-08-037941-8}} * {{cite book \|lastKing \|firstR. B. \|date1995 \|titleInorganic Chemistry of Main Group Elements \|publisherWiley-VCH \|isbn978-0-471-18602-1}} * {{cite book \|editor-lastLide\|editor-firstD. R.\|titleHandbook of Chemistry and Physics\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/crchandbookofche81lide\|url-accessregistration\|publisherCRC Press\|date2004\|edition84\|isbn=978-0-8493-0566-5}} * {{cite report \|lastNappi \|firstC. \|year2013 \|titleThe global aluminium industry 40 years from 1972 \|publisherInternational Aluminium Institute \|urlhttp://large.stanford.edu/courses/2016/ph240/mclaughlin1/docs/nappi.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2016/ph240/mclaughlin1/docs/nappi.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|url-status=live}} * {{cite book \|lastRichards \|firstJ. W. \|year1896 \|urlhttps://archive.org/stream/cu31924003633751/cu31924003633751_djvu.txt \|titleAluminium: Its history, occurrence, properties, metallurgy and applications, including its alloys \|edition3 \|publisher=Henry Carey Baird & Co.}} * {{cite book\|lastSchmitz\|firstC.\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWvT2OEf8DskC\|titleHandbook of Aluminium Recycling\|date2006\|publisherVulkan-Verlag GmbH\|isbn978-3-8027-2936-2\|languageen}}Further reading* Mimi Sheller, Aluminum Dream: The Making of Light Modernity. Cambridge, Mass.: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 2014.External links{{Sister project links\|auto1\|wiktaluminium\|s1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Aluminium}} * [https://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/013.htm Aluminium] at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham) * [https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/ToxProfiles/tp22.pdf Toxicological Profile for Aluminum] (PDF) (September 2008) – 357-page report from the United States Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry * [https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0022.html Aluminum] entry (last reviewed 30 October 2019) in the NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards published by the CDC's National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health * [https://www.indexmundi.com/commodities/?commodityaluminum&months300 Current and historical prices] (1998&ndash;present) for aluminum futures on the global commodities market * {{Internet Archive short film\|idgov.archives.arc.38661\|nameAluminum}} {{Aluminium compounds}} {{Periodic table (navbox)}}{{Aluminium alloys}} {{Authority control}} Category:Chemical elements Category:Post-transition metals Aluminium Category:Electrical conductors Category:Pyrotechnic fuels Category:Airship technology Category:Reducing agents Category:E-number additives Category:Native element minerals Category:Chemical elements with face-centered cubic structure	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium	2025-04-05T18:25:26.487969
905	Advanced Chemistry	Advanced Chemistry is a German hip hop group from Heidelberg in Baden-Württemberg, South Germany. Advanced Chemistry was founded in 1987 by Toni L, Linguist, Gee-One, DJ Mike MD (Mike Dippon) and MC Torch. Each member of the group holds German citizenship, and Toni L, Linguist, and Torch are of Italian, Ghanaian, and Haitian backgrounds, respectively. Influenced by North American socially conscious rap and the Native tongues movement, Advanced Chemistry is regarded as one of the main pioneers in German hip hop. They were one of the first groups to rap in German (although their name is in English). Furthermore, their songs tackled controversial social and political issues, distinguishing them from early German hip hop group "Die Fantastischen Vier" (The Fantastic Four), which had a more light-hearted, playful, party image. exposing the marginalization experienced by most ethnic minorities in Germany, and the feelings of frustration and resentment that being denied a German identity can cause. The song "Fremd im eigenen Land" (Foreign in your own nation) was released by Advanced Chemistry in November 1992. The single became a staple in the German hip hop scene. It made a strong statement about the status of immigrants throughout Germany, as the group was composed of multi-national and multi-racial members. The video shows several members brandishing their German passports as a demonstration of their German citizenship to skeptical and unaccepting 'ethnic' Germans. Since the release of "Fremd im eigenen Land", many other German-language rappers have also tried to confront anti-immigrant ideas and develop themes of citizenship. However, though many ethnic minority youth in Germany find these German identity themes appealing, others view the desire of immigrants to be seen as German negatively, and they have actively sought to revive and recreate concepts of identity in connection to traditional ethnic origins. The rivalry between Advanced Chemistry and Die Fantastischen Vier has served to highlight a dichotomy in the routes that hip hop has taken in becoming a part of the German soundscape. While Die Fantastischen Vier may be said to view hip hop primarily as an aesthetic art form, Advanced Chemistry understand hip hop as being inextricably linked to the social and political circumstances under which it is created. For Advanced Chemistry, hip hop is a “vehicle of general human emancipation”. In their undertaking of social and political issues, the band introduced the term "Afro-German" into the context of German hip hop, and the theme of race is highlighted in much of their music. With the release of the single “Fremd im eigenen Land”, Advanced Chemistry separated itself from the rest of the rap being produced in Germany. This single was the first of its kind to go beyond simply imitating US rap and addressed the current issues of the time. Fremd im eigenen Land which translates to “foreign in my own country” dealt with the widespread racism that non-white German citizens faced. This change from simple imitation to political commentary was the start of German identification with rap. The sound of “Fremd im eigenen Land” was influenced by the 'wall of noise' created by Public Enemy's producers, The Bomb Squad. After the reunification of Germany, an abundance of anti-immigrant sentiment emerged, as well as attacks on the homes of refugees in the early 1990s. Advanced Chemistry came to prominence in the wake of these actions because of their pro-multicultural society stance in their music. Advanced Chemistry's attitudes revolve around their attempts to create a distinct "Germanness" in hip hop, as opposed to imitating American hip hop as other groups had done. Torch has said, "What the Americans do is exotic for us because we don't live like they do. What they do seems to be more interesting and newer. But not for me. For me it's more exciting to experience my fellow Germans in new contexts...For me, it's interesting to see what the kids try to do that's different from what I know." Advanced Chemistry were the first to use the term "Afro-German" in a hip hop context. This was part of the pro-immigrant political message they sent via their music. While Advanced Chemistry's use of the German language in their rap allows them to make claims to authenticity and true German heritage, bolstering pro-immigration sentiment, their style can also be problematic for immigrant notions of any real ethnic roots. Indeed, part of the Turkish ethnic minority of Frankfurt views Advanced Chemistry's appeal to the German image as a "symbolic betrayal of the right of ethnic minorities to 'roots' or to any expression of cultural heritage." These alternative local hip hop cultures include oriental hip hop, the members of which cling to their Turkish heritage and are confused by Advanced Chemistry's elicitation of a German identity politics to which they technically do not belong. This cultural binary illustrates that rap has taken different routes in Germany and that, even among an already isolated immigrant population, there is still disunity and, especially, disagreement on the relative importance of assimilation versus cultural defiance. According to German hip hop enthusiast 9@home, Advanced Chemistry is part of a "hip-hop movement [which] took a clear stance for the minorities and against the [marginalization] of immigrants who...might be German on paper, but not in real life," which speaks to the group's hope of actually being recognized as German citizens and not foreigners, despite their various other ethnic and cultural ties. Influences Advanced Chemistry's work was rooted in German history and the country's specific political realities. However, they also drew inspiration from African-American hip-hop acts like A Tribe Called Quest and Public Enemy, who had helped bring a soulful sound and political consciousness to American hip-hop. One member, Torch, later explicitly listed his references on his solo song "Als (When I Was in School):" "My favorite subject, which was quickly discovered poetry in load Poets, awakens the intellect or policy at Chuck D I'll never forget the lyrics by Public Enemy." Torch goes on to list other American rappers like Biz Markie, Big Daddy Kane and Dr. Dre as influences. Discography 1992 - "Fremd im eigenen Land" (12"/MCD, MZEE) 1993 - "Welcher Pfad führt zur Geschichte" (12"/MCD, MZEE) 1994 - "Operation § 3" (12"/MCD) 1994 - "Dir fehlt der Funk!" (12"/MCD) 1995 - Advanced Chemistry (2xLP/CD) External links Official Website of MC Torch Website of Toni L Official Website of Linguist Official Website DJ Mike MD (Mike Dippon) Website of 360° Records Bibliography El-Tayeb, Fatima “‘If You Cannot Pronounce My Name, You Can Just Call Me Pride.’ Afro-German Activism, Gender, and Hip Hop,” Gender & History15/3(2003):459-485. Felbert, Oliver von. “Die Unbestechlichen.” Spex (March 1993): 50–53. Weheliye, Alexander G. Phonographies:Grooves in Sonic Afro-Modernity, Duke University Press, 2005. References Category:German hip-hop groups	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Chemistry	2025-04-05T18:25:26.495757
909	Anglican Communion	{{short description\|International Christian communion}} {{About\|churches in full communion with the archbishop of Canterbury\|the Christian tradition originating in the Church of England\|Anglicanism}} {{Redirect\|Anglican Churches\|\|Anglican Church (disambiguation)}} {{Use British English\|date=June 2016}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=February 2024}} {{Infobox Christian denomination \| name = Anglican Communion \| icon = Cantercross.svg \| icon_width = 25px \| image = Canterbury-cathedral-wyrdlight.jpg \| alt \| caption Canterbury Cathedral \| main_classification = Protestant{{NoteTag\|With various theological and doctrinal identities, including Anglo-Catholic, Liberal, Evangelical}} \| orientation = Anglican \| polity = Episcopal \| type = Communion \| theology = Anglican doctrine \| founder = Charles Longley \| founded_date = 1867 \| founded_place = Lambeth Conference, London, England \| leader_title1 = Primate \| leader_name1 = Stephen Cottrell (acting) \| leader_title2 = Secretary General \| leader_name2 = Anthony Poggo \| leader_title3 = Deputy Secretary&nbsp;General, ACC \| headquarters = London, England \| separated_from = Roman Catholic Church \| scripture = Protestant Bible \| parent = Church of England \| merger \| separations Continuing Anglican movement (1977)<br/>Some participants in the Anglican realignment (since 2002; partial) \| area = Worldwide \| congregations \| members 85,000,000<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://igrejaanglicana.com.br/anglicanismo/\|titleAnglicanismo\|websiteIgreja Anglicana\|languagept-BR\|access-date2 January 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200102061211/http://igrejaanglicana.com.br/anglicanismo/\|archive-date2 January 2020\|url-statuslive}}</ref> \| website = [https://anglicancommunion.org/ anglicancommunion.org] \| logo \| footnotes }} {{AnglicanCommunion}} The Anglican Communion is the third largest Christian communion after the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Goodhew \|first1David \|titleGrowth and Decline in the Anglican Communion: 1980 to the Present \|date2016 \|publisherTaylor & Francis \|isbn978-1-317-12442-9 \|pages45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWiAlDwAAQBAJ&pgPA44\|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Chapman \|first1Mark David \|last2Clarke \|first2Sathianathan \|last3Percy \|first3Martyn \|titleThe Oxford Handbook of Anglican Studies \|date2016 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-19-921856-1 \|pages1,341 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJijYCgAAQBAJ \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Harvard Divinity School \|first1Religious Literacy Project \|titleAnglican Communion Suspends Episcopal Church Over Same-Sex Marriage \|journalRLP.HDS.harvard.edu \|urlhttps://rlp.hds.harvard.edu/news/anglican-communion-suspends-episcopal-church-over-same-sex-marriage \|languageen \|access-date6 May 2020 \|archive-date4 August 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200804203442/https://rlp.hds.harvard.edu/news/anglican-communion-suspends-episcopal-church-over-same-sex-marriage \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Formally founded in 1867 in London, the communion has more than 85&nbsp;million members<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.anglicancommunion.org/tour/index.cfm \|titleThe Anglican Communion official website – "Provincial Registry" \|access-date9 January 2017 \|archive-date7 March 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150307165129/http://www.anglicancommunion.org/tour/index.cfm \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Kurian \|first1George Thomas \|last2Lamport \|first2Mark A. \|titleEncyclopedia of Christian Education \|date2015 \|publisherRowman & Littlefield \|isbn978-0-8108-8493-9 \|page50 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ide6YoCQAAQBAJ&pgPA50 \|languageen \|quoteWith a membership currently estimated at over 85 million members worldwide, the Anglican Communion is the third largest Christian communion in the world, after the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox churches.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|lastMuñoz\|firstDaniel\|dateMay 2016\|titleNorth to South: A Reappraisal of Anglican Communion Membership Figures\|journalJournal of Anglican Studies\|volume14\|pages71–95\|doi10.1017/S1740355315000212\|s2cid147105475\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> within the Church of England and other autocephalous national and regional churches in full communion.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.stfrancisooltewah.org/id4.html \|titleSt Francis of Assisi Episcopal Church History \|date20 July 2012 \|access-date11 August 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120815131203/http://www.stfrancisooltewah.org/id4.html \|archive-date15 August 2012 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> The traditional origins of Anglican doctrine are summarised in the Thirty-nine Articles (1571) and The Books of Homilies.<ref name"Samuel2020">{{cite book \|last1Samuel \|first1Chimela Meehoma \|titleTreasures of the Anglican Witness: A Collection of Essays \|date28 April 2020 \|publisherPartridge Publishing \|isbn978-1-5437-5784-2 \|languageen \|quoteIn addition to his emphasis on Bible reading and the introduction to the Book of Common Prayer, other media through which Cranmer sought to catechize the English people were the introduction of the First Book of Homilies and the 39 Articles of Religion. Together with the Book of Common Prayer and the Forty-Two Articles (which were later reduced to thirty-nine), the Book of Homilies stands as one of the essential texts of the Edwardian Reformation, and they all helped to define the shape of Anglicanism then, and in the subsequent centuries. More so, the Articles of Religion, whose primary shape and content were given by Archbishop Cranmer and Bishop Ridley in 1553 (and whose final official form was ratified by Convocation, the Queen, and Parliament in 1571), provided a more precise interpretation of Christian doctrine to the English people. According to John H. Rodgers, they "constitute the formal statements of the accepted, common teaching put forth by the Church of England as a result of the Reformation."}}</ref> The archbishop of Canterbury in England acts as a focus of unity, recognised as {{Lang\|la\|primus inter pares}} ("first among equals"), but does not exercise authority in Anglican provinces outside of the Church of England. Most, but not all, member churches of the communion are the historic national or regional Anglican churches.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleThe Anglican Communion \|urlhttps://www.churchofengland.org/about/building-relationships/anglican-communion \|access-date2024-08-05 \|websiteThe Church of England \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date2020-05-12 \|titleThe Anglican Communion \|urlhttps://www.anglicancentreinrome.org/the-anglican-communion \|access-date2024-08-05 \|websiteThe Anglican Centre in Rome \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|lastChapman \|firstMark D. \|date2015 \|titleAnglicanism, Japan, and the Perception of a Higher Civilization in the Early Twentieth Century \|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/43685136 \|journalAnglican and Episcopal History \|volume84 \|issue3 \|pages298–320 \|jstor43685136 \|issn0896-8039}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleMember Churches \|urlhttps://www.anglicancommunion.org/structures/member-churches.aspx \|websiteAnglican Communion}}</ref> The Anglican Communion was officially and formally organised and recognised as such at the Lambeth Conference in 1867 in London under the leadership of Charles Longley, Archbishop of Canterbury. The churches of the Anglican Communion consider themselves to be part of the one, holy, catholic and apostolic church, with worship being based on the Book of Common Prayer.<ref name"Samuel2020"/> As in the Church of England itself, the Anglican Communion includes the broad spectrum of beliefs and liturgical practises found in the Evangelical, Central and Anglo-Catholic traditions of Anglicanism; both the larger Reformed Anglican and the smaller Arminian Anglican theological perspectives have been represented.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Hampton \|first1Stephen \|titleAnti-Arminians: The Anglican Reformed Tradition from Charles II to George I \|urlhttps://www.thegospelcoalition.org/themelios/review/anti-arminians-the-anglican-reformed-tradition-from-charles-ii-to-george-i/ \|publisherThe Gospel Coalition \|access-date27 November 2024}}</ref> Each national or regional church is fully independent, retaining its own legislative process and episcopal polity under the leadership of local primates. For many adherents, Anglicanism represents a distinct form of Reformed Protestantism that emerged under the influence of the Reformer Thomas Cranmer,<ref name"Samuel2020"/> or for yet others, a via media between two branches of Protestantism—Lutheranism and Calvinism—and for others, a denomination that is both Catholic and Reformed.<ref>{{cite book\|titleAnglican and Episcopal History\|year2003\|publisherHistorical Society of the Episcopal Church\|languageen\|page15\|quoteOthers had made similar observations, Patrick McGrath commenting that the Church of England was not a middle way between Roman Catholic and Protestant, but "between different forms of Protestantism", and William Monter describing the Church of England as "a unique style of Protestantism, a via media between the Reformed and Lutheran traditions". MacCulloch has described Cranmer as seeking a middle way between Zurich and Wittenberg but elsewhere remarks that the Church of England was "nearer Zurich and Geneva than Wittenberg.}}</ref>{{sfn\|Avis\|1998\|pp=417–419}} Most of its members live in the Anglosphere of former British territories. Full participation in the sacramental life of each church is available to all communicant members. Because of their historical link to England (ecclesia anglicana means "English church"), some of the member churches are known as "Anglican", such as the Anglican Church of Canada. Others, for example the Church of Ireland and the Scottish and American Episcopal churches, have official names that do not include "Anglican". Conversely, some churches that do use the name "Anglican" are not part of the communion. These have generally disaffiliated over disagreement with the direction of the communion. History {{Main\|History of the Anglican Communion}} {{See also\|English Reformation}} The Anglican Communion traces much of its growth to the older mission organisations of the Church of England such as the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (founded 1698), the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts (founded 1701) and the Church Missionary Society (founded 1799).<ref>{{cite web \|url http://www.cms-uk.org/Whoweare/AboutCMS/History/tabid/181/language/en-US/Default.aspx \|title A brief history of CMS \|year 1999 \|publisher Church Mission Society \|access-date 2 December 2012 \|quote Much of what we call the Anglican Communion today traces its origins to CMS work.}}</ref>{{NoteTag\|Efforts to grow and develop the church in lands outside the British Isles began with the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (1698) and the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts (1701) but received a significant boost from the Church Mission Society (1799).{{sfn\|Melton\|2005\|p28}} }}{{NoteTag\|The Church Missionary Society, originally called the Society for Missions to Africa and the East, was founded in 1799... Though later in date than the S.P.C.K. and the S.P.G. it became the first effective organ of the C. of E. for missions to the heathen... Its theology has been consistently Evangelical.{{sfn\|Cross\|1957\|p305}} }} The Church of England (which until the 20th century included the Church in Wales) initially separated from the Roman Catholic Church in 1534 in the reign of Henry VIII, reunited briefly in 1555 under Mary I and then separated again in 1570 under Elizabeth I (the Roman Catholic Church excommunicated Elizabeth I in 1570 in response to the Act of Supremacy 1559).<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHistory of the Church of England \|urlhttps://www.churchofengland.org/news-and-media/media-centre/history-church-england \|access-date22 February 2023 \|websiteThe Church of England \|languageen \|archive-date16 April 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220416023707/https://www.churchofengland.org/news-and-media/media-centre/history-church-england \|url-statusdead }}</ref> The Church of England has always thought of itself not as a new foundation but rather as a reformed continuation of the ancient "English Church" (Ecclesia Anglicana) and a reassertion of that church's rights. As such it was a distinctly national phenomenon. The Church of Scotland was formed as a separate church from the Roman Catholic Church as a result of the Scottish Reformation in 1560 and the later formation of the Scottish Episcopal Church began in 1582 in the reign of James VI over disagreements about the role of bishops.<ref>{{Cite web \|date22 February 2010 \|titleHistory \|urlhttps://www.churchofscotland.org.uk/about-us/our-faith/history \|access-date22 February 2023 \|websiteThe Church of Scotland \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date11 July 2011 \|titleThe Origins of the Scottish Episcopal Church \|urlhttps://dcdchurches.org.uk/the-origins-of-the-scottish-episcopal-church/ \|access-date22 February 2023 \|websiteDalbeattie & Castle Douglas Churches \|languageen-GB}}</ref> The oldest-surviving Anglican church building outside the British Isles (Britain and Ireland) is St Peter's Church in St George's, Bermuda, established in 1612 (though the actual building had to be rebuilt several times over the following century). This is also the oldest surviving non-Roman Catholic church in the New World.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleSt. Peter's Church \|urlhttps://www.stpeters.bm/ \|access-date22 February 2023 \|websitewww.stpeters.bm}}</ref> It remained part of the Church of England until 1978 when the Anglican Church of Bermuda was formed. The Church of England was the established church not only in England, but in its trans-Oceanic colonies. Thus the only member churches of the present Anglican Communion existing by the mid-18th century were the Church of England, its closely linked sister church the Church of Ireland (which also separated from Roman Catholicism under Henry VIII) and the Scottish Episcopal Church which for parts of the 17th and 18th centuries was partially underground (it was suspected of Jacobite sympathies). Global spread of Anglicanism in Helsinki, Finland, in June 2013]] The enormous expansion in the 18th and 19th centuries of the British Empire brought Anglicanism along with it. At first all these colonial churches were under the jurisdiction of the bishop of London. After the American Revolution, the parishes in the newly independent country found it necessary to break formally from a church whose supreme governor was (and remains) the British monarch. Thus they formed their own dioceses and national church, the Episcopal Church in the United States of America, in a mostly amicable separation.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHistory of The Episcopal Church \|urlhttps://www.episcopalchurch.org/who-we-are/history-episcopal-church/ \|access-date22 February 2023 \|websiteThe Episcopal Church \|languageen-US \|archive-date22 February 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230222183654/https://www.episcopalchurch.org/who-we-are/history-episcopal-church/ \|url-statusdead }}</ref> At about the same time, in the colonies which remained linked to the crown, the Church of England began to appoint colonial bishops. In 1787, Charles Inglis (Bishop of Nova Scotia) was appointed with a jurisdiction over all of British North America;<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastHebb \|firstRoss N. \|date2007 \|titleBishop Charles Inglis and Bishop Samuel Seabury: High Churchmanship in Varying New World Contexts \|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/42613040 \|journalAnglican and Episcopal History \|volume76 \|issue1 \|pages61–88 \|jstor42613040 \|issn=0896-8039}}</ref> in time several more colleagues were appointed to other cities in present-day Canada. In 1814, a bishop of Calcutta was made; in 1824 the first bishop was sent to the West Indies and in 1836 to Australia. By 1840 there were still only ten colonial bishops for the Church of England; but even this small beginning greatly facilitated the growth of Anglicanism around the world. In 1841, a "Colonial Bishoprics Council" was set up and soon many more dioceses were created. In time, it became natural to group these into provinces and a metropolitan bishop was appointed for each province. Although it had at first been somewhat established in many colonies, in 1861 it was ruled that, except where specifically established, the Church of England had just the same legal position as any other church. Thus a colonial bishop and colonial diocese was by nature quite a different thing from their counterparts back home. In time bishops came to be appointed locally rather than from England and eventually national synods began to pass ecclesiastical legislation independent of England. A crucial step in the development of the modern communion was the idea of the Lambeth Conferences (discussed above).<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHistory and Impact of the Lambeth Conference – The Lambeth Conference \|urlhttps://www.lambethconference.org/about/history-and-impact-of-the-lambeth-conference/ \|access-date22 February 2023 \|languageen-GB \|archive-date22 February 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230222183701/https://www.lambethconference.org/about/history-and-impact-of-the-lambeth-conference/ \|url-status=dead }}</ref> These conferences demonstrated that the bishops of disparate churches could manifest the unity of the church in their episcopal collegiality despite the absence of universal legal ties. Some bishops were initially reluctant to attend, fearing that the meeting would declare itself a council with power to legislate for the church; but it agreed to pass only advisory resolutions. These Lambeth Conferences have been held roughly every ten years since 1878 (the second such conference) and remain the most visible coming-together of the whole communion. The Lambeth Conference of 1998 included what has been seen by Philip Jenkins and others as a "watershed in global Christianity". The 1998 Lambeth Conference considered the issue of the theology of same-sex attraction in relation to human sexuality. At this 1998 conference for the first time in centuries the Christians of developing regions, especially, Africa, Asia and Latin America, prevailed over the bishops of more prosperous countries (many from the US, Canada and the UK) who supported a redefinition of Anglican doctrine. Seen in this light, 1998 is a date that marked the shift from a West-dominated Christianity to one wherein the growing churches of the two-thirds world are predominant.{{sfnm \|1a1Jenkins \|1y2002 \|1pp202–203 \|2a1Miller \|2y2014 \|2p68}} 21st-century de facto schisms Many of the provinces in developed countries have continued to adopt more liberal stances on sexuality and other issues, resulting in a number of de facto schisms, such as the series of splits which led to the creation of the Anglican Church in North America. Many churches are now in full communion with only some other churches but not others, although all churches continue to claim to be part of the Anglican Communion. On 20 February 2023, following the decision of the Church of England to allow priests to bless same-sex partnerships, ten communion provinces and Anglican realignment churches within the Global South Fellowship of Anglican Churches released a statement stating that they had declared "impaired communion" with the Church of England and no longer recognised Justin Welby as "first among equals" among the bishops of the communion.<ref name":2">{{Cite web \|lastStaff \|date21 February 2023 \|titleAnglican group rejects Archbishop of Canterbury as schism widens \|urlhttps://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20230221-anglican-group-rejects-archbishop-of-canterbury-as-schism-widens \|access-date22 February 2023 \|websiteFrance 24 \|languageen}}</ref><ref name":3">{{Cite web \|lastLawless \|firstJill \|date20 February 2023 \|titleAnglican bishops reject leader Welby over gay marriage \|urlhttps://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/anglican-bishops-reject-leader-welby-gay-marriage-97337650 \|access-date22 February 2023 \|websiteABC News \|languageen \|agencyAssociated Press}}</ref> Differences and controversies {{See also\|Homosexuality and Anglicanism\|Anglican realignment}} Some effects of the Anglican Communion's dispersed authority have been differences of opinion (and conflicts) arising over divergent practices and doctrines in parts of the communion.{{sfn\|McKinnon\|Trzebiatowska\|Brittain\|2011\|pp355–37}} Disputes that had been confined to the Church of England could be dealt with legislatively in that realm, but as the communion spread out into new countries and territories, and disparate cultures, controversies often multiplied and intensified. These controversies have generally been of two types: liturgical and social.{{sfn\|Chapman\|2006\|p}} Rapid social change and the dissipation of British cultural hegemony over its former colonies contributed to disputes over the role of women, and the parameters of marriage and divorce. In the late 1970s, the Continuing Anglican movement produced a number of new church bodies in opposition to women's ordination, prayer book changes, and the new understandings concerning marriage. Anglo-Catholicism The first such controversy of note concerned that of the growing influence of the Catholic Revival manifested in the Tractarian and so-called Ritualist controversies of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.{{sfn\|Pickering\|2008\|p}} This controversy produced the Free Church of England and, in the United States and Canada, the Reformed Episcopal Church.Abortion and euthanasiaWhile individual Anglicans and member churches within the communion differ in good faith over the circumstances in which abortion should or should not be permitted, Lambeth Conference resolutions have consistently held to a conservative view on the issue. The 1930 conference, the first to be held since the initial legalisation of abortion in Europe (in Russia in 1920), stated:<ref>{{cite web \|titleResolution 16, The Life and Witness of the Christian Community – Marriage and Sex \|urlhttps://www.anglicancommunion.org/media/127734/1930.pdf \|publisherAnglican Communion Office \|access-date29 December 2023 \|locationLondon \|page7 \|date2005}}</ref> {{blockquote\|The Conference further records its abhorrence of the sinful practice of abortion.}} The 1958 conference's Family in Contemporary Society report affirmed the following position on abortion<ref>{{cite book \|titleThe Lambeth Conference 1958: Resolutions and Reports \|date1958 \|publisherSPCK and Seabury Press}}</ref> and was commended by the 1968 conference:<ref>{{cite web \|titleResolution 22, Responsible Parenthood \|urlhttps://www.anglicancommunion.org/media/127743/1968.pdf \|publisherAnglican Consultative Council \|access-date19 August 2023 \|locationLondon \|page10 \|date2005}}</ref> {{blockquote\|In the strongest terms Christians reject the practice of induced abortion or infanticide, which involves the killing of a life already conceived (as well as a violation of the personality of the mother), save at the dictate of strict and undeniable medical necessity ... the sacredness of life is, in Christian eyes, an absolute which should not be violated.}} The subsequent Lambeth Conference, in 1978, made no change to this position and commended the need for "programmes at diocesan level, involving both men and women ... to emphasise the sacredness of all human life, the moral issues inherent in clinical abortion, and the possible implications of genetic engineering."<ref>{{cite web \|titleResolution 10, Human Relationships and Sexuality \|urlhttps://www.anglicancommunion.org/media/127746/1978.pdf \|publisherAnglican Communion Office \|access-date29 December 2023 \|locationLondon \|page8 \|date=2005}}</ref> In the context of debates around and proposals for the legalisation of euthanasia and assisted suicide, the 1998 conference affirmed that "life is God-given and has intrinsic sanctity, significance and worth".<ref name1998life>{{cite web \|titleResolution 1.14, Euthanasia \|urlhttps://www.anglicancommunion.org/media/76650/1998.pdf \|publisherAnglican Communion Office \|access-date29 December 2023 \|locationLondon \|page11 \|date2005}}</ref> Same-sex unions and LGBT clergy More recently, disagreements over homosexuality have strained the unity of the communion as well as its relationships with other Christian denominations, leading to another round of withdrawals from the Anglican Communion.{{sfn\|Brittain\|McKinnon\|2011}} Some churches were founded outside the Anglican Communion in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, largely in opposition to the ordination of openly homosexual bishops and other clergy and are usually referred to as belonging to the Anglican realignment movement, or else as "orthodox" Anglicans.{{sfn\|Brittain\|McKinnon\|2011}} These disagreements were especially noted when The Episcopal Church (US) consecrated an openly gay bishop in a same-sex relationship, Gene Robinson, in 2003, which led some Episcopalians to defect and found the Anglican Church in North America (ACNA); then, the debate reignited when the Church of England agreed to allow clergy to enter into same-sex civil partnerships, as long as they remained celibate, in 2005.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/beds/bucks/herts/5236132.stm\|titleBBC NEWS {{!}} UK {{!}} England {{!}} Beds/Bucks/Herts {{!}} Gay cleric's 'wedding' to partner\|websitenews.bbc.co.uk\|access-date21 June 2017\|dateAugust 2006\|archive-date15 January 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230115163624/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/beds/bucks/herts/5236132.stm\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The Church of Nigeria opposed the Episcopal Church's decision as well as the Church of England's approval for celibate civil partnerships.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.christiantoday.com/article/revd.akinolas.response.to.church.of.england.civil.partnerships.stance/3642.htm\|titleRevd Akinola's Response to Church of England Civil Partnerships Stance {{!}} Christian News on Christian Today\|websitewww.christiantoday.com\|date8 August 2005 \|languageen\|access-date21 June 2017\|archive-date15 January 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230115163620/https://www.christiantoday.com/article/revd.akinolas.response.to.church.of.england.civil.partnerships.stance/3642.htm\|url-status=live}}</ref> "The more liberal provinces that are open to changing Church doctrine on marriage in order to allow for same-sex unions include Brazil, Canada, New Zealand, Scotland, South India, South Africa, the US and Wales".<ref>{{cite news\|titleChurch split over homosexuality would be a failure – Welby\|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/uk-35278124\|publisherBBC\|access-date11 April 2016\|workBBC News\|date11 January 2016\|archive-date21 February 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220221143053/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-35278124\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2023, the Church of England announced that it will authorise "prayers of thanksgiving, dedication and for God's blessing for same-sex couples".<ref>{{Cite web \|titleDraft prayers of thanksgiving, dedication and for God's blessing for same-sex couples published \|urlhttps://www.churchofengland.org/media-and-news/press-releases/draft-prayers-thanksgiving-dedication-and-gods-blessing-same-sex \|access-date21 January 2023 \|websiteThe Church of England \|date20 January 2023 \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleChurch of England says no to gay marriage but Archbishop of Canterbury welcomes blessings for same-sex couples in historic first \|urlhttps://news.sky.com/story/church-of-england-says-no-to-gay-marriage-but-archbishop-of-canterbury-welcomes-blessings-for-same-sex-couples-in-historic-first-12789291 \|access-date21 January 2023 \|websiteSky News \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastMillard \|firstEgan \|date20 January 2023 \|titleChurch of England releases draft prayers for same-sex blessings; archbishop of Canterbury says he won't use them \|urlhttps://www.episcopalnewsservice.org/2023/01/20/church-of-england-releases-draft-prayers-for-same-sex-blessings-archbishop-of-canterbury-says-he-wont-use-them/ \|access-date21 January 2023 \|websiteEpiscopal News Service \|languageen-US}}</ref> The Church of England also permits clergy to enter into same-sex civil partnerships.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/feb/11/anglican-synod-gay-pension-rights\|titleChurch of England General Synod extends pension rights for gay partners\|lastBates\|firstStephen\|date11 February 2010\|websiteThe Guardian\|access-date16 June 2016\|archive-date14 September 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210914013555/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/feb/11/anglican-synod-gay-pension-rights\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2024, the Church of England's General Synod voted to support allowing clergy to enter in civil same-sex marriages.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastHenderson \|firstCameron \|date2024-07-08 \|titleChurch takes first steps to allowing gay priests to marry \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/07/08/church-of-england-votes-to-allow-gay-clergy-to-marry/ \|access-date2024-07-16 \|workThe Telegraph \|languageen-GB \|issn0307-1235}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|lastBillson \|firstChantelle \|date2024-07-10 \|titleChurch of England body approves proposals to allow gay clergy to marry \|urlhttps://www.thepinknews.com/2024/07/10/church-of-england-body-approves-proposals-to-allow-gay-clergy-to-marry/ \|access-date2024-07-16 \|websitePinkNews }}</ref> In 2023, the Anglican Church of Southern Africa's bishops approved the drafting of prayers that could be said with same-sex couples and the draft prayers were published for consideration in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2023-03-14 \|titleDomestic Prayers for Same-Sex Couples in South Africa \|urlhttps://livingchurch.org/2023/03/14/domestic-prayers-for-same-sex-couples-in-south-africa/ \|access-date2024-05-07 \|websiteThe Living Church \|languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleBishops in Southern Africa agree to prayers but not blessings for same-sex couples \|urlhttps://www.churchtimes.co.uk/articles/2023/10-march/news/world/bishops-in-southern-africa-agree-to-prayers-but-not-blessings-for-same-sex-couples \|access-date2024-05-07 \|websitewww.churchtimes.co.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastMakgoba \|firstThabo \|dateApril 25, 2024 \|titleArchbishop urges Anglicans to study draft prayers for ministry to same-sex couples \|urlhttps://anglicanchurchsa.org/archbishop-urges-anglicans-to-study-draft-prayers-for-ministry-to-same-sex-couples/?fbclidIwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTAAAR3lF4Yoc5c-mGL9bif5zS89ATlg8RYwPO-beLmjFKwYItiCDaDnpEFvreE_aem_AZWevl5mQlHf9anhsvtl57SyxGQ1HB2EwJ9VL6yn_TTFtjztCsahYAre0cOApod65OvISA4w6VHc4O8lC9EU1lK0 \|websiteAnglican Church of Southern Africa }}{{Dead link\|dateMay 2024 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> The Church of Ireland has no official position on civil unions, and one senior cleric has entered into a same-sex civil partnership.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-14787854\|titleMinister Rev Tom Gordon civil partnership 'welcomed' – BBC News\|languageen-GB\|access-date16 June 2016\|date5 September 2011\|archive-date11 January 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160111094251/http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-14787854\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The Church of Ireland recognised that it will "treat civil partners the same as spouses".<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/listening-process-vital-to-bring-gay-lesbian-clergy-in-from-margins-1.945021\|titleListening process vital to bring gay, lesbian clergy in from margins\|newspaperThe Irish Times\|access-date21 June 2017\|languageen-US\|archive-date19 October 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171019220254/https://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/listening-process-vital-to-bring-gay-lesbian-clergy-in-from-margins-1.945021\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The Anglican Church of Australia does not have an official position on homosexuality.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/3226753.stm\|titleBBC NEWS {{!}} Special Reports {{!}} Anglican Church around the world\|websitenews.bbc.co.uk\|languageen-GB\|access-date21 June 2017\|date15 July 2008\|archive-date19 July 2008\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080719073627/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/3226753.stm\|url-status=live}}</ref> The conservative Anglican churches encouraging the realignment movement are more concentrated in the Global South. For example, the Anglican Church of Kenya, the Church of Nigeria and the Church of Uganda have opposed homosexuality.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jan/14/anglican-church-sanctions-against-liberal-us-church-same-sex-marriage\|titleAnglican church avoids split over gay rights – but liberals pay price\|lastSherwood\|firstHarriet\|date14 January 2016\|websiteThe Guardian\|access-date16 June 2016\|archive-date15 January 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230115164134/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jan/14/anglican-church-sanctions-against-liberal-us-church-same-sex-marriage\|url-statuslive}}</ref> GAFCON, a fellowship of conservative Anglican churches, has appointed "missionary bishops" in response to the disagreements with the perceived liberalisation in the Anglican churches in North America and Europe.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.churchtimes.co.uk/articles/2017/28-april/news/uk/gafcon-considers-a-missionary-bishop-for-uk\|titleGAFCON considers a missionary bishop for UK\|websitewww.churchtimes.co.uk\|access-date21 June 2017\|archive-date15 January 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230115164140/https://www.churchtimes.co.uk/articles/2017/28-april/news/uk/gafcon-considers-a-missionary-bishop-for-uk\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2023, ten archbishops within the Anglican Communion and two breakaway churches in North America and Brazil from the Global South Fellowship of Anglican Churches (GSFA) declared a state of impaired communion with the Church of England and announced that they would no longer recognise the archbishop of Canterbury as the "first among equals" among the bishops in the Anglican Communion.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastRocca \|firstFrancis X. \|titleConservative Anglican Leaders Call for Break With Church of England Over Same-Sex Blessings \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/conservative-anglican-leaders-call-for-break-with-church-of-england-over-same-sex-blessings-7215b707 \|access-date21 February 2023 \|newspaperWall Street Journal \|date20 February 2023 \|languageen-US}}</ref> However, in the same statement, the ten archbishops said that they would not leave the Anglican Communion.<ref>{{Cite web \|date23 February 2023 \|titleGSFA Demands Anglican Communion Reset \|urlhttps://livingchurch.org/2023/02/23/gsfa-demands-anglican-communion-reset/ \|access-date25 February 2023 \|websiteThe Living Church \|languageen-US\|author-first1Mark\|author-last1Michael}}</ref> In 2024, the GSFA met again establishing "a new structure," no longer recognising the Archbishop of Canterbury "as the de facto leader" of the Anglican Communion, but the GSFA reiterated that they intend to remain in the Anglican Communion.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleGlobal South Fellowship of Anglican Churches meets under a new structure \|urlhttps://www.churchtimes.co.uk/articles/2024/28-june/news/world/global-south-fellowship-of-anglican-churches-meets-under-a-new-structure \|access-date2024-07-16 \|websiteChurch Times\|author-last1Thornton\|author-first1Ed\|date28 June 2024}}</ref> Debates about social theology and ethics have occurred at the same time as debates on prayer book revision and the acceptable grounds for achieving full communion with non-Anglican churches.{{sfn\|Ward\|2006\|p}}Ecclesiology, polity and ethos {{Main\|Anglican doctrine}} {{more citations needed\|section\|date=March 2020}} The Anglican Communion has no official legal existence nor any governing structure that might exercise authority over the member churches. There is an Anglican Communion Office in London, under the aegis of the archbishop of Canterbury, but it serves only in a supporting and organisational role. The communion is held together by a shared history, expressed in its ecclesiology, polity and ethos, and also by participation in international consultative bodies. Three elements have been important in holding the communion together: first, the shared ecclesial structure of the component churches, manifested in an episcopal polity maintained through the apostolic succession of bishops and synodical government; second, the principle of belief expressed in worship, investing importance in approved prayer books and their rubrics; and third, the historical documents and the writings of early Anglican divines that have influenced the ethos of the communion. Originally, the Church of England was self-contained and relied for its unity and identity on its own history, its traditional legal and episcopal structure, and its status as an established church of the state. As such, Anglicanism was from the outset a movement with an explicitly episcopal polity, a characteristic that has been vital in maintaining the unity of the communion by conveying the episcopate's role in manifesting visible catholicity and ecumenism. Early in its development following the English Reformation, Anglicanism developed a vernacular prayer book, called the Book of Common Prayer. Unlike other traditions, Anglicanism has never been governed by a magisterium nor by appeal to one founding theologian, nor by an extra-credal summary of doctrine (such as the Westminster Confession of the Presbyterian churches). Instead, Anglicans have typically appealed to the Book of Common Prayer (1662) and its offshoots as a guide to Anglican theology and practise. This has had the effect of inculcating in Anglican identity and confession the principle of {{Lang\|la\|lex orandi, lex credendi}} ("the law of praying [is] the law of believing"). Protracted conflict through the 17th century, with radical Protestants on the one hand and Roman Catholics who recognised the primacy of the Pope on the other, resulted in an association of churches that was both deliberately vague about doctrinal principles, yet bold in developing parameters of acceptable deviation. These parameters were most clearly articulated in the various rubrics of the successive prayer books, as well as the Thirty-nine Articles of Religion (1563). These articles have historically shaped and continue to direct the ethos of the communion, an ethos reinforced by its interpretation and expansion by such influential early theologians such as Richard Hooker, Lancelot Andrewes and John Cosin. With the expansion of the British Empire and the growth of Anglicanism outside Great Britain and Ireland, the communion sought to establish new vehicles of unity. The first major expressions of this were the Lambeth Conferences of the communion's bishops, first convened in 1867 by Charles Longley, the archbishop of Canterbury. From the beginning, these were not intended to displace the autonomy of the emerging provinces of the communion, but to "discuss matters of practical interest, and pronounce what we deem expedient in resolutions which may serve as safe guides to future action".<ref>Davidson, R. T. (ed.) (1889). The Lambeth Conferences of 1867, 1878, and 1888: With the Official Reports and Resolutions Together with the Sermons Preached at the Conferences. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.</ref> Chicago Lambeth Quadrilateral One of the enduringly influential early resolutions of the conference was the so-called Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral of 1888. Its intent was to provide the basis for discussions of reunion with the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches, but it had the ancillary effect of establishing parameters of Anglican identity. It establishes four principles with these words:<ref>The Book of Common Prayer of the Episcopal Church, Seabury Press, 1979, p. 877</ref> {{blockquote\|text= That, in the opinion of this Conference, the following Articles supply a basis on which approach may be by God's blessing made towards Home Reunion: (a) The Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, as "containing all things necessary to salvation," and as being the rule and ultimate standard of faith. (b) The Apostles' Creed, as the Baptismal Symbol; and the Nicene Creed, as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith. (c) The two Sacraments ordained by Christ Himself – Baptism and the Supper of the Lord – ministered with unfailing use of Christ's Words of Institution, and of the elements ordained by Him. (d) The Historic Episcopate, locally adapted in the methods of its administration to the varying needs of the nations and peoples called of God into the Unity of His Church. }} Instruments of communion As mentioned above, the Anglican Communion has no international juridical organisation. The archbishop of Canterbury's role is strictly symbolic and unifying and the communion's three international bodies are consultative and collaborative, their resolutions having no legal effect on the autonomous provinces of the communion. Taken together, however, the four do function as "instruments of communion", since all churches of the communion participate in them. In order of antiquity, they are: (the episcopal throne in Canterbury Cathedral, Kent), seat of the archbishop of Canterbury in his role as head of the Anglican Communion{{NoteTag\|The Chair of St Augustine is the seat of the archbishop of Canterbury in his role as head of the Anglican Communion. Archbishops of Canterbury are enthroned twice: firstly as diocesan ordinary (and metropolitan and primate of the Church of England) in the archbishop's throne, by the archdeacon of Canterbury; and secondly as leader of the worldwide church in the Chair of St Augustine by the senior (by length of service) archbishop of the Anglican Communion. The stone chair is therefore of symbolic significance throughout Anglicanism.}}]] # The archbishop of Canterbury functions as the spiritual head of the communion.<ref>{{cite web \|title Anglican Communion \|url http://www.archbishopofcanterbury.org/pages/anglican-communion.html \|website www.archbishopofcanterbury.org \|access-date 4 October 2015 }}</ref> The archbishop is the focus of unity, since no church claims membership in the communion without being in communion with him. The office is currently vacant. # The Lambeth Conference<ref name"Bodies">{{cite web \|title Anglican international bodies\|url http://www.archbishopofcanterbury.org/pages/instruments-of-communion.html \|website www.archbishopofcanterbury.org \|access-date = 4 October 2015 }}</ref> (first held in 1867) is the oldest international consultation. It is a forum for bishops of the communion to reinforce unity and collegiality through manifesting the episcopate, to discuss matters of mutual concern, and to pass resolutions intended to act as guideposts. It is held roughly every ten years and invitation is by the archbishop of Canterbury. # The Anglican Consultative Council<ref name="Bodies" /> (first met in 1971) was created by a 1968 Lambeth Conference resolution, and meets usually at three-yearly intervals. The council consists of representative bishops, other clergy and laity chosen by the 38 provinces. The body has a permanent secretariat, the Anglican Communion Office, of which the archbishop of Canterbury is president. # The Primates' Meeting<ref name="Bodies" /> (first met in 1979) is the most recent manifestation of international consultation and deliberation, having been first convened by Archbishop Donald Coggan as a forum for "leisurely thought, prayer and deep consultation".<ref>Jeremy Morris, The Oxford History of Anglicanism, Volume IV: Global Western Anglicanism, c. 1910–Present (Oxford University Press, 2017), 320–22. {{ISBN\|9780192518262}}</ref> Since there is no binding authority in the Anglican Communion, these international bodies are a vehicle for consultation and persuasion. In recent times, persuasion has tipped over into debates over conformity in certain areas of doctrine, discipline, worship and ethics. The most notable example has been the objection of many provinces of the communion (particularly in Africa and Asia) to the changing acceptance of LGBTQ+ individuals in the North American churches (e.g., by blessing same-sex unions and ordaining and consecrating same-sex relationships) and to the process by which changes were undertaken. (See Anglican realignment) Those who objected condemned these actions as unscriptural, unilateral, and without the agreement of the communion prior to these steps being taken. In response, the American Episcopal Church and the Anglican Church of Canada answered that the actions had been undertaken after lengthy scriptural and theological reflection, legally in accordance with their own canons and constitutions and after extensive consultation with the provinces of the communion. The Primates' Meeting voted to request the two churches to withdraw their delegates from the 2005 meeting of the Anglican Consultative Council. Canada and the United States decided to attend the meeting but without exercising their right to vote. They have not been expelled or suspended, since there is no mechanism in this voluntary association to suspend or expel an independent province of the communion. Since membership is based on a province's communion with Canterbury, expulsion would require the archbishop of Canterbury's refusal to be in communion with the affected jurisdictions. In line with the suggestion of the Windsor Report, Rowan Williams (the then archbishop of Canterbury) established a working group to examine the feasibility of an Anglican covenant which would articulate the conditions for communion in some fashion.<ref>{{cite web\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060714012659/http://www.anglicancommunion.org/acns/articles/41/50/acns4164.cfm\|archive-date14 July 2006\|urlhttp://www.anglicancommunion.org/acns/articles/41/50/acns4164.cfm \|titleArchbishop of Canterbury: address to General Synod on the Anglican Communion\|publisherACNS\|date7 July 2006}}</ref> Organisation Provinces thumb\|upright3.65\|<div class"center">A world map showing the provinces of the Anglican Communion: {\| border"0" width"100%" \|- \| {{legend\|#00A2E8\|Autonomous churches}} {{legend\|#FFF200\|Episcopal Church of the United States}} {{legend\|#22B14C\|Church in the Province of the West Indies}} {{legend\|#05CD7D\|Anglican Church in Central America}} {{legend\|#B5E61D\|Anglican Church of South America}} {{legend\|#ED1C24\|Anglican Church of Southern Africa}} {{legend\|#FFAEC9\|Church of the Province of Central Africa}} {{legend\|#FF00FF\|Church of the Province of West Africa}} \| \| {{legend\|#A349A4\|Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East}} {{legend\|#C8BFE7\|Church of the Province of the Indian Ocean}} {{legend\|#FF7F27\|Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia}} {{legend\|#FFC90E\|Church of the Province of Melanesia}} {{legend\|#99D9EA\|Diocese in Europe of the Church of England}} {{legend\|#B4181D\|Extra-provincial to the archbishop of Canterbury}} {{legend\|#FF0080\|Church of the Province of South East Asia}} {{legend\|#DADADA\|No organised Anglican presence}} \|} The Church of Ireland serves both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland and the Anglican Church of Korea serves South Korea and, theoretically, North Korea. Indian Anglicanism is divided into the Church of North India, and the Church of South India. The Diocese in Europe (formally the Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe), in the Province of Canterbury, is also present in Portugal and Spain. The Episcopal Church, USA-affiliated Convocation of Episcopal Churches in Europe has affiliates in Austria, Belgium, France, Georgia, Germany and Italy.</div>\|center The Anglican Communion consists of forty-two autonomous provinces each with its own primate and governing structure. These provinces may take the form of national churches (such as in Canada, Uganda, or Japan) or a collection of nations (such as the West Indies, Central Africa, or Southeast Asia). {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"width: 100%;" \|- ! Provinces ! Territorial Jurisdiction ! data-sort-type="number"\| Membership (in thousands of people) \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Alexandria"\| Episcopal/Anglican Province of Alexandria \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Algeria, Djibouti, Egypt, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Libya, Somalia, Tunisia \| \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"New Zealand" \| Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| New Zealand, Cook Islands, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga \|469<ref name="StatsNewZealand" /> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Australia"\| Anglican Church of Australia \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Australia \|3,100<ref name="StatsAustralia" /> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Bangladesh"\| Church of Bangladesh \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Bangladesh \|30+<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/church-of-bangladesh\|titleChurch of Bangladesh – World Council of Churches\|websitewww.oikoumene.org\|dateJanuary 1975 \|languageen\|access-date14 June 2016\|archive-date24 June 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130624013655/http://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/church-of-bangladesh\|url-status=live}}</ref> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Brazil"\| Anglican Episcopal Church of Brazil \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Brazil \|120<ref name="StatsBrazil" /> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Burundi"\| Province of the Anglican Church of Burundi \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Burundi \|800<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/anglican-church-of-burundi\|titleAnglican Church of Burundi – World Council of Churches\|websitewww.oikoumene.org\|dateJanuary 1961 \|languageen\|access-date14 June 2016}}</ref> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Canada"\| Anglican Church of Canada \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Canada \|294<ref name"acc-stats-dioceses-2022">{{cite web \|last1Elliot \|first1Neil \|titleDioceses of the ACC – by numbers \|urlhttps://numbersmatters.ca/2024/03/15/dioceses-of-the-acc-by-numbers/ \|websiteNumbers Matters \|publisher(Neil Elliot is the statistics officer for the Anglican Church of Canada.) \|access-date17 March 2024 \|date=15 March 2024}}</ref> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Central Africa"\| Church of the Province of Central Africa \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Botswana, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe \|900<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/church-of-the-province-of-central-africa\|titleChurch of the Province of Central Africa – World Council of Churches\|websitewww.oikoumene.org\|dateJanuary 1956 \|languageen\|access-date14 June 2016}}</ref> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Central America"\| Anglican Church in Central America \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Panama \|35 \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Chile"\| Anglican Church of Chile \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Chile \|20<ref name"iach.cl">{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.iach.cl/2018/11/05/iglesia-anglicana-de-chile-se-convierte-en-la-provincia-40o-del-mundo/ \|titleIglesia Anglicana de Chile se convierte en la provincia 40º del mundo, Anglican Church of Chile Official Website (Spanish) \|access-date7 November 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181107225133/http://www.iach.cl/2018/11/05/iglesia-anglicana-de-chile-se-convierte-en-la-provincia-40o-del-mundo/ \|archive-date7 November 2018 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Congo"\| Province of the Anglican Church of the Congo \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of Congo \|500<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/church-of-christ-in-congo-anglican-community-of-congo\|titleChurch of Christ in Congo – Anglican Community of Congo – World Council of Churches\|websitewww.oikoumene.org\|dateJanuary 1961 \|languageen\|access-date14 June 2016}}</ref> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"England"\| Church of England \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| England, Crown Dependencies, Europe \|26,000<ref name="StatsEngland" /> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Hong Kong"\| Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Hong Kong, Macau \|29<ref name="How Big?"/> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Indian Ocean"\| Church of the Province of the Indian Ocean \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles \|505 \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Ireland"\| Church of Ireland \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland \|375<ref>{{cite web \|title The Church of Ireland – About Us \|url https://www.ireland.anglican.org/about/about-us \|website ireland.anglican.org \|publisher The Church of Ireland \|access-date 7 January 2020 \|archive-date 9 August 2019 \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20190809200439/https://www.ireland.anglican.org/about/about-us \|url-status live }}</ref> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Japan"\| Anglican Church in Japan \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Japan \|32<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.nskk.org/province/en_index.html \|titleAbout Nippon Sei Ko Kai \|websitenskk.org \|access-date9 January 2020 }}</ref> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Jerusalem"\| Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Bahrain, Cyprus, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, United Arab Emirates, Yemen \|40<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/episcopal-church-in-jerusalem-and-the-middle-east\|titleEpiscopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East – World Council of Churches\|websitewww.oikoumene.org\|dateJanuary 1976 \|languageen\|access-date14 June 2016}}</ref> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Kenya"\| Anglican Church of Kenya \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Kenya \|5,000<ref name="StatsKenya" /> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Korea"\| Anglican Church of Korea \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| South Korea, North Korea \|65<ref name="StatsKorea" /> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Melanesia"\| Anglican Church of Melanesia \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| New Caledonia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu \|200<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/church-of-melanesia\|titleChurch of Melanesia – World Council of Churches\|websitewww.oikoumene.org\|dateJanuary 1977 \|languageen\|access-date14 June 2016}}</ref> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Mexico"\| Anglican Church of Mexico \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Mexico \|100<ref name="StatsMexico" /> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Mozambique and Angola"\| Anglican Church of Mozambique and Angola \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Angola and Mozambique \|500<ref>[https://www.almalink.org/news/newsiamainaug.htm ALMA Link &mdash; IAMA: Igreja Anglicana de Mocambique e Angola, New Province for Angola and Mozambique inaugurated] (Accessed 13 October 2021)</ref> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Myanmar"\| Church of the Province of Myanmar \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Myanmar \|62<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/church-of-the-province-of-myanmar\|titleChurch of the Province of Myanmar – World Council of Churches\|websitewww.oikoumene.org\|dateJanuary 1971 \|languageen\|access-date14 June 2016}}</ref> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Nigeria"\| Church of Nigeria \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Nigeria \|18,000<ref name="StatsNigeria" /> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"North India"\| Church of North India \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Bhutan, India \|1,500<ref name="StatsNorthIndia" /> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Pakistan" \| Church of Pakistan \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Pakistan \|500<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/church-of-pakistan\|titleChurch of Pakistan – World Council of Churches\|websitewww.oikoumene.org\|dateJanuary 1971 \|languageen\|access-date14 June 2016\|archive-date7 January 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190107025911/https://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/church-of-pakistan\|url-status=live}}</ref> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Papua New Guinea"\| Anglican Church of Papua New Guinea \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Papua New Guinea \|167 \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Philippines"\| Episcopal Church in the Philippines \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Philippines \|125<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://archived.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/regions/asia/philippines/episcopal-church-in-the-philippines.html\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160810171901/http://archived.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/regions/asia/philippines/episcopal-church-in-the-philippines.html\|url-statusdead\|archive-date10 August 2016\|titleEpiscopal Church in the Philippines\|websitearchived.oikoumene.org\|access-date=14 June 2016}}</ref> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Rwanda"\| Anglican Church of Rwanda \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Rwanda \|1,000<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/province-of-the-episcopal-church-in-rwanda\|titleProvince of the Anglican Church in Rwanda – World Council of Churches\|websitewww.oikoumene.org\|dateJanuary 1961 \|languageen\|access-date14 June 2016}}</ref> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Scotland"\| Scottish Episcopal Church \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Scotland \|24<ref>{{cite web \|title39th Annual Report \|urlhttps://www.scotland.anglican.org/wp-content/uploads/39th-Annual-Report-Final.pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.scotland.anglican.org/wp-content/uploads/36th-Annual-Report-Final-2.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|access-date8 February 2023 \|website=The Scottish Episcopal Church}}</ref> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"South America"\| Anglican Church of South America \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay \|23<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/anglican-church-of-south-america\|titleAnglican Church of South America – World Council of Churches\|websitewww.oikoumene.org\|dateJanuary 1995 \|languageen\|access-date14 June 2016\|archive-date15 January 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230115163607/https://www.oikoumene.org/member-churches/anglican-church-of-south-america\|url-status=live}}</ref> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"South East Asia"\| Church of the Province of South East Asia \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Nepal, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam \|98 \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"South India"\| Church of South India \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| India, Sri Lanka \|3,800<ref name="StatsSouthIndia" /> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"South Sudan"\| Province of the Episcopal Church of South Sudan \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| South Sudan \|3,500 \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Southern Africa"\| Anglican Church of Southern Africa \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Eswatini, Lesotho, Namibia, Saint Helena, South Africa \|4,000<ref name="StatsSouthernAfrica" /> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Sudan"\| Province of the Episcopal Church of Sudan \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Sudan \|1,100 \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Tanzania"\| Anglican Church of Tanzania \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Tanzania \|2,000<ref name="StatsTanzania" /> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Uganda"\| Church of Uganda \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Uganda \|8,000<ref name="StatsEngland"/> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"United States"\| Episcopal Church \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| British Virgin Islands, Colombia, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Europe, Guam, Haiti, Honduras, Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, Taiwan, United States, United States Virgin Islands, Venezuela \|1,736<ref name="StatsUSA" /> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"Wales"\| Church in Wales \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Wales \| 46<ref>[https://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/church-wales-spend-10m-breathe-14681635 Church in Wales will spend £10m to 'breathe new life' into its churches] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230115163604/https://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/church-wales-spend-10m-breathe-14681635 \|date15 January 2023 }} 20 May 2018 WalesOnline</ref> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"West Africa"\| Church of the Province of West Africa \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Cameroon, Cape Verde, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Senegal, Sierra Leone \|300<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/church-of-the-province-of-west-africa\|titleChurch of the Province of West Africa – World Council of Churches\|websitewww.oikoumene.org\|dateJanuary 1953 \|languageen\|access-date14 June 2016\|archive-date25 January 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140125193903/http://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/church-of-the-province-of-west-africa\|url-status=live}}</ref> \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" data-sort-value"West Indies"\| Church in the Province of the West Indies \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Montserrat, Saba, Saint Barthélemy, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Martin, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Sint Eustatius, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos Islands \|770<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/church-in-the-province-of-the-west-indies\|titleChurch in the Province of the West Indies – World Council of Churches\|websitewww.oikoumene.org\|dateJanuary 1948 \|languageen\|access-date14 June 2016\|archive-date15 January 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230115163608/https://www.oikoumene.org/member-churches/church-in-the-province-of-the-west-indies\|url-status=live}}</ref> \|} Extraprovincial churches In addition to the forty-two provinces, there are five extraprovincial churches under the metropolitical authority of the archbishop of Canterbury. {\| class"wikitable" style"width: 100%;" \|- ! style="width: 50%;" \| Extra-Provincial Church ! style="width: 50%;" \| Territorial Jurisdiction \|- valign="top" \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Anglican Church of Bermuda \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Bermuda \|- valign="top" \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Church of Ceylon \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Sri Lanka \|- valign="top" \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Parish of the Falkland Islands \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Falkland Islands \|- valign="top" \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Lusitanian Catholic Apostolic Evangelical Church \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Portugal \|- valign="top" \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Spanish Reformed Episcopal Church \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Spain \|} Former provinces {{Incomplete list\|date=January 2019}} {\| class"wikitable" style"width: 100%;" \|- ! Province ! Territorial Jurisdiction ! Year Established ! Year Dissolved \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" \| Chung Hua Sheng Kung Hui {{citation needed\|dateMarch 2021}} \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| China \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1912 \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1949 (1958) \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" \| Church of Hawaii {{citation needed\|dateMarch 2021}} \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Hawaii \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1862 \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1902 \|- valign="top" \| style="vertical-align: top; \| Church of India, Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Pakistan, Sri Lanka \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1930 \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1970 \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top; \| Protestant Episcopal Church in the Confederate States of America<ref name"Bearden">{{cite journal\| last Bearden\| firstRobert E. L. Jr.\| title The Episcopal Church in the Confederate States \| journalThe Arkansas Historical Quarterly\| volume 4\| issue4\| pages269–275\| dateWinter 1945\| doi10.2307/40018361\| jstor40018361}}</ref> \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| Confederate States of America \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1861 \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1865 \|- valign="top" \| style"vertical-align: top;" \| United Church of England and Ireland {{citation needed\|dateMarch 2021}} \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| England, Wales, Ireland \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1800 \| style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1871 \|} New provinces in formation In September 2020, the Archbishop of Canterbury announced that he had asked the bishops of the Church of Ceylon to begin planning for the formation of an autonomous province of Ceylon, so as to end his current position as metropolitan of the two dioceses in that country.<ref>{{cite web \|url https://livingchurch.org/2020/09/30/in-rare-move-welby-appoints-sri-lankan-bishop/ \|title In Rare Move, Welby Appoints Sri Lankan Bishop \|author-first1Mark\|author-last1Michael\|date 30 September 2020 \|publisher The Living Church \|location \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20230115163622/https://livingchurch.org/2020/09/30/in-rare-move-welby-appoints-sri-lankan-bishop/ \|archive-date 15 January 2023 \|url-status live \|access-date 9 February 2021 \|quote }}</ref> Churches in full communion In addition to other member churches, the churches of the Anglican Communion are in full communion with the Old Catholic churches of the Union of Utrecht and the Scandinavian Lutheran churches of the Porvoo Communion in Europe, the India-based Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian and Malabar Independent Syrian churches and the Philippine Independent Church, also known as the Aglipayan Church. Ecumenical relations {{further\|topicthe ongoing dialogue between Anglicanism and the wider Church\|Anglican Communion and ecumenism}}Historic episcopateThe churches of the Anglican Communion have traditionally held that ordination in the historic episcopate is a core element in the validity of clerical ordinations.{{sfn\|Whipple\|Gilbert\|Nichols\|Wright\|1896\|p}} The Roman Catholic Church, however, does not recognise Anglican orders (see Apostolicae curae).{{sfn\|O'Riordan\|1907}} Some Eastern Orthodox churches have issued statements to the effect that Anglican orders could be accepted, yet have still reordained former Anglican clergy; other Eastern Orthodox churches have rejected Anglican orders altogether. Orthodox bishop Kallistos Ware explains this apparent discrepancy as follows: {{blockquote\|Anglican clergy who join the Orthodox Church are reordained; but [some Orthodox churches hold that] if Anglicanism and Orthodoxy were to reach full unity in the faith, perhaps such reordination might not be found necessary. It should be added, however, that a number of individual Orthodox theologians hold that under no circumstances would it be possible to recognise the validity of Anglican Orders.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.fatheralexander.org/booklets/english/history_timothy_ware_2.htm \|titleExcerpts from the Orthodox Church by Bishop Kallistos Ware \|publisherFatheralexander.org \|access-date20 July 2012 \|archive-date17 July 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120717012001/http://www.fatheralexander.org/booklets/english/history_timothy_ware_2.htm \|url-statuslive }}</ref>}}See also{{col div\|colwidth30em}} * Acts of Supremacy * English Reformation * Dissolution of the Monasteries * Ritualism in the Church of England * Apostolicae curae * Affirming Catholicism * Anglican ministry * Anglo-Catholicism * British Israelism * Church Society * Church's Ministry Among Jewish People * Compass rose * Evangelical Anglicanism * Flag of the Anglican Communion * Liberal Anglo-Catholicism * List of the largest Protestant bodies * Reform (Anglican) * Anglican Use {{col div end}} Notes {{NoteFoot}} References Citations {{Reflist \|refs <ref name"StatsNigeria">{{cite web\|urlhttp://anglican-nig.org/anglican-heritage-with-emphasis-on-the-church-of-nigeria-anglican-communion/\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160507025754/http://anglican-nig.org/anglican-heritage-with-emphasis-on-the-church-of-nigeria-anglican-communion/\|url-statusdead\|archive-date7 May 2016\|titleAnglican Heritage With Emphasis on The Church of Nigeria (Anglican Communion)\|date15 August 2013\|websiteanglican-nig.org\|publisherChurch of Nigeria\|access-date=3 May 2016}}</ref> <ref name"StatsEngland">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn9780521008662&ssexc\|title A History of Global Anglicanism – Cambridge University Press\|websitewww.cambridge.org\|access-date=3 May 2016}}</ref> <ref name"StatsKenya">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/anglican-church-of-kenya\|titleAnglican Church of Kenya – World Council of Churches\|websitewww.oikoumene.org\|dateJanuary 1948 \|languageen\|access-date3 May 2016\|archive-date15 January 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230115164153/https://www.oikoumene.org/member-churches/anglican-church-of-kenya\|url-statuslive}}</ref> <ref name"StatsSouthernAfrica">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.anglicanchurchsa.org/view.asp?pgabout\|titleAnglican Church of Southern Africa (ACSA)\|websitewww.anglicanchurchsa.org\|access-date3 May 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160321235240/http://anglicanchurchsa.org/view.asp?pgabout\|archive-date21 March 2016\|url-statusdead}}</ref> <ref name"StatsSouthIndia">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.csimichigan.org/ChurchofSouthIndia.html\|titleCSI Christ Church – Location Map\|websitewww.csimichigan.org\|access-date6 January 2018\|archive-date20 February 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140220160917/http://www.csimichigan.org/ChurchofSouthIndia.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> <ref name"StatsAustralia">{{cite web \|urlhttp://tma.melbourneanglican.org.au/news/anglicans-fall-in-census-280617 \|titleNumber of Australian Anglicans falls by 580,000 in five years: Census 2016 \|publishertma.melbourneanglican.org.au \|date28 June 2017 \|access-date6 January 2019 \|archive-date20 March 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180320190525/http://tma.melbourneanglican.org.au/news/anglicans-fall-in-census-280617 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> <ref name"StatsTanzania">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/anglican-church-of-tanzania\|titleAnglican Church of Tanzania – World Council of Churches\|websitewww.oikoumene.org\|dateJanuary 1948 \|languageen\|access-date3 May 2016\|archive-date10 March 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140310022247/http://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/anglican-church-of-tanzania\|url-statuslive}}</ref> <ref name"StatsUSA">{{cite web \|urlhttps://extranet.generalconvention.org/staff/files/download/30697 \|titleTable of Statistics of the Episcopal Church (2020) \|publishergeneralconvention.org \|access-date26 June 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220407001431/https://extranet.generalconvention.org/staff/files/download/30697 \|archive-date7 April 2022 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> <ref name"StatsNorthIndia">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/church-of-north-india\|titleChurch of North India – World Council of Churches\|websitewww.oikoumene.org\|dateJanuary 1948 \|languageen\|access-date3 May 2016\|archive-date15 January 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230115164157/https://www.oikoumene.org/member-churches/church-of-north-india\|url-statuslive}}</ref> <ref name"StatsNewZealand">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.anglican.org.nz/About\|titleAbout / Home – Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia\|lastPolynesia\|firstAnglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and\|websitewww.anglican.org.nz\|access-date6 January 2019\|archive-date15 January 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190115054313/http://anglican.org.nz/About\|url-statuslive}}</ref> <ref name"How Big?">{{cite web\|urlhttp://churchsociety.org/issues_new/communion/iss_communion_howbig.asp\|titleChurch Society – Issues – Anglican Communion – How Big?\|websitechurchsociety.org\|access-date3 May 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190811225118/http://churchsociety.org/issues_new/communion/iss_communion_howbig.asp\|archive-date11 August 2019\|url-statusdead}}</ref> <ref name"StatsBrazil">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/episcopal-anglican-church-of-brazil\|titleEpiscopal Anglican Church of Brazil – World Council of Churches\|websitewww.oikoumene.org\|dateJanuary 1966 \|languageen\|access-date3 May 2016\|archive-date25 April 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140425173652/https://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/episcopal-anglican-church-of-brazil\|url-statuslive}}</ref> <ref name"StatsMexico">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.cronica.com.mx/notas/2009/467560.html\|titleAnglicanos mexicanos rechazan unirse a la Iglesia católica\|websitewww.cronica.com.mx\|access-date3 May 2016\|archive-date19 December 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201219205914/http://www.cronica.com.mx/notas/2009/467560.html\|url-statusdead}}</ref> <ref name"StatsKorea">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/anglican-church-of-korea\|titleAnglican Church of Korea – World Council of Churches\|websitewww.oikoumene.org\|dateJanuary 1999 \|languageen\|access-date3 May 2016\|archive-date30 May 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160530064241/http://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/anglican-church-of-korea/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> }} Sources {{refbegin\|40em\|indent=yes}} * {{cite book \|last=Avis \|first=Paul \|year=1998 \|chapter=What is 'Anglicanism'? \|editor1-last=Booty \|editor1-first=John E. \|editor2-last=Sykes \|editor2-first=Stephen \|editor2-link=Stephen Sykes \|editor3-last=Knight \|editor3-first=Jonathan \|title=The Study of Anglicanism \|edition=rev. \|location=London \|publisher=SPCK \|publication-date=2004 \|pages=417–419 \|isbn=978-1-4514-1118-8 }} * {{cite journal \|last1=Brittain \|first1=Christopher Craig \|last2=McKinnon \|first2=Andrew \|year=2011 \|title=Homosexuality and the Construction of "Anglican Orthodoxy": The Symbolic Politics of the Anglican Communion \|journal=Sociology of Religion \|volume=72 \|issue=3 \|pages=351–373 \|issn=1069-4404 \|doi=10.1093/socrel/srq088 \|hdl=2164/3055 \|url=http://aura.abdn.ac.uk/bitstream/2164/3055/1/Anglican_Communion_Conflict_revision_01102010.pdf \|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://aura.abdn.ac.uk/bitstream/2164/3055/1/Anglican_Communion_Conflict_revision_01102010.pdf \|archive-date=9 October 2022 \|url-status=live \|hdl-access=free }} * {{cite book \|last=Chapman \|first=Mark \|year=2006 \|title=Anglicanism: A Very Short Introduction \|location=Oxford \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-157819-9 }} * {{cite book \|year=1957 \|editor-last=Cross \|editor-first=F. L. \|editor-link=Frank Leslie Cross \|title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church \|location=London \|publisher=Oxford University Press }} * {{cite book \|last=Jenkins \|first=Philip \|author-link=Philip Jenkins \|year=2002 \|title=The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity \|url=https://archive.org/details/nextchristendomt00jenk \|url-access=registration \|location=Oxford \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-803341-7 }} * {{cite journal \|last1=McKinnon \|first1=Andrew M. \|last2=Trzebiatowska \|first2=Marta \|last3=Brittain \|first3=Christopher Craig \|year=2011 \|title=Bourdieu, Capital, and Conflict in a Religious Field: The Case of the 'Homosexuality' Conflict in the Anglican Communion \|journal=Journal of Contemporary Religion \|volume=26 \|issue=3 \|pages=355–370 \|issn=1353-7903 \|doi=10.1080/13537903.2011.616033 \|hdl=2164/4260 \|s2cid=144493775 \|url=http://aura.abdn.ac.uk/bitstream/2164/4260/1/Religiousfields_author_non_format.pdf \|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://aura.abdn.ac.uk/bitstream/2164/4260/1/Religiousfields_author_non_format.pdf \|archive-date=9 October 2022 \|url-status=live \|hdl-access=free }} * {{cite book \|year=2005 \|chapter=Anglican Communion/Anglican Consultative Council \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbW3sXBjnokkC&pg=PA27 \|editor-last=Melton \|editor-first=J. Gordon \|editor-link=J. Gordon Melton \|title=Encyclopedia of Protestantism \|series=Encyclopedias of World Religions \|location=New York \|publisher=Facts on File \|pages=27–29 \|isbn=978-0-8160-6983-5 \|access-date=6 December 2020 \|archive-date=15 January 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230115164200/https://books.google.com/books?idbW3sXBjnokkC&pg=PA27 \|url-status=live }} * {{cite journal \|last=Miller \|first=Duane Alexander \|year=2014 \|title=The Bricolage of Global Anglicanism \|url=https://www.academia.edu/6408119 \|journal=Anglican and Episcopal History \|volume=83 \|issue=1 \|pages=67–73 \|issn=0896-8039 \|jstor=43049823 \|access-date=2 February 2015 \|archive-date=15 January 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115165720/https://www.academia.edu/6408119 \|url-status=live }} * {{cite Catholic Encyclopedia \|last=O'Riordan \|first=Michael \|authorlink=Michael O'Riordan (priest) \|wstitle=Apostolicae Curae \|volume=1 \|pages=644–645 \|noicon=1 }} * {{cite book \|last=Pickering \|first=W. S. F. \|year=2008 \|title=Anglo-Catholicism: A Study in Religious Ambiguity \|edition=rev. \|location=Cambridge, England \|publisher=James Clarke & Co. \|isbn=978-0-227-67988-3 }} * {{cite book \|last=Ward \|first=Kevin \|year=2006 \|title=A History of Global Anglicanism \|location=Cambridge, England \|publisher=Cambridge University Press \|isbn=978-0-521-00866-2 }} * {{cite book \|last1=Whipple \|first1=H. B. \|author1-link=Henry Benjamin Whipple \|last2=Gilbert \|first2=M. N. \|last3=Nichols \|first3=Harry P. \|last4=Wright \|first4=John \|last5=Faude \|first5=John J. \|last6=Ten Broeck \|first6=Wm. P. \|year=1896 \|title=Unity and the Lambeth Declaration: Lectures Under the Auspices of the Minnesota Church Club, 1896 \|url=http://anglicanhistory.org/usa/whipple/unity1896/ \|location=Milwaukee, Wisconsin \|publisher=The Young Churchman \|access-date=11 October 2017 \|archive-date=17 July 2011 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717054256/http://anglicanhistory.org/usa/whipple/unity1896/ \|url-status=live }} {{refend}} Further reading {{refbegin\|35em\|indent=yes}} * Buchanan, Colin. Historical Dictionary of Anglicanism (2nd ed. 2015) [https://www.amazon.com/Historical-Dictionary-Anglicanism-Dictionaries-Philosophies/dp/1442250151 excerpt] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190401183815/https://www.amazon.com/Historical-Dictionary-Anglicanism-Dictionaries-Philosophies/dp/1442250151 \|date1 April 2019 }} * {{cite book\|last1D'Arcy\|first1Charles Frederick\|last2Jayne\|first2Francis John\|last3Paige Cox\|first3W.L.\|titleAnglican Essays: A Collective Review of the Principles and Special Opportunities of the Anglican Communion as Catholic and Reformed : with Extracts from the Pastorals of the Late Bishop Jayne &#91;Francis John Jayne&#93;\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idBi0LSQAACAAJ\|year1923\|publisher=Macmillan}} * {{cite book\|editor1-firstErwin\|editor1-lastFahlbusch\|editor2-firstGeoffrey William\|editor2-lastBromiley\|titleThe Encyclopedia of Christianity\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idznyunAEACAAJ\|volume1\|year1999\|publisherEerdmans\|isbn978-90-04-11316-9\|pages57–59}} * Hebert, A. G. The Form of the Church. London: Faber and Faber, 1944. * Wild, John. What is the Anglican Communion?, in series, The Advent Papers. Cincinnati, Ohio: Forward Movement Publications, [196-]. Note.: Expresses the "Anglo-Catholic" viewpoint. {{refend}} External links * {{official website}} * [http://www.anglicansonline.org/ Anglicans Online] * [http://anglicanhistory.org Project Canterbury] Anglican historical documents from around the world * [http://www.anglicannews.org/news/1997/01/aco-the-anglican-communion.aspx Brief description and history of the Anglican Communion] 1997 article from the Anglican Communion Office {{Anglican Communion Churches}} {{Anglicanism (footer)}} {{Christianity footer}} {{Anglican Liturgy\|state=collapsed}} {{Portal bar\|Christianity\|Religion\|Society}} {{Authority control}} Category:1867 establishments in England Category:Religious organizations established in 1867 Category:Religion in the British Empire	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican_Communion	2025-04-05T18:25:26.554547
910	Arne Kaijser	{{Short description\|Swedish academic (born 1950)}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=March 2024}} {{Infobox person \| name = Arne Kaijser \| image = Arne Kaijser (32368322035).jpg \| alt \| caption Kaijser in 2016 \| birth_name \| birth_date {{birth year and age\|1950}} \| birth_place \| death_date <!-- {{Death date and age\|YYYY\|MM\|DD\|YYYY\|MM\|DD}} (death date then birth date) --> \| death_place \| nationality \| other_names \| occupation Professor \| years_active \| known_for \| notable_works = }} Arne Kaijser (born 1950) is a professor emeritus of history of technology at the KTH Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, and a former president of the Society for the History of Technology.<ref>{{Cite web\|date3 January 2013\|titleNewsletter #124 – Summer 2010 – President's Message\|urlhttps://www.historyoftechnology.org/2013/01/03/newsletter-124-summer-2010-presidents-message/\|access-date5 January 2021\|websiteSociety for the History of Technology (SHOT)\|languageen\|archive-date20 January 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210120190314/https://www.historyoftechnology.org/2013/01/03/newsletter-124-summer-2010-presidents-message/\|url-status=live}}</ref> Kaijser has published two books in Swedish: Stadens ljus. Etableringen av de första svenska gasverken and I fädrens spår. Den svenska infrastrukturens historiska utveckling och framtida utmaningar, and has co-edited several anthologies. Kaijser is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences since 2007 and also a member of the editorial board of two scientific journals: Journal of Urban Technology and Centaurus. Lately, he has been occupied with the history of Large Technical Systems. References {{Reflist}} External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050915210930/http://www.indek.kth.se/indek/medarbetare/index.php?module=pnAddressBook Homepage] *{{in lang\|sv}} [http://www.indek.kth.se/indek/medarbetare/index.php?moduleContentExpress&funcdisplay&ceid11&bid21&btitlePersonliga%20sidor&meid19 Extended homepage]{{dead link\|dateOctober 2016 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Kaijser, Arne}} Category:1950 births Category:Living people Category:20th-century Swedish historians Category:Academic staff of the KTH Royal Institute of Technology Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences Category:Historians of science Category:Historians of technology Category:Linköping University alumni Category:21st-century Swedish historians	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arne_Kaijser	2025-04-05T18:25:26.566127
911	Archipelago	thumb\|upright=1.6\|The Indonesian Archipelago, located in Asia and Oceania, is the largest archipelago in the world. thumb\|The Aegean Sea with its large number of islands is the origin of the term archipelago. thumb\|The Mergui Archipelago in Myanmar An archipelago ( ), sometimes called an island group or island chain, is a chain, cluster, or collection of islands. An archipelago may be in an ocean, a sea, or a smaller body of water. Example archipelagos include the Aegean Islands (the origin of the term), the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, the Stockholm Archipelago, the Malay Archipelago (which includes the Indonesian and Philippine Archipelagos), the Lucayan (Bahamian) Archipelago, the Japanese archipelago, and the Hawaiian archipelago. Etymology The word archipelago is derived from the Italian arcipelago, used as a proper name for the Aegean Sea, itself perhaps a deformation of the Greek Αιγαίον Πέλαγος. Later, usage shifted to refer to the Aegean Islands (since the sea has a large number of islands). The erudite paretymology deriving the word from Ancient Greek ἄρχι-(arkhi-, "chief") and πέλαγος (pélagos, "sea"), proposed by Buondelmonti, can still be found here and there. Geographic types Archipelagos may be found isolated in large amounts of water or neighboring a large land mass. For example, Scotland has more than 700 islands surrounding its mainland, which form an archipelago. Depending on their geological origin, islands forming archipelagos can be referred to as oceanic islands, continental fragments, or continental islands. Oceanic islands Oceanic islands are formed by volcanoes erupting from the ocean floor. The Hawaiian Islands and Galapagos Islands in the Pacific, and Mascarene Islands in the south Indian Ocean are examples. Continental fragments Continental fragments are islands that were once part of a continent, and became separated due to natural disasters. The fragments may also be formed by moving glaciers which cut out land, which then fills with water. The Farallon Islands off the coast of California are examples of continental islands. Continental Islands alt=\|thumb\|The Archipelago Sea with many islands in southwestern Finland Continental islands are islands that were once part of a continent and still sit on the continental shelf, which is the edge of a continent that lies under the ocean. The islands of the Inside Passage off the coast of British Columbia and the Canadian Arctic Archipelago are examples. Artificial archipelagos Artificial archipelagos have been created in various countries for different purposes. Palm Islands and The World Islands in Dubai were or are being created for leisure and tourism purposes. Marker Wadden in the Netherlands is being built as a conservation area for birds and other wildlife. Superlatives The largest archipelago in the world by number of islands is the Archipelago Sea, which is part of Finland. There are approximately 40,000 islands, mostly uninhabited. The largest archipelagic state in the world by area, and by population, is Indonesia. See also List of landforms List of archipelagos by number of islands List of archipelagos Archipelagic state List of islands Aquapelago References External links 30 Most Incredible Island Archipelagos Category:Coastal and oceanic landforms Category:Oceanographical terminology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipelago	2025-04-05T18:25:26.572502
914	Author	{{short description\|Creator of an original work}} {{other uses}} {{pp-pc}} {{Multiple issues\|{{more citations needed\|date=October 2017}} {{Tone\|date= October 2022}}}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=June 2022}} In legal discourse, an author is the creator of an original work that has been published, whether that work is in written, graphic, or recorded medium.<ref name"LII">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/author \|titleAuthor\|publisherCornell Law School Legal Information Institute\|access-dateJune 18, 2023}}</ref> The creation of such a work is an act of authorship. Thus, a sculptor, painter, or composer, is an author of their respective sculptures, paintings, or compositions, even though in common parlance, an author is often thought of as the writer of a book, article, play, or other written work.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAUTHOR {{!}} English Meaning - Cambridge Dictionary \|urlhttps://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/author \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230306044847/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/author \|archive-dateMar 6, 2023 \|websiteCambridge Dictionary}}</ref> In the case of a work for hire, the employer or commissioning party is considered the author of the work, even if they did not write or otherwise create the work, but merely instructed another individual to do so.<ref name"LII"/> Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work, i.e. the author. If more than one person created the work, then a case of joint authorship takes place. Copyright laws differ around the world. The United States Copyright Office, for example, defines copyright as "a form of protection provided by the laws of the United States (title 17, U.S. Code) to authors of 'original works of authorship.{{'"}}<ref name":0">{{Citation \|titleCopyright Office Basics \|dateJuly 2006 \|urlhttp://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ1.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080328100026/http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ1.html \|publisherU.S. Copyright Office \|access-date30 March 2007 \|archive-date28 March 2008 \|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref name":1">{{Cite web \|titleU.S.C. Title 17 - COPYRIGHTS \|urlhttps://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2011-title17/html/USCODE-2011-title17.htm \|access-date2022-10-20 \|websitewww.govinfo.gov}}</ref> Some works are considered to be author-less. For example, the monkey selfie copyright dispute in the 2010s involved photographs taken by Celebes crested macaques using equipment belonging to a nature photographer. The photographer asserted authorship of the photographs, which the United States Copyright Office denied, stating: "To qualify as a work of 'authorship' a work must be created by a human being".<ref name"Compendium313.2">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.copyright.gov/comp3/docs/compendium-12-22-14.pdf \|titleCompendium of U.S. Copyright Office Practices, § 313.2 \|page22 \|publisherUnited States Copyright Office \|date22 December 2014 \|access-date27 April 2015 \|quoteTo qualify as a work of 'authorship' a work must be created by a human being. ... Works that do not satisfy this requirement are not copyrightable. The Office will not register works produced by nature, animals, or plants.}}</ref> More recently, questions have arisen as to whether images or text created by a generative artificial intelligence have an author. Legal significance of authorship Holding the title of "author" over any "literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, [or] certain other intellectual works" gives rights to this person, the owner of the copyright, especially the exclusive right to engage in or authorize any production or distribution of their work.<ref name":0" /><ref name":1" /> Any person or entity wishing to use intellectual property held under copyright must receive permission from the copyright holder to use this work, and often will be asked to pay for the use of copyrighted material.<ref name=":1" /> The copyrights on intellectual work expire after a certain time. It enters the public domain, where it can be used without limit.<ref name=":1" /> Copyright laws in many jurisdictions – mostly following the lead of the United States, in which the entertainment and publishing industries have very strong lobbying power – have been amended repeatedly since their inception, to extend the length of this fixed period where the work is exclusively controlled by the copyright holder. Technically, someone owns their work from the time it's created. A notable aspect of authorship emerges with copyright in that, in many jurisdictions, it can be passed down to another, upon one's death. The person who inherits the copyright is not the author, but has access to the same legal benefits. Intellectual property laws are complex. Works of fiction involve trademark law, likeness rights, fair use rights held by the public (including the right to parody or satirize), and many other interacting complications.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2013-03-29 \|titleOverview of Intellectual Property Laws \|urlhttps://fairuse.stanford.edu/overview/introduction/intellectual-property-laws/ \|access-date2022-12-28 \|websiteStanford Copyright and Fair Use Center \|languageen-US}}</ref> Authors may portion out the different rights that they hold to different parties at different times, and for different purposes or uses, such as the right to adapt a plot into a film, television series, or video game. If another party chooses to adapt the work, they may have to alter plot elements or character names in order to avoid infringing previous adaptations. An author may also not have rights when working under contract that they would otherwise have, such as when creating a work for hire (e.g., hired to write a city tour guide by a municipal government that totally owns the copyright to the finished work), or when writing material using intellectual property owned by others (such as when writing a novel or screenplay that is a new installment in an already established media franchise). In the United States, the Copyright Clause of the Constitution of the United States (Article I, Section 8, Clause 8) provides the Congress with the power of "securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries".<ref namecrs>{{cite book \|titleU.S. Constitution Annotated \|publisherCongressional Research Service \|urlhttps://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-1/section-8/clause-8/copyrights-and-patents \|access-date17 September 2021 \|chapterCOPYRIGHTS AND PATENTS}}</ref> The language regarding authors was derived from proposals by Charles Pinckney, "to secure to authors exclusive rights for a limited time", and by James Madison, "to secure to literary authors their copyrights for a limited time", or, in the alternative, "to encourage, by proper premiums & Provisions, the advancement of useful knowledge and discoveries".<ref name"William F. Patry 1994">William F. Patry, Copyright Law and Practice (1994).</ref> Both proposals were referred to the Committee of Detail, which reported back a proposal containing the final language, which was incorporated into the Constitution by unanimous agreement of the convention.<ref name"William F. Patry 1994"/> Philosophical views of the nature of authorship {{expand section\|information about any theories of authorship other than postmodern ones. What do other philosophers think of authorship?\|date=August 2021}} The Statute of Anne in 1710 set a legal precedent which laid the foundations of copyright, further establishing an author as the sole creator of a literary work. While this legislation acknowledged that an author's words were their Intellectual property, it in no way protected that author's ideas. For example, one writer could legally copy another writer's plot exactly, as long as the words were not copied verbatim. In other words, the Statue of Anne protected an author's form of expression but not the thoughts behind their words.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastSutherland \|firstJohn \|titleA little history of literature \|date2014 \|publisherYale Univ. Press \|isbn978-0-300-20531-2 \|edition1. publ. in paperback \|locationNew Haven, Conn. \|pages=72–73}}</ref> was a prominent Irish novelist, poet and literary critic during the 20th century.]] In literary theory, critics find complications in the term author beyond what constitutes authorship in a legal setting. In the wake of postmodern literature, critics such as Roland Barthes and Michel Foucault have examined the role and relevance of authorship to the meaning or interpretation of a literary text. Barthes challenges the idea that a text can be attributed to any single author. He writes, in his essay "Death of the Author" (1968), that "it is language which speaks, not the author."<ref name="barthes">{{Citation \| last = Barthes \|first = Roland \| chapter = The Death of the Author \| year = 1968 \| title Image, Music, Text \|publisher Fontana Press \| publication-date 1997 \| isbn 0-00-686135-0}}</ref> The words and language of a text itself determine and expose meaning for Barthes, and not someone possessing legal responsibility for the process of its production. Every line of written text is a mere reflection of references from any of a multitude of traditions, or, as Barthes puts it, "the text is a tissue of quotations drawn from the innumerable centers of culture"; it is never original.<ref name"barthes"/> With this, the perspective of the author is removed from the text, and the limits formerly imposed by the idea of one authorial voice, one ultimate and universal meaning, are destroyed. The explanation and meaning of a work does not have to be sought in the one who produced it, "as if it were always in the end, through the more or less transparent allegory of the fiction, the voice of a single person, the author 'confiding' in us."<ref name"barthes"/> The psyche, culture, fanaticism of an author can be disregarded when interpreting a text, because the words are rich enough themselves with all of the traditions of language. To expose meanings in a written work without appealing to the celebrity of an author, their tastes, passions, vices, is, to Barthes, to allow language to speak, rather than author. Michel Foucault argues in his essay "What is an author?" (1969) that all authors are writers, but not all writers are authors. He states that "a private letter may have a signatory—it does not have an author."<ref name="Foucault">{{Citation \| last = Foucault \| first = Michel \| chapter = What is an Author? \| year = 1969 \| editor-last = Harari \| editor-first = Josué V. \| title = Textual Strategies: Perspectives in Post-Structuralist Criticism \| publisher = Cornell University Press \| place = Ithaca, NY \| publication-date 1979 }}</ref> For a reader to assign the title of author upon any written work is to attribute certain standards upon the text which, for Foucault, are working in conjunction with the idea of "the author function."<ref name"Foucault"/> Foucault's author function is the idea that an author exists only as a function of a written work, a part of its structure, but not necessarily part of the interpretive process. The author's name "indicates the status of the discourse within a society and culture," and at one time was used as an anchor for interpreting a text, a practice which Barthes would argue is not a particularly relevant or valid endeavor.<ref name="Foucault"/> Expanding upon Foucault's position, Alexander Nehamas writes that Foucault suggests "an author [...] is whoever can be understood to have produced a particular text as we interpret it," not necessarily who penned the text.<ref>{{Citation \| last = Hamas \| first = Alexander \| title = What An Author Is \| journal = The Journal of Philosophy \| volume = 83 \| issue = 11 \| pages = 685–691 \| publisher Eighty-Third Annual Meeting American Philosophical Association, Eastern Division \|dateNovember 1986 \|doi=10.5840/jphil1986831118}}</ref> It is this distinction between producing a written work and producing the interpretation or meaning in a written work that both Barthes and Foucault are interested in. Foucault warns of the risks of keeping the author's name in mind during interpretation, because it could affect the value and meaning with which one handles an interpretation. Literary critics Barthes and Foucault suggest that readers should not rely on or look for the notion of one overarching voice when interpreting a written work, because of the complications inherent with a writer's title of "author." They warn of the dangers interpretations could suffer from when associating the subject of inherently meaningful words and language with the personality of one authorial voice. Instead, readers should allow a text to be interpreted in terms of the language as "author." Relationship with publisher Self-publishing {{Main\|Self-publishing}} Self-publishing is a model where the author takes full responsibility and control of arranging financing, editing, printing, and distribution of their own work. In other words, the author also acts as the publisher of their work. Traditional publishing With commissioned publishing, the publisher makes all the publication arrangements and the author covers all expenses. The author of a work may receive a percentage calculated on a wholesale or a specific price or a fixed amount on each book sold. Publishers, at times, reduced the risk of this type of arrangement, by agreeing only to pay this after a certain number of copies had sold. In Canada, this practice occurred during the 1890s, but was not commonplace until the 1920s. Established and successful authors may receive advance payments, set against future royalties, but this is no longer common practice. Most independent publishers pay royalties as a percentage of net receipts – how net receipts are calculated varies from publisher to publisher. Under this arrangement, the author does not pay anything towards the expense of publication. The costs and financial risk are all carried by the publisher, who will then take the greatest percentage of the receipts. See Compensation for more.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastGreco \|firstAlbert N. \|urlhttps://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781136850356 \|titleThe Book Publishing Industry \|date2013-07-31 \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn978-1-136-85035-6 \|edition0 \|languageen \|doi10.4324/9780203834565}}</ref> Vanity publishing {{Main\|Vanity press}} Vanity publishers normally charge a flat fee for arranging publication, offer a platform for selling, and then take a percentage of the sale of every copy of a book.<ref name"Definition of VANITY PRESS">{{Cite web \|titleDefinition of VANITY PRESS \|urlhttps://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/vanity+press \|access-date2023-03-10 \|websitewww.merriam-webster.com \|languageen}}</ref> The author receives the rest of the money made.<ref name"Definition of VANITY PRESS"/> Most materials published this way are for niche groups and not for large audiences.<ref name":2">{{Cite web \|titleVANITY/SUBSIDY PUBLISHERS \|urlhttps://www.sfwa.org/other-resources/for-authors/writer-beware/vanity/ \|access-date2023-03-10 \|websiteSFWA \|language=en-US}}</ref> Vanity publishing, or subsidy publishing,<ref name":2" /> is stigmatized in the professional world. In 1983, Bill Henderson defined vanity publishers as people who would "publish anything for which an author will pay, usually at a loss for the author and a nice profit for the publisher."<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastHenderson \|firstBill \|dateJanuary 1984 \|titleThe Small Book Press: A Cultural Essential \|urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1086/601438 \|journalThe Library Quarterly \|volume54 \|issue1 \|pages61–71 \|doi10.1086/601438 \|s2cid145283473 \|issn0024-2519}}</ref> In subsidy publishing, the book sales are not the publishers' main source of income, but instead the fees that the authors are charged to initially produce the book are. Because of this, the vanity publishers need not invest in making books marketable as much as other publishers need to.<ref name":2" /> This leads to low quality books being introduced to the market. Relationship with editor The relationship between the author and the editor, often the author's only liaison to the publishing company, is typically characterized as the site of tension. For the author to reach their audience, often through publication, the work usually must attract the attention of the editor. The idea of the author as the sole meaning-maker of necessity changes to include the influences of the editor and the publisher to engage the audience in writing as a social act. There are three principal kinds of editing: * Proofing (checking the grammar and spelling, looking for typographical errors), * Story (potentially an area of deep angst for both author and publisher), and * Layout (the typesetting needed to ready a work for publishing often requires minor text changes, so a layout editor is employed to ensure that these do not alter the sense of the text). Pierre Bourdieu's essay "The Field of Cultural Production" depicts the publishing industry as a "space of literary or artistic position-takings," also called the "field of struggles," which is defined by the tension and movement inherent among the various positions in the field.<ref>Bourdieu, Pierre. "The Field of Cultural Production, or: The Economic World Reversed." The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, 30.</ref> Bourdieu claims that the "field of position-takings [...] is not the product of coherence-seeking intention or objective consensus," meaning that an industry characterized by position-takings is not one of harmony and neutrality.<ref>Bourdieu, Pierre. "The Field of Cultural Production, or: The Economic World Reversed." The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, 34</ref> In particular for the writer, their authorship in their work makes their work part of their identity, and there is much at stake personally over the negotiation of authority over that identity. However, it is the editor who has "the power to impose the dominant definition of the writer and therefore to delimit the population of those entitled to take part in the struggle to define the writer".<ref>Bourdieu, Pierre. "The Field of Cultural Production, or: The Economic World Reversed." The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, 42</ref> As "cultural investors," publishers rely on the editor position to identify a good investment in "cultural capital" which may grow to yield economic capital across all positions.<ref>Bourdieu, Pierre. "The Field of Cultural Production, or: The Economic World Reversed." The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, 68</ref> According to the studies of James Curran, the system of shared values among editors in Britain has generated a pressure among authors to write to fit the editors' expectations, removing the focus from the reader-audience and putting a strain on the relationship between authors and editors and on writing as a social act. Even the book review by the editors has more significance than the readership's reception.<ref>Curran, James. "Literary Editors, Social Networks and Cultural Tradition." Media Organizations in Society. James Curran, ed. London: Arnold, 2000, 230</ref> Compensation Authors rely on advance fees, royalty payments, adaptation of work to a screenplay, and fees collected from giving speeches.<ref name"byliner">{{cite web \|last1Dezman \|first1Chux \|titleHow Much Money Do Authors Make? \|urlhttps://byliner.com/how-much-money-do-authors-make/ \|websiteByliner \|date28 February 2021 \|access-date3 November 2021}}</ref> A standard contract for an author will usually include provision for payment in the form of an advance and royalties. * Advance: a lump sum paid before publication. An advance must be earned out before royalties are payable. It may be paid in two lump sums: the first payment on contract signing, and the second on delivery of the completed manuscript or on publication. * Royalty payment: the sum paid to authors for each copy of a book sold and is traditionally around 10–12%, but self-published authors can earn about 40% – 60% royalties per each book sale.<ref name="byliner" /> An author's contract may specify, for example, that they will earn 10% of the retail price of each book sold. Some contracts specify a scale of royalties payable (for example, where royalties start at 10% for the first 10,000 sales, but then increase to a higher percentage rate at higher sale thresholds). Usually, an author's book must earn the advance before any further royalties are paid. For example, if an author is paid a modest advance of $2000, and their royalty rate is 10% of a book priced at $20 – that is, $2 per book – the book will need to sell 1000 copies before any further payment will be made. Publishers typically withhold payment of a percentage of royalties earned against returns. In some countries, authors also earn income from a government scheme such as the ELR (educational lending right) and PLR (public lending right) schemes in Australia. Under these schemes, authors are paid a fee for the number of copies of their books in educational and/or public libraries. These days, many authors supplement their income from book sales with public speaking engagements, school visits, residencies, grants, and teaching positions. Ghostwriters, technical writers, and textbooks writers are typically paid in a different way: usually a set fee or a per word rate rather than on a percentage of sales. In the year 2016, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, nearly 130,000 people worked in the country as authors, making an average of $61,240 per year.<ref name"byliner" />See also * Lead author * Academic authorship * Authors' editor * Writing Distributive writing Professional writing ** Composition (language) * Auteur * Writer * Poet * Novelist * Author surrogate * Lists of writers * Lists of poets * List of novelists *Lesser-known authors References {{Reflist}} {{Book Publishing Process}} {{Authority control}} Category:Writing occupations Category:Literary criticism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Author	2025-04-05T18:25:26.580437
915	Andrey Markov	{{short description\|Russian mathematician (1856–1922)}} {{Other people}} {{More citations needed\|date=May 2023}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=April 2014}} {{Infobox scientist \| name = Andrey Markov \| native_name = Андрей Марков \| native_name_lang = ru \| image = Andrei Markov.jpg \| image_size \| caption Markov in 1886 \| birth_date {{birth date\|dfyes\|1856\|6\|14}} N.S. \| birth_place = Ryazan, Russian Empire \| nationality = Russian \| death_date {{death date and age\|dfyes\|1922\|7\|20\|1856\|6\|14}} \| death_place = Petrograd, Russian SFSR \| field = Mathematics, specifically probability theory and statistics \| known_for = Markov chains <br /> Markov processes <br /> Stochastic processes \| work_institutions = St. Petersburg University \| alma_mater = St. Petersburg University \| doctoral_advisor = Pafnuty Chebyshev \| doctoral_students = {{Plainlist\| * Abram Besicovitch * Nikolai Günther * Veniamin Kagan * V. I. Romanovsky * Jacob Tamarkin * J. V. Uspensky * Georgy Voronoy }} \| children = Andrey Markov Jr. \| prizes \| footnotes }} Andrey Andreyevich Markov{{efn\|({{langx\|ru\|linkno\|Андре́й Андре́евич Ма́рков}}, first name also spelled "Andrei", in older works also spelled Markoff<ref>E.g. {{cite journal \|authorShannon, Claude E. \|author-linkClaude Shannon \|titleA Mathematical Theory of Communication \|urlhttp://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/shannon1948.pdf\|journalBell System Technical Journal \|volume27 \|issue3 \|pages379–423 \|dateJuly–October 1948 \|access-date29 August 2012 \|archive-date10 August 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120810102533/http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/shannon1948.pdf \|doi10.1002/j.1538-7305.1948.tb01338.x\|hdl11858/00-001M-0000-002C-4314-2 \|hdl-accessfree }}</ref>)}} (14 June 1856 – 20 July 1922) was a Russian mathematician best known for his work on stochastic processes. A primary subject of his research later became known as the Markov chain. He was also a strong, close to master-level, chess player. Markov and his younger brother Vladimir Andreyevich Markov (1871–1897) proved the Markov brothers' inequality. His son, another Andrey Andreyevich Markov (1903–1979), was also a notable mathematician, making contributions to constructive mathematics and recursive function theory.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastДрагалин\|titleМатематический интуиционизм. Введение в теорию доказательств\|publisherНаука\|year1979\|pages256}}</ref> Biography Andrey Markov was born on 14 June 1856 in Russia. He attended the St. Petersburg Grammar School, where some teachers saw him as a rebellious student. In his academics he performed poorly in most subjects other than mathematics. Later in life he attended Saint Petersburg Imperial University (now Saint Petersburg State University). Among his teachers were Yulian Sokhotski (differential calculus, higher algebra), Konstantin Posse (analytic geometry), Yegor Zolotarev (integral calculus), Pafnuty Chebyshev (number theory and probability theory), Aleksandr Korkin (ordinary and partial differential equations), Mikhail Okatov (mechanism theory), Osip Somov (mechanics), and Nikolai Budajev (descriptive and higher geometry). He completed his studies at the university and was later asked if he would like to stay and have a career as a mathematician. He later taught at high schools and continued his own mathematical studies. In this time he found a practical use for his mathematical skills. He figured out that he could use chains to model the alliteration of vowels and consonants in Russian literature. He also contributed to many other mathematical aspects in his time. He died at age 66 on 20 July 1922. Timeline In 1877, Markov was awarded a gold medal for his outstanding solution of the problem About Integration of Differential Equations by Continued Fractions with an Application to the Equation <math> (1+x^2) \frac{dy}{dx} = n (1+y^2)</math>. During the following year, he passed the candidate's examinations, and he remained at the university to prepare for a lecturer's position. In April 1880, Markov defended his master's thesis "On the Binary Square Forms with Positive Determinant", which was directed by Aleksandr Korkin and Yegor Zolotarev. Four years later in 1884, he defended his doctoral thesis titled "On Certain Applications of the Algebraic Continuous Fractions". His pedagogical work began after the defense of his master's thesis in autumn 1880. As a privatdozent he lectured on differential and integral calculus. Later he lectured alternately on "introduction to analysis", probability theory (succeeding Chebyshev, who had left the university in 1882) and the calculus of differences. From 1895 through 1905 he also lectured in differential calculus. One year after the defense of his doctoral thesis, Markov was appointed extraordinary professor (1886) and in the same year he was elected adjunct to the Academy of Sciences. In 1890, after the death of Viktor Bunyakovsky, Markov became an extraordinary member of the academy. His promotion to an ordinary professor of St. Petersburg University followed in the fall of 1894. In 1896, Markov was elected an ordinary member of the academy as the successor of Chebyshev. In 1905, he was appointed merited professor and was granted the right to retire, which he did immediately. Until 1910, however, he continued to lecture in the calculus of differences. In connection with student riots in 1908, professors and lecturers of St. Petersburg University were ordered to monitor their students. Markov refused to accept this decree, and he wrote an explanation in which he declined to be an "agent of the governance". Markov was removed from further teaching duties at St. Petersburg University, and hence he decided to retire from the university. Markov was an atheist. In 1912, he responded to Leo Tolstoy's excommunication from the Russian Orthodox Church by requesting his own excommunication. The Church complied with his request.<ref>"Of course, Markov, an atheist and eventual excommunicate of the Church quarreled endlessly with his equally outspoken counterpart Nekrasov. The disputes between Markov and Nekrasov were not limited to mathematics and religion, they quarreled over political and philosophical issues as well." Gely P. Basharin, Amy N. Langville, Valeriy A. Naumov, [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20121218173228/https://netfiles.uiuc.edu/meyn/www/spm_files/Markov-Work-and-life.pdf The Life and Work of A. A. Markov], page 6.</ref><ref>{{cite book\|titleNaming Infinity: A True Story of Religious Mysticism and Mathematical Creativity\|year2009\|publisherHarvard University Press\|isbn978-0-674-03293-4\|author1Loren R. Graham\|author2Jean-Michel Kantor\|page69\|quoteMarkov (1856–1922), on the other hand, was an atheist and a strong critic of the Orthodox Church and the tzarist government (Nekrasov exaggeratedly called him a Marxist).}}</ref> ]] In 1913, the council of St. Petersburg elected nine scientists honorary members of the university. Markov was among them, but his election was not affirmed by the minister of education. The affirmation only occurred four years later, after the February Revolution in 1917. Markov then resumed his teaching activities and lectured on probability theory and the calculus of differences until his death in 1922. See also {{Div col\|colwidth=20em}} * List of things named after Andrey Markov * Chebyshev–Markov–Stieltjes inequalities * Gauss–Markov theorem * Gauss–Markov process * Hidden Markov model * Markov blanket * Markov chain * Markov decision process * Markov's inequality * Markov brothers' inequality * Markov information source * Markov network * Markov number * Markov property * Markov process * Stochastic matrix (also known as Markov matrix) * Subjunctive possibility {{div col end}} Notes {{notelist}} References {{Reflist}} Further reading * {{cite book\|authorKarl-Georg Steffens\|titleThe History of Approximation Theory: From Euler to Bernstein\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIjFJNoq638kC&pgPA98\|date28 July 2007\|publisherSpringer Science & Business Media\|isbn978-0-8176-4475-8\|pages=98–105}} * А. А. Марков. "Распространение закона больших чисел на величины, зависящие друг от друга". "Известия Физико-математического общества при Казанском университете", 2-я серия, том 15, с. 135–156, 1906. * A. A. Markov. "Extension of the limit theorems of probability theory to a sum of variables connected in a chain". reprinted in Appendix B of: R. Howard. Dynamic Probabilistic Systems, volume 1: Markov Chains. John Wiley and Sons, 1971. * {{cite news \|last1Pavlyk \|first1Oleksandr \|titleCentennial of Markov Chains \|urlhttp://blog.wolfram.com/2013/02/04/centennial-of-markov-chains/ \|workWolfram Blog \|dateFebruary 4, 2013 \|languageen}} External links {{Commons category\|Andrey Markov}} * {{MathGenealogy\|title=Andrei Andreyevich Markov}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Markov, Andrey}} Markov, Andrei Andreyevich Markov, Andrei Andreyevich Category:19th-century mathematicians from the Russian Empire Category:20th-century Russian mathematicians Category:Russian atheists Category:Former Russian Orthodox Christians Category:Probability theorists Category:Saint Petersburg State University alumni Category:Full members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences Category:Full Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925) Category:People from Ryazan Category:Russian statisticians Category:Russian scientists	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrey_Markov	2025-04-05T18:25:26.586390
921	Angst	thumb\|262px\|Edvard Munch tried to represent "an infinite scream passing through nature" in The Scream (1893). Angst is a feeling of anxiety, apprehension, or insecurity. Anguish is its Latinate equivalent, and the words anxious and anxiety are of similar origin. Etymology The word angst was introduced into English from the Danish, Norwegian, and Dutch word and the German word . It is attested since the 19th century in English translations of the works of Søren Kierkegaard and Sigmund Freud. It is used in English to describe an intense feeling of apprehension, anxiety, or inner turmoil. In other languages (with words from the Latin for "fear" or "panic"), the derived words differ in meaning; for example, as in the French and . The word angst has existed in German since the 8th century, from the Proto-Indo-European root , "restraint" from which Old High German developed. It is pre-cognate with the Latin , "tensity, tightness" and , "choking, clogging"; compare to the Ancient Greek () "strangle". It entered English in the 19th century as a technical term used in Psychiatry, though earlier cognates existed, such as ange. Existentialism In existentialist philosophy, the term angst carries a specific conceptual meaning. The use of the term was first attributed to Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855). In The Concept of Anxiety (originally translated as The Concept of Dread), Kierkegaard used the word Angest (in common Danish, angst, meaning "dread" or "anxiety") to describe a profound and deep-seated condition. Where non-human animals are guided solely by instinct, said Kierkegaard, human beings enjoy a freedom of choice that we find both appealing and terrifying. It is the anxiety of understanding of being free when considering undefined possibilities of one's life and the immense responsibility of having the power of choice over them. Kierkegaard's concept of angst reappeared in the works of existentialist philosophers who followed, such as Friedrich Nietzsche, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Martin Heidegger, each of whom developed the idea further in individual ways. While Kierkegaard's angst referred mainly to ambiguous feelings about moral freedom within a religious personal belief system, later existentialists discussed conflicts of personal principles, cultural norms, and existential despair. Music Existential angst makes its appearance in classical musical composition in the early twentieth century as a result of both philosophical developments and as a reflection of the war-torn times. Notable composers whose works are often linked with the concept include Gustav Mahler, Richard Strauss (operas and ), Claude Debussy (opera , ballet Jeux), Jean Sibelius (especially the Fourth Symphony), Arnold Schoenberg (A Survivor from Warsaw), Alban Berg, Francis Poulenc (opera Dialogues of the Carmelites), Dmitri Shostakovich (opera Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk, symphonies and chamber music), Béla Bartók (opera Bluebeard's Castle), and Krzysztof Penderecki (especially Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima). Angst began to be discussed in reference to popular music in the mid- to late 1950s, amid widespread concerns over international tensions and nuclear proliferation. Jeff Nuttall's book Bomb Culture (1968) traced angst in popular culture to Hiroshima. Dread was expressed in works of folk rock such as Bob Dylan's "Masters of War" (1963) and "A Hard Rain's a-Gonna Fall". The term often makes an appearance in reference to punk rock, grunge, nu metal, and works of emo where expressions of melancholy, existential despair, or nihilism predominate. See also References External links Category:Anxiety Category:Emotions Category:Existentialist concepts	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angst	2025-04-05T18:25:26.601041
922	Anxiety	{{Short description\|Unpleasant emotion}} {{cs1 config\|name-list-stylevanc\|display-authors6}} {{About\|the emotion\|the mental illness colloquially known as "anxiety"\|generalized anxiety disorder\|other uses}} {{Redirect\|Misgiving\|the American metalcore band\|Misgiving (band)}} {{POV\|date=August 2024}} '' by Edvard Munch, an iconic representation of anxiety]] {{Emotion}} Anxiety is an emotion characterised by an unpleasant state of inner turmoil and includes feelings of dread over anticipated events.<ref>{{cite book\|titleAbnormal Psychology\|vauthorsDavison GC \|publisherVeronica Visentin \|year2008\|isbn978-0-470-84072-6 \|locationToronto\|page154}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|vauthorsMiceli M, Castelfranchi C\|date2014-11-27 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idz0aPBQAAQBAJ&pgPP1 \|titleExpectancy and emotion\|publisherOxford University Press \|placeOxford \|isbn978-0-19-150927-8\|languageen \|access-date2022-05-09\|archive-date2023-01-17\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230117022600/https://books.google.com/books?idz0aPBQAAQBAJ&pgPP1\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name "Chand_2022">{{cite book \| vauthors Chand SP, Marwaha R \| chapter Anxiety \|date2022 \| chapter-urlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470361/ \| title StatPearls \|placeTreasure Island (FL) \|publisherStatPearls Publishing \|pmid29262212 \|access-date2022-12-15 \|archive-date2022-06-21 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220621101211/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470361/ \|url-statuslive \| quoteAnxiety is linked to fear and manifests as a future-oriented mood state that consists of a complex cognitive, affective, physiological, and behavioral response system associated with preparation for the anticipated events or circumstances perceived as threatening. }}</ref> Anxiety is different from fear in that fear is defined as the emotional response to a present threat, whereas anxiety is the anticipation of a future one.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Crocq MA \| title A history of anxiety: from Hippocrates to DSM \| journal Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience \| volume 17 \| issue 3 \| pages 319–325 \| date September 2015 \| pmid 26487812 \| pmc 4610616 \| doi 10.31887/DCNS.2015.17.3/macrocq }}</ref> It is often accompanied by nervous behavior such as pacing back and forth, somatic complaints, and rumination.<ref name"Seligman">{{cite book \| vauthors Seligman ME, Walker EF, Rosenhan DL \|author3-link David Rosenhan \|author1-linkMartin Seligman \|title Abnormal psychology \|edition4th \|location New York \|publisherW.W. Norton & Company}}{{Page needed\|date May 2013}}</ref> Anxiety is a feeling of uneasiness and worry, usually generalized and unfocused as an overreaction to a situation that is only subjectively seen as menacing.<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idE_9Rlqs4T7oC \|titlePsychiatric and Behavioral Disorders in Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities\|vauthorsBouras N, Holt G \|year2007 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn978-1-139-46130-6 \|edition2nd \|access-date2018-11-22\|archive-date2023-01-17 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230117022650/https://books.google.com/books?idE_9Rlqs4T7oC\|url-statuslive}}{{Page needed\|dateMay 2013}}</ref> It is often accompanied by muscular tension,<ref name"DSM-5 189">{{Cite book \| last American Psychiatric Association \| year2013 \| title Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders \| edition5th \| publisher American Psychiatric Publishing \| locationArlington, VA \| page [https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse/page/189 189] \| isbn978-0-89042-555-8 \| url https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse/page/189}}</ref> restlessness, fatigue, inability to catch one's breath, tightness in the abdominal region, nausea, and problems in concentration. Anxiety is closely related to fear,<ref name "Chand_2022" /> which is a response to a real or perceived immediate threat (fight-or-flight response); anxiety involves the expectation of a future threat including dread.<ref name"DSM-5 189" /> People facing anxiety may withdraw from situations which have provoked anxiety in the past.<ref name"Barker, P. 2003">{{cite book \| vauthors Barker P \|year2003 \|title Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing: The Craft of Caring \|publisherEdward Arnold \|location London \|isbn978-0-340-81026-2}}{{Page needed\|date May 2013}}</ref> The emotion of anxiety can persist beyond the developmentally appropriate time-periods in response to specific events, and thus turning into one of the multiple anxiety disorders (e.g. generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder).<ref name"Robinson Pike Cornwell Grillon 2019 pp. jnnp–2019–321400">{{cite journal \| vauthors Robinson OJ, Pike AC, Cornwell B, Grillon C \| title The translational neural circuitry of anxiety \| journal Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry \| volume 90 \| issue 12 \| pages 1353–1360 \| date December 2019 \| pmid 31256001 \| doi 10.1136/jnnp-2019-321400 \| publisher BMJ \| quote Anxiety is an adaptive response that promotes harm avoidance, but at the same time excessive anxiety constitutes the most common psychiatric complaint. \| s2cid 195758112 \| doi-access free }}</ref><ref name"Treating and Preventing Adolescent Mental Health Disorders: What We Know and What We Don't Know. A Research Agenda for Improving the Mental Health of Our Youth">{{cite book \|urlhttps://oxfordmedicine.com/view/10.1093/9780195173642.001.0001/med-9780195173642-chapter-10 \|publisherOxford University Press \|publication-placeNew York \|doi10.1093/9780195173642.001.0001 \|titleTreating and preventing adolescent mental health disorders: what we know and what we don't know. A research agenda for improving the mental health of our youth \|year2005 \|isbn978-0-19-517364-2 \|veditorsEvans DL, Foa EB, Gur RE, Hendin H, O'Brien CP, Seligman ME, Walsh BT \|oclc56324679 \|access-date2021-06-02 \|archive-date2021-12-16 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211216111841/https://oxfordmedicine.com/view/10.1093/9780195173642.001.0001/med-9780195173642-chapter-10 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The difference between anxiety disorder (as mental disorder) and anxiety (as normal emotion), is that people with an anxiety disorder experience anxiety excessively or persistently during approximately 6 months, or even during shorter time-periods in children.<ref name"DSM-5 189" /> Anxiety disorders are among the most persistent mental problems and often last decades.<ref nameLancet2021>{{cite journal \| vauthors Hovenkamp-Hermelink JH, Jeronimus BF, Myroniuk S, Riese H, Schoevers RA \| title Predictors of persistence of anxiety disorders across the lifespan: a systematic review \| journal The Lancet. Psychiatry \| volume 8 \| issue 5 \| pages 428–443 \| date May 2021 \| pmid 33581052 \| doi 10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30433-8 \| s2cid 231919782 \| url https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/177228875/Predictors_of_persistence_of_anxiety_disorders_across_the_lifespan_a_systematic_review.pdf \| access-date 2023-04-05 \| archive-date 2023-04-05 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20230405003039/https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/177228875/Predictors_of_persistence_of_anxiety_disorders_across_the_lifespan_a_systematic_review.pdf \| url-status live }}</ref> Anxiety can also be experienced within other mental disorders, e.g., obsessive–compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder.<ref name"Marras et al. (2016)">{{cite journal \| vauthors Marras A, Fineberg N, Pallanti S \| title Obsessive compulsive and related disorders: comparing DSM-5 and ICD-11 \| journal CNS Spectrums \| volume 21 \| issue 4 \| pages 324–333 \| date August 2016 \| pmid 27401060 \| doi 10.1017/S1092852916000110 \| s2cid 13129793 }}</ref><ref nameICD11>World Health Organization (2023). International Classification of Diseases, eleventh revision – ICD-11. Genova – icd.who.int.</ref>Anxiety vs. fearAnxiety is distinguished from fear, which is an appropriate cognitive and emotional response to a perceived threat.<ref>Andreas Dorschel, Furcht und Angst. In: Dietmar Goltschnigg (ed.), Angst. Lähmender Stillstand und Motor des Fortschritts. Stauffenburg, Tübingen 2012, pp. 49–54</ref> Anxiety is related to the specific behaviors of fight-or-flight responses, defensive behavior or escape.<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthorsHeeren A \|titleOn the distinction between fear and anxiety in a (post)pandemic world: a commentary on Schimmenti et al. (2020) \|journalClinical Neuropsychiatry \|year2020 \|pages189–191 \|volume17 \|issue3 \|pmid34908991 \|pmc8629083 \|doi10.36131/cnfioritieditore20200307 \|urlhttps://www.clinicalneuropsychiatry.org/download/on-the-distinction-between-fear-and-anxiety-in-a-postpandemic-world-a-commentary-on-schimmenti-et-al-2020/ \|access-date2020-12-13 \|archive-date2021-12-16 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211216235415/https://www.clinicalneuropsychiatry.org/download/on-the-distinction-between-fear-and-anxiety-in-a-postpandemic-world-a-commentary-on-schimmenti-et-al-2020/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> There is a false presumption that often circulates that anxiety only occurs in situations perceived as uncontrollable or unavoidable, but this is not always so.<ref>{{cite book\|titleHandbook of emotions\| vauthors Öhman A \|publisherThe Guilford Press \|year2000 \|isbn978-1-57230-529-8\| veditors Lewis M, Haviland-Jones JM \|locationNew York\|pages[https://archive.org/details/handbookofemotio0000unse/page/573 573–93] \|chapterFear and anxiety: Evolutionary, cognitive, and clinical perspectives \|chapter-urlhttps://archive.org/details/handbookofemotio0000unse/page/573}}</ref> David Barlow defines anxiety as "a future-oriented mood state in which one is not ready or prepared to attempt to cope with upcoming negative events,"<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Barlow DH \| title Unraveling the mysteries of anxiety and its disorders from the perspective of emotion theory \| journal The American Psychologist \| volume 55 \| issue 11 \| pages 1247–1263 \| date November 2000 \| pmid 11280938 \| doi 10.1037/0003-066X.55.11.1247 }}</ref> and that it is a distinction between future and present dangers which divides anxiety and fear. Another description of anxiety is agony, dread, terror, or even apprehension.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Iacovou S \|year2011 \|titleWhat is the difference between existential anxiety and so called neurotic anxiety? 'The sine qua non of true vitality' an examination of the difference between existential anxiety and neurotic anxiety \|journalExistential Analysis \|volume22 \|issue2 \|id{{Gale\|A288874227}} }}</ref> In positive psychology, anxiety is described as the mental state that results from a difficult challenge for which the subject has insufficient coping skills.<ref name "Chand_2022" /><ref>{{cite book\|titleFinding Flow \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/findingflowpsych00csik\|url-accessregistration\| vauthorsCsíkszentmihályi M \|year1997 \|publisherBasic Books \|isbn978-0-465-04513-6 \|author-linkMihaly Csikszentmihalyi}}{{Page needed\|dateMay 2013}}</ref> Fear and anxiety can be differentiated into four domains: (1) duration of emotional experience, (2) temporal focus, (3) specificity of the threat, and (4) motivated direction. Fear is short-lived, present-focused, geared towards a specific threat, and facilitating escape from threat. On the other hand, anxiety is long-acting, future-focused, broadly focused towards a diffuse threat, and promoting excessive caution while approaching a potential threat and interferes with constructive coping.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Sylvers P, Lilienfeld SO, LaPrairie JL \| title Differences between trait fear and trait anxiety: implications for psychopathology \| journal Clinical Psychology Review \| volume 31 \| issue 1 \| pages 122–137 \| date February 2011 \| pmid 20817337 \| doi = 10.1016/j.cpr.2010.08.004 }}</ref> Joseph E. LeDoux and Lisa Feldman Barrett have both sought to separate automatic threat responses from additional associated cognitive activity within anxiety.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://brainworldmagazine.com/on-fear-emotions-and-memory-an-interview-with-dr-joseph-ledoux/\|titleOn Fear, Emotions, and Memory: An Interview with Dr. Joseph LeDoux\|vauthorsEmory M\|dateJune 7, 2018\|websiteBrain World\|languageen-US\|access-dateSeptember 11, 2019\|archive-dateApril 22, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210422224955/https://brainworldmagazine.com/on-fear-emotions-and-memory-an-interview-with-dr-joseph-ledoux/\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Barrett LF \| title The theory of constructed emotion: an active inference account of interoception and categorization \| journal Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience \| volume 12 \| issue 1 \| pages 1–23 \| date January 2017 \| pmid 27798257 \| pmc 5390700 \| doi 10.1093/scan/nsw154 }}</ref> Symptoms Anxiety can be experienced with long, drawn-out daily symptoms that reduce quality of life, known as chronic (or generalized) anxiety, or it can be experienced in short spurts with sporadic, stressful panic attacks, known as acute anxiety.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Rynn MA, Brawman-Mintzer O \| title Generalized anxiety disorder: acute and chronic treatment \| journal CNS Spectrums \| volume 9 \| issue 10 \| pages 716–723 \| date October 2004 \| pmid 15448583 \| doi 10.1017/S1092852900022367 \| s2cid 24207457 }}</ref> Symptoms of anxiety can range in number, intensity, and frequency, depending on the person. However, most people do not suffer from chronic anxiety.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleGeneralized Anxiety Disorder \|urlhttps://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/generalized-anxiety-disorder \|access-date2023-03-29 \|websiteNational Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) \|languageen \|archive-date2023-03-29 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230329220139/https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/generalized-anxiety-disorder \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Anxiety can induce several psychological pains (e.g. depression) or mental disorders, and may lead to self-harm or suicide.<ref name"WHO2009" /><ref name"TestaGiannuzzi2013partI" /> The behavioral effects of anxiety may include withdrawal from situations which have provoked anxiety or negative feelings in the past.<ref name"Barker, P. 2003" /> Other effects may include changes in sleeping patterns, changes in habits, increase or decrease in food intake, and increased motor tension (such as foot tapping).<ref name"Barker, P. 2003" /> The emotional effects of anxiety may include feelings of apprehension or dread, trouble concentrating, feeling tense or jumpy, anticipating the worst, irritability, restlessness, watching for signs of danger, and a feeling of empty mindedness.<ref>{{cite web \| vauthors Smith M \| date June 2008 \| title Anxiety attacks and disorders: Guide to the signs, symptoms, and treatment options. \| access-date 3 March 2009 \| work Helpguide \| url http://www.helpguide.org/mental/anxiety_types_symptoms_treatment.htm \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090307161028/http://www.helpguide.org/mental/anxiety_types_symptoms_treatment.htm \|archive-date 7 March 2009 }}</ref> as well as "nightmares/bad dreams, obsessions about sensations, déjà vu, a trapped-in-your-mind feeling, and feeling like everything is scary."<ref>{{cite web \| vauthors Folk J \| veditors Liashko V \| orig-date 1987 \| date 13 October 2021 \| title Anxiety Symptoms, Causes, Treatment \| access-date 3 March 2009 \| work Anxiety Centre \| url http://www.anxietycentre.com/anxiety-symptoms.shtml \| url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090307132218/http://www.anxietycentre.com/anxiety-symptoms.shtml \|archive-dateMarch 7, 2009 }}</ref> It may include a vague experience and feeling of helplessness.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Milfayetty S, Fadli RP, Ifdil I, Zola N, Amalianita B, Putri YE, Ardi Z \| title The Effectiveness of Multidimensional Counseling in the Intervention of Student Anxiety. \| journal Addictive Disorders & Their Treatment \| date September 2020 \| volume 19 \| issue 3 \| pages 131–5 \| doi 10.1097/ADT.0000000000000187 \| s2cid 209255441 \| url http://digilib.unimed.ac.id/53048/1/Turnitin.pdf \| access-date 2023-08-28 \| archive-date 2023-08-12 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20230812073919/http://digilib.unimed.ac.id/53048/1/Turnitin.pdf \| url-status = live }}</ref> The cognitive effects of anxiety may include thoughts about suspected dangers, such as an irrational fear of dying or having a heart attack, when in reality all one is experiencing is mild chest pain, for example.<ref>{{cite web \| vauthors Folk J \| veditors Folk M \| orig-date 1987 \| date 27 March 2021 \| title Anxiety symptoms – Fear of dying. \| access-date 3 March 2009 \| work Anxiety Centre\| urlhttp://www.anxietycentre.com/anxiety-symptoms/fear-of-dying.shtml \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090305104407/http://www.anxietycentre.com/anxiety-symptoms/fear-of-dying.shtml \|archive-date=March 5, 2009 }}</ref> The physiological symptoms of anxiety may include:<ref name"WHO2009" /><ref name"TestaGiannuzzi2013partI" /> Neurological, as headache, paresthesias, fasciculations, vertigo, or presyncope. Digestive, as abdominal pain, nausea, diarrhea, indigestion, dry mouth, or bolus. Stress hormones released in an anxious state have an impact on bowel function and can manifest physical symptoms that may contribute to or exacerbate IBS. Respiratory, as shortness of breath or sighing breathing. Cardiac, as palpitations, tachycardia, or chest pain. Muscular, as fatigue, tremors, or tetany. Cutaneous, as perspiration, or itchy skin. Uro-genital, as frequent urination, urinary urgency, dyspareunia, or impotence, chronic pelvic pain syndrome. Types There are various types of anxiety. Existential anxiety can occur when a person faces angst, an existential crisis, or nihilistic feelings. People can also face mathematical anxiety, somatic anxiety, stage fright, or test anxiety. Social anxiety refers to a fear of rejection and negative evaluation (being judged) by other people.<ref name"DSM-5 189" />Existential {{Further\|Angst\|Existential crisis\|Nihilism}} The philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, in The Concept of Anxiety (1844), described anxiety or dread associated with the "dizziness of freedom" and suggested the possibility for positive resolution of anxiety through the self-conscious exercise of responsibility and choosing. In Art and Artist (1932), the psychologist Otto Rank wrote that the psychological trauma of birth was the pre-eminent human symbol of existential anxiety and encompasses the creative person's simultaneous fear of – and desire for – separation, individuation, and differentiation.<ref name":1">{{Cite book\| vauthors Rank O \|titleArt and Artist\|publisherNorton, W. W. & Company, Inc.\|year1932\|isbn978-0-393-30574-6}}</ref> The theologian Paul Tillich characterized existential anxiety<ref name"Tillich">{{cite book \|author-linkPaul Tillich \| vauthors Tillich P \|year1952 \|titleThe Courage To Be \|locationNew Haven \|publisherYale University Press \|isbn978-0-300-08471-9\|page76}}</ref> as "the state in which a being is aware of its possible nonbeing" and he listed three categories for the nonbeing and resulting anxiety: ontic (fate and death), moral (guilt and condemnation), and spiritual (emptiness and meaninglessness). According to Tillich, the last of these three types of existential anxiety, i.e. spiritual anxiety, is predominant in modern times while the others were predominant in earlier periods. Tillich argues that this anxiety can be accepted as part of the human condition or it can be resisted but with negative consequences. In its pathological form, spiritual anxiety may tend to "drive the person toward the creation of certitude in systems of meaning which are supported by tradition and authority" even though such "undoubted certitude is not built on the rock of reality".<ref name"Tillich" /> According to Viktor Frankl, the author of ''Man's Search for Meaning'', when a person is faced with extreme mortal dangers, the most basic of all human wishes is to find a meaning of life to combat the "trauma of nonbeing" as death is near.<ref>{{cite book\| vauthors Abulof U \|titleThe Mortality and Morality of Nations\|date2015\|locationNew York\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn978-1-107-09707-0\|page=26}}</ref> Depending on the source of the threat, psychoanalytic theory distinguishes three types of anxiety: realistic, neurotic and moral.<ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Hjelle L, Ziegler D \|date 1981 \|titlePersonality Theories: Basic Assumptions, Research, and Applications\|publisherMcGraw-Hill \|page494 \|isbn 978-0-07-029063-1 }}</ref> Test, performance, and competitive <!-- This section is linked from Educational psychology --> Test {{Main\|Test anxiety\|Mathematical anxiety}} According to Yerkes-Dodson law, an optimal level of arousal is necessary to best complete a task such as an exam, performance, or competitive event. However, when the anxiety or level of arousal exceeds that optimum, the result is a decline in performance.<ref name"Teigen">{{cite journal \|doi10.1177/0959354394044004 \|titleYerkes-Dodson: A Law for all Seasons \|journalTheory & Psychology \|volume4 \|issue4 \|pages525–547 \|year1994 \|vauthorsTeigen KH \|s2cid145516099}}</ref> Test anxiety is the uneasiness, apprehension, or nervousness felt by students who have a fear of failing an exam. Students who have test anxiety may experience any of the following: the association of grades with personal worth; fear of embarrassment by a teacher; fear of alienation from parents or friends; time pressures; or feeling a loss of control. Sweating, dizziness, headaches, racing heartbeats, nausea, fidgeting, uncontrollable crying or laughing and drumming on a desk are all common.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Colangelo \|first1Raychel \|last2Audet \|first2Karyn \|date2020-12-31 \|titleStress in Post-Secondary: Toward an Understanding of Test-Anxiety, Cognitive Performance, and Brief Mindfulness Meditation \|journalBehavioural Sciences Undergraduate Journal \|volume3 \|issue1 \|pages31–44 \|doi10.29173/bsuj500 \|issn2562-4687\|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Because test anxiety hinges on fear of negative evaluation,<ref name"Liebert">{{cite journal \|vauthorsLiebert RM, Morris LW \|titleCognitive and emotional components of test anxiety: a distinction and some initial data \|journalPsychological Reports \|volume20 \|issue3 \|pages975–978 \|dateJune 1967 \|pmid6042522 \|doi10.2466/pr0.1967.20.3.975 \|s2cid33689633 \|doi-access}}</ref> debate exists as to whether test anxiety is itself a unique anxiety disorder or whether it is a specific type of social phobia.<ref name"Beidel">{{cite journal \|vauthorsBeidel DC, Turner SM \|titleComorbidity of test anxiety and other anxiety disorders in children \|journalJournal of Abnormal Child Psychology \|volume16 \|issue3 \|pages275–287 \|dateJune 1988 \|pmid3403811 \|doi10.1007/BF00913800 \|s2cid38476947}}</ref> The DSM-IV classifies test anxiety as a type of social phobia.<ref name"Rapee">{{cite journal \|vauthorsRapee RM, Heimberg RG \|titleA cognitive-behavioral model of anxiety in social phobia \|journalBehaviour Research and Therapy \|volume35 \|issue8 \|pages741–756 \|dateAugust 1997 \|pmid9256517 \|doi10.1016/S0005-7967(97)00022-3}}</ref> Research indicates that test anxiety among U.S. high-school and college students has been rising since the late 1950s. Test anxiety remains a challenge for students, regardless of age, and has considerable physiological and psychological impacts.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Stearns \|first1Peter \|titleStudent Anxiety and Its Impact: A Recent American History \|journalHistory of Education Quarterly \|dateMay 2023 \|volume63 \|issue2 \|pages271–297 \|doi10.1017/heq.2023.10\|s2cid258190141 }}</ref> Management of test anxiety focuses on achieving relaxation and developing mechanisms to manage anxiety.<ref name"Mathur">{{cite journal \|vauthorsMathur S, Khan W \|year2011 \|titleImpact of Hypnotherapy on Examination Anxiety and Scholastic Performance among School \|urlhttp://medind.nic.in/daa/t11/i2/daat11i2p337.pdf \|url-statuslive \|journalDelhi Psychiatry Journal \|volume14 \|issue2 \|pages337–342 \|citeseerx10.1.1.1027.7497 \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://medind.nic.in/daa/t11/i2/daat11i2p337.pdf \|archive-date=2022-10-09}}</ref> The routine practice of slow, Device-Guided Breathing (DGB) is a major component of behavioral treatments for anxiety conditions.<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthorsOvadia-Blechman Z, Tarrasch R, Velicki M, Chalutz Ben-Gal H \|titleReducing Test Anxiety by Device-Guided Breathing: A Pilot Study \|journalFrontiers in Psychology \|year2022 \|volume13 \|page678098 \|urlhttps://english.afeka.ac.il/media/2235899/frintiers-in-psychology-2022.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://english.afeka.ac.il/media/2235899/frintiers-in-psychology-2022.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|doi10.3389/fpsyg.2022.678098 \|pmid35677145 \|pmc9167931 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Performance and competitive {{Main\|Stage fright\|Somatic anxiety\|Sport psychology}} Performance anxiety and competitive anxiety (competitive trait anxiety, competitive state anxiety) happen when an individual's performance is measured against others. An important distinction between competitive and non-competitive anxiety is that competitive anxiety makes people view their performance as a threat.<ref name":0">{{cite journal \| vauthors Rice SM, Purcell R, De Silva S, Mawren D, McGorry PD, Parker AG \| title The Mental Health of Elite Athletes: A Narrative Systematic Review \| journal Sports Medicine \| volume 46 \| issue 9 \| pages 1333–1353 \| date September 2016 \| pmid 26896951 \| pmc 4996886 \| doi 10.1007/s40279-016-0492-2 }}</ref> As a result, they experience a drop in their ordinary ability, whether physical or mental, due to that perceived stress.<ref name":12">{{cite journal \| vauthors Ford JL, Ildefonso K, Jones ML, Arvinen-Barrow M \| title Sport-related anxiety: current insights \| language English \| journal Open Access Journal of Sports Medicine \| volume 8 \| pages 205–212 \| date 2017-10-27 \| pmid 29138604 \| pmc 5667788 \| doi 10.2147/OAJSM.S125845 \| doi-access = free }}</ref> Competitive anxiety is caused by a range of internal factors including high expectations, outside pressure,<ref name":12" /> lack of experience, and external factors like the location of a competition.<ref>{{Cite journal \| vauthors Kang H, Jang S \|date2018-08-13 \|titleEffects of competition anxiety on self-confidence in soccer players: Modulation effects of home and away games. \|journalJournal of Men's Health \|volume14 \|issue3 \|pages62–68 \|doi10.22374/1875-6859.14.3.9 \|issn1875-6867\|doi-accessfree }}</ref> It commonly occurs in those participating in high pressure activities like sports and debates. Some common symptoms of competitive anxiety include muscle tension, fatigue, weakness, sense of panic, apprehensiveness, and panic attacks.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Rowland DL, van Lankveld JJ \| title Anxiety and Performance in Sex, Sport, and Stage: Identifying Common Ground \| journal Frontiers in Psychology \| volume 10 \| pages 1615 \| date 2019 \| pmid 31379665 \| pmc 6646850 \| doi 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01615 \| doi-access = free }}</ref> There are 4 major theories of how anxiety affects performance: Drive theory, Inverted U theory, Reversal theory, and The Zone of Optimal Functioning theory. Drive theory believes that anxiety is positive and performance improves proportionally to the level of anxiety. This theory is not well accepted.<ref name "Jarvis_2006">{{Cite book \|vauthorsJarvis M \|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/60971762 \|titleSport psychology : a student's handbook \|date2006 \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn1-84169-581-5 \|locationLondon \|oclc60971762 \|access-date2023-03-30 \|archive-date2024-02-23 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240223203105/https://search.worldcat.org/title/60971762 \|url-status=live }}</ref> The Inverted U theory is based on the idea that performance peaks at a moderate stress level. It is called Inverted U theory because the graph that plots performance against anxiety looks like an inverted "U".<ref name = "Jarvis_2006" /> Reversal theory suggests that performance increases in relation to the individual's interpretation of their arousal levels. If they believed their physical arousal level would help them, their performance would increase, if they didn't, their performance would decrease.<ref name":12" /> For example: Athletes were shown to worry more when focusing on results and perfection rather than the effort and growth involved.<ref name":0" /> The Zone of Optimal Functioning theory proposes that there is a zone where positive and negative emotions are in a balance which lead to feelings of dissociation and intense concentration, optimizing the individual's performance levels.<ref name":22">{{Cite book \|urlhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9780470479216 \|titleThe Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology \|date2010-01-30 \|publisherWiley \|isbn978-0-470-17024-3 \|veditorsWeiner IB, Craighead WE \|edition1st \|languageen \|doi10.1002/9780470479216.corpsy0626 \|access-date2023-03-30 \|archive-date2023-03-30 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230330062206/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9780470479216 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Stranger, social, and intergroup anxiety {{Main\|Stranger anxiety\|Social anxiety}} Humans generally require social acceptance and thus sometimes dread the disapproval of others. Apprehension of being judged by others may cause anxiety in social environments.<ref>{{Cite book \|doi10.1016/B978-0-12-375096-9.00028-6 \|chapterIntroduction: Toward an Understanding of Social Anxiety Disorder \|titleSocial Anxiety \|pagesxix–xxvi \|year2010 \| vauthors Hofmann SG, Dibartolo PM \|isbn=978-0-12-375096-9 }}</ref> Anxiety during social interactions, particularly between strangers, is common among young people. It may persist into adulthood and become social anxiety or social phobia. "Stranger anxiety" in small children is not considered a phobia. In adults, an excessive fear of other people is not a developmentally common stage; it is called social anxiety. According to Cutting, social phobics do not fear the crowd but the fact that they may be judged negatively.<ref>{{cite book \| veditors Thomas B, Hardy S, Cutting P \|year1997 \|titleMental Health Nursing: Principles and Practice \|publisherMosby \|locationLondon \|isbn978-0-7234-2590-8 \|url-accessregistration \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/stuartsundeensme0000unse }}{{Page needed\|date=May 2013}}</ref> Social anxiety varies in degree and severity. For some people, it is characterized by experiencing discomfort or awkwardness during physical social contact (e.g. embracing, shaking hands, etc.), while in other cases it can lead to a fear of interacting with unfamiliar people altogether. Those with this condition may restrict their lifestyles to accommodate the anxiety, minimizing social interaction whenever possible. Social anxiety also forms a core aspect of certain personality disorders, including avoidant personality disorder.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Settipani CA, Kendall PC \| title Social functioning in youth with anxiety disorders: association with anxiety severity and outcomes from cognitive-behavioral therapy \| journal Child Psychiatry and Human Development \| volume 44 \| issue 1 \| pages 1–18 \| date February 2013 \| pmid 22581270 \| doi 10.1007/s10578-012-0307-0 \| s2cid 39915581 }}</ref> To the extent that a person is fearful of social encounters with unfamiliar others, some people may experience anxiety particularly during interactions with outgroup members, or people who share different group memberships (i.e., by race, ethnicity, class, gender, etc.). Depending on the nature of the antecedent relations, cognitions, and situational factors, intergroup contact may be stressful and lead to feelings of anxiety. This apprehension or fear of contact with outgroup members is often called interracial or intergroup anxiety.<ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.1111/j.1540-4560.1985.tb01134.x \|titleIntergroup Anxiety \|journalJournal of Social Issues \|volume41 \|issue3 \|pages157–175 \|year1985 \| vauthors Stephan WG, Stephan CW }}</ref> As is the case with the more generalized forms of social anxiety, intergroup anxiety has behavioral, cognitive, and affective effects. For instance, increases in schematic processing and simplified information processing can occur when anxiety is high. Indeed, such is consistent with related work on attentional bias in implicit memory.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Richeson JA, Trawalter S \| title The threat of appearing prejudiced and race-based attentional biases \| journal Psychological Science \| volume 19 \| issue 2 \| pages 98–102 \| date February 2008 \| pmid 18271854 \| doi 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02052.x \| s2cid 11212529 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Mathews A, Mogg K, May J, Eysenck M \| title Implicit and explicit memory bias in anxiety \| journal Journal of Abnormal Psychology \| volume 98 \| issue 3 \| pages 236–240 \| date August 1989 \| pmid 2768658 \| doi 10.1037/0021-843x.98.3.236 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.1016/0191-8869(91)90096-t \|titleEffects of encoding and anxiety on implicit and explicit memory performance \|journalPersonality and Individual Differences \|volume12 \|issue2 \|pages131–139 \|year1991 \| vauthors Richards A, French CC }}</ref> Additionally recent research has found that implicit racial evaluations (i.e. automatic prejudiced attitudes) can be amplified during intergroup interaction.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Amodio DM, Hamilton HK \| title Intergroup anxiety effects on implicit racial evaluation and stereotyping \| journal Emotion \| volume 12 \| issue 6 \| pages 1273–1280 \| date December 2012 \| pmid 22775128 \| doi 10.1037/a0029016 \| citeseerx 10.1.1.659.5717 }}</ref> Negative experiences have been illustrated in producing not only negative expectations, but also avoidant, or antagonistic, behavior such as hostility.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Plant EA, Devine PG \| title The antecedents and implications of interracial anxiety \| journal Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin \| volume 29 \| issue 6 \| pages 790–801 \| date June 2003 \| pmid 15189634 \| doi 10.1177/0146167203029006011 \| s2cid 8581417 }}</ref> Furthermore, when compared to anxiety levels and cognitive effort (e.g., impression management and self-presentation) in intragroup contexts, levels and depletion of resources may be exacerbated in the intergroup situation.TraitAnxiety can be either a short-term "state" or a long-term "personality trait". Trait anxiety reflects a stable tendency across the lifespan of responding with acute, state anxiety in the anticipation of threatening situations (whether they are actually deemed threatening or not).<ref>{{cite web \| vauthors Schwarzer R \| collaboration Psychosocial Working Group \| date December 1997 \|titleAnxiety \|urlhttps://macses.ucsf.edu/research/psychosocial/anxiety.php \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20180307141654/https://macses.ucsf.edu/research/psychosocial/anxiety.php \| archive-date 7 March 2018 \|websiteMacArthur SES & Health Network }}</ref> A meta-analysis showed that a high level of neuroticism is a risk factor for development of anxiety symptoms and disorders.<ref name"NeuroticismMA">{{cite journal \| vauthors Jeronimus BF, Kotov R, Riese H, Ormel J \| title Neuroticism's prospective association with mental disorders halves after adjustment for baseline symptoms and psychiatric history, but the adjusted association hardly decays with time: a meta-analysis on 59 longitudinal/prospective studies with 443 313 participants \| journal Psychological Medicine \| volume 46 \| issue 14 \| pages 2883–2906 \| date October 2016 \| pmid 27523506 \| doi 10.1017/S0033291716001653 \| s2cid 23548727 \| url https://zenodo.org/record/895885 \| access-date 2019-07-28 \| archive-date 2019-07-24 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20190724213253/https://zenodo.org/record/895885 \| url-status live }}</ref> Such anxiety may be conscious or unconscious.<ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Giddey M, Wright H \|titleMental Health Nursing: From first principles to professional practice \|year1993 \|publisherStanley Thornes \| isbn 978-0-412-41210-3 }}{{Page needed\|date=May 2013}}</ref> Personality can also be a trait leading to anxiety and depression and their persistence.<ref nameLancet2021/> Through experience, many find it difficult to collect themselves due to their own personal nature.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.gulfbend.org/poc/view_doc.php?typedoc&id8948\|titleGulf Bend MHMR Center\|access-dateOctober 11, 2018\|archive-dateOctober 11, 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181011214432/https://www.gulfbend.org/poc/view_doc.php?typedoc&id8948\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Choice or decision Anxiety induced by the need to choose between similar options is recognized as a problem for some individuals and for organizations.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/style/fashion/trends/article85734.ece \|workThe Times \|locationLondon \|titlePremium choice anxiety \|dateApril 27, 2008 \|access-dateApril 25, 2010 \| vauthors Downey J \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140203132027/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/style/fashion/trends/article85734.ece \|archive-dateFebruary 3, 2014 }}</ref> In 2004, Capgemini wrote: "Today we're all faced with greater choice, more competition and less time to consider our options or seek out the right advice."<ref>[https://www.uk.capgemini.com/news/pr1487 Is choice anxiety costing british 'blue chip' business?] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151222143245/https://www.uk.capgemini.com/news/pr1487 \|dateDecember 22, 2015 }}, Capgemini, August 16, 2004</ref> Overthinking a choice is called analysis paralysis. In a decision context, unpredictability or uncertainty may trigger emotional responses in anxious individuals that systematically alter decision-making.<ref name"Hartley">{{cite journal \| vauthors Hartley CA, Phelps EA \| title Anxiety and decision-making \| journal Biological Psychiatry \| volume 72 \| issue 2 \| pages 113–118 \| date July 2012 \| pmid 22325982 \| pmc 3864559 \| doi 10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.12.027 }}</ref> There are primarily two forms of this anxiety type. The first form refers to a choice in which there are multiple potential outcomes with known or calculable probabilities. The second form refers to the uncertainty and ambiguity related to a decision context in which there are multiple possible outcomes with unknown probabilities.<ref name"Hartley" /> Panic disorder {{Main\|Panic disorder}} Panic disorder may share symptoms of stress and anxiety, but it is actually very different. Panic disorder is an anxiety disorder that occurs without any triggers. According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, this disorder can be distinguished by unexpected and repeated episodes of intense fear.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateJune 8, 2015 \|titleWhat are the five major types of anxiety disorders? \|urlhttps://www.hhs.gov/answers/mental-health-and-substance-abuse/what-are-the-five-major-types-of-anxiety-disorders/index.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191025023728/https://www.hhs.gov/answers/mental-health-and-substance-abuse/what-are-the-five-major-types-of-anxiety-disorders/index.html \|archive-dateOctober 25, 2019 \|access-dateOctober 25, 2019 \|publisherU.S. Department of Health & Human Services}}</ref> Someone with panic disorder will eventually develop constant fear of another attack and as this progresses it will begin to affect daily functioning and an individual's general quality of life. It is reported by the Cleveland Clinic that panic disorder affects 2 to 3 percent of adult Americans and can begin around the time of the teenage and early adult years. Some symptoms include: difficulty breathing, chest pain, dizziness, trembling or shaking, feeling faint, nausea, fear that you are losing control or are about to die. Even though they have these symptoms during an attack, the main symptom is the persistent fear of having future panic attacks.<ref>{{Cite web \|titlePanic Disorder & Panic Attacks \|urlhttps://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4451-panic-disorder \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191005194749/https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4451-panic-disorder \|archive-date2019-10-05 \|access-date2019-10-25 \|workThe Cleveland Clinic}}</ref> Anxiety disorders {{Main\|Anxiety disorder}} <!-- Do not add new content here. Add to body of Anxiety disorder article, and only if it rises to the importance of the lead there, update the lead there, then update this. Per WP:SYNC --> Anxiety disorders are a group of mental disorders characterized by exaggerated feelings of anxiety and fear responses.<ref name"DSM-5 189" /> Anxiety is a worry about future events and fear is a reaction to current events.<!-- <ref name DSM5/> --> These feelings may cause physical symptoms, such as a fast heart rate and shakiness.<!-- <ref nameDSM5/> --> There are a number of anxiety disorders: including generalized anxiety disorder, specific phobia, social anxiety disorder, separation anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, panic disorder, and selective mutism.<!-- <ref name DSM5/> --> The disorder differs by what results in the symptoms.<!-- <ref nameDSM5/> --> People often have more than one anxiety disorder.<ref name"DSM-5 189" /> <!-- Causes and diagnosis --> Anxiety disorders are caused by a complex combination of genetic and environmental factors.<ref>{{Cite web\|vauthorsHurley K\|date\|titleAnorexia & Depression: When Eating Disorders Co-Exist with Depression\|urlhttps://www.psycom.net/anorexia-and-depression/\|access-date2020-06-05\|websitePsycom.net - Mental Health Treatment Resource Since 1986\|languageen-US\|archive-date2020-06-04\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200604221258/https://www.psycom.net/anorexia-and-depression/\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Genetics of generalized anxiety dis">{{cite journal \| vauthors Gottschalk MG, Domschke K \| title Genetics of generalized anxiety disorder and related traits \| journal Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience \| volume 19 \| issue 2 \| pages 159–168 \| date June 2017 \| pmid 28867940 \| pmc 5573560 \| doi 10.31887/DCNS.2017.19.2/kdomschke }}</ref> To be diagnosed, symptoms typically need to be present for at least six months, be more than would be expected for the situation, and decrease a person's ability to function in their daily lives.<ref name"DSM-5 189" /><ref>{{Cite web\|titleAnxiety\|urlhttps://medlineplus.gov/anxiety.html\|access-date2021-10-27\|websitemedlineplus.gov\|archive-date2021-10-27\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211027151723/https://medlineplus.gov/anxiety.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Other problems that may result in similar symptoms include hyperthyroidism, heart disease, caffeine, alcohol, or cannabis use, and withdrawal from certain drugs, among others.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Derrick K, Green T, Wand T \| title Assessing and responding to anxiety and panic in the Emergency Department \| journal Australasian Emergency Care \| volume 22 \| issue 4 \| pages 216–220 \| date December 2019 \| pmid 31530499 \| doi 10.1016/j.auec.2019.08.002 \| s2cid = 202672894 }}</ref> <!-- Management --> Without treatment, anxiety disorders tend to remain.<ref name"DSM-5 189" /><ref name"NIH2016">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/anxiety-disorders/index.shtml#pub2\|titleAnxiety Disorders\|dateMarch 2016\|websiteNIMH\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160727230427/http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/anxiety-disorders/index.shtml#pub2\|archive-dateJuly 27, 2016\|url-statuslive\|access-dateAugust 14, 2016}}</ref> Treatment may include lifestyle changes, counselling, and medications.<!-- <ref nameLancet2016/> --> Counselling is typically with a type of cognitive behavioral therapy.<ref name"Lancet2016" /> Medications, such as antidepressants or beta blockers, may improve symptoms.<ref name"NIH2016" /> A 2023 review found that regular physical activity is effective for reducing anxiety.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Singh \|first1Ben \|last2Olds \|first2Timothy \|last3Curtis \|first3Rachel \|last4Dumuid \|first4Dorothea \|last5Virgara \|first5Rosa \|last6Watson \|first6Amanda \|last7Szeto \|first7Kimberley \|last8O'Connor \|first8Edward \|last9Ferguson \|first9Ty \|last10Eglitis \|first10Emily \|last11Miatke \|first11Aaron \|last12Simpson \|first12Catherine EM \|last13Maher \|first13Carol \|date2023-02-16 \|titleEffectiveness of physical activity interventions for improving depression, anxiety and distress: an overview of systematic reviews \|journalBritish Journal of Sports Medicine \|volume57 \|issue18 \|pages1203–1209 \|languageen \|doi10.1136/bjsports-2022-106195 \|issn0306-3674 \|pmid36796860\|doi-accessfree \|pmc=10579187 }}</ref> <!-- Epidemiology --> About 12% of people are affected by an anxiety disorder in a given year and between 12% and 30% are affected at some point in their life.<ref name"Lancet2016" /><ref name"Kess2007">{{cite journal \| vauthors Kessler RC, Angermeyer M, Anthony JC, DE Graaf R, Demyttenaere K, Gasquet I, DE Girolamo G, Gluzman S, Gureje O, Haro JM, Kawakami N, Karam A, Levinson D, Medina Mora ME, Oakley Browne MA, Posada-Villa J, Stein DJ, Adley Tsang CH, Aguilar-Gaxiola S, Alonso J, Lee S, Heeringa S, Pennell BE, Berglund P, Gruber MJ, Petukhova M, Chatterji S, Ustün TB \| title Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of mental disorders in the World Health Organization's World Mental Health Survey Initiative \| journal World Psychiatry \| volume 6 \| issue 3 \| pages 168–176 \| date October 2007 \| pmid 18188442 \| pmc 2174588 }}</ref> They occur about twice as often in women than they do in men, and generally begin before the age of 25.<ref name"DSM-5 189" /><ref name"Lancet2016">{{cite journal \| vauthors Craske MG, Stein MB \| title Anxiety \| journal Lancet \| volume 388 \| issue 10063 \| pages 3048–3059 \| date December 2016 \| pmid 27349358 \| doi 10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30381-6 \| s2cid 208789585 }}</ref> The most common anxiety disorders are specific phobias, which affect nearly 12% of people, and social anxiety disorder, which affects 10% of people at some point in their life.<!-- <ref nameLancet2016/> --> They affect those between the ages of 15 and 35 the most and become less common after the age of 55.<!-- <ref nameLancet2016/> --> Rates appear to be higher in the United States and Europe.<ref name"Lancet2016" /> Short- and long-term anxiety Anxiety can be either a short-term "state" or a long-term "trait". Whereas trait anxiety represents worrying about future events, anxiety disorders are a group of mental disorders characterized by feelings of anxiety and fears.<ref name"DSM-5 189" />Four ways to be anxiousIn his book Anxious: The Modern Mind in the Age of Anxiety<ref>{{Cite book\| vauthors LeDoux JE \|titleAnxious: the modern mind in the age of anxiety\|date2015\|isbn978-1-78074-767-5\|locationLondon \|publisherOneworld \|oclc920462582}}</ref> Joseph LeDoux examines four experiences of anxiety through a brain-based lens: # In the presence of an existing or imminent external threat, you worry about the event and its implications for your physical and/or psychological well-being. When a threat signal occurs, it signifies either that danger is present or near in space and time or that it might be coming in the future. Nonconscious threats processing by the brain activates defensive survival circuits, resulting in changes in information processing in the brain, controlled in part by increases in arousal and behavioral and physiological responses in the body that then produce signals that feed back to the brain and complement the physiological changes there, intensifying them and extending their duration. # When you notice body sensations, you worry about what they might mean for your physical and/or psychological well-being. The trigger stimulus does not have to be an external stimulus but can be an internal one, as some people are particularly sensitive to body signals. # Thoughts and memories may lead to you to worry about your physical and/or psychological well-being. We do not need to be in the presence of an external or internal stimulus to be anxious. An episodic memory of a past trauma or of a panic attack in the past is sufficient to activate the defence circuits. # Thoughts and memories may result in existential dread, such as worry about leading a meaningful life or the eventuality of death. Examples are contemplations of whether one's life has been meaningful, the inevitability of death, or the difficulty of making decisions that have a moral value. These do not necessarily activate defensive systems; they are more or less pure forms of cognitive anxiety. Co-morbidity Anxiety disorders often occur with other mental health disorders, particularly major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, eating disorders, or certain personality disorders. It also commonly occurs with personality traits such as neuroticism. This observed co-occurrence is partly due to genetic and environmental influences shared between these traits and anxiety.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Smoller JW, Andreassen OA, Edenberg HJ, Faraone SV, Glatt SJ, Kendler KS \| title Correction to: Psychiatric genetics and the structure of psychopathology \| journal Molecular Psychiatry \| volume 24 \| issue 3 \| pages 471 \| date March 2019 \| pmid 29540840 \| doi 10.1038/s41380-018-0026-4 \| doi-access free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Kendler KS \|titleMajor Depression and Generalised Anxiety Disorder \|journalFOCUS \|dateJuly 2004 \|volume2 \|issue3 \|pages416–425 \|doi10.1176/foc.2.3.416 }}</ref> It is common for those with obsessive–compulsive disorder to experience anxiety. Anxiety is also commonly found in those who experience panic disorders, phobic anxiety disorders, severe stress, dissociative disorders, somatoform disorders, and some neurotic disorders.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Stein DJ, Fineberg NA, Bienvenu OJ, Denys D, Lochner C, Nestadt G, Leckman JF, Rauch SL, Phillips KA \| title Should OCD be classified as an anxiety disorder in DSM-V? \| journal Depression and Anxiety \| volume 27 \| issue 6 \| pages 495–506 \| date June 2010 \| pmid 20533366 \| doi 10.1002/da.20699 \| s2cid 17606388 \| doi-access = free }}</ref> Anxiety has also been linked to the experience of intrusive thoughts. Studies have revealed that individuals who experience high levels of anxiety (also known as clinical anxiety) are highly vulnerable to the experience of intense intrusive thoughts or psychological disorders that are characterised by intrusive thoughts.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Omoregie J, Carson J \|titleReductive mechanisms for unwanted intrusive thoughts: exploring affectivity in clinical and non-clinical samples \|journalMental Health and Social Inclusion \|date1 January 2022 \|volume27 \|issue \|pages51–65 \|doi10.1108/MHSI-06-2022-0040\|s2cid251511163 }}</ref>Risk factorsfrom the Capitoline Museum, conveying "an impression of anxiety and weariness, as of a man shouldering heavy [state] responsibilities"<ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Scarre C \|titleChronicle of the Roman Emperors \|publisherThames & Hudson \|year1995 \|pages168–9 \|isbn978-5-00050-775-9}}{{page needed\|dateOctober 2018}}</ref>]] Anxiety disorders are partly genetic, with twin studies suggesting 30-40% genetic influence on individual differences in anxiety.<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthorsReynolds CA \|titleRobert Plomin, John C. DeFries, Valerie S. Knopik, Jenae M. Neiderhiser, Behavioral Genetics (6th Edition) \|journalBehavior Genetics \|dateJune 16, 2013 \|volume43 \|issue4 \|pages360–361 \|doi10.1007/s10519-013-9598-6 \|s2cid141211176}}</ref> Environmental factors are also important. Twin studies show that individual-specific environments have a large influence on anxiety, whereas shared environmental influences (environments that affect twins in the same way) operate during childhood but decline through adolescence.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Smoller JW, Block SR, Young MM \| title Genetics of anxiety disorders: the complex road from DSM to DNA \| journal Depression and Anxiety \| volume 26 \| issue 11 \| pages 965–975 \| date November 2009 \| pmid 19885930 \| doi 10.1002/da.20623 \| s2cid 35349081 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Specific measured 'environments' that have been associated with anxiety include child abuse, family history of mental health disorders, and poverty.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Craske MG, Stein MB, Eley TC, Milad MR, Holmes A, Rapee RM, Wittchen HU \| title Anxiety disorders \| journal Nature Reviews. Disease Primers \| volume 3 \| issue 1 \| pages 17024 \| date May 2017 \| pmid 28470168 \| doi 10.1038/nrdp.2017.24 \| s2cid 52852105 \| pmc 11009418 }}</ref> Anxiety is also associated with drug use, including alcohol and caffeine, as well as benzodiazepines, which are often prescribed to treat anxiety.GeneticsGenetics and family history (e.g. parental anxiety) may put an individual at increased risk of an anxiety disorder, but generally external stimuli will trigger its onset or exacerbation.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Davies MR, Kalsi G, Armour C, Jones IR, McIntosh AM, Smith DJ, Walters JT, Bradley JR, Kingston N, Ashford S, Beange I, Brailean A, Cleare AJ, Coleman JR, Curtis CJ, Curzons SC, Davis KA, Dowey LR, Gault VA, Goldsmith KA, Bennett MH, Hirose Y, Hotopf M, Hübel C, Kanz C, Leng J, Lyall DM, Mason BD, McAtarsney-Kovacs M, Monssen D, Moulton A, Ovington N, Palaiologou E, Pariante CM, Parikh S, Peel AJ, Price RK, Rimes KA, Rogers HC, Sambrook J, Skelton M, Spaul A, Suarez EL, Sykes BL, Thomas KG, Young AH, Vassos E, Veale D, White KM, Wingrove J, Eley TC, Breen G \| title The Genetic Links to Anxiety and Depression (GLAD) Study: Online recruitment into the largest recontactable study of depression and anxiety \| journal Behaviour Research and Therapy \| volume 123 \| pages 103503 \| date December 2019 \| pmid 31715324 \| pmc 6891252 \| doi 10.1016/j.brat.2019.103503 }}</ref> Estimates of genetic influence on anxiety, based on studies of twins, range from 25 to 40% depending on the specific type and age-group under study. For example, genetic differences account for about 43% of variance in panic disorder and 28% in generalized anxiety disorder.<ref name"Genetics of generalized anxiety dis"/> Longitudinal twin studies have shown the moderate stability of anxiety from childhood through to adulthood is mainly influenced by stability in genetic influence.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Waszczuk MA, Zavos HM, Gregory AM, Eley TC \| title The phenotypic and genetic structure of depression and anxiety disorder symptoms in childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood \| journal JAMA Psychiatry \| volume 71 \| issue 8 \| pages 905–916 \| date August 2014 \| pmid 24920372 \| doi 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.655 \| doi-access free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Nivard MG, Dolan CV, Kendler KS, Kan KJ, Willemsen G, van Beijsterveldt CE, Lindauer RJ, van Beek JH, Geels LM, Bartels M, Middeldorp CM, Boomsma DI \| title Stability in symptoms of anxiety and depression as a function of genotype and environment: a longitudinal twin study from ages 3 to 63 years \| journal Psychological Medicine \| volume 45 \| issue 5 \| pages 1039–1049 \| date April 2015 \| pmid 25187475 \| doi 10.1017/S003329171400213X \| s2cid 15183002 }}</ref> When investigating how anxiety is passed on from parents to children, it is important to account for sharing of genes as well as environments, for example using the intergenerational children-of-twins design.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Eley TC, McAdams TA, Rijsdijk FV, Lichtenstein P, Narusyte J, Reiss D, Spotts EL, Ganiban JM, Neiderhiser JM \| title The Intergenerational Transmission of Anxiety: A Children-of-Twins Study \| journal The American Journal of Psychiatry \| volume 172 \| issue 7 \| pages 630–637 \| date July 2015 \| pmid 25906669 \| doi 10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.14070818 \| pmc = 8515953 }}</ref> Many studies in the past used a candidate gene approach to test whether single genes were associated with anxiety. These investigations were based on hypotheses about how certain known genes influence neurotransmitters (such as serotonin and norepinephrine) and hormones (such as cortisol) that are implicated in anxiety. None of these findings are well replicated,<ref name":2" /> with the possible exception of TMEM132D, COMT and MAO-A.<ref name":2">{{cite journal \| vauthors Howe AS, Buttenschøn HN, Bani-Fatemi A, Maron E, Otowa T, Erhardt A, Binder EB, Gregersen NO, Mors O, Woldbye DP, Domschke K, Reif A, Shlik J, Kõks S, Kawamura Y, Miyashita A, Kuwano R, Tokunaga K, Tanii H, Smoller JW, Sasaki T, Koszycki D, De Luca V \| title Candidate genes in panic disorder: meta-analyses of 23 common variants in major anxiogenic pathways \| journal Molecular Psychiatry \| volume 21 \| issue 5 \| pages 665–679 \| date May 2016 \| pmid 26390831 \| doi 10.1038/mp.2015.138 \| s2cid 3394824 \| doi-access free }}</ref> The epigenetic signature of BDNF, a gene that codes for a protein called brain derived neurotrophic factor that is found in the brain, has also been associated with anxiety and specific patterns of neural activity.<ref name"Purves" /> and a receptor gene for BDNF called NTRK2 was associated with anxiety in a large genome-wide investigation.<ref name"Purves">{{cite journal \| vauthors Purves KL, Coleman JR, Meier SM, Rayner C, Davis KA, Cheesman R, Bækvad-Hansen M, Børglum AD, Wan Cho S, Jürgen Deckert J, Gaspar HA, Bybjerg-Grauholm J, Hettema JM, Hotopf M, Hougaard D, Hübel C, Kan C, McIntosh AM, Mors O, Bo Mortensen P, Nordentoft M, Werge T, Nicodemus KK, Mattheisen M, Breen G, Eley TC \| title A major role for common genetic variation in anxiety disorders \| journal Molecular Psychiatry \| volume 25 \| issue 12 \| pages 3292–3303 \| date December 2020 \| pmid 31748690 \| pmc 7237282 \| doi 10.1038/s41380-019-0559-1 }}</ref> The reason that most candidate gene findings have not replicated is that anxiety is a complex trait that is influenced by many genomic variants, each of which has a small effect on its own. Increasingly, studies of anxiety are using a hypothesis-free approach to look for parts of the genome that are implicated in anxiety using big enough samples to find associations with variants that have small effects. The largest explorations of the common genetic architecture of anxiety have been facilitated by the UK Biobank, the ANGST consortium and the CRC Fear, Anxiety and Anxiety Disorders.<ref name"Purves" /><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Otowa T, Hek K, Lee M, Byrne EM, Mirza SS, Nivard MG, Bigdeli T, Aggen SH, Adkins D, Wolen A, Fanous A, Keller MC, Castelao E, Kutalik Z, Van der Auwera S, Homuth G, Nauck M, Teumer A, Milaneschi Y, Hottenga JJ, Direk N, Hofman A, Uitterlinden A, Mulder CL, Henders AK, Medland SE, Gordon S, Heath AC, Madden PA, Pergadia ML, van der Most PJ, Nolte IM, van Oort FV, Hartman CA, Oldehinkel AJ, Preisig M, Grabe HJ, Middeldorp CM, Penninx BW, Boomsma D, Martin NG, Montgomery G, Maher BS, van den Oord EJ, Wray NR, Tiemeier H, Hettema JM \| title Meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies of anxiety disorders \| journal Molecular Psychiatry \| volume 21 \| issue 10 \| pages 1391–1399 \| date October 2016 \| pmid 26754954 \| pmc 4940340 \| doi 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2016.09.604 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Deckert J, Weber H, Villmann C, Lonsdorf TB, Richter J, Andreatta M, Arias-Vasquez A, Hommers L, Kent L, Schartner C, Cichon S, Wolf C, Schaefer N, von Collenberg CR, Wachter B, Blum R, Schümann D, Scharfenort R, Schumacher J, Forstner AJ, Baumann C, Schiele MA, Notzon S, Zwanzger P, Janzing JG, Galesloot T, Kiemeney LA, Gajewska A, Glotzbach-Schoon E, Mühlberger A, Alpers G, Fydrich T, Fehm L, Gerlach AL, Kircher T, Lang T, Ströhle A, Arolt V, Wittchen HU, Kalisch R, Büchel C, Hamm A, Nöthen MM, Romanos M, Domschke K, Pauli P, Reif A \| title GLRB allelic variation associated with agoraphobic cognitions, increased startle response and fear network activation: a potential neurogenetic pathway to panic disorder \| journal Molecular Psychiatry \| volume 22 \| issue 10 \| pages 1431–1439 \| date October 2017 \| pmid 28167838 \| doi 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2016.09.607 \| s2cid 54353612 }}</ref> Epigenetics {{excerpt\|Epigenetics of anxiety and stress–related disorders}} Medical conditions Many medical conditions can cause anxiety. This includes conditions that affect the ability to breathe, like COPD and asthma, and the difficulty in breathing that often occurs near death.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Baldwin J, Cox J \| title Treating Dyspnea: Is Oxygen Therapy the Best Option for All Patients? \| journal The Medical Clinics of North America \| volume 100 \| issue 5 \| pages 1123–1130 \| date September 2016 \| pmid 27542431 \| doi 10.1016/j.mcna.2016.04.018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Vanfleteren LE, Spruit MA, Wouters EF, Franssen FM \| title Management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease beyond the lungs \| journal The Lancet. Respiratory Medicine \| volume 4 \| issue 11 \| pages 911–924 \| date November 2016 \| pmid 27264777 \| doi 10.1016/S2213-2600(16)00097-7 }}</ref><ref name"TselebisPachi2016">{{cite journal \| vauthors Tselebis A, Pachi A, Ilias I, Kosmas E, Bratis D, Moussas G, Tzanakis N \| title Strategies to improve anxiety and depression in patients with COPD: a mental health perspective \| journal Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment \| volume 12 \| pages 297–328 \| year 2016 \| pmid 26929625 \| pmc 4755471 \| doi 10.2147/NDT.S79354 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Conditions that cause abdominal pain or chest pain can cause anxiety and may in some cases be a somatization of anxiety;<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Muscatello MR, Bruno A, Mento C, Pandolfo G, Zoccali RA \| title Personality traits and emotional patterns in irritable bowel syndrome \| journal World Journal of Gastroenterology \| volume 22 \| issue 28 \| pages 6402–6415 \| date July 2016 \| pmid 27605876 \| pmc 4968122 \| doi 10.3748/wjg.v22.i28.6402 \| doi-access free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Remes-Troche JM \| title How to Diagnose and Treat Functional Chest Pain \| journal Current Treatment Options in Gastroenterology \| volume 14 \| issue 4 \| pages 429–443 \| date December 2016 \| pmid 27709331 \| doi 10.1007/s11938-016-0106-y \| s2cid 19634934 }}</ref> the same is true for some sexual dysfunctions.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Brotto L, Atallah S, Johnson-Agbakwu C, Rosenbaum T, Abdo C, Byers ES, Graham C, Nobre P, Wylie K \| title Psychological and Interpersonal Dimensions of Sexual Function and Dysfunction \| journal The Journal of Sexual Medicine \| volume 13 \| issue 4 \| pages 538–571 \| date April 2016 \| pmid 27045257 \| doi 10.1016/j.jsxm.2016.01.019 \| url https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/390453/1/Final%2520-%2520JSM%2520chapter%2520on%2520psych%2520factors%2520-%2520part%25201%2520-%2520ACCEPTED.doc \| access-date 2019-12-07 \| archive-date 2020-07-26 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20200726065113/https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/390453/1/Final%2520-%2520JSM%2520chapter%2520on%2520psych%2520factors%2520-%2520part%25201%2520-%2520ACCEPTED.doc \| url-status live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|author2-linkEmmanuele A. Jannini \| vauthors McMahon CG, Jannini EA, Serefoglu EC, Hellstrom WJ \| title The pathophysiology of acquired premature ejaculation \| journal Translational Andrology and Urology \| volume 5 \| issue 4 \| pages 434–449 \| date August 2016 \| pmid 27652216 \| pmc 5001985 \| doi 10.21037/tau.2016.07.06 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Conditions that affect the face or the skin can cause social anxiety especially among adolescents,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Nguyen CM, Beroukhim K, Danesh MJ, Babikian A, Koo J, Leon A \| title The psychosocial impact of acne, vitiligo, and psoriasis: a review \| journal Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology \| volume 9 \| pages 383–392 \| year 2016 \| pmid 27799808 \| pmc 5076546 \| doi 10.2147/CCID.S76088 \| doi-access free }}</ref> and developmental disabilities often lead to social anxiety for children as well.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Caçola P \| title Physical and Mental Health of Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder \| journal Frontiers in Public Health \| volume 4 \| pages 224 \| year 2016 \| pmid 27822464 \| pmc 5075567 \| doi 10.3389/fpubh.2016.00224 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Life-threatening conditions like cancer also cause anxiety.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Mosher CE, Winger JG, Given BA, Helft PR, O'Neil BH \| title Mental health outcomes during colorectal cancer survivorship: a review of the literature \| journal Psycho-Oncology \| volume 25 \| issue 11 \| pages 1261–1270 \| date November 2016 \| pmid 26315692 \| pmc 4894828 \| doi 10.1002/pon.3954 }}</ref> Furthermore, certain organic diseases may present with anxiety or symptoms that mimic anxiety.<ref name"WHO2009" /><ref name"TestaGiannuzzi2013partIII" /> These disorders include certain endocrine diseases (hypo- and hyperthyroidism, hyperprolactinemia),<ref name"TestaGiannuzzi2013partIII" /><ref name"Samuels2008">{{cite journal \| vauthors Samuels MH \| title Cognitive function in untreated hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism \| journal Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Obesity \| volume 15 \| issue 5 \| pages 429–433 \| date October 2008 \| pmid 18769215 \| doi 10.1097/MED.0b013e32830eb84c \| s2cid 27235034 }}</ref> metabolic disorders (diabetes),<ref name"TestaGiannuzzi2013partIII" /><ref name"BuchbergerHuppertz2016">{{cite journal \| vauthors Buchberger B, Huppertz H, Krabbe L, Lux B, Mattivi JT, Siafarikas A \| title Symptoms of depression and anxiety in youth with type 1 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis \| journal Psychoneuroendocrinology \| volume 70 \| pages 70–84 \| date August 2016 \| pmid 27179232 \| doi 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.04.019 \| s2cid 19858996 }}</ref><ref name"GrigsbyAnderson2002">{{cite journal \| vauthors Grigsby AB, Anderson RJ, Freedland KE, Clouse RE, Lustman PJ \| title Prevalence of anxiety in adults with diabetes: a systematic review \| journal Journal of Psychosomatic Research \| volume 53 \| issue 6 \| pages 1053–1060 \| date December 2002 \| pmid 12479986 \| doi 10.1016/S0022-3999(02)00417-8 }}</ref> deficiency states (low levels of vitamin D, B2, B12, folic acid),<ref name"TestaGiannuzzi2013partIII" /> gastrointestinal diseases (celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, inflammatory bowel disease),<ref name"ZingoneSwift2015">{{cite journal \| vauthors Zingone F, Swift GL, Card TR, Sanders DS, Ludvigsson JF, Bai JC \| title Psychological morbidity of celiac disease: A review of the literature \| journal United European Gastroenterology Journal \| volume 3 \| issue 2 \| pages 136–145 \| date April 2015 \| pmid 25922673 \| pmc 4406898 \| doi 10.1177/2050640614560786 }}</ref><ref name"MolinaInfanteSantolaria2015SystematicReview">{{cite journal \| vauthors Molina-Infante J, Santolaria S, Sanders DS, Fernández-Bañares F \| title Systematic review: noncoeliac gluten sensitivity \| journal Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics \| volume 41 \| issue 9 \| pages 807–820 \| date May 2015 \| pmid 25753138 \| doi 10.1111/apt.13155 \| s2cid 207050854 }}</ref><ref name"NeuendorfHarding2016">{{cite journal \| vauthors Neuendorf R, Harding A, Stello N, Hanes D, Wahbeh H \| title Depression and anxiety in patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A systematic review \| journal Journal of Psychosomatic Research \| volume 87 \| pages 70–80 \| date August 2016 \| pmid 27411754 \| doi 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2016.06.001 }}</ref> heart diseases, blood diseases (anemia),<ref name"TestaGiannuzzi2013partIII" /> cerebral vascular accidents (transient ischemic attack, stroke),<ref name"TestaGiannuzzi2013partIII" /> and brain degenerative diseases (Parkinson's disease, dementia, multiple sclerosis, Huntington's disease), among others.<ref name"TestaGiannuzzi2013partIII" /><ref name"ZhaoTan2016">{{cite journal \| vauthors Zhao QF, Tan L, Wang HF, Jiang T, Tan MS, Tan L, Xu W, Li JQ, Wang J, Lai TJ, Yu JT \| title The prevalence of neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer's disease: Systematic review and meta-analysis \| journal Journal of Affective Disorders \| volume 190 \| pages 264–271 \| date January 2016 \| pmid 26540080 \| doi 10.1016/j.jad.2015.09.069 }}</ref><ref name"WenChan2016">{{cite journal \| vauthors Wen MC, Chan LL, Tan LC, Tan EK \| title Depression, anxiety, and apathy in Parkinson's disease: insights from neuroimaging studies \| journal European Journal of Neurology \| volume 23 \| issue 6 \| pages 1001–1019 \| date June 2016 \| pmid 27141858 \| pmc 5084819 \| doi 10.1111/ene.13002 }}</ref><ref name"MarrieReingold2015">{{cite journal \| vauthors Marrie RA, Reingold S, Cohen J, Stuve O, Trojano M, Sorensen PS, Cutter G, Reider N \| title The incidence and prevalence of psychiatric disorders in multiple sclerosis: a systematic review \| journal Multiple Sclerosis \| volume 21 \| issue 3 \| pages 305–317 \| date March 2015 \| pmid 25583845 \| pmc 4429164 \| doi 10.1177/1352458514564487 }}</ref>Substance-inducedSeveral drugs can cause or worsen anxiety, whether in intoxication, withdrawal or as side effect. These include alcohol, tobacco, sedatives (including prescription benzodiazepines), opioids (including prescription pain killers and illicit drugs like heroin), stimulants (such as caffeine, cocaine and amphetamines), hallucinogens, and inhalants.<ref>{{Cite web \| author National Institute on Drug Abuse \|date2012-08-03 \|titlePrescription Drug Facts, Effects, Teen Use \|urlhttps://teens.drugabuse.gov/drug-facts/prescription-drugs \|access-date2022-05-24 \|websiteNIDA for Teens \|languageen \|archive-date2022-05-18 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220518000257/https://teens.drugabuse.gov/drug-facts/prescription-drugs \|url-status=live }}</ref> While many often report self-medicating anxiety with these substances, improvements in anxiety from drugs are usually short-lived (with worsening of anxiety in the long term, sometimes with acute anxiety as soon as the drug effects wear off) and tend to be exaggerated.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Brady KT, Haynes LF, Hartwell KJ, Killeen TK \| title Substance use disorders and anxiety: a treatment challenge for social workers \| journal Social Work in Public Health \| volume 28 \| issue 3–4 \| pages 407–423 \| date 2013 \| pmid 23731428 \| pmc 3775646 \| doi 10.1080/19371918.2013.774675 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Turner S, Mota N, Bolton J, Sareen J \| title Self-medication with alcohol or drugs for mood and anxiety disorders: A narrative review of the epidemiological literature \| journal Depression and Anxiety \| volume 35 \| issue 9 \| pages 851–860 \| date September 2018 \| pmid 29999576 \| pmc 6175215 \| doi 10.1002/da.22771 }}</ref> Acute exposure to toxic levels of benzene may cause euphoria, anxiety, and irritability lasting up to 2 weeks after the exposure.<ref>{{Cite web\|title CDC – The Emergency Response Safety and Health Database: Systemic Agent: BENZENE – NIOSH\|url https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ershdb/emergencyresponsecard_29750032.html\|website www.cdc.gov\|access-date January 27, 2016\|url-status live\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160117001341/http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ershdb/emergencyresponsecard_29750032.html\|archive-date January 17, 2016\|df mdy-all}}</ref> Psychological {{Mental state}} Poor coping skills (e.g., rigidity/inflexible problem solving, denial, avoidance, impulsivity, extreme self-expectation, negative thoughts, affective instability, and inability to focus on problems) are associated with anxiety. Anxiety is also linked and perpetuated by the person's own pessimistic outcome expectancy and how they cope with feedback negativity.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Gu R, Huang YX, Luo YJ \| title Anxiety and feedback negativity \| journal Psychophysiology \| volume 47 \| issue 5 \| pages 961–967 \| date September 2010 \| pmid 20374540 \| doi 10.1111/j.1469-8986.2010.00997.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Watkins ER \| title Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought \| journal Psychological Bulletin \| volume 134 \| issue 2 \| pages 163–206 \| date March 2008 \| pmid 18298268 \| pmc 2672052 \| doi 10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.163 }}</ref> Temperament (e.g., neuroticism)<ref name"NeuroticismMA" /> and attitudes (e.g. pessimism) have been found to be risk factors for anxiety.<ref name"Bienvenu Ginsburg 2007">{{cite journal \| vauthors Bienvenu OJ, Ginsburg GS \| title Prevention of anxiety disorders \| journal International Review of Psychiatry \| volume 19 \| issue 6 \| pages 647–654 \| date December 2007 \| pmid 18092242 \| doi 10.1080/09540260701797837 \| s2cid = 95140 }}</ref> Cognitive distortions such as overgeneralizing, catastrophizing, mind reading, emotional reasoning, binocular trick, and mental filter can result in anxiety. For example, an overgeneralized belief that something bad "always" happens may lead someone to have excessive fears of even minimally risky situations and to avoid benign social situations due to anticipatory anxiety of embarrassment. In addition, those who have high anxiety can also create future stressful life events.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Phillips AC, Carroll D, Der G \| title Negative life events and symptoms of depression and anxiety: stress causation and/or stress generation \| journal Anxiety, Stress, and Coping \| volume 28 \| issue 4 \| pages 357–371 \| year 2015 \| pmid 25572915 \| pmc 4772121 \| doi 10.1080/10615806.2015.1005078 }}</ref> Together, these findings suggest that anxious thoughts can lead to anticipatory anxiety as well as stressful events, which in turn cause more anxiety. Such unhealthy thoughts can be targets for successful treatment with cognitive therapy. Psychodynamic theory posits that anxiety is often the result of opposing unconscious wishes or fears that manifest via maladaptive defense mechanisms (such as suppression, repression, anticipation, regression, somatization, passive aggression, dissociation) that develop to adapt to problems with early objects (e.g., caregivers) and empathic failures in childhood. For example, persistent parental discouragement of anger may result in repression/suppression of angry feelings which manifests as gastrointestinal distress (somatization) when provoked by another while the anger remains unconscious and outside the individual's awareness. Such conflicts can be targets for successful treatment with psychodynamic therapy. While psychodynamic therapy tends to explore the underlying roots of anxiety, cognitive behavioral therapy has also been shown to be a successful treatment for anxiety by altering irrational thoughts and unwanted behaviors. Evolutionary psychology An evolutionary psychology explanation is that increased anxiety serves the purpose of increased vigilance regarding potential threats in the environment as well as increased tendency to take proactive actions regarding such possible threats. This may cause false positive reactions but an individual with anxiety may also avoid real threats. This may explain why anxious people are less likely to die due to accidents.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Andrews PW, Thomson JA \| title The bright side of being blue: depression as an adaptation for analyzing complex problems \| journal Psychological Review \| volume 116 \| issue 3 \| pages 620–654 \| date July 2009 \| pmid 19618990 \| pmc 2734449 \| doi 10.1037/a0016242 }}</ref> There is ample empirical evidence that anxiety can have adaptive value. Within a school, timid fish are more likely than bold fish to survive a predator.<ref>{{Cite book\| vauthors Gluckman P \|titlePrinciples of Evolutionary Medicine\|publisherOxford University Press\|year2009\|isbn978-0-19-923639-8\|pages249}}</ref> When people are confronted with unpleasant and potentially harmful stimuli such as foul odors or tastes, PET-scans show increased blood flow in the amygdala.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Zald DH, Pardo JV \| title Emotion, olfaction, and the human amygdala: amygdala activation during aversive olfactory stimulation \| journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \| volume 94 \| issue 8 \| pages 4119–4124 \| date April 1997 \| pmid 9108115 \| pmc 20578 \| doi 10.1073/pnas.94.8.4119 \| doi-access free \| bibcode 1997PNAS...94.4119Z }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Zald DH, Hagen MC, Pardo JV \| title Neural correlates of tasting concentrated quinine and sugar solutions \| journal Journal of Neurophysiology \| volume 87 \| issue 2 \| pages 1068–1075 \| date February 2002 \| pmid 11826070 \| doi 10.1152/jn.00358.2001 \| s2cid 6278342 }}</ref> In these studies, the participants also reported moderate anxiety. This might indicate that anxiety is a protective mechanism designed to prevent the organism from engaging in potentially harmful behaviors. Social Social risk factors for anxiety include a history of trauma (e.g., physical, sexual or emotional abuse or assault), bullying, early life experiences and parenting factors (e.g., rejection, lack of warmth, high hostility, harsh discipline, high parental negative affect, anxious childrearing, modelling of dysfunctional and drug-abusing behaviour, discouragement of emotions, poor socialization, poor attachment, and child abuse and neglect), cultural factors (e.g., stoic families/cultures, persecuted minorities including those with disabilities), and socioeconomics (e.g., uneducated, unemployed, impoverished although developed countries have higher rates of anxiety disorders than developing countries).<ref>{{cite book \|chapter-urlhttp://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id12480&page530 \|chapterTable E-4 Risk Factors for Anxiety \|page530 \|veditorsO'Connell ME, Boat T, Warner KE \|publisherNational Academies Press \|titlePrevention of Mental Disorders, Substance Abuse, and Problem Behaviors: A Developmental Perspective \|year2009 \|isbn978-0-309-12674-8 \|doi10.17226/12480 \|pmid20662125 \|vauthors((National Research Council (Us) Institute Of Medicine (Us) Committee On The Prevention Of Mental Disorders Substance Abuse Among Children, Youth, and Young Adults)) \|s2cid142581788 \|access-date2014-04-19 \|archive-date2014-04-18 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140418234307/http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id12480&page530 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> A 2019 comprehensive systematic review of over 50 studies showed that food insecurity in the United States is strongly associated with depression, anxiety, and sleep disorders.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Arenas DJ, Thomas A, Wang J, DeLisser HM \| title A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Depression, Anxiety, and Sleep Disorders in US Adults with Food Insecurity \| journal Journal of General Internal Medicine \| volume 34 \| issue 12 \| pages 2874–2882 \| date December 2019 \| pmid 31385212 \| pmc 6854208 \| doi 10.1007/s11606-019-05202-4 }}</ref> Food-insecure individuals had an almost 3 fold risk increase of testing positive for anxiety when compared to food-secure individuals. Gender socialization Contextual factors that are thought to contribute to anxiety include gender socialization and learning experiences. In particular, learning mastery (the degree to which people perceive their lives to be under their own control) and instrumentality, which includes such traits as self-confidence, self-efficacy, independence, and competitiveness fully mediate the relation between gender and anxiety. That is, though gender differences in anxiety exist, with higher levels of anxiety in women compared to men, gender socialization and learning mastery explain these gender differences.<ref>{{cite journal \|doi10.1080/03634520009379205 \|titleAnticipatory anxiety patterns for male and female public speakers \|journalCommunication Education \|volume49 \|issue2 \|pages187–195 \|year2000 \| vauthors Behnke RR, Sawyer CR \|s2cid144320186 }}</ref>Treatment {{See also\|Fear#Management}} The first step in the management of a person with anxiety symptoms involves evaluating the possible presence of an underlying medical cause, the recognition of which is essential in order to decide the correct treatment.<ref name"WHO2009">{{cite book \|publisherWorld Health Organization \|date2009 \|title Pharmacological Treatment of Mental Disorders in Primary Health Care \|urlhttp://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/44095/1/9789241547697_eng.pdf \|location Geneva \|isbn978-92-4-154769-7 \|url-status live \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161120132530/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/44095/1/9789241547697_eng.pdf \|archive-date November 20, 2016 \|dfmdy-all}}</ref><ref name"TestaGiannuzzi2013partIII">{{cite journal \| vauthors Testa A, Giannuzzi R, Daini S, Bernardini L, Petrongolo L, Gentiloni Silveri N \| title Psychiatric emergencies (part III): psychiatric symptoms resulting from organic diseases \| journal European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences \| volume 17 \| issue Suppl 1 \| pages 86–99 \| date February 2013 \| pmid 23436670 \| url http://www.europeanreview.org/article/3087 \| access-date 2018-10-26 \| archive-date 2021-03-04 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210304154235/https://www.europeanreview.org/article/3087 \| url-status live }}</ref> Anxiety symptoms may mask an organic disease, or appear associated with or as a result of a medical disorder.<ref name"WHO2009" /><ref name"TestaGiannuzzi2013partIII" /><ref name"TestaGiannuzzi2013partII">{{cite journal \| vauthors Testa A, Giannuzzi R, Sollazzo F, Petrongolo L, Bernardini L, Dain S \| title Psychiatric emergencies (part II): psychiatric disorders coexisting with organic diseases \| journal European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences \| volume 17 \| issue Suppl 1 \| pages 65–85 \| date February 2013 \| pmid 23436669 \| url http://www.europeanreview.org/article/3085 \| access-date 2018-10-26 \| archive-date 2021-05-05 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210505213014/https://www.europeanreview.org/article/3085 \| url-status live }}</ref><ref name"TestaGiannuzzi2013partI">{{cite journal \| vauthors Testa A, Giannuzzi R, Sollazzo F, Petrongolo L, Bernardini L, Daini S \| title Psychiatric emergencies (part I): psychiatric disorders causing organic symptoms \| journal European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences \| volume 17 \| issue Suppl 1 \| pages 55–64 \| date February 2013 \| pmid 23436668 \| url http://www.europeanreview.org/article/3083 \| access-date 2018-10-26 \| archive-date 2021-02-26 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210226131355/https://www.europeanreview.org/article/3083 \| url-status = live }}</ref> Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is effective for anxiety disorders and is a first line treatment.<ref name"NEJM2015">{{cite journal \| vauthors Stein MB, Sareen J \| title CLINICAL PRACTICE. Generalized Anxiety Disorder \| journal The New England Journal of Medicine \| volume 373 \| issue 21 \| pages 2059–2068 \| date November 2015 \| pmid 26580998 \| doi 10.1056/nejmcp1502514 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Cuijpers P, Sijbrandij M, Koole S, Huibers M, Berking M, Andersson G \| title Psychological treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: a meta-analysis \| journal Clinical Psychology Review \| volume 34 \| issue 2 \| pages 130–140 \| date March 2014 \| pmid 24487344 \| doi 10.1016/j.cpr.2014.01.002 \| s2cid 46188773 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Otte C \| title Cognitive behavioral therapy in anxiety disorders: current state of the evidence \| journal Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience \| volume 13 \| issue 4 \| pages 413–421 \| year 2011 \| pmid 22275847 \| pmc 3263389 \| doi 10.31887/DCNS.2011.13.4/cotte }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Pompoli A, Furukawa TA, Imai H, Tajika A, Efthimiou O, Salanti G \| title Psychological therapies for panic disorder with or without agoraphobia in adults: a network meta-analysis \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| volume 2016 \| pages CD011004 \| date April 2016 \| issue 4 \| pmid 27071857 \| pmc 7104662 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.CD011004.pub2 }}</ref><ref name"Ol2016">{{cite journal \| vauthors Olthuis JV, Watt MC, Bailey K, Hayden JA, Stewart SH \| title Therapist-supported Internet cognitive behavioural therapy for anxiety disorders in adults \| journal The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \| volume 2016 \| issue 3 \| pages CD011565 \| date March 2016 \| pmid 26968204 \| pmc 7077612 \| doi 10.1002/14651858.cd011565.pub2 }}</ref> CBT appears to be equally effective when carried out via the internet.<ref name"Ol2016" /> While evidence for mental health apps is promising, it is preliminary.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Donker T, Petrie K, Proudfoot J, Clarke J, Birch MR, Christensen H \| title Smartphones for smarter delivery of mental health programs: a systematic review \| journal Journal of Medical Internet Research \| volume 15 \| issue 11 \| pages e247 \| date November 2013 \| pmid 24240579 \| pmc 3841358 \| doi 10.2196/jmir.2791 \| doi-access free }}</ref><ref>{{cite report \| vauthors Singh K, Severn M \| title e-Therapy Interventions for the Treatment of Anxiety: Clinical Evidence \| date 2018 \| pmid 30329251 \| url https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK532212/ \| access-date 2022-12-28 \| publisher Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health \| series CADTH Rapid Response Report: Summary with Critical Appraisal \| archive-date 2024-02-23 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20240223203048/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK532212/ \| url-status live }}</ref> Anxiety often affects relationships, and interpersonal psychotherapy addresses these issues by improving communication and relationship skills.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2023-11-08 \|titleCan Therapy Help with Anxiety? Understanding the Benefits \|urlhttps://totalmentalwellnessfl.com/does-therapy-help-with-anxiety-total-mental-wellness/ \|access-date2023-12-05 \|websitetotalmentalwellnessfl.com \|languageen-US \|archive-date2024-02-23 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240223203103/https://totalmentalwellnessfl.com/does-therapy-help-with-anxiety-total-mental-wellness/ \|url-status=live }}</ref> Psychopharmacological treatment can be used in parallel to CBT or can be used alone. As a general rule, most anxiety disorders respond well to first-line agents. Such drugs, also used as anti-depressants, are the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, that work by blocking the reuptake of specific neurotransmitters and resulting in the increase in availability of these neurotransmitters. Additionally, benzodiazepines are often prescribed to individuals with anxiety disorder. Benzodiazepines produce an anxiolytic response by modulating GABA and increasing its receptor binding. A third common treatment involves a category of drug known as serotonin agonists. This category of drug works by initiating a physiological response at 5-HT1A receptor by increasing the action of serotonin at this receptor.{{citation needed\|dateOctober 2022}} Other treatment options include pregabalin, tricyclic antidepressants, and moclobemide, among others.<ref name"Bandelow_2017">{{cite journal \| vauthors Bandelow B, Michaelis S, Wedekind D \| title Treatment of anxiety disorders \| journal Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience \| volume 19 \| issue 2 \| pages 93–107 \| date June 2017 \| pmid 28867934 \| pmc 5573566 \| doi 10.31887/DCNS.2017.19.2/bbandelow }}</ref> Anxiety is considered to be a serious psychiatric illness that has an unknown true pervasiveness due to affected individuals not asking for proper treatment or aid, and due to professionals missing the diagnosis.<ref name "Chand_2022" />PreventionThe above risk factors give natural avenues for prevention. Psychological or educational interventions have a small yet statistically significant benefit for the prevention of anxiety in varied population types.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Moreno-Peral P, Conejo-Cerón S, Rubio-Valera M, Fernández A, Navas-Campaña D, Rodríguez-Morejón A, Motrico E, Rigabert A, Luna JD, Martín-Pérez C, Rodríguez-Bayón A, Ballesta-Rodríguez MI, Luciano JV, Bellón JÁ \| title Effectiveness of Psychological and/or Educational Interventions in the Prevention of Anxiety: A Systematic Review, Meta-analysis, and Meta-regression \| journal JAMA Psychiatry \| volume 74 \| issue 10 \| pages 1021–1029 \| date October 2017 \| pmid 28877316 \| pmc 5710546 \| doi 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.2509 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|doi10.1016/B978-0-12-813495-5.00008-5 \|chapterTargeting anxiety sensitivity as a prevention strategy \|titleThe Clinician's Guide to Anxiety Sensitivity Treatment and Assessment \|pages145–178 \|year2019 \| vauthors Schmidt NB, Allan NP, Knapp AA, Capron D \|isbn978-0-12-813495-5 \|s2cid81782119 }}</ref> Improvement in dietary intake and habits may also help lower the risk of anxiety.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Jacka \|first1Felice N. \|last2Cherbuin \|first2Nicolas \|last3Anstey \|first3Kaarin J. \|last4Butterworth \|first4Peter \|date2014-01-29 \|titleDietary Patterns and Depressive Symptoms over Time: Examining the Relationships with Socioeconomic Position, Health Behaviours and Cardiovascular Risk \|journalPLOS ONE \|languageen \|volume9 \|issue1 \|pagese87657 \|doi10.1371/journal.pone.0087657 \|doi-accessfree \|issn1932-6203 \|pmc3906192 \|pmid24489946\|bibcode2014PLoSO...987657J }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Saneei \|first1Parvane \|last2Hajishafiee \|first2Maryam \|last3Keshteli \|first3Ammar Hassanzadeh \|last4Afshar \|first4Hamid \|last5Esmaillzadeh \|first5Ahmad \|last6Adibi \|first6Peyman \|date2016-07-28 \|titleAdherence to Alternative Healthy Eating Index in relation to depression and anxiety in Iranian adults \|urlhttps://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0007114516001926/type/journal_article \|journalBritish Journal of Nutrition \|languageen \|volume116 \|issue2 \|pages335–342 \|doi10.1017/S0007114516001926 \|pmid27188471 \|issn0007-1145}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Jacka \|first1Felice N. \|last2Pasco \|first2Julie A. \|last3Mykletun \|first3Arnstein \|last4Williams \|first4Lana J. \|last5Hodge \|first5Allison M. \|last6O'Reilly \|first6Sharleen Linette \|last7Nicholson \|first7Geoffrey C. \|last8Kotowicz \|first8Mark A. \|last9Berk \|first9Michael \|date2010-03-01 \|titleAssociation of Western and Traditional Diets With Depression and Anxiety in Women \|urlhttps://psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09060881 \|journalAmerican Journal of Psychiatry \|languageen \|volume167 \|issue3 \|pages305–311 \|doi10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09060881 \|pmid20048020 \|issn0002-953X}}</ref> See also List of people with an anxiety disorder * {{annotated link\|Angst}} * {{annotated link\|Fear}} * {{annotated link\|Tripartite Model of Anxiety and Depression}} * {{annotated link\|Uncanny}} * Mental stress-induced myocardial ischemia References {{Reflist}} {{Library resources box\|byno\|onlinebooksno\|aboutyes\|wikititleanxiety}} {{Sister project links \|commonsyes \|nno \|sno \|bno \|voyno \|vno \|dno \|speciesno \|species_authorno \|mno \|mw=no }} {{Medical resources \| ICD11 = {{ICD11\|MB24.3}}, <!-- Anxiety -->{{ICD11\|6B00}}–{{ICD11\|6B05}}, <!-- Anxiety or fear-related disorders -->{{ICD11\|6E63}} <!-- Secondary anxiety syndrome --> \| ICD10 = {{ICD10\|F06.4}}, <!-- Organic anxiety disorder -->{{ICD10\|F40}}, <!-- Phobic anxiety disorders -->{{ICD10\|F41}}, <!-- Other anxiety disorders -->{{ICD10\|F93.0}}–{{ICD10\|F93.3}} <!-- Separation, Phobic, or Social anxiety disorder of childhood --> \| ICD10CM = {{ICD10CM\|F43.22}}, <!-- Adjustment disorder with anxiety -->{{ICD10CM\|F43.23}} <!-- Adjustment disorder with mixed anxiety and depressed mood --> \| eMedicineTopic \| MeshID D001007 \| MedlinePlus = 003211 \| MedlinePlus_mult = {{MedlinePlus2\|000917}} \|OMIM=607834 }} {{Emotion-footer}} {{Authority control}} Category:Emotions Category:Symptoms or signs involving mood or affect	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety	2025-04-05T18:25:26.646558
924	A. A. Milne	{{Short description\|English writer (1882–1956)}} {{Use British English\|date=November 2023}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=October 2021}} {{Infobox writer <!-- for more information see :Template:Infobox writer/doc --> \| image = Milne-Shadowland-1922.jpg \| imagesize \| caption Milne in 1922 \| birth_name = Alan Alexander Milne \| birth_date {{birth date\|1882\|1\|18\|dfyes}} \| birth_place = Kilburn, London, England \| death_date {{death date and age\|1956\|1\|31\|1882\|1\|18\|dfyes}} \| death_place = Hartfield, Sussex, England \| occupation = {{hlist\|\|Novelist\|playwright\|poet}} \| years_active = 1906–1956 \| period = Interwar Britain \| education = Westminster School \| alma_mater = Trinity College, Cambridge \| spouse = {{marriage\|{{nowrap\|Dorothy "Daphne" de Sélincourt}}\|1913}} \| children = Christopher Robin \| relatives = Aubrey de Sélincourt (brother-in-law) \| genre = Children's literature \| notableworks = Winnie-the-Pooh \| signature = AA Milne signature.svg \| name = A. A. Milne }} Alan Alexander Milne ({{IPAc-en\|m\|ɪ\|l\|n}}; 18 January 1882 – 31 January 1956) was an English writer best known for his books about the teddy bear Winnie-the-Pooh, as well as children's poetry. Milne was primarily a playwright before the huge success of Winnie-the-Pooh overshadowed his previous work. He served as a lieutenant in the Royal Warwickshire Regiment in the First World War and as a captain in the Home Guard in the Second World War.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/A-A-Milne\|titleA.A. Milne {{!}} British author\|workEncyclopedia Britannica\|access-date5 September 2018\|language=en}}</ref> Milne was the father of bookseller Christopher Robin Milne, upon whom the character Christopher Robin is based. It was during a visit to London Zoo, where Christopher became enamoured with the tame and amiable bear Winnipeg, that Milne was inspired to write the story of Winnie-the-Pooh for his son.<ref name"Amiable bear">{{cite news \|titleThe bear who inspired Winnie-the-Pooh \|urlhttps://www.zsl.org/videos/fun-animal-facts/the-bear-who-inspired-winnie-the-pooh \|access-date12 June 2022 \|publisherZoological Society of London}}</ref> Milne bequeathed the original manuscripts of the Winnie-the-Pooh stories to the Wren Library at Trinity College, Cambridge, his alma mater.<ref>{{cite news \|titleA A Milne's Winnie-the-Pooh goes to London \|urlhttps://www.trin.cam.ac.uk/news/winnie-the-pooh-goes-to-london/ \|access-date27 April 2023 \|publisherTrinity College Cambridge \|date2017}}</ref> Early life and military career ]] Alan Alexander Milne was born in Kilburn, London,<ref>{{cite ODNB\|urlhttp://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/35031?docPos2\|titleOxford Dictionary of National Biography\|year2004\|doi10.1093/ref:odnb/35031}}</ref> to John Vine Milne, who was born in Jamaica,<ref>Thwaite, Ann. A.A. Milne: His Life. London: Faber and Faber, 1990. ISBN 0571138888 p. 8</ref> and Sarah Marie Milne (née Heginbotham), on 18 January 1882. He grew up at Henley House School, 6/7 Mortimer Road (now Crescent), Kilburn, a small independent school run by his father.<ref name"ODNBthwaite" /> He taught himself to read at the age of two. One of his teachers was H. G. Wells, who taught there in 1889–90.<ref>{{cite journal \|urlhttp://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid22657 \| year 1989 \| title Hampstead: Education \| journalA History of the County of Middlesex \| volume 9 \| pages 159–169 \| access-date 9 June 2008 }}</ref> Milne attended Westminster School and Trinity College, Cambridge,<ref>{{acad\|idMLN900AA\|nameMilne, Alan Alexander}}</ref> where he studied on a mathematics scholarship, graduating with a B.A. in Mathematics in 1903, though he was always interested in writing. He edited and wrote for Granta, a student magazine.<ref name"ODNBthwaite">{{cite ODNB\|lastThwaite\|firstAnn\|titleOxford Dictionary of National Biography\|locationOxford, England\|dateJanuary 2008\|chapterMilne, Alan Alexander (1882–1956)\|doi10.1093/ref:odnb/35031 }}</ref> He collaborated with his brother Kenneth and their articles appeared over the initials AKM. Milne's work came to the attention of the leading British humour magazine Punch, where Milne was to become a contributor and later an assistant editor. Considered a talented cricket fielder, Milne played for two amateur teams that were largely composed of British writers: the Allahakbarries and the Authors XI. His teammates included fellow writers J. M. Barrie, Arthur Conan Doyle and P. G. Wodehouse.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/8662375.stm "What is the connection between Peter Pan, Sherlock Holmes, Winnie the Pooh and the noble sport of cricket?]. BBC. Retrieved 25 November 2014</ref><ref>{{cite news \|lastParkinson \|firstJustin \|date26 July 2014 \|titleAuthors and actors revive cricket rivalry \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-27903864 \|work BBC News Magazine\|access-date=21 March 2019}}</ref> Milne joined the British Army during World War I and served as an officer in the Royal Warwickshire Regiment. He was commissioned into the 4th Battalion, Royal Warwickshire Regiment, on 1 February 1915 as a second lieutenant (on probation).<ref name"LG 16 February 1915">{{London Gazette \|issue29070 \|date16 February 1915 \|page1563 }}</ref> His commission was confirmed on 20 December 1915.<ref>London Gazette. issue 29408 17 December 1915. Retrieved 26 February 2015</ref> He served on the Somme as a signals officer from July–November 1916, but caught trench fever and was invalided back to England. Having recuperated, he worked as a signals instructor, before being recruited into military intelligence to write propaganda articles for MI7 (b) between 1917 and 1918.<ref>Thwaite, Ann. A.A. Milne: His Life. London: Faber and Faber, 1990. ISBN 0571138888 pp. 172–185</ref> He was discharged on 14 February 1919,<ref>{{cite book\| last Finch\| first Christopher\| title Disney's Winnie the Pooh: A Celebration of the Silly Old Bear\| url https://books.google.com/books?idaJt8beaKgb8C&pgPA18\| year 2000\| publisher Disney Editions\| isbn 978-0-7868-6352-5\| page 18 }}</ref> and settled in Mallord Street, Chelsea.<ref>{{cite news \|titleFor sale: Winnie-the-Pooh creator A&nbsp;A Milne's home \|date27 March 2013 \|authorDavidson, Max \|url https://www.telegraph.co.uk/property/buyingsellingandmoving/9957606/For-sale-Winnie-the-Pooh-creator-A-A-Milnes-home.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130328070614/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/property/buyingsellingandmoving/9957606/For-sale-Winnie-the-Pooh-creator-A-A-Milnes-home.html \|url-status dead \|archive-date28 March 2013 \|newspaperThe Daily Telegraph \|locationLondon}}</ref> He relinquished his commission on 19 February 1920, retaining the rank of lieutenant.<ref>{{London Gazette\|issue31786 \|suppy\|page2036\|date=17 February 1920}}</ref> department store (pictured) in London.<ref>{{cite news \|title'Winnie the Pooh' has an enchanting heritage \|urlhttps://www.licensingsource.net/indepth/winnie-the-pooh-has-an-enchanting-heritage/ \|access-date16 June 2022 \|workLicensing source}}</ref>]] After the war, he wrote a denunciation of war titled Peace with Honour (1934), which he retracted somewhat with 1940's War with Honour.<ref name"ODNBthwaite" /><ref>Capitalization as in the British Library Catalogue</ref> During World War II, Milne was one of the most prominent critics of fellow English writer (and Authors XI cricket teammate) P. G. Wodehouse, who was captured at his country home in France by the Nazis and imprisoned for a year. Wodehouse made radio broadcasts about his internment, which were broadcast from Berlin. Although the light-hearted broadcasts made fun of the Germans, Milne accused Wodehouse of committing an act of near treason by cooperating with his country's enemy. Wodehouse got some revenge on his former friend (e.g. in The Mating Season) by creating fatuous parodies of the Christopher Robin poems in some of his later stories, and claiming that Milne "was probably jealous of all other writers.... But I loved his stuff."<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.theparisreview.com/media/3773_WODEHOUSE.pdf \|titleThe Art of Fiction – P.G. Wodehouse \|access-date22 May 2008 \|year2005 \|workThe Paris Review \|page18 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080529040738/http://www.theparisreview.com/media/3773_WODEHOUSE.pdf \|archive-date29 May 2008 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Milne married Dorothy "Daphne" de Sélincourt (1890–1971) in 1913 and their son Christopher Robin Milne was born in 1920. In 1925, Milne bought a country home, Cotchford Farm, in Hartfield, East Sussex.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://pastscape.english-heritage.org.uk/hob.aspx?hob_id618520#\|titleCotchford Farm\|workNational Monument Records\|publisherEnglish Heritage\|access-date29 September 2008\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081012054412/http://pastscape.english-heritage.org.uk/hob.aspx?hob_id618520\|archive-date12 October 2008\|url-statusdead}}</ref> During World War II, Milne was a captain in the British Home Guard in Hartfield & Forest Row, insisting on being plain "Mr. Milne" to the members of his platoon. He retired to the farm after a stroke and brain surgery in 1952 left him an invalid; and by August 1953, "he seemed very old and disenchanted."<ref>{{cite web \| titleLetter La Z 5 July 1917 – John Middleton Murry to Beatrice Elvery \|date12 August 1953 \|urlhttp://www.nottingham.ac.uk/lss/services/mss/collections/online-mss-catalogues/cats/laz4-5cat.html#laz57 \|publisherGeorge Lazarus Collection \|access-date9 June 2008 }}</ref> Milne died in January 1956, aged 74.<ref>Jill C. Wheeler (2010). "A. A. Milne." p. 21. ABDO Publishing Company,</ref> Literary career 1903 to 1925After graduating from Cambridge University in 1903, A. A. Milne contributed humorous verse and whimsical essays to Punch,<ref>{{cite journal \| last Milne \| first A. A. \|dateAugust 1904 \| title Lillian's Loves \| journalPunch, or the London Charivari \| volume 127 \| issue 24 August 1904 \| page 142 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| last Milne \| first A. A. \|dateNovember 1904 \| title Answers to [Fictional] Correspondents \| journalPunch, or the London Charivari \| volume 127 \| issue9 November 1904 \| page 333 }}</ref> joining the staff in 1906 and becoming an assistant editor.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia \|url https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9052746/AA-Milne \|titleA. A. Milne \|access-date22 May 2008 \|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica Online \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080510114043/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9052746/AA-Milne\| archive-date10 May 2008 \| url-statuslive}}</ref> During this period he published 18 plays and three novels, including the murder mystery The Red House Mystery (1922). His son was born in August 1920 and in 1924 Milne produced a collection of children's poems, When We Were Very Young, which were illustrated by Punch staff cartoonist E. H. Shepard. A collection of short stories for children A Gallery of Children, and other stories that became part of the Winnie-the-Pooh books, were first published in 1925. Milne was an early screenwriter for the nascent British film industry, writing four stories filmed in 1920 for the company Minerva Films (founded in 1920 by the actor Leslie Howard and his friend and story editor Adrian Brunel). These were The Bump, starring Aubrey Smith; Twice Two; Five Pound Reward; and Bookworms.<ref>{{cite book\| last Eforgan\| first E.\| title Leslie Howard: The Lost Actor\| year 2010\| isbn 978-0-85303-971-6 }}</ref> Some of these films survive in the archives of the British Film Institute. Milne had met Howard when the actor starred in Milne's play Mr Pim Passes By in London.<ref>{{cite book\| author Thomas Burnett Swann\| title A. A. Milne\| url https://archive.org/details/aamilnesawn00swan\| url-access registration\| year 1971\| publisher Twayne Publishers\| page [https://archive.org/details/aamilnesawn00swan/page/41 41] \| isbn = 978-0805713961}}</ref> Looking back on this period (in 1926), Milne observed that when he told his agent that he was going to write a detective story, he was told that what the country wanted from a "Punch humorist" was a humorous story; when two years later he said he was writing nursery rhymes, his agent and publisher were convinced he should write another detective story; and after another two years, he was being told that writing a detective story would be in the worst of taste given the demand for children's books. He concluded that "the only excuse which I have yet discovered for writing anything is that I want to write it; and I should be as proud to be delivered of a Telephone Directory con amore as I should be ashamed to create a Blank Verse Tragedy at the bidding of others."<ref name"RedHouseMystery_Intro">{{cite book \|lastMilne \|firstAlan Alexander \|titleThe Red House Mystery \|orig-year1922 \|year1926 \|publisherMethuen \|locationLondon \|pagesix–xii \|chapterIntroduction (dated April 1926)}}</ref> 1926 to 1928 , 1926.]] Milne is most famous for his two Pooh books about a boy named Christopher Robin after his son, Christopher Robin Milne (1920–1996), and various characters inspired by his son's stuffed animals, most notably the bear named Winnie-the-Pooh.<ref name"vam.ac.uk">{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.vam.ac.uk/exhibitions/winnie-the-pooh-exploring-a-classic\|titleV&A · Winnie-the-Pooh: Exploring a Classic\|websiteVictoria and Albert Museum\|languageen\|access-date5 September 2018}}</ref> Christopher Robin Milne's stuffed bear, originally named Edward,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://nypl.org/locations/tid/36/node/5557\|titleThe Adventures of the REAL Winnie-the-Pooh\|websiteThe New York Public Library\|access-date17 January 2010\|archive-date15 July 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180715114356/http://nypl.org/locations/tid/36/node/5557\|url-statusdead}}</ref> was renamed Winnie after a Canadian black bear named Winnie (after Winnipeg), which was used as a military mascot in World War I, and left to London Zoo during the war. "The Pooh" comes from a swan the young Milne named "Pooh". E. H. Shepard illustrated the original Pooh books, using his own son's teddy Growler ("a magnificent bear") as the model. The rest of Christopher Robin Milne's toys, Piglet, Eeyore, Kanga, Roo and Tigger, were incorporated into A. A. Milne's stories,<ref name"Express"/><ref name = "birthday"/> and two more characters&nbsp;– Rabbit and Owl&nbsp;– were created by Milne's imagination. Christopher Robin Milne's own toys are now on display in New York where 750,000 people visit them every year. The fictional Hundred Acre Wood of the Pooh stories derives from Five Hundred Acre Wood in Ashdown Forest in East Sussex, South East England, where the Pooh stories were set. Milne lived on the northern edge of the forest at Cotchford Farm, {{Coord\| 51.090\| 0.107\|displayinline}}, and took his son on walking trips there. E. H. Shepard drew on the landscapes of Ashdown Forest as inspiration for many of the illustrations he provided for the Pooh books. The adult Christopher Robin commented: "Pooh's Forest and Ashdown Forest are identical."<ref name"Express"/> Popular tourist locations at Ashdown Forest include: ''Galleon's Lap, The Enchanted Place, the Heffalump Trap and Lone Pine, Eeyore's Sad and Gloomy Place, and the wooden Pooh Bridge where Pooh and Piglet invented Poohsticks.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-sussex-11380115 Plans to improve access to Pooh Bridge unveiled]. BBC. Retrieved 15 October 2011</ref> Not yet known as Pooh, he made his first appearance in a poem, "Teddy Bear", published in Punch magazine in February 1924 and republished that year in When We Were Very Young''.<ref>{{cite news\|titleCelebrate Winnie-The-Pooh's 90th with a Rare Recording (And Hunny)\|urlhttps://www.npr.org/2014/02/22/280761847/celebrating-winnie-the-poohs-90th-with-a-rare-recording-and-some-hunny\|publisherNPR\|date20 July 2015}}</ref> Pooh first appeared in the London Evening News on Christmas Eve, 1925, in a story called "The Wrong Sort of Bees".<ref name "birthday">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/4552940.stm "Pooh celebrates his 80th birthday"]. BBC. Retrieved 11 November 2012</ref> Winnie-the-Pooh was published in 1926, followed by The House at Pooh Corner in 1928. A second collection of nursery rhymes, Now We Are Six, was published in 1927. All four books were illustrated by E. H. Shepard. Milne also published four plays in this period. He also "gallantly stepped forward" to contribute a quarter of the costs of dramatising P. G. Wodehouse's A Damsel in Distress.<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9L2kjKQ8CvYC&pgPA114\|titleP.G. Wodehouse: A Portrait of a Master\|authorDavid A Jasen\|publisherMusic Sales Group\|year2002\|isbn978-0-85712-754-9\|locationLondon\|page114}}</ref> The World of Pooh won the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award in 1958.<ref>Award List. "Lewis Carroll Shelf Award Winners," Lewis Carroll Shelf Award Collection, Living Arts Corporation, Loveland, Colorado.</ref>1929 onwardThe success of his children's books was to become a source of considerable annoyance to Milne, whose self-avowed aim was to write whatever he pleased and who had, until then, found a ready audience for each change of direction: he had freed pre-war Punch from its ponderous facetiousness; he had made a considerable reputation as a playwright (like his idol J. M. Barrie) on both sides of the Atlantic; he had produced a witty piece of detective writing in The Red House Mystery (although this was severely criticised by Raymond Chandler for the implausibility of its plot in his essay The Simple Art of Murder in the eponymous collection that appeared in 1950). But once Milne had, in his own words, "said goodbye to all that in 70,000 words" (the approximate length of his four principal children's books), he had no intention of producing any reworkings lacking in originality, given that one of the sources of inspiration, his son, was growing older.<ref name"BBC Pooh">{{cite news \|titleAA Milne and the curse of Pooh bear \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20160128-a-a-milne-and-the-curse-of-pooh-bear \|access-date3 May 2023 \|publisherBBC}}</ref> Another reason Milne stopped writing children's books, and especially about Winnie-the-Pooh, was that he felt "amazement and disgust" over the immense fame his son was exposed to, and said that "I feel that the legal Christopher Robin has already had more publicity than I want for him. I do not want CR Milne to ever wish that his name were Charles Robert."<ref name="BBC Pooh"/> In his literary home, Punch, where the When We Were Very Young verses had first appeared, Methuen continued to publish whatever Milne wrote, including the long poem "The Norman Church" and an assembly of articles entitled Year In, Year Out (which Milne likened to a benefit night for the author).<ref>Alan Hedblad (1998). "Something about the Author, Volume 100." p. 177. Gale,</ref> In 1929, Milne adapted Kenneth Grahame's novel The Wind in the Willows for the stage as Toad of Toad Hall.<ref>Jill C. Wheeler (2010). "A. A. Milne." p. 19. ABDO Publishing Company,</ref> The title was an implicit admission that such chapters as Chapter 7, "The Piper at the Gates of Dawn," could not survive translation to the theatre. A special introduction written by Milne is included in some editions of Grahame's novel.<ref>"Catalog of Copyright Entries. New Series: 1940–1943, Part 1." p. 449. Copyright Office, Library of Congress, 1940</ref> It was first performed at the Playhouse Theatre, Liverpool, on 21 December 1929 before it made its West End debut the following year at the Lyric Theatre on 17 December 1930.<ref>"Provincial Productions", The Stage, 26 December 1929, p. 18; "Toad of Toad Hall", The Era, 24 December 1920, p. 1; and Milne (1932), p. iii</ref> The play was revived in the West End from 1931 to 1935, and since the 1960s there have been West End revivals during the Christmas season; actors who have performed in the play include Judi Dench and Ian McKellen.<ref>Herbert, pp. 521, 545, 1199 and 27; and [https://www.mckellen.com/stage/00119.htm "Toad of Toad Hall"], Ian McKellen. Retrieved 10 February 2024</ref> Milne and his wife became estranged from their son, who came to resent what he saw as his father's exploitation of his childhood and came to hate the books that had thrust him into the public eye.<ref name"autobio2">{{cite book\|titleThe Enchanted Places\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/enchantedplaces00miln\|url-accessregistration\|lastMilne\|firstChristopher\|publisherEyre Methuen\|year1974\|isbn978-0-14-003449-3\|locationLondon}}</ref> Christopher's marriage to his first cousin, Lesley de Sélincourt, distanced him still further from his parents – Lesley's father and Christopher's mother had not spoken to each other for 30 years.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/books/what-to-read/i-knew-christopher-robin--the-real-christopher-robin/ \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/books/what-to-read/i-knew-christopher-robin--the-real-christopher-robin/ \|archive-date11 January 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive\|titleThe real Christopher Robin\|lastBrandreth\|firstGiles\|workThe Telegraph\|access-date20 July 2017\|languageen}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2017/sep/23/how-aa-milne-and-christopher-robin-fell-under-the-curse-of-pooh-bear\|titleAA Milne, Christopher Robin and the curse of Winnie-the-Pooh\|lastBoyce\|firstFrank Cottrell\|date23 September 2017\|websiteThe Guardian\|languageen\|access-date5 September 2018}}</ref>Death and legacy Commemoration {{Quote box\|width30%\|alignleft\|quoteI suppose that every one of us hopes secretly for immortality; to leave, I mean, a name behind him which will live forever in this world, whatever he may be doing, himself, in the next.\|source=—A. A. Milne.<ref>[https://www.latimes.com/books/la-xpm-2014-jan-13-la-et-jc-happy-birthday-aa-milne-20140113-story.html "Happy birthday, A.A. Milne!"]. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 14 November 2014</ref>}} A. A. Milne died at his home in Hartfield, Sussex, on 31 January 1956, aged 74. A memorial service took place on 10 February at All Hallows-by-the-Tower church in London.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Thwaite \|first1Ann \|titleA. A. Milne His Life \|date2014 \|publisher=Pan Macmillan}}</ref> The rights to A. A. Milne's Pooh books were left to four beneficiaries: his family, the Royal Literary Fund, Westminster School and the Garrick Club.<ref>{{cite news\| titleA bit of a stink at the Garrick over Winnie the Pooh's pot of money\| first Ann \|lastTreneman \|newspaper The Independent \|date4 August 1998 \|location London \|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/a-bit-of-a-stink-at-the-garrick-over-winnie-the-poohs-pot-of-money-1169463.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130622123704/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/a-bit-of-a-stink-at-the-garrick-over-winnie-the-poohs-pot-of-money-1169463.html \|archive-date2013-06-22 \|url-accesslimited \|url-statuslive \|access-date14 January 2012}}</ref> After Milne's death in 1956, his widow sold her rights to the Pooh characters to Stephen Slesinger, whose widow sold the rights after Slesinger's death to Walt Disney Productions, which has made many Pooh cartoon movies, a Disney Channel television show, as well as Pooh-related merchandise. In 2001, the other beneficiaries sold their interest in the estate to the Disney Corporation for $350m. Previously Disney had been paying twice-yearly royalties to these beneficiaries. The estate of E. H. Shepard also received a sum in the deal. The UK copyright on the text of the original Winnie the Pooh books expires on 1 January 2027;<ref>{{cite news \|titleWalt Disney secures rights to Winnie the Pooh \|newspaperThe Guardian\|date6 March 2001 \|location London \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2001/mar/06/news \|access-date14 January 2012}}</ref> at the beginning of the year after the 70th anniversary of the author's death (PMA-70), and has already expired in those countries with a PMA-50 rule. This applies to all of Milne's works except those first published posthumously. The illustrations in the Pooh books will remain under copyright until the same amount of time after the illustrator's death has passed; in the UK, this will be 1 January 2047. In the US, copyright on the four children's books (including the illustrations) expired 95 years after publication of each of the books. Specifically: copyright on the book When We Were Very Young expired in 2020;<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://web.law.duke.edu/cspd/publicdomainday/2020/ \|titleJanuary 1, 2020 is Public Domain Day: Works from 1924 are open to all! \|lastJenkins \|firstJennifer \|websiteCenter for the Study of the Public Domain \|languageen \|access-date21 January 2025}}</ref> copyright on the book Winnie-the-Pooh expired in 2022;<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://web.law.duke.edu/cspd/publicdomainday/2022/ \|titleJanuary 1, 2022, is Public Domain Day: Works from 1926 are open to all, as is a cornucopia of recorded music: an estimated 400,000 sound recordings from before 1923! \|lastJenkins \|firstJennifer \|websiteCenter for the Study of the Public Domain \|languageen \|access-date21 January 2025}}</ref> copyright on the book Now We Are Six expired in 2023;<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://web.law.duke.edu/cspd/publicdomainday/2023/ \|titleJanuary 1, 2023 is Public Domain Day: Works from 1927 are open to all! \|lastJenkins \|firstJennifer \|websiteCenter for the Study of the Public Domain \|languageen \|access-date21 January 2025}}</ref> and copyright on the book The House at Pooh Corner expired in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://web.law.duke.edu/cspd/publicdomainday/2024/ \|titleJanuary 1, 2024 is Public Domain Day: Works from 1928 are open to all, as are sound recordings from 1923! \|lastJenkins \|firstJennifer \|websiteCenter for the Study of the Public Domain \|languageen \|access-date21 January 2025}}</ref> In 2008, a collection of original illustrations featuring Winnie-the-Pooh and his animal friends sold for more than £1.2 million at auction at Sotheby's, London.<ref>[http://www.metro.co.uk/news/451357-pooh-pictures-sell-for-1-2m-at-auction "Pooh pictures sell for £1.2m at auction"]. Metro (London). 18 December 2008. Retrieved 11 November 2012</ref> Forbes magazine ranked Winnie the Pooh the most valuable fictional character in 2002; Winnie the Pooh merchandising products alone had annual sales of more than $5.9 billion.<ref>[https://www.forbes.com/2003/09/25/cx_al_fictionalslide.html?thisSpeed30000 "Top-Earning Fictional Characters"]. Forbes (New York). 25 September 2003. Retrieved 11 November 2012.</ref> In 2005, Winnie the Pooh generated $6 billion, a figure surpassed only by Mickey Mouse.<ref name"BBC 2006"/> , East Sussex, south east England. It overlooks Five Hundred Acre Wood, the setting for Winnie-the-Pooh.]] marks where Milne took his son Christopher Robin to see the amiable bear that inspired Milne to write the story.]] A memorial plaque in Ashdown Forest, unveiled by Christopher Robin in 1979, commemorates the work of A. A. Milne and Shepard in creating the world of Pooh.<ref name"Express"/> The inscription states they "captured the magic of Ashdown Forest, and gave it to the world". Milne once wrote of Ashdown Forest: "In that enchanted place on the top of the forest a little boy and his bear will always be playing."<ref name"Express">Ford, Rebecca (28 February 2007) [http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/442 "Happy Birthday Pooh"], Daily Express. Retrieved 15 October 2011</ref> In 2003, Winnie-the-Pooh was ranked number 7 on the BBC's The Big Read poll which determined the UK's "best-loved novels".<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/arts/bigread/top100.shtml "The Big Read"], BBC, April 2003. Retrieved 18 October 2012.</ref> In 2006, Winnie-the-Pooh received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, marking the 80th birthday of Milne's creation.<ref name="BBC 2006">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/4902018.stm "Pooh joins Hollywood Walk of Fame"]. BBC. Retrieved 24 November 2014</ref> Marking the 90th anniversary of Milne's creation of the character, and the 90th birthday of Queen Elizabeth II, Winnie-the-Pooh Meets the Queen (2016) sees Pooh meet the Queen at Buckingham Palace. The illustrated and audio adventure is narrated by the actor Jim Broadbent.<ref>{{cite news\|titleWinnie the Pooh meets the Queen in a new story\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-36392103\|agencyBBC News\|date19 September 2016}}</ref> Also in 2016, a new character, a Penguin, was unveiled in The Best Bear in All the World, which was inspired by a long-lost photograph of Milne and his son Christopher with a toy penguin.<ref>{{cite news\|titleListen to the moment Winnie-the-Pooh meets penguin friend in new book\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-37401359\|agencyBBC News\|date19 September 2016}}</ref> An exhibition entitled Winnie-the-Pooh: Exploring a Classic appeared at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London from 9 December 2017 to 8 April 2018.<ref name"vam.ac.uk"/><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2017/sep/03/winnie-the-pooh-heads-to-va-for-big-winter-exhibition\|titleWinnie-the-Pooh heads to V&A for big winter exhibition\|lastKennedy\|firstMaev\|date3 September 2017\|websiteThe Guardian\|languageen\|access-date5 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2017/dec/04/winnie-the-pooh-v-and-a-museum-london-bear-exhibition\|titleWinnie-the-Pooh heads to the V&A in London for bear-all exhibition\|lastKennedy\|firstMaev\|date4 December 2017\|websiteThe Guardian\|languageen\|access-date=5 September 2018}}</ref> The composer Harold Fraser-Simson, a near neighbour, produced six books of Milne songs between 1924 and 1932.<ref>[https://www.musicwebinternational.com/2023/11/fraser-simson-complete-settings-of-songs-by-a-a-milne-em-records/ 'Enchanted Places – Complete Settings of Songs by A.A. Milne'], reviewed at MusicWeb International, 7 November 2023</ref> The poems have been parodied many times, including in the books When We Were Rather Older and Now We Are Sixty. The 1963 film ''The King's Breakfast'' was based on Milne's poem of the same name.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160415121522/http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b6ae20430 "The King's Breakfast (1963)"]. BFI. Retrieved 4 January 2020</ref> Milne has been portrayed in television and film. Domhnall Gleeson plays him in Goodbye Christopher Robin, a 2017 biographical drama film.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://deadline.com/2016/04/star-wars-domhnall-gleeson-winnie-the-pooh-aa-milne-goodbye-christopher-robin-1201736826/\|title'Star Wars' Domhnall Gleeson in Talks To Play Winnie The Pooh Creator AA Milne In 'Goodbye Christopher Robin'\|lastJaafar\|firstAli\|date13 April 2016\|websiteDeadline\|access-date12 June 2022}}</ref> In the 2018 fantasy film Christopher Robin, an extension of the Disney Winnie the Pooh franchise, Tristan Sturrock plays Milne, and filming took place at Ashdown Forest.<ref>{{cite news\|firstNia \|lastDaniels\|titleDisney's Christopher Robin starts filming in the UK\|urlhttp://www.kftv.com/news/2017/08/09/disneys-christopher-robin-starts-filming-in-the-uk-\|access-date12 June 2022\|workKFTV\|publisherMedia Business Insight\|date=9 August 2017}}</ref> An elementary school in Houston, Texas, operated by the Houston Independent School District (HISD), is named after Milne.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.houstonisd.org/Page/58679\|titleAbout A. A. Milne\|publisherA. A. Milne Elementary School\|access-date28 October 2019}}</ref> The school, A. A. Milne Elementary School in Brays Oaks,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.braysoaksmd.org/wp-admin/admin-ajax.php?actionoutofthebox-preview&OutoftheBoxpath%2Fbo_publicschool_ltr_sep24_2018.pdf&lastpath%2F&listtokend76d9bb055416aa41ef1d642d908f29a\|titleBO_PublicSchool_Ltr_Sep24_2018.pdf\|workBrays Oaks Management District\|access-date28 October 2019}}</ref> opened in 1991.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.houstonisd.org/Page/32481\|titleElementary Schools (K-Z)\|publisherHouston Independent School District\|access-date28 October 2019}}</ref> Archive thumb\|right\|Milne bequeathed his Winnie-the-Pooh manuscripts to the Wren Library (pictured) at [[Trinity College, Cambridge]] The original manuscripts for Winnie-the-Pooh and The House at Pooh Corner are archived at Trinity College Library, Cambridge.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://janus.lib.cam.ac.uk/db/node.xsp?idCV/Pers/Milne,%20Alan%20Alexander%20(1882-1956)%20poet%20and%20playwright\|titleJanus: Milne, Alan Alexander (1882–1956) poet and playwright\|websitejanus.lib.cam.ac.uk\|access-date=6 November 2017}}</ref> The bulk of A. A. Milne's papers are housed at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin. The collection, established at the centre in 1964, consists of manuscript drafts and fragments for over 150 of Milne's works, as well as correspondence, legal documents, genealogical records, and some personal effects.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadid00466\|titleA. A. (Alan Alexander) Milne: An Inventory of His Collection in the Manuscript Collection at the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center\|websitenorman.hrc.utexas.edu\|access-date6 November 2017}}</ref> The library division holds several books formerly belonging to Milne and his wife Dorothy.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://catalog.lib.utexas.edu/search/x?SEARCHmilne&searchscope18&sortdropdown-\|titleUniversity of Texas Libraries / HRC\|websitecatalog.lib.utexas.edu\|languageen\|access-date6 November 2017}}</ref> The center also has small collections of correspondence from Christopher Robin Milne and Milne's frequent illustrator E. H. Shepard.Religious viewsMilne did not speak out much on the subject of religion, although he used religious terms to explain his decision, while remaining a pacifist, to join the British Home Guard. He wrote: "In fighting Hitler we are truly fighting the Devil, the Anti-Christ ... Hitler was a crusader against God."<ref>{{cite book\| last Milne\| first Alan Alexander\| author-link A. A. Milne\| title War with Honour\| publisherMacmillan\| year 1940\| location London\| pages = 16–17}}</ref> His best known comment on the subject was recalled on his death: {{blockquote\|The Old Testament is responsible for more atheism, agnosticism, disbelief&nbsp;– call it what you will{{snd}}than any book ever written; it has emptied more churches than all the counter-attractions of cinema, motor bicycle and golf course.<ref>{{cite book\|lastSimpson \|firstJames B. \|titleSimpson's Contemporary Quotations \|urlhttp://www.bartleby.com/63/93/4393.html \|year1988 \|publisherHoughton Mifflin \|locationBoston, Massachusetts \|isbn0-395-43085-2 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090122122546/http://www.bartleby.com/63/93/4393.html \|archive-date=22 January 2009 }}</ref>}} He wrote in the poem "Explained": {{blockquote\|<poem>Elizabeth Ann Said to her Nan: "Please will you tell me how God began? {{em\|Somebody}} must have made Him. So Who could it be, 'cos I want to know?"<ref name"Milne 2009">{{cite book\| last Milne\| first A. A.\| others illustrated by E.H. Shepard\| title The Winnie-the-Pooh Collection Set\|locationLondon\| url https://books.google.com/books?idg8hOrDLnx-gC\| year 2009\| publisher Penguin\| isbn = 978-0-525-42292-1 }}</ref></poem>}} He also wrote in the poem "Vespers": {{blockquote\|<poem>"Oh! Thank you, God, for a lovely day. And what was the other I had to say? I said "Bless Daddy," so what can it be? Oh! Now I remember it. God bless Me."<ref name"Milne 2009"/></poem>}}WorksNovels * Lovers in London (1905. Some consider this more of a short story collection; Milne did not like it and considered ''The Day's Play as his first book.) * Once on a Time (1917) * Mr. Pim (1921) (A novelisation of his 1919 play Mr. Pim Passes By) * The Red House Mystery (1922). Serialised: London (Daily News), serialised daily from 3 to 28 August 1921 * Two People'' (1931) (Inside jacket claims this is Milne's first attempt at a novel.) * ''Four Days' Wonder (1933) * Chloe Marr (1946) Non-fiction * Peace With Honour (1934) * It's Too Late Now: The Autobiography of a Writer (1939) * War With Honour (1940) * War Aims Unlimited (1941) * Year In, Year Out (1952) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard) Punch articles * The Day's Play (1910) * The Holiday Round (1912) * Once a Week (1914) * The Sunny Side (1921) * Those Were the Days (1929) [The four volumes above, compiled] Newspaper articles and book introductions * The Chronicles of Clovis by "Saki" (1911) [Introduction to] * Not That It Matters (1919) * If I May (1920) * By Way of Introduction (1929) * Women and Children First!. John Bull, 10 November 1934 * It Depends on the Book (1943, in September issue of Red Cross Newspaper The Prisoner of War)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.wwiimemories.co.uk/journal4/aa4p10.jpg\|titleIt depends on the book\|lastMilne\|firstA. A.\|year1943\|access-date17 May 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160617000107/http://www.wwiimemories.co.uk/journal4/aa4p10.jpg\|archive-date17 June 2016\|url-statusdead}}</ref>Story collections for children * A Gallery of Children (1925) * Winnie-the-Pooh (1926) (illustrated by Ernest H. Shepard) * The House at Pooh Corner (1928) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard) * Short Stories Poetry collections for children * When We Were Very Young (1924) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard) * Now We Are Six (1927) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard) Story collections * The Secret and other stories (1929) * The Birthday Party (1948) * A Table Near the Band (1950) Poetry * When We Were Very Young (1924) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard) * For the Luncheon Interval (1925) [poems from Punch] * Now We Are Six (1927) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard) * Behind the Lines (1940) * The Norman Church (1948) Screenplays and plays * Wurzel-Flummery (1917) * Belinda (1918) * The Boy Comes Home (1918) * Make-Believe'' (1918) (children's play) * The Camberley Triangle (1919) * Mr. Pim Passes By (1919) * The Red Feathers (1920) * The Romantic Age (1920) * The Stepmother (1920) * The Truth About Blayds (1920) * The Bump (1920, Minerva Films), starring C. Aubrey Smith and Faith Celli * Twice Two (1920, Minerva Films) * Five Pound Reward (1920, Minerva Films) * Bookworms (1920, Minerva Films) * The Great Broxopp (1921) * The Dover Road (1921) * The Lucky One (1922) * The Truth About Blayds (1922) * The Artist: A Duologue (1923) * Give Me Yesterday (1923) (a.k.a. Success in the UK) * Ariadne (1924) * The Man in the Bowler Hat: A Terribly Exciting Affair (1924) * To Have the Honour (1924) * Portrait of a Gentleman in Slippers (1926) * Success (1926) * Miss Marlow at Play (1927) * Winnie the Pooh. Written specially by Milne for a 'Winnie the Pooh Party' in aid of the National Mother-Saving Campaign, and performed once at Seaford House on 17 March 1928<ref>(London) Daily News, 9 March 1928</ref> * The Fourth Wall or The Perfect Alibi (1928) (later adapted for the film Birds of Prey (1930), directed by Basil Dean) * The Ivory Door (1929) * Toad of Toad Hall (1929) (adaptation of The Wind in the Willows) * Michael and Mary (1930) * ''Other People's Lives (1933) (a.k.a. They Don't Mean Any Harm) * Miss Elizabeth Bennet (1936) [based on Pride and Prejudice] * Sarah Simple (1937) * Gentleman Unknown (1938) * The General Takes Off His Helmet (1939) in The Queen's Book of the Red Cross * The Ugly Duckling (1941) * Before the Flood (1951). References {{reflist}} Further reading * Last, Kevin J. Remembering Christopher Robin: Escaping Winnie-the-Pooh. Lewes (UK), Unicorn. 2023. {{ISBN\|9781911397649}} * Thwaite, Ann. A.A. Milne: His Life. London: Faber and Faber, 1990. {{ISBN\|0571138888}} * Toby, Marlene. A.A. Milne, Author of Winnie-the-Pooh''. Chicago: Children's Press, 1995. {{ISBN\|051604270X}} * {{cite book \|lastWullschläger \|firstJackie \|author-linkJackie Wullschläger \|titleInventing Wonderland: The Lives of Lewis Carroll, Edward Lear, J. M. Barrie, Kenneth Grahame, and A. A. Milne \|publisherMethuen \|date2001 \|orig-year1995 \|locationLondon \|isbn978-0-413-70330-9}}External links {{Sister project links \| wikt= no \| commons= Category:Alan Alexander Milne \| b= no \| n= no \| q= A. A. Milne \| s= Author:Alan Alexander Milne \| v= no \| voy= no \| species= no \| d= Q207036 }} * [http://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadid=00466 A. A. Milne Collection] at the Harry Ransom Center * [https://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadID=01300 Ann Thwaite Collection of A. A. Milne] at the Harry Ransom Center * {{StandardEbooks\|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/a-a-milne}} * {{gutenberg author\|id730\|nameA. A. Milne}} * {{FadedPage\|idMilne, A. A.\|nameA. A. Milne\|author=yes}} * {{usurped\|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20141007030101/https://wikilivres.ca/wiki/Alan_Alexander_Milne/ Works by A. A. Milne at BiblioWiki (Canada)]}} includes the complete text of the four Pooh books * {{Internet Archive author \|sname=Alan Alexander Milne}} * {{Librivox author \|id=1259}} * [http://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person.php?LinkID=mp03100 Portraits of A. A. Milne] in the National Portrait Gallery * [http://essays.quotidiana.org/milne/ Essays by Milne] at Quotidiana.org * [http://books.guardian.co.uk/extracts/story/0,,1667391,00.html Milne extract] in The Guardian * [http://www.just-pooh.com/milne.html Profile] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090930022112/http://www.just-pooh.com/milne.html \|date30 September 2009 }} at Just-Pooh.com * [https://www.poeticous.com/a-a-milne/ A. A. Milne at poeticous.com] * {{IMDb name\|0590316}} * [https://www.theguardian.com/books/aa-milne AA Milne {{!}} Books {{!}} The Guardian] * [http://findingaids.cul.columbia.edu/ead/nnc-rb/ldpd_4079109/ Finding aid to the A.A. Milne letters at Columbia University] [https://library.columbia.edu/libraries/rbml.html/ Rare Book & Manuscript Library] {{Winnie-the-Pooh}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Milne, A. A.}} Category:1882 births Category:1956 deaths Category:English people of Scottish descent Category:People from Hampstead Category:Writers from the London Borough of Brent Category:Writers from the London Borough of Camden Category:People from Kilburn, London Category:20th-century English dramatists and playwrights Category:20th-century English short story writers Category:20th-century English novelists Category:20th-century English poets Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Category:British Army personnel of World War I Category:British Home Guard officers Category:Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers officers Category:English children's writers Category:Members of the Detection Club Category:People educated at Westminster School, London Category:Punch (magazine) people Category:English male poets Category:Winnie-the-Pooh Category:English male novelists Category:British children's poets Category:Military personnel from the London Borough of Brent Category:Military personnel from the London Borough of Camden Category:English autobiographers	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._A._Milne	2025-04-05T18:25:26.703858
925	Asociación Alumni	{{About\|the rugby union team\|the defunct football team\|Alumni Athletic Club}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox rugby team \| teamname = Alumni \| image = Alumni rugby logo.svg \| imagesize = 120px \| location = Tortuguitas, <br/> Greater Buenos Aires, Argentina \| countryflag = Argentina \| fullname = Asociación Alumni \| union = URBA \| shortname = Alumni \| founded {{Start date and age\|py\|df=yes\|1951\|12\|13}} \| ground = Tortuguitas \| url = http://www.alumni.com.ar/ \| president = Agustín Raybaud \| coach = Rodrigo Jimenez Salice <br/> Lucas Chioccarelli \| league = Top 12 \| season = 2024 \| position = Champion \| pattern_la1 _red_hoops \| pattern_b1 _redhoops \| pattern_ra1 _red_hoops \| leftarm1 FFFFFF \| body1 ffffff \| rightarm1 FFFFFF \| shorts1 FFFFFF \| pattern_so1 _band_white \| socks1 = ff0000 }} Asociación Alumni, usually just Alumni, is an Argentine rugby union club located in Tortuguitas, Greater Buenos Aires. The senior squad currently competes at Top 12, the first division of the Unión de Rugby de Buenos Aires league system. The club has ties with former football club Alumni because both were established by Buenos Aires English High School students.<ref nameunido>[https://www.clarin.com/deportes/polideportivo/historia-alumni-club-respira-rugby-unido-primera-leyenda-futbol-argentino_0_8cB9DpGJl.html La historia de Alumni: un club que respira rugby y está unido a la primera leyenda del fútbol argentino] by Walter Raiño on Clarín, 26 Nov 2018</ref>HistoryBackground {{Main\|Alumni Athletic Club}} The first club with the name "Alumni" played association football, having been found in 1898 by students of Buenos Aires English High School (BAEHS) along with director Alexander Watson Hutton. Originally under the name "English High School A.C.", the team would be later obliged by the Association to change its name, therefore "Alumni" was chosen, following a proposal by Carlos Bowers, a former student of the school. Alumni was the most successful team during the first years of Argentine football, winning 10 of 14 league championships contested. Alumni is still considered the first great football team in the country.<ref nameclarin>[http://edant.clarin.com/diario/2003/04/24/d-549894.htm "En el nombre del fútbol"], Clarín newspaper, 2003-04-24</ref> Alumni was reorganised in 1908, "in order to encourage people to practise all kinds of sports, specially football". This was the last try to develop itself as a sports club rather than just as a football team, as Lomas, Belgrano and Quilmes had successfully done in the past, but the efforts were not enough. Alumni played its last game in 1911 and was definitely dissolved on April 24, 1913.Rebirth through rugbyIn 1951, two guards of the BAEHS, Daniel Ginhson (also a former player of Buenos Aires F.C.) and Guillermo Cubelli, supported by the school's alumni and fathers of the students, decided to establish a club focused on rugby union exclusively. Former players of Alumni football club and descendants of other players already dead gave their permission to use the name "Alumni".<ref nameunido/> On December 13, in a meeting presided by Carlos Bowers himself (who had proposed the name "Alumni" to the original football team 50 years before),<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121108143046/http://www.asociacionalumni.com.ar/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id6&Itemid71 "Los comienzos de Alumni" - club's official website] (Archive, 8 Nov 2012)</ref> the club was officially established under the name "Asociación Juvenil Alumni", also adopting the same colors as its predecessor.<ref name=unido/> The team achieved good results and in 1960 the club presented a team that won the third division of the Buenos Aires league, reaching the second division. Since then, Alumni has played at the highest level of Argentine rugby and its rivalry with Belgrano Athletic Club is one of the fiercest local derbies in Buenos Aires. Alumni would later climb up to the first division winning 5 titles: 4 consecutive between 1989 and 1992, and the other in 2001. In 2002, Alumni won its first Nacional de Clubes title, defeating Jockey Club de Rosario 23–21 in the final. Players Current roster As of January 2018: {{div col\|colwidth=22em}} * Federico Lucca * Gaspar Baldunciel * Guido Cambareri * Iñaki Etchegaray * Bernardo Quaranta * Tobias Moyano * Mariano Romanini * Santiago Montagner * Tomas Passerotti * Lucas Frana * Luca Sabato * Franco Batezzatti * Franco Sabato * Rafael Desanto * Nito Provenzano * Tomas Bivort * Juan.P Ceraso * Santiago Alduncin * Juan.P Anderson * Lucas Magnasco * Joaquin Diaz Luzzi * Felipe Martignone * Tomas Corneille {{div col end}} Honours Nacional de Clubes (1): 2002 Torneo de la URBA (7): 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 2001, 2018, 2024 References {{Reflist}} External links {{Commons category}} * {{Official website}} {{URBA Top 12}} {{Alumni Athletic Club}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Asociacion Alumni}} Category:Rugby clubs established in 1951 A Category:1951 establishments in Argentina	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asociación_Alumni	2025-04-05T18:25:26.708944
928	Axiom	{{short description\|Statement that is taken to be true}} {{distinguish\|axion\|axon}} {{redirect-several\|dab=no\|Axiom (disambiguation)\|Axiomatic (disambiguation)\|Postulation (algebraic geometry)}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=December 2020}} An axiom, postulate, or assumption is a statement that is taken to be true, to serve as a premise or starting point for further reasoning and arguments. The word comes from the Ancient Greek word {{wikt-lang\|grc\|ἀξίωμα}} ({{grc-transl\|ἀξίωμα}}), meaning 'that which is thought worthy or fit' or 'that which commends itself as evident'.<ref>Cf. axiom, n., etymology. Oxford English Dictionary, accessed 2012-04-28.</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttps://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780195392883.001.0001/m_en_us1224100 \|titleNew Oxford American Dictionary \|publisherOxford University Press \|date2015 \|isbn9780199891535 \|editor-lastStevenson \|editor-firstAngus \|edition3rd \|doi10.1093/acref/9780195392883.001.0001 \|quotea statement or proposition that is regarded as being established, accepted, or self-evidently true \|editor-last2Lindberg \|editor-first2Christine A. \|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The precise definition varies across fields of study. In classic philosophy, an axiom is a statement that is so evident or well-established, that it is accepted without controversy or question.<ref>"A proposition that commends itself to general acceptance; a well-established or universally conceded principle; a maxim, rule, law" axiom, n., definition 1a. Oxford English Dictionary Online, accessed 2012-04-28. Cf. Aristotle, Posterior Analytics I.2.72a18-b4.</ref><!-- HIDDEN UNTIL SOURCED —it is better known and more firmly believed than the conclusion.{{citation needed\|date=May 2012}}--> In modern logic, an axiom is a premise or starting point for reasoning.<ref>"A proposition (whether true or false)" axiom, n., definition 2. Oxford English Dictionary Online, accessed 2012-04-28.</ref> In mathematics, an axiom may be a "logical axiom" or a "non-logical axiom". Logical axioms are taken to be true within the system of logic they define and are often shown in symbolic form (e.g., (A and B) implies A), while non-logical axioms are substantive assertions about the elements of the domain of a specific mathematical theory, for example a&nbsp;+&nbsp;0&nbsp;=&nbsp;a in integer arithmetic. Non-logical axioms may also be called "postulates", "assumptions" or "proper axioms".<ref name="properaxioms" /> In most cases, a non-logical axiom is simply a formal logical expression used in deduction to build a mathematical theory, and might or might not be self-evident in nature (e.g., the parallel postulate in Euclidean geometry). To axiomatize a system of knowledge is to show that its claims can be derived from a small, well-understood set of sentences (the axioms), and there are typically many ways to axiomatize a given mathematical domain. Any axiom is a statement that serves as a starting point from which other statements are logically derived. Whether it is meaningful (and, if so, what it means) for an axiom to be "true" is a subject of debate in the philosophy of mathematics.<ref>See for example {{cite journal\|firstPenelope\|lastMaddy\|journalJournal of Symbolic Logic\|titleBelieving the Axioms, I\|volume53\|issue2\|dateJun 1988\|pages481–511\|doi10.2307/2274520\|jstor2274520}} for a realist view.</ref> Etymology The word axiom comes from the Greek word {{lang\|grc\|ἀξίωμα}} (axíōma), a verbal noun from the verb {{lang\|grc\|ἀξιόειν}} (axioein), meaning "to deem worthy", but also "to require", which in turn comes from {{lang\|grc\|ἄξιος}} (áxios), meaning "being in balance", and hence "having (the same) value (as)", "worthy", "proper". Among the ancient Greek philosophers and mathematicians, axioms were taken to be immediately evident propositions, foundational and common to many fields of investigation, and self-evidently true without any further argument or proof.<ref name":0">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.ptta.pl/pef/haslaen/a/axiom.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.ptta.pl/pef/haslaen/a/axiom.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|titleAxiom — Powszechna Encyklopedia Filozofii\|website=Polskie Towarzystwo Tomasza z Akwinu}}</ref> The root meaning of the word postulate is to "demand"; for instance, Euclid demands that one agree that some things can be done (e.g., any two points can be joined by a straight line).<ref>Wolff, P. Breakthroughs in Mathematics, 1963, New York: New American Library, pp&nbsp;47–48</ref> Ancient geometers maintained some distinction between axioms and postulates. While commenting on Euclid's books, Proclus remarks that "Geminus held that this [4th] Postulate should not be classed as a postulate but as an axiom, since it does not, like the first three Postulates, assert the possibility of some construction but expresses an essential property."<ref>{{cite book \|author-linkT. L. Heath \|lastHeath \|firstT. L. \|date1956 \|titleThe Thirteen Books of Euclid's Elements \|locationNew York \|publisherDover \|page200}}</ref> Boethius translated 'postulate' as petitio and called the axioms notiones communes but in later manuscripts this usage was not always strictly kept.{{citation needed\|dateApril 2023}}Historical developmentEarly GreeksThe logico-deductive method whereby conclusions (new knowledge) follow from premises (old knowledge) through the application of sound arguments (syllogisms, rules of inference) was developed by the ancient Greeks, and has become the core principle of modern mathematics. Tautologies excluded, nothing can be deduced if nothing is assumed. Axioms and postulates are thus the basic assumptions underlying a given body of deductive knowledge. They are accepted without demonstration. All other assertions (theorems, in the case of mathematics) must be proven with the aid of these basic assumptions. However, the interpretation of mathematical knowledge has changed from ancient times to the modern, and consequently the terms axiom and postulate hold a slightly different meaning for the present day mathematician, than they did for Aristotle and Euclid.<ref name":0" /> The ancient Greeks considered geometry as just one of several sciences, and held the theorems of geometry on par with scientific facts. As such, they developed and used the logico-deductive method as a means of avoiding error, and for structuring and communicating knowledge. Aristotle's posterior analytics is a definitive exposition of the classical view.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2024-10-08 \|titleAristotle {{!}} Biography, Works, Quotes, Philosophy, Ethics, & Facts {{!}} Britannica \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Aristotle \|access-date2024-11-14 \|websitewww.britannica.com \|languageen}}</ref> An "axiom", in classical terminology, referred to a self-evident assumption common to many branches of science. A good example would be the assertion that: <blockquote>When an equal amount is taken from equals, an equal amount results.</blockquote> At the foundation of the various sciences lay certain additional hypotheses that were accepted without proof. Such a hypothesis was termed a postulate. While the axioms were common to many sciences, the postulates of each particular science were different. Their validity had to be established by means of real-world experience. Aristotle warns that the content of a science cannot be successfully communicated if the learner is in doubt about the truth of the postulates.<ref>Aristotle, Metaphysics Bk IV, Chapter 3, 1005b "Physics also is a kind of Wisdom, but it is not the first kind. – And the attempts of some of those who discuss the terms on which truth should be accepted, are due to want of training in logic; for they should know these things already when they come to a special study, and not be inquiring into them while they are listening to lectures on it." W.D. Ross translation, in The Basic Works of Aristotle, ed. Richard McKeon, (Random House, New York, 1941)</ref> The classical approach is well-illustrated{{efn\|Although not complete; some of the stated results did not actually follow from the stated postulates and common notions.}} by Euclid's Elements, where a list of postulates is given (common-sensical geometric facts drawn from our experience), followed by a list of "common notions" (very basic, self-evident assertions). :;Postulates :# It is possible to draw a straight line from any point to any other point. :# It is possible to extend a line segment continuously in both directions. :# It is possible to describe a circle with any center and any radius. :# It is true that all right angles are equal to one another. :# ("Parallel postulate") It is true that, if a straight line falling on two straight lines make the interior angles on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, intersect on that side on which are the angles less than the two right angles. :;Common notions: :# Things which are equal to the same thing are also equal to one another. :# If equals are added to equals, the wholes are equal. :# If equals are subtracted from equals, the remainders are equal. :# Things which coincide with one another are equal to one another. :# The whole is greater than the part. Modern development A lesson learned by mathematics in the last 150 years is that it is useful to strip the meaning away from the mathematical assertions (axioms, postulates, propositions, theorems) and definitions. One must concede the need for primitive notions, or undefined terms or concepts, in any study. Such abstraction or formalization makes mathematical knowledge more general, capable of multiple different meanings, and therefore useful in multiple contexts. Alessandro Padoa, Mario Pieri, and Giuseppe Peano were pioneers in this movement. Structuralist mathematics goes further, and develops theories and axioms (e.g. field theory, group theory, topology, vector spaces) without any particular application in mind. The distinction between an "axiom" and a "postulate" disappears. The postulates of Euclid are profitably motivated by saying that they lead to a great wealth of geometric facts. The truth of these complicated facts rests on the acceptance of the basic hypotheses. However, by throwing out Euclid's fifth postulate, one can get theories that have meaning in wider contexts (e.g., hyperbolic geometry). As such, one must simply be prepared to use labels such as "line" and "parallel" with greater flexibility. The development of hyperbolic geometry taught mathematicians that it is useful to regard postulates as purely formal statements, and not as facts based on experience. When mathematicians employ the field axioms, the intentions are even more abstract. The propositions of field theory do not concern any one particular application; the mathematician now works in complete abstraction. There are many examples of fields; field theory gives correct knowledge about them all. It is not correct to say that the axioms of field theory are "propositions that are regarded as true without proof." Rather, the field axioms are a set of constraints. If any given system of addition and multiplication satisfies these constraints, then one is in a position to instantly know a great deal of extra information about this system. Modern mathematics formalizes its foundations to such an extent that mathematical theories can be regarded as mathematical objects, and mathematics itself can be regarded as a branch of logic. Frege, Russell, Poincaré, Hilbert, and Gödel are some of the key figures in this development. Another lesson learned in modern mathematics is to examine purported proofs carefully for hidden assumptions. In the modern understanding, a set of axioms is any collection of formally stated assertions from which other formally stated assertions follow – by the application of certain well-defined rules. In this view, logic becomes just another formal system. A set of axioms should be consistent; it should be impossible to derive a contradiction from the axioms. A set of axioms should also be non-redundant; an assertion that can be deduced from other axioms need not be regarded as an axiom. It was the early hope of modern logicians that various branches of mathematics, perhaps all of mathematics, could be derived from a consistent collection of basic axioms. An early success of the formalist program was Hilbert's formalization{{efn\|Hilbert also made explicit the assumptions that Euclid used in his proofs but did not list in his common notions and postulates.}} of Euclidean geometry,<ref>For more, see Hilbert's axioms.</ref> and the related demonstration of the consistency of those axioms. In a wider context, there was an attempt to base all of mathematics on Cantor's set theory. Here, the emergence of Russell's paradox and similar antinomies of naïve set theory raised the possibility that any such system could turn out to be inconsistent. The formalist project suffered a setback a century ago, when Gödel showed that it is possible, for any sufficiently large set of axioms (Peano's axioms, for example) to construct a statement whose truth is independent of that set of axioms. As a corollary, Gödel proved that the consistency of a theory like Peano arithmetic is an unprovable assertion within the scope of that theory.<ref>{{Citation\|lastRaatikainen\|firstPanu\|titleGödel's Incompleteness Theorems\|date2018\|urlhttps://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/goedel-incompleteness/\|encyclopediaThe Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy\|editor-lastZalta\|editor-firstEdward N.\|editionFall 2018\|publisherMetaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University\|access-date=2019-10-19}}</ref> It is reasonable to believe in the consistency of Peano arithmetic because it is satisfied by the system of natural numbers, an infinite but intuitively accessible formal system. However, at present, there is no known way of demonstrating the consistency of the modern Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms for set theory. Furthermore, using techniques of forcing (Cohen) one can show that the continuum hypothesis (Cantor) is independent of the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms.<ref>{{Citation\|lastKoellner\|firstPeter\|titleThe Continuum Hypothesis\|date2019\|urlhttps://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/continuum-hypothesis/\|encyclopediaThe Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy\|editor-lastZalta\|editor-firstEdward N.\|editionSpring 2019\|publisherMetaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University\|access-date2019-10-19}}</ref> Thus, even this very general set of axioms cannot be regarded as the definitive foundation for mathematics.Other sciences Experimental sciences - as opposed to mathematics and logic - also have general founding assertions from which a deductive reasoning can be built so as to express propositions that predict properties - either still general or much more specialized to a specific experimental context. For instance, Newton's laws in classical mechanics, Maxwell's equations in classical electromagnetism, Einstein's equation in general relativity, Mendel's laws of genetics, Darwin's Natural selection law, etc. These founding assertions are usually called principles or postulates so as to distinguish from mathematical axioms. As a matter of facts, the role of axioms in mathematics and postulates in experimental sciences is different. In mathematics one neither "proves" nor "disproves" an axiom. A set of mathematical axioms gives a set of rules that fix a conceptual realm, in which the theorems logically follow. In contrast, in experimental sciences, a set of postulates shall allow deducing results that match or do not match experimental results. If postulates do not allow deducing experimental predictions, they do not set a scientific conceptual framework and have to be completed or made more accurate. If the postulates allow deducing predictions of experimental results, the comparison with experiments allows falsifying (falsified) the theory that the postulates install. A theory is considered valid as long as it has not been falsified. Now, the transition between the mathematical axioms and scientific postulates is always slightly blurred, especially in physics. This is due to the heavy use of mathematical tools to support the physical theories. For instance, the introduction of Newton's laws rarely establishes as a prerequisite neither Euclidean geometry or differential calculus that they imply. It became more apparent when Albert Einstein first introduced special relativity where the invariant quantity is no more the Euclidean length <math>l</math> (defined as <math>l^2 x^2 + y^2 + z^2</math>) > but the Minkowski spacetime interval <math>s</math> (defined as <math>s^2 c^2 t^2 - x^2 - y^2 - z^2</math>), and then general relativity where flat Minkowskian geometry is replaced with pseudo-Riemannian geometry on curved manifolds. In quantum physics, two sets of postulates have coexisted for some time, which provide a very nice example of falsification. The 'Copenhagen school' (Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Max Born) developed an operational approach with a complete mathematical formalism that involves the description of quantum system by vectors ('states') in a separable Hilbert space, and physical quantities as linear operators that act in this Hilbert space. This approach is fully falsifiable and has so far produced the most accurate predictions in physics. But it has the unsatisfactory aspect of not allowing answers to questions one would naturally ask. For this reason, another 'hidden variables' approach was developed for some time by Albert Einstein, Erwin Schrödinger, David Bohm. It was created so as to try to give deterministic explanation to phenomena such as entanglement. This approach assumed that the Copenhagen school description was not complete, and postulated that some yet unknown variable was to be added to the theory so as to allow answering some of the questions it does not answer (the founding elements of which were discussed as the EPR paradox in 1935). Taking this idea seriously, John Bell derived in 1964 a prediction that would lead to different experimental results (Bell's inequalities) in the Copenhagen and the Hidden variable case. The experiment was conducted first by Alain Aspect in the early 1980s, and the result excluded the simple hidden variable approach (sophisticated hidden variables could still exist but their properties would still be more disturbing than the problems they try to solve). This does not mean that the conceptual framework of quantum physics can be considered as complete now, since some open questions still exist (the limit between the quantum and classical realms, what happens during a quantum measurement, what happens in a completely closed quantum system such as the universe itself, etc.). Mathematical logic In the field of mathematical logic, a clear distinction is made between two notions of axioms: logical and non-logical (somewhat similar to the ancient distinction between "axioms" and "postulates" respectively). Logical axioms These are certain formulas in a formal language that are universally valid, that is, formulas that are satisfied by every assignment of values. Usually one takes as logical axioms at least some minimal set of tautologies that is sufficient for proving all tautologies in the language; in the case of predicate logic more logical axioms than that are required, in order to prove logical truths that are not tautologies in the strict sense. Examples Propositional logic In propositional logic, it is common to take as logical axioms all formulae of the following forms, where <math>\phi</math>, <math>\chi</math>, and <math>\psi</math> can be any formulae of the language and where the included primitive connectives are only "<math>\neg</math>" for negation of the immediately following proposition and "<math>\to</math>" for implication from antecedent to consequent propositions: # <math>\phi \to (\psi \to \phi)</math> # <math>(\phi \to (\psi \to \chi)) \to ((\phi \to \psi) \to (\phi \to \chi))</math> # <math>(\lnot \phi \to \lnot \psi) \to (\psi \to \phi).</math> Each of these patterns is an axiom schema, a rule for generating an infinite number of axioms. For example, if <math>A</math>, <math>B</math>, and <math>C</math> are propositional variables, then <math>A \to (B \to A)</math> and <math>(A \to \lnot B) \to (C \to (A \to \lnot B))</math> are both instances of axiom schema 1, and hence are axioms. It can be shown that with only these three axiom schemata and modus ponens, one can prove all tautologies of the propositional calculus. It can also be shown that no pair of these schemata is sufficient for proving all tautologies with modus ponens. Other axiom schemata involving the same or different sets of primitive connectives can be alternatively constructed.<ref>Mendelson, "6. Other Axiomatizations" of Ch. 1</ref> These axiom schemata are also used in the predicate calculus, but additional logical axioms are needed to include a quantifier in the calculus.<ref>Mendelson, "3. First-Order Theories" of Ch. 2</ref> First-order logic <div style="border: 1px solid #CCCCCC; padding-left: 5px; "> Axiom of Equality.<br>Let <math>\mathfrak{L}</math> be a first-order language. For each variable <math>x</math>, the below formula is universally valid. <div class="center"> <math>x = x</math> </div> </div> This means that, for any variable symbol <math>x</math>, the formula <math>x x</math> can be regarded as an axiom. Additionally, in this example, for this not to fall into vagueness and a never-ending series of "primitive notions", either a precise notion of what we mean by <math>x x</math> (or, for that matter, "to be equal") has to be well established first, or a purely formal and syntactical usage of the symbol <math>=</math> has to be enforced, only regarding it as a string and only a string of symbols, and mathematical logic does indeed do that. Another, more interesting example axiom scheme, is that which provides us with what is known as Universal Instantiation: <div style="border: 1px solid #CCCCCC; padding-left: 5px; "> Axiom scheme for Universal Instantiation.<br>Given a formula <math>\phi</math> in a first-order language <math>\mathfrak{L}</math>, a variable <math>x</math> and a term <math>t</math> that is substitutable for <math>x</math> in <math>\phi</math>, the below formula is universally valid. <div class="center"> <math>\forall x \, \phi \to \phi^x_t</math> </div> </div> Where the symbol <math>\phi^x_t</math> stands for the formula <math>\phi</math> with the term <math>t</math> substituted for <math>x</math>. (See Substitution of variables.) In informal terms, this example allows us to state that, if we know that a certain property <math>P</math> holds for every <math>x</math> and that <math>t</math> stands for a particular object in our structure, then we should be able to claim <math>P(t)</math>. Again, we are claiming that the formula <math>\forall x \phi \to \phi^x_t</math> is valid, that is, we must be able to give a "proof" of this fact, or more properly speaking, a metaproof. These examples are metatheorems of our theory of mathematical logic since we are dealing with the very concept of proof itself. Aside from this, we can also have Existential Generalization: <div style="border: 1px solid #CCCCCC; padding-left: 5px; "> Axiom scheme for Existential Generalization. Given a formula <math>\phi</math> in a first-order language <math>\mathfrak{L}</math>, a variable <math>x</math> and a term <math>t</math> that is substitutable for <math>x</math> in <math>\phi</math>, the below formula is universally valid. <div class="center"> <math>\phi^x_t \to \exists x \, \phi</math> </div> </div> Non-logical axioms Non-logical axioms are formulas that play the role of theory-specific assumptions. Reasoning about two different structures, for example, the natural numbers and the integers, may involve the same logical axioms; the non-logical axioms aim to capture what is special about a particular structure (or set of structures, such as groups). Thus non-logical axioms, unlike logical axioms, are not tautologies. Another name for a non-logical axiom is postulate.<ref name="properaxioms">Mendelson, "3. First-Order Theories: Proper Axioms" of Ch. 2</ref> Almost every modern mathematical theory starts from a given set of non-logical axioms, and it was thought that, in principle, every theory could be axiomatized in this way and formalized down to the bare language of logical formulas.{{Citation needed\|dateJuly 2011}}{{Explain\|dateJune 2019\|reasonuse of past tense without explanation of change}}<!-- This turned out to be impossible{{Citation needed\|dateMarch 2010}} and proved to be quite a story (see below); however recently this approach has been resurrected in the form of neo-logicism.--> Non-logical axioms are often simply referred to as axioms in mathematical discourse. This does not mean that it is claimed that they are true in some absolute sense. For instance, in some groups, the group operation is commutative, and this can be asserted with the introduction of an additional axiom, but without this axiom, we can do quite well developing (the more general) group theory, and we can even take its negation as an axiom for the study of non-commutative groups. Examples This section gives examples of mathematical theories that are developed entirely from a set of non-logical axioms (axioms, henceforth). A rigorous treatment of any of these topics begins with a specification of these axioms. Basic theories, such as arithmetic, real analysis and complex analysis are often introduced non-axiomatically, but implicitly or explicitly there is generally an assumption that the axioms being used are the axioms of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with choice, abbreviated ZFC, or some very similar system of axiomatic set theory like Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory, a conservative extension of ZFC. Sometimes slightly stronger theories such as Morse–Kelley set theory or set theory with a strongly inaccessible cardinal allowing the use of a Grothendieck universe is used, but in fact, most mathematicians can actually prove all they need in systems weaker than ZFC, such as second-order arithmetic.{{citation needed\|reasonThis claim should include a citation \|dateApril 2016}} The study of topology in mathematics extends all over through point set topology, algebraic topology, differential topology, and all the related paraphernalia, such as homology theory, homotopy theory. The development of abstract algebra brought with itself group theory, rings, fields, and Galois theory. This list could be expanded to include most fields of mathematics, including measure theory, ergodic theory, probability, representation theory, and differential geometry. Arithmetic The Peano axioms are the most widely used axiomatization of first-order arithmetic. They are a set of axioms strong enough to prove many important facts about number theory and they allowed Gödel to establish his famous second incompleteness theorem.<ref>Mendelson, "5. The Fixed Point Theorem. Gödel's Incompleteness Theorem" of Ch. 2</ref> We have a language <math>\mathfrak{L}_{NT} = \{0, S\}</math> where <math>0</math> is a constant symbol and <math>S</math> is a unary function and the following axioms: # <math>\forall x. \lnot (Sx = 0) </math> # <math>\forall x. \forall y. (Sx Sy \to x y) </math> # <math>(\phi(0) \land \forall x.\,(\phi(x) \to \phi(Sx))) \to \forall x.\phi(x)</math> for any <math>\mathfrak{L}_{NT}</math> formula <math>\phi</math> with one free variable. The standard structure is <math>\mathfrak{N} \langle\N, 0, S\rangle</math> where <math>\N</math> is the set of natural numbers, <math>S</math> is the successor function and <math>0</math> is naturally interpreted as the number 0.Euclidean geometryProbably the oldest, and most famous, list of axioms are the 4 + 1 Euclid's postulates of plane geometry. The axioms are referred to as "4 + 1" because for nearly two millennia the fifth (parallel) postulate ("through a point outside a line there is exactly one parallel") was suspected of being derivable from the first four. Ultimately, the fifth postulate was found to be independent of the first four. One can assume that exactly one parallel through a point outside a line exists, or that infinitely many exist. This choice gives us two alternative forms of geometry in which the interior angles of a triangle add up to exactly 180 degrees or less, respectively, and are known as Euclidean and hyperbolic geometries. If one also removes the second postulate ("a line can be extended indefinitely") then elliptic geometry arises, where there is no parallel through a point outside a line, and in which the interior angles of a triangle add up to more than 180 degrees.Real analysisThe objectives of the study are within the domain of real numbers. The real numbers are uniquely picked out (up to isomorphism) by the properties of a Dedekind complete ordered field, meaning that any nonempty set of real numbers with an upper bound has a least upper bound. However, expressing these properties as axioms requires the use of second-order logic. The Löwenheim–Skolem theorems tell us that if we restrict ourselves to first-order logic, any axiom system for the reals admits other models, including both models that are smaller than the reals and models that are larger. Some of the latter are studied in non-standard analysis.<span id"role">Role in mathematical logic</span> Deductive systems and completeness A deductive system consists of a set <math>\Lambda</math> of logical axioms, a set <math>\Sigma</math> of non-logical axioms, and a set <math>\{(\Gamma, \phi)\}</math> of rules of inference. A desirable property of a deductive system is that it be complete. A system is said to be complete if, for all formulas <math>\phi</math>, <div class="center"> <math>\text{if }\Sigma \models \phi\text{ then }\Sigma \vdash \phi</math> </div> that is, for any statement that is a logical consequence of <math>\Sigma</math> there actually exists a deduction of the statement from <math>\Sigma</math>. This is sometimes expressed as "everything that is true is provable", but it must be understood that "true" here means "made true by the set of axioms", and not, for example, "true in the intended interpretation". Gödel's completeness theorem establishes the completeness of a certain commonly used type of deductive system. Note that "completeness" has a different meaning here than it does in the context of Gödel's first incompleteness theorem, which states that no recursive, consistent set of non-logical axioms <math>\Sigma</math> of the Theory of Arithmetic is complete, in the sense that there will always exist an arithmetic statement <math>\phi</math> such that neither <math>\phi</math> nor <math>\lnot\phi</math> can be proved from the given set of axioms. There is thus, on the one hand, the notion of completeness of a deductive system and on the other hand that of completeness of a set of non-logical axioms. The completeness theorem and the incompleteness theorem, despite their names, do not contradict one another. Further discussion Early mathematicians regarded axiomatic geometry as a model of physical space, implying, there could ultimately only be one such model. The idea that alternative mathematical systems might exist was very troubling to mathematicians of the 19th century and the developers of systems such as Boolean algebra made elaborate efforts to derive them from traditional arithmetic. Galois showed just before his untimely death that these efforts were largely wasted. Ultimately, the abstract parallels between algebraic systems were seen to be more important than the details, and modern algebra was born. In the modern view, axioms may be any set of formulas, as long as they are not known to be inconsistent. See also {{Portal\|Mathematics\|Philosophy}} * Axiomatic system * Dogma * First principle, axiom in science and philosophy * List of axioms * Model theory * Regulæ Juris * Theorem * Presupposition * Principle Notes {{Notelist}} References {{reflist}} Further reading * Mendelson, Elliot (1987). Introduction to mathematical logic. Belmont, California: Wadsworth & Brooks. {{ISBN\|0-534-06624-0}} * {{cite Q\|Q26720682}}<!-- On an Evolutionist Theory of Axioms --> External links {{Wiktionary\|axiom\|given}} {{EB1911 poster\|Axiom}} * {{PhilPapers\|search\|axiom}} * {{planetmath\|urlnameAxiom\|titleAxiom}} * [http://us.metamath.org/mpegif/mmset.html#axioms Metamath axioms page] {{Mathematical logic}} Category:Concepts in logic	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom	2025-04-05T18:25:26.726006
929	Alpha	{{short description\|First letter of the Greek alphabet}} {{about\|the Greek letter\|the Latin letter\|Latin alpha}} {{other uses}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=November 2021}} {{Greek Alphabet\|letter=alpha}} Alpha {{IPAc-en\|'\|æ\|l\|f\|ə\|audioLL-Q1860 (eng)-Flame, not lame-Alpha.wav}}<ref>{{OED\|alpha}}</ref> (uppercase {{Script\|Grek\|Α}}, lowercase {{Script\|Grek\|α}}){{Efn\|{{langx\|grc\|ἄλφα}}, {{Lang\|grc-latn\|álpha}}, or {{langx\|el\|άλφα\|álfa}}}} is the first letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of one. Alpha is derived from the Phoenician letter aleph , which is the West Semitic word for "ox".<ref>{{cite book \| lastBrookes \| firstI. \| titleChamber Concise Dictionary \| publisherAllied Pub (p) Limited \| year2004 \| isbn978-81-86062-36-4 \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiwWuY9tAVq8C \| page30 \| access-date15 November 2021 \| archive-date11 June 2022 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220611085621/https://books.google.com/books?idiwWuY9tAVq8C \| url-statuslive }}</ref> Letters that arose from alpha include the Latin letter A and the Cyrillic letter А.UsesGreekIn Ancient Greek, alpha was pronounced {{IPAblink\|ä\|a}} and could be either phonemically long ([aː]) or short ([a]). Where there is ambiguity, long and short alpha are sometimes written with a macron and breve today: {{Lang\|el\|Ᾱᾱ, Ᾰᾰ\|italicno}}. {{Wikt-lang\|grc\|ὥρα\|italicno}} {{Lang\|grc\|ὥρᾱ\|italic=no}} {{Lang\|grc-latn\|hōrā}} {{IPA\|el\|hɔ́ːraː}} "a time" {{Wikt-lang\|grc\|γλῶσσα\|italicno}} {{Lang\|grc\|γλῶσσᾰ\|italic=no}} {{Lang\|grc-latn\|glôssa}} {{IPA\|el\|ɡlɔ̂ːssa}} "tongue" In Modern Greek, vowel length has been lost, and all instances of alpha simply represent the open front unrounded vowel {{IPA\|el\|a\|IPA}}. In the polytonic orthography of Greek, alpha, like other vowel letters, can occur with several diacritic marks: any of three accent symbols ({{lang\|grc\|ά, ὰ, ᾶ}}), and either of two breathing marks ({{lang\|grc\|ἁ, ἀ}}), as well as combinations of these. It can also combine with the iota subscript ({{lang\|grc\|ᾳ}}). Greek grammar In the Attic–Ionic dialect of Ancient Greek, long alpha {{IPA\|[aː]}} fronted to {{IPAblink\|ɛː}} (eta). In Ionic, the shift took place in all positions. In Attic, the shift did not take place after epsilon, iota, and rho ({{Lang\|grc\|ε, ι, ρ\|italicno}}; {{Lang\|grc-latn\|e, i, r}}). In Doric and Aeolic, long alpha is preserved in all positions.<ref>Herbert Weir Smyth. Greek grammar for colleges. [http://www.ccel.org/s/smyth/grammar/html/smyth_1b_uni.htm#30 paragraph 30] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110220092904/http://www.ccel.org/s/smyth/grammar/html/smyth_1b_uni.htm#30 \|date20 February 2011 }} and [http://www.ccel.org/s/smyth/grammar/html/smyth_1b_notes.htm#30D note] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090313050255/http://www.ccel.org/s/smyth/grammar/html/smyth_1b_notes.htm#30D \|date=13 March 2009 }}.</ref> Doric, Aeolic, Attic {{lang\|grc\|χώρᾱ}} {{Lang\|grc-latn\|chṓrā}} – Ionic {{lang\|grc\|χώρη}} {{Lang\|grc-latn\|chṓrē}}, "country" Doric, Aeolic {{lang\|grc\|φᾱ&#769;μᾱ}} {{Lang\|grc-latn\|phā́mā}} – Attic, Ionic {{lang\|grc\|φήμη}} {{Lang\|grc-latn\|phḗmē}}, "report" Privative a is the Ancient Greek prefix {{Lang\|grc\|ἀ-\|italicno}} or {{Lang\|grc\|ἀν-\|italicno}} {{Lang\|grc-latn\|a-, an-}}, added to words to negate them. It originates from the Proto-Indo-European {{lang\|ine-x-proto\|n̥-}} (syllabic nasal) and is cognate with English un-. Copulative a is the Greek prefix {{Lang\|el\|ἁ-\|italicno}} or {{Lang\|el\|ἀ-\|italicno}} {{Lang\|el-latn\|ha-, a-}}. It comes from Proto-Indo-European {{lang\|ine-x-proto\|sm&#805;}}. Mathematics and science {{main\|Alpha (disambiguation)}} The letter alpha represents various concepts in physics and chemistry, including alpha radiation, angular acceleration,<ref>{{Citation \|lastElert \|firstGlenn \|titleSpecial Symbols \|date2023 \|workThe Physics Hypertextbook\|quote α, α rotational acceleration \|urlhttps://physics.info/symbols/ \|access-date2025-02-01 \|publisherhypertextbook \|languageen}}</ref> alpha particles, alpha carbon and strength of electromagnetic interaction (as fine-structure constant).<ref>{{Cite web \|titlefine-structure constant \|urlhttps://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?eqalph%7Csearch_forfine \|access-date2025-02-10 \|website=physics.nist.gov}}</ref> Alpha also stands for thermal expansion coefficient of a compound in physical chemistry. In ethology, it is used to name the dominant individual in a group of animals. In aerodynamics, the letter is used as a symbol for the angle of attack of an aircraft and the word "alpha" is used as a synonym for this property. In astronomy, α is often used to designate the brightest star in a constellation.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastRabinowitz \|firstHarold \|titleThe manual of scientific style: a guide for authors, editors, and researchers \|last2Vogel \|first2Suzanne \|date2009 \|publisherElsevier/Academic Press \|isbn978-0-12-373980-3 \|edition1st \|locationAmsterdam Burlington, MA \|pages363 \|quoteThe primary designation system for bright stars, called Bayer designations… The Greek letters are assigned in order (α,β, γ,δ etc.) according to brightness.}}</ref> In mathematics, the letter alpha is used to denote the area underneath a normal curve in statistics to denote significance level<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.une.edu.au/WebStat/unit_materials/c5_inferential_statistics/what_alpha_level.html \|workResearch Methods and Statistics PESS202 Lecture and Commentary Notes \|titleChapter 5: Analysing the Data Part II : Inferential Statistics \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110822143239/http://www.une.edu.au/WebStat/unit_materials/c5_inferential_statistics/what_alpha_level.html \|archive-date22 August 2011 }}</ref> when proving null and alternative hypotheses. It is also commonly used in algebraic solutions representing quantities such as angles. In mathematical logic, α is sometimes used as a placeholder for ordinal numbers. It is used for Stoneham numbers.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastWeisstein \|firstEric W. \|titleStoneham Number \|urlhttps://mathworld.wolfram.com/StonehamNumber.html \|access-date2025-01-31 \|websitemathworld.wolfram.com \|language=en}}</ref> Most occurrences of alpha in science are the lowercase alpha. The uppercase letter alpha is not generally used as a symbol because it tends to be rendered identically to the uppercase Latin A. The proportionality operator "∝" (in Unicode: U+221D) is sometimes mistaken for alpha. International Phonetic Alphabet In the International Phonetic Alphabet, the letter ɑ, which looks similar to the lower-case alpha, represents the open back unrounded vowel. History and symbolism {{More citations needed section\|date=June 2021}} {{further\|History of the Greek alphabet}} Origin The Phoenician alphabet was adopted for Greek in the early 8th century BC, perhaps in Euboea.<ref>The date of the earliest inscribed objects; A.W. Johnston, "The alphabet", in N. Stampolidis and V. Karageorghis, eds, Sea Routes from Sidon to Huelva: Interconnections in the Mediterranean 2003:263-76, summarizes the present scholarship on the dating.</ref> The majority of the letters of the Phoenician alphabet were adopted into Greek with much the same sounds as they had had in Phoenician, but ʼāleph, the Phoenician letter representing the glottal stop {{IPA\|[ʔ]}}, was adopted as representing the vowel {{IPA\|[a]}}; similarly, hē {{IPA\|[h]}} and ʽayin {{IPA\|[ʕ]}} are Phoenician consonants that became Greek vowels, epsilon {{IPA\|[e]}} and omicron {{IPA\|[o]}}, respectively. Plutarch Plutarch, in Moralia,<ref>Symposiacs, Book IX, questions II & III [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/p/plutarch/symposiacs/chapter9.html#section91 On-line text] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081013230602/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/p/plutarch/symposiacs/chapter9.html#section91 \|date13 October 2008 }} at Adelaide library</ref> presents a discussion on why the letter alpha stands first in the alphabet. Ammonius asks Plutarch what he, being a Boeotian, has to say for Cadmus, the Phoenician who reputedly settled in Thebes and introduced the alphabet to Greece, placing alpha first because it is the Phoenician name for ox—which, unlike Hesiod,<ref>Hesiod, in Works and Days (see on [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.01.0132:card405 Perseus Project] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210117133713/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0132%3Acard%3D405 \|date=17 January 2021 }}), advises the early Greek farmers, "First of all, get a house, then a woman and third, an ox for the plough."</ref> the Phoenicians considered not the second or third, but the first of all necessities. "Nothing at all," Plutarch replied. He then added that he would rather be assisted by Lamprias, his own grandfather, than by Dionysus' grandfather, i.e. Cadmus. For Lamprias had said that the first articulate sound made is "alpha", because it is very plain and simple—the air coming off the mouth does not require any motion of the tongue—and therefore this is the first sound that children make. According to Plutarch's natural order of attribution of the vowels to the planets, alpha was connected with the Moon. Alpha and Omega {{main\|Alpha and Omega}} As the first letter of the alphabet, Alpha as a Greek numeral came to represent the number 1. Therefore, Alpha, both as a symbol and term, is used to refer to the "first", or "primary", or "principal" (most significant) occurrence or status of a thing. The New Testament has God declaring himself to be the "Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end, the first and the last." (Revelation 22:13, KJV, and see also 1:8). Consequently, the term "alpha" has also come to be used to denote "primary" position in social hierarchy, examples being the concept of dominant "alpha" members in groups of animals. Unicode All code points with {{sc\|ALPHA}} or {{sc\|ALFA}}<ref>{{cite web\|titleCharacter Encodings\|urlhttp://www.kreativekorp.com/charset/\|access-date14 January 2013\|archive-date1 August 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190801153209/http://www.kreativekorp.com/charset/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> but without {{sc\|WITH}} (for accented Greek characters, see Greek diacritics: Computer encoding): * {{unichar\|0251\|html=}} * {{unichar\|0252\|html=}} * {{unichar\|0386\|html=}} * {{unichar\|0391\|html=}} * {{unichar\|03AC\|html=}} * {{unichar\|03B1\|html=}} * {{unichar\|1D45\|html=}} * {{unichar\|1D90\|html=}} * {{unichar\|1D9B\|html=}} * {{unichar\|1DE7\|cwith=◌}} * {{unichar\|2376\|html=}} * {{unichar\|237A\|html=}} * {{unichar\|2C6D\|html=}} * {{unichar\|2C70\|html=}} * {{unichar\|2C80\|html=}} * {{unichar\|2C81\|html=}} * {{unichar\|AB30\|html=}} * {{unichar\|AB64\|html=}} * {{unichar\|1D6A8\|html=}}{{efn\|The {{sc\|mathematical}} symbols are only to be used in math. Stylized Greek text should be encoded using normal Greek letters, with markup and formatting to indicate text style.}} * {{unichar\|1D6C2\|html=}} * {{unichar\|1D6E2\|html=}} * {{unichar\|1D6FC\|html=}} * {{unichar\|1D71C\|html=}} * {{unichar\|1D736\|html=}} * {{unichar\|1D756\|html=}} * {{unichar\|1D770\|html=}} * {{unichar\|1D790\|html=}} * {{unichar\|1D7AA\|html}}Notes{{Notelist}}References {{Wiktionary\|Α\|α}} {{EBD poster\|A (letter)}} {{reflist}} Category:Greek letters Category:Vowel letters	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha	2025-04-05T18:25:26.737266
930	Alvin Toffler	{{short description\|American writer, futurist and businessman}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=November 2020}} {{Infobox writer \| image = Alvin Toffler 02.jpg \| caption = Toffler in 2006 \| birth_name = Alvin Eugene Toffler \| birth_date = {{birth date\|1928\|10\|4}} \| birth_place = New York City, U.S. \| death_date = {{death date and age\|2016\|6\|27\|1928\|10\|4}} \| death_place = Los Angeles, California, U.S. \| resting_place = Pierce Brothers Westwood Village Memorial Park and Mortuary, Westwood, Los&nbsp;Angeles \| occupation = {{cslist\|Futurist\|author\|journalist\|educator}} \| nationality = <!-- use only when necessary per WP:INFONAT --> \| education \| alma_mater New York University (BA) \| notable_works = {{cslist\|Future Shock\|The Third Wave\|Powershift}} \| spouse = {{marriage\|Heidi Farrell\|April 29, 1950}} \| children = 1 \| relations \| awards {{plainlist\| * {{#ifexist: McKinsey Foundation Book Award\|McKinsey Foundation Book Award}} * {{lang\|fr\|Ordre des Arts et des Lettres}} * {{see below\|{{slink\|\|Selected awards}}}} }} \| signature = }} Alvin Eugene Toffler<ref>{{cite news \|last1Henry \|first1David \|titleAlvin Toffler, author of best-selling 'Future Shock' and 'The Third Wave,' dies at 87 \|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/business/alvin-toffler-author-of-best-selling-future-shock-and-the-third-wave-dies-at-87/2016/06/29/0d63748c-3e09-11e6-80bc-d06711fd2125_story.html \|newspaperWashington Post \|access-date31 October 2022}}</ref> (October 4, 1928 – June 27, 2016) was an American writer, futurist, and businessman known for his works discussing modern technologies, including the digital revolution and the communication revolution, with emphasis on their effects on cultures worldwide. He is regarded as one of the world's outstanding futurists.<ref>{{Cite book\|titleEncyclopedia of the City\|lastCaves\|firstR. W.\|publisherRoutledge\|year2004\|isbn978-0415862875\|pages=672}}</ref> Toffler was an associate editor of Fortune magazine. In his early works he focused on technology and its impact, which he termed "information overload". In 1970, his first major book about the future, Future Shock, became a worldwide best-seller and has sold over 6 million copies. He and his wife Heidi Toffler (1929–2019), who collaborated with him for most of his writings, moved on to examining the reaction to changes in society with another best-selling book, The Third Wave, in 1980. In it, he foresaw such technological advances as cloning, personal computers, the Internet, cable television and mobile communication. His later focus, via their other best-seller, Powershift, (1990), was on the increasing power of 21st-century military hardware and the proliferation of new technologies. He founded Toffler Associates, a management consulting company, and was a visiting scholar at the Russell Sage Foundation, visiting professor at Cornell University, faculty member of the New School for Social Research, a White House correspondent, and a business consultant.<ref name"MI">[http://www.milkeninstitute.org/events/events.taf?functionshow&catallconf&EventIDGC03&SPID898&level1speakers&level2bio "Alvin Toffler Speaker Biography"] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110927235248/http://www.milkeninstitute.org/events/events.taf?functionshow&catallconf&EventIDGC03&SPID898&level1speakers&level2bio \|dateSeptember 27, 2011 }}, Milken Institute, 2003.</ref> Toffler's ideas and writings were a significant influence on the thinking of business and government leaders worldwide, including China's Zhao Ziyang, and AOL founder Steve Case.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastGewirtz\|firstJulian\|dateFebruary 2018\|titleThe Futurists of Beijing: Alvin Toffler, Zhao Ziyang, and China's "New Technological Revolution," 1979–1991\|journalThe Journal of Asian Studies\|languageen\|volume78\|issue1\|pages115–140\|doi10.1017/S0021911818002619\|issn0021-9118\|doi-accessfree}}</ref>Early lifeAlvin Toffler was born on October 4, 1928, in New York City,<ref>{{cite web\|lastThe European Graduate School\|titleAlvin Toffler – Biography\|urlhttp://www.egs.edu/library/alvin-toffler/biography/\|access-dateJanuary 7, 2014\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140107225236/http://www.egs.edu/library/alvin-toffler/biography/\|archive-dateJanuary 7, 2014}}</ref> and raised in Brooklyn. He was the son of Rose (Albaum) and Sam Toffler, a furrier, both Polish Jews who had migrated to America.<ref namebookref1/><ref namenytobit>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/30/books/alvin-toffler-author-of-future-shock-dies-at-87.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/30/books/alvin-toffler-author-of-future-shock-dies-at-87.html \|archive-date2022-01-01 \|url-accesslimited \|titleAlvin Toffler, Author of 'Future Shock,' Dies at 87 \|workThe New York Times \|firstKeith \|lastSchneider \|dateJune 29, 2016 \|access-dateJune 29, 2016}}{{cbignore}}</ref> He had one younger sister.<ref namenytobit/> He was inspired to become a writer at the age of 7 by his aunt and uncle, who lived with the Tofflers. "They were Depression-era literary intellectuals," Toffler said, "and they always talked about exciting ideas."<ref namenytobit/> Toffler graduated from New York University in 1950 as an English major, though by his own account he was more focused on political activism than grades.<ref namenytobit/> He met his future wife, Adelaide Elizabeth Farrell (nicknamed "Heidi"), when she was starting a graduate course in linguistics. Being radical students, they decided against further graduate work and moved to Cleveland, Ohio, where they married on April 29, 1950.<ref namenytobit/> Career Seeking experiences to write about, Alvin and Heidi Toffler spent the next five years as blue collar workers on assembly lines while studying industrial mass production in their daily work.<ref namenytobit/> He compared his own desire for experience to other writers, such as Jack London, who in his quest for subjects to write about sailed the seas, and John Steinbeck, who went to pick grapes with migrant workers.<ref>video: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?vQCXCDYj6U4E&t10m18s Interview with Alvin Toffler]</ref> In their first factory jobs, Heidi became a union shop steward in the aluminum foundry where she worked. Alvin became a millwright and welder.<ref namenytobit/><ref name"ATWPARTNERSHIP">{{usurped\|1[https://web.archive.org/web/20100917045828/http://alvintoffler.net/?fabiospartnership "Alvin and Heidi Toffler: Partnership"]}} – Toffler Web site</ref> In the evenings Alvin would write poetry and fiction, but discovered he was proficient at neither.<ref namenytobit/> His hands-on practical labor experience helped Alvin Toffler land a position at a union-backed newspaper, a transfer to its Washington bureau in 1957, then three years as a White House correspondent, covering Congress and the White House for a Pennsylvania daily newspaper.<ref name=nytobit/><ref>[http://www.legacy.com/news/celebrity-deaths/notable-deaths/article/alvin-toffler-1928-2016 "Alvin Toffler (1928–2016)"], Legacy.com, June 30, 2016</ref> They returned to New York City in 1959 when Fortune magazine invited Alvin to become its labor columnist, later having him write about business and management.<ref namenytobit/> After leaving Fortune magazine in 1962, Toffler began a freelance career, writing long form articles for scholarly journals and magazines.<ref namenytobit/> His 1964 Playboy interviews with Russian novelist Vladimir Nabokov and Ayn Rand were considered among the magazine's best.<ref name=nytobit/> His interview with Rand was the first time the magazine had given such a platform to a female intellectual, which as one commentator said, "the real bird of paradise Toffler captured for Playboy in 1964 was Ayn Rand."<ref>[http://atlassociety.org/commentary/commentary-blog/3901-the-lost-parts-of-ayn-rand-s-playboy-interview "The "Lost" Parts of Ayn Rand's Playboy Interview"], The Atlas Society, March 1, 2004</ref> Toffler was hired by IBM to conduct research and write a paper on the social and organizational impact of computers, leading to his contact with the earliest computer "gurus" and artificial intelligence researchers and proponents. Xerox invited him to write about its research laboratory and AT&T consulted him for strategic advice. This AT&T work led to a study of telecommunications, which advised the company's top management to break up the company more than a decade before the government forced AT&T to break up.<ref>Galambos, Louis, and Abrahamson, Eric. Anytime, Anywhere: Entrepreneurship and the Creation of a Wireless World, Cambridge Univ. Press (2002) p. 266</ref> In the mid-1960s, the Tofflers began five years of research on what would become Future Shock, published in 1970.<ref namenytobit/><ref name"ATWPARTNERSHIP"/> It has sold over 6 million copies worldwide, according to the New York Times, or over 15&nbsp;million copies according to the Tofflers' Web site.<ref namenytobit/><ref nameDenver/> Toffler coined the term "future shock" to refer to what happens to a society when change happens too fast, which results in social confusion and normal decision-making processes breaking down.<ref nameHindle>Hindle, Tim. Guide to Management Ideas and Gurus, John Wiley & Sons (2008) p. 311</ref> The book has never been out of print and has been translated into dozens of languages.<ref namenytobit/> He continued the theme in The Third Wave in 1980. While he describes the first and second waves as the agricultural and industrial revolutions, the "third wave," a phrase he coined, represents the current information, computer-based revolution. He forecast the spread of the Internet and email, interactive media, cable television, cloning, and other digital advancements.<ref>{{cite news \| url https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-36670572 \|title Alvin Toffler, futurologist guru, dies at 87\| workBBC News\|dateJune 30, 2016}}</ref> He claimed that one of the side effects of the digital age has been "information overload," another term he coined.<ref nameUSNews>[https://www.usnews.com/news/us/articles/2016-06-29/alvin-toffler-author-of-future-shock-dead-at-87 "Alvin Toffler, author of 'Future Shock,' dead at 87"], U.S. News & World Report, June 29, 2016</ref> In 1990, he wrote Powershift, also with the help of his wife, Heidi.<ref namenytobit/> In 1996, with American business consultant Tom Johnson, they co-founded Toffler Associates, an advisory firm designed to implement many of the ideas the Tofflers had written on. The firm worked with businesses, NGOs, and governments in the United States, South Korea, Mexico, Brazil, Singapore, Australia, and other countries. During this period in his career, Toffler lectured worldwide, taught at several schools and met world leaders, such as Mikhail Gorbachev, along with key executives and military officials.<ref nameCBC/>Ideas and opinions{{quote box\|quote"A new civilization is emerging in our lives, and blind men everywhere are trying to suppress it. This new civilization brings with it new family styles; changed ways of working, loving, and living; a new economy; new political conflicts; and beyond all this an altered consciousness as well...The dawn of this new civilization is the single most explosive fact of our lifetimes."\|sourceAlvin Toffler, from The Third Wave (1980)<ref>Gilbert, Montserrat Gines. The Meaning of Technology, Univ. Politèc. de Catalunya (2003) p. 157</ref>\|alignright\|width25em\|bgcolor Cornsilk}} Toffler stated many of his ideas during an interview with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation in 1998.<ref nameAustralia/> "Society needs people who take care of the elderly and who know how to be compassionate and honest," he said. "Society needs people who work in hospitals. Society needs all kinds of skills that are not just cognitive; they're emotional, they're affectional. You can't run the society on data and computers alone."<ref nameAustralia>{{cite interview\| urlhttp://www.abc.net.au/rn/talks/lm/stories/s10440.htm \|first Alvin \|lastToffler \|interviewer Norman Swann \|publisherAustralian Broadcasting Corporation Radio National\| titleLife Matters\| dateMarch 5, 1998\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20001020092245/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/talks/lm/stories/s10440.htm\| url-statusdead\| archive-date October 20, 2000\| access-date= May 4, 2016}}</ref> His opinions about the future of education, many of which were in Future Shock, have often been quoted. An often misattributed quote, however, is that of psychologist Herbert Gerjuoy: "Tomorrow's illiterate will not be the man who can't read; he will be the man who has not learned how to learn."<ref>{{cite book\|lastToffler\|firstAlvin\|titleFuture Shock\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/futureshoc00toff\|url-accessregistration\|year1970\|publisherRandom House\|locationNew York\|page=[https://archive.org/details/futureshoc00toff/page/367 367]}}</ref> Early in his career, after traveling to other countries, he became aware of the new and myriad inputs that visitors received from these other cultures. He explained during an interview that some visitors would become "truly disoriented and upset" by the strange environment, which he described as a reaction to culture shock.<ref nameinterview>video: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?vQCXCDYj6U4E&t1m48s Interview with Alvin Toffler]</ref> From that issue, he foresaw another problem for the future, when a culturally "new environment comes to you&nbsp;... and comes to you rapidly." That kind of sudden cultural change within one's own country, which he felt many would not understand, would lead to a similar reaction, one of "future shock", which he wrote about in his book by that title.<ref nameinterview/> Toffler writes: {{blockquote\|We must search out totally new ways to anchor ourselves, for all the old roots—religion, nation, community, family, or profession—are now shaking under the hurricane impact of the accelerative thrust.<ref nameCBC/><ref nameAP>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.cbc.ca/news/arts/alvin-toffler-author-obit-1.3659263\|titleAlvin Toffler, Future Shock and Third Wave author, dead at 87\|dateJune 29, 2016\|publisherCBC News\|agencyAssociated Press\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160813081640/https://www.cbc.ca/news/arts/alvin-toffler-author-obit-1.3659263\|archive-dateAugust 13, 2016}}</ref>}} In The Third Wave, Toffler describes three types of societies, based on the concept of "waves"—each wave pushes the older societies and cultures aside.<ref>video: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?vMgwVlsHxdWY&t7m24s Alvin and Heidi Toffler interview with Brian Lamb], 1996</ref> He describes the "First Wave" as the society after agrarian revolution and replaced the first hunter-gatherer cultures. The "Second Wave," he labels society during the Industrial Revolution (ca. late 17th century through the mid-20th century). That period saw the increase of urban industrial populations which had undermined the traditional nuclear family, and initiated a factory-like education system, and the growth of the corporation. Toffler said: {{blockquote\|The Second Wave Society is industrial and based on mass production, mass distribution, mass consumption, mass education, mass media, mass recreation, mass entertainment, and weapons of mass destruction. You combine those things with standardization, centralization, concentration, and synchronization, and you wind up with a style of organization we call bureaucracy.<ref name=Australia/>}} The "Third Wave" was a term he coined to describe the post-industrial society, which began in the late 1950s. His description of this period dovetails with other futurist writers, who also wrote about the Information Age, Space Age, Electronic Era, Global Village, terms which highlighted a scientific-technological revolution.<ref nameDenver>[https://www.denverpost.com/2016/06/29/author-alvin-toffler-dies/ "Future Shock" author Alvin Toffler has died at age 87], Denver Post, June 29, 2016</ref> The Tofflers claimed to have predicted a number of geopolitical events, such as the collapse of the Soviet Union, the fall of the Berlin Wall and the future economic growth in the Asia-Pacific region.<ref nameDenver/> Influences and popular culture Toffler often visited with dignitaries in Asia, including China's Zhao Ziyang, Singapore's Lee Kuan Yew and South Korea's Kim Dae Jung, all of whom were influenced by his views as Asia's emerging markets increased in global significance during the 1980s and 1990s.<ref nameDenver/> Although they had originally censored some of his books and ideas, China's government cited him along with Franklin Roosevelt and Bill Gates as being among the Westerners who had most influenced their country.<ref nameUSNews/> The Third Wave along with a video documentary based on it became best-sellers in China and were widely distributed to schools.<ref name=Denver/> The video's success inspired the marketing of videos on related themes in the late 1990s by Infowars, whose name is derived from the term coined by Toffler in the book. Toffler's influence on Asian thinkers was summed up in an article in Daedalus, published by the American Academy of Arts & Sciences: {{blockquote\|Where an earlier generation of Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese revolutionaries wanted to re-enact the Paris Commune as imagined by Karl Marx, their post-revolutionary successors now want to re-enact Silicon Valley as imagined by Alvin Toffler.<ref name=Denver/>}} U.S. House Speaker Newt Gingrich publicly lauded his ideas about the future, and urged members of Congress to read Toffler's book, Creating a New Civilization (1995).<ref nameDenver/> Others, such as AOL founder Steve Case, cited Toffler's The Third Wave as a formative influence on his thinking,<ref nameUSNews/> which inspired him to write ''The Third Wave: An Entrepreneur's Vision of the Future in 2016. Case said that Toffler was a "real pioneer in helping people, companies and even countries lean into the future."<ref name=CBC>[http://www.cbc.ca/news/arts/alvin-toffler-author-obit-1.3659263 "Alvin Toffler, Future Shock and Third Wave author, dead at 87"], CBC News'', June 29, 2016</ref><ref>[http://www.multichannel.com/blog/i-was-saying/remembering-aols-deal-century/403835 "Remembering AOL's 'Deal of the Century'"], Multichannel, April 4, 2016</ref> In 1980, Ted Turner founded CNN, which he said was inspired by Toffler's forecasting the end of the dominance of the three main television networks.<ref>[https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/17276 "Future Speak"], Entrepreneur, March 1, 1999</ref><ref name=NPR>[https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/06/30/484161975/future-shock-author-alvin-toffler-dies-at-87 "'Future Shock' Author Alvin Toffler Dies at 87"], NPR, June 30, 2016</ref> Turner's company, Turner Broadcasting, published Toffler's Creating a New Civilization in 1995. Shortly after the book was released, the former Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev hosted the Global Governance Conference in San Francisco with the theme, Toward a New Civilization, which was attended by dozens of world figures, including the Tofflers, George H. W. Bush, Margaret Thatcher, Carl Sagan, Abba Eban and Turner with his then-wife, actress Jane Fonda.<ref>Abramson, Lee. Ezekial, iUniverse (2007) p. 14</ref> Mexican billionaire Carlos Slim was influenced by his works, and became a friend of the writer.<ref name=Denver/> Global marketer J.D. Power also said he was inspired by Toffler's works.<ref>[https://www.forbes.com/sites/realspin/2014/03/16/j-d-power-ten-things-ive-learned-in-business/#12754ac61aee "J.D. Power: Ten Things I've Learned In Business"], Forbes, March 16, 2014</ref> Since the 1960s, people had tried to make sense out of the effect of new technologies and social change, a problem which made Toffler's writings widely influential beyond the confines of scientific, economic, and public policy. His works and ideas have been subject to various criticisms, usually with the same argumentation used against futurology: that foreseeing the future is nigh impossible.<ref name=USNews/> Techno music pioneer Juan Atkins cites Toffler's phrase "techno rebels" in The Third Wave as inspiring him to use the word "techno" to describe the musical style he helped to create<ref>{{cite news\|lastFerguson\|firstBenjamin\|titleLabel of love: Metroplex\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2010/jun/15/label-love-metroplex\|newspaperThe Guardian\|dateJune 15, 2010}}</ref> Musician Curtis Mayfield released a disco song called "Future Shock," later covered in an electro version by Herbie Hancock.<ref nameUSNews/> Science fiction author John Brunner wrote "The Shockwave Rider," from the concept of "future shock."<ref nameUSNews/> The nightclub Toffler, in Rotterdam, is named after him. In the song "Victoria" by The Exponents, the protagonist's daily routine and cultural interests are described: "She's up in time to watch the soap operas, reads Cosmopolitan and Alvin Toffler". Critical assessment {{NPOV\|date=February 2025}} Accenture, the management consultancy firm, identified Toffler in 2002 as being among the most influential voices in business leaders, along with Bill Gates and Peter Drucker.<ref nameAccenture>{{cite web\|titleAccenture Study Yields Top 50 'Business Intellectuals' Ranking of Top Thinkers and Writers on Management Topics \|urlhttp://newsroom.accenture.com/article_display.cfm?article_id3898 \|publisherAccenture \|access-dateJanuary 7, 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060315033017/http://www.accenture.com/xd/xd.asp?itenWeb&xd_dyn%2Fdynamicpressrelease_487.xml \|archive-dateMarch 15, 2006 \|dateMay 22, 2002 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Toffler has also been described in a Financial Times interview as the "world's most famous futurologist".<ref name"ft">{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/af33b982-2dbd-11db-93ad-0000779e2340.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/af33b982-2dbd-11db-93ad-0000779e2340.html \|archive-dateDecember 10, 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive\|titleLunch with the FT: He has seen the future\|workFinancial Times\|dateAugust 18, 2006}}</ref> In 2006, the ''People's Daily'' classed him among the 50 foreigners who shaped modern China,<ref name"china501" /><ref name"china502" /> which one U.S. newspaper notes made him a "guru of sorts to world statesmen."<ref nameDenver/> Chinese Premier and General Secretary Zhao Ziyang was greatly influenced by Toffler.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastGewirtz\|firstJulian\|date2019\|titleThe Futurists of Beijing: Alvin Toffler, Zhao Ziyang, and China's "New Technological Revolution," 1979–1991\|journalThe Journal of Asian Studies\|languageen\|volume78\|issue1\|pages115–140\|doi10.1017/S0021911818002619\|issn0021-9118\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> He convened conferences to discuss The Third Wave in the early 1980s, and in 1985 the book was the No. 2 best seller in China.<ref name=nytobit/> Author Mark Satin characterizes Toffler as an important early influence on radical centrist political thought.<ref>Satin, Mark (2004). Radical Middle: The Politics We Need Now. Westview Press and Basic Books, p.&nbsp;30. {{ISBN\|978-0-8133-4190-3}}. </ref> Newt Gingrich became close to the Tofflers in the 1970s and said The Third Wave had immensely influenced his own thinking and was "one of the great seminal works of our time."<ref namenytobit/>Selected awardsToffler has received several prestigious prizes and awards, including the McKinsey Foundation Book Award for Contributions to Management Literature, Officier de L'Ordre des Arts et Lettres, and appointments, including Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the International Institute for Strategic Studies.<ref name"MI"/> In 2006, Alvin and Heidi Toffler were recipients of Brown University's Independent Award.<ref namebirthday>{{cite news\| url http://westport.dailyvoice.com/neighbors/happy-birthday-to-reddings-alvin-toffler/405405/ \| titleHappy Birthday To Redding's Alvin Toffler!\| work Westport Daily Voice\| locationWeston, Connecticut\| date October 4, 2013\| access-dateMay 4, 2016}}</ref>Personal lifeToffler was married to Heidi Toffler (born Adelaide Elizabeth Farrell), also a writer and futurist. They lived in the Bel Air section of Los Angeles, California, and previously lived in Redding, Connecticut.<ref namebirthday /> The couple's only child, Karen Toffler (1954–2000), died at age 46 after more than a decade suffering from Guillain–Barré syndrome.<ref>{{cite news\|titlePaid Notice: Deaths Toeffler, Karen\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2000/07/11/classified/paid-notice-deaths-toffler-karen.html\|newspaperNew York Times\|dateJuly 11, 2000}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.flickr.com/photos/urbanphotos/2415309182/\|titleKaren Toffler – 1985\|workFlickr.com\|dateAugust 3, 2005}}</ref> Alvin Toffler died in his sleep on June 27, 2016, at his home in Los Angeles.<ref namewashpost>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/alvin-toffler-author-of-best-selling-future-shock-and-the-third-wave-dies-at-87/2016/06/29/0d63748c-3e09-11e6-80bc-d06711fd2125_story.html "Alvin Toffler, author of best-selling 'Future Shock' and 'The Third Wave,' dies at 87], Washington Post, June 29, 2016</ref> No cause of death was given.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.latimes.com/local/obituaries/la-me-alvin-toffler-20160629-snap-story.html \|titleAlvin Toffler, author of 1970 bestseller 'Future Shock,' dies at 87 \|workLos Angeles Times \|authorJill Leovy \|dateJune 29, 2016 \|access-dateJune 30, 2016}}</ref> He is buried at Westwood Memorial Park.Bibliography Alvin Toffler co-wrote his books with his wife Heidi. * The Culture Consumers (1964) St. Martin's Press, {{ISBN\|1-199-15481-4}} * The Schoolhouse in the City (1968) Praeger (editors), {{ISBN\|0-275-67145-3}} * Future Shock (1970) Bantam Books, {{ISBN\|0-553-27737-5}} * The Futurists (1972) Random House (editors), {{ISBN\|0-394-31713-0}} * Learning for Tomorrow (1974) Random House (editors), {{ISBN\|0-394-71980-8}} * The Eco-Spasm Report (1975) Bantam Books, {{ISBN\|0-553-14474-X}} * The Third Wave (1980) Bantam Books, {{ISBN\|0-553-24698-4}} * Previews & Premises (1983) William Morrow & Co, {{ISBN\|0-688-01910-2}} * The Adaptive Corporation (1985) McGraw-Hill, {{ISBN\|0-553-25383-2}} * Powershift: Knowledge, Wealth and Violence at the Edge of the 21st Century (1990) Bantam Books, {{ISBN\|0-553-29215-3}} * War and Anti-War (1993) Warner Books, {{ISBN\|0-446-60259-0}} * Creating a New Civilization (1995) Turner Pub, {{ISBN\|1-57036-224-6}} * Revolutionary Wealth (2006) Knopf, {{ISBN\|0-375-40174-1}} See also * Daniel Bell * Norman Swan * Human nature * John Naisbitt References {{Reflist\|30em\|refs<ref name"bookref1">{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlNllAAAAMAAJ&q%22Adelaide+Elizabeth+Farrell%22\|titleWho's who in U.S. Writers, Editors & Poets\|workgoogle.ca\|last1Johnson\|first1Curt\|year1988\|publisherDecember Press \|isbn9780913204214}}</ref> <ref namechina501>{{cite web\|title50 foreigners shaping China's modern development \|urlhttp://english.people.com.cn/200608/03/eng20060803_289510.html \|workPeople's Daily \|dateAugust 3, 2006\| access-dateSeptember 4, 2015 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140108000052/http://english.people.com.cn/200608/03/eng20060803_289510.html \|archive-date=January 8, 2014 }}</ref> <ref namechina502>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.alvintoffler.net/?fachina_top50\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061220232410/http://www.alvintoffler.net/?fachina_top50\|titlealvin + heidi toffler (futurists) :: Bios \|archive-dateDecember 20, 2006 \|url-statususurped\|work=alvintoffler.net}}</ref> }} External links {{Wikiquote}} {{Commons category}} * {{usurped\|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160427222806/http://www.alvintoffler.net/]}}&nbsp;– official Alvin Toffler site * [http://www.toffler.com Toffler Associates] * [http://www.learnoutloud.com/Catalog/Business/Economics/Americas-Revolutionary-Wealth-and-its-Impact-Around-the-World/26431 Interview with Alvin Toffler] by the World Affairs Council * {{YouTube\|8DWj-G-VZEQ\|Alvin Toffler interview on The Gregory Mantell Show}} * [http://www.booktalk.org/future-shock-by-alvin-toffler-f47.html Discuss Alvin Toffler's Future Shock with other readers], BookTalk.org * {{OL author}} * {{C-SPAN\|38737}} [http://event.tofflerassociates.com/p/1 Future Shock Forum 2018] [https://findingaids.library.columbia.edu/ead/nnc-rb/ldpd_4078547 Finding aid to the Alvin and Heidi Toffler papers at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Toffler, Alvin}} Category:1928 births Category:2016 deaths Category:American people of Polish-Jewish descent Category:American technology writers Category:American futurologists Category:Burials at Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery Category:Jewish American non-fiction writers Category:People from Ridgefield, Connecticut Category:Writers from Connecticut Category:Writers from Brooklyn Category:20th-century American non-fiction writers Category:21st-century American non-fiction writers Category:American transhumanists Category:New York University alumni Category:Singularitarians Category:People from Redding, Connecticut Category:20th-century American male writers Category:American male non-fiction writers Category:Jewish American journalists Category:People from Bel Air, Los Angeles Category:21st-century American male writers Category:21st-century American Jews	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvin_Toffler	2025-04-05T18:25:26.752414
931	The Amazing Spider-Man	{{short description\|Comic book series}} {{About\|the comic book series}} {{Technical reasons\|The Amazing Spider-Man #129\|issue #129\|The Amazing Spider-Man 129}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=April 2023}} {{Infobox comic book title\| <!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Comics--> \| image = AmazingSpider-Man1.jpg \| caption =The Amazing Spider-Man No. 1 (March 1963)<br>Cover art by Jack Kirby and Steve Ditko. \| schedule = Monthly \| ongoing = y \| Superhero = y \| publisher = {{collapsible list\|Non-Pereil Publishing Group (#1–67)<br>Perfect Film & Chemical Corp. (#68–69)<br>Magazine Management Co. (#70–118)<br>Marvel Comics (#119–present)}} \| date = {{collapsible list\|(vol. 1)<br>March 1963 – November 1998<br>(vol. 2)<br>January 1999 – November 2003<br>(vol. 1 continued)<br>December 2003 – February 2014<br>(vol. 3)<br>June 2014 – October 2015<br>(vol. 4)<br>December 2015 – September 2017<br>(vol. 5)<br>July 2018 – March 2022<br>(vol. 6)<br>April 2022–present}} \| issues = {{collapsible list\|(vol. 1)<br>442 (#1–441 plus #–1) and 31 Annuals<br>(vol. 2)<br>58 and 3 Annuals <br>(vol. 1 cont.)<br>222 (#500–700 plus issues #654.1, 679.1, 699.1, 700.1, 700.2, 700.3, 700.4, and 700.5, #789–801) and 6 Annuals<br>(vol. 3)<br>28 (#1–20.1 plus issues #1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 16.1, 17.1, 18.1, 19.1, and 20.1) and 1 Annual<br>(vol. 4)<br>38 (#1–32 plus issues #1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, and 1.6) and 1 Annual <br>(vol. 5)<br>104 (#1–93 plus issues #16.HU, 18.HU, 19.HU, 20.HU, 50.LR, 51.LR, 52.LR, 78.BEY, 80.BEY, 88.BEY, 92.1) and 1 Annual<br>(vol. 6)<br>60 (#1–62) (as of January 2025 cover date)<!--use cover date rather than on sale date-->}} \| main_char_team = Spider-Man \| writers = {{collapsible list\|(vol. 1)<br>Stan Lee (scripts) and Steve Ditko (co-plots, later plots) (1–38), Stan Lee (39–100, 105–110, 116–118, Annual #1-5, 18), Roy Thomas (101-104), Gerry Conway (111–149), Archie Goodwin (150, 181, Annual #11), Len Wein (151–180, Annual #10), Marv Wolfman (182–204, Annual #13), Dennis O'Neil (207–219, 221, 223, Annual #14–15), Roger Stern (206, 224–227, 229–252, Annual #15–17), Tom DeFalco (-1, 251–261, 263, 265, 268-269, 271–273, 276–285, 365, 375, 407–439, Annual #18, 22-24, 1996, 1998), Christopher Priest (284–288), Peter David (289), Ann Nocenti (295), David Michelinie (205, 290–292, 296–352, 359–388, Annual #21-28), J. M. DeMatteis (223, 293-294, 368-370, 373, 389–406), John Byrne (440–441)<br>(vol. 2)<br>Howard Mackie (1–29), John Byrne (1, 13-14), J. Michael Straczynski, (30–58)<br>(vol. 1 continued)<br>J. Michael Straczynski (500–545), Marc Guggenheim<br>Zeb Wells<br>Bob Gale (546, 552–554, 558, 562–564, 600, 647)<br>Dan Slott<br>Roger Stern<br>Joe Kelly<br>Fred Van Lente<br>Mark Waid<br>(vol. 3)<br>Dan Slott<br>Gerry Conway<br>(vol. 4)<br>Dan Slott<br>Christos Gage<br>(vol. 5)<br>Nick Spencer<br>(vol. 6)<br>Zeb Wells<br>Joe Kelly (19–20)}} \| artists \| editors \| pencillers = {{collapsible list\|(vol. 1)<br>Steve Ditko<br>John Romita Sr.<br>Gil Kane<br>Ross Andru<br>Keith Pollard<br>John Romita Jr.<br>Ron Frenz<br>Todd McFarlane<br>Erik Larsen<br>Mark Bagley<br>(vol. 2)<br>John Byrne<br>John Romita Jr.<br>(vol. 1 continued)<br>Mike Deodato<br>Ron Garney<br>Salvador Larroca<br>Chris Bachalo<br>Mike McKone<br>Phil Jimenez<br>Lee Weeks<br>Barry Kitson<br>Paulo Siqueira<br>Paul Azaceta<br>(vol. 3)<br>Ramon Perez<br>Humberto Ramos<br>Giuseppe Camuncoli<br>Olivier Coipel<br>Carlo Barberi<br>(vol. 4)<br>Giuseppe Camuncoli<br>Stuart Immonen<br>Simone Bianchi<br>(vol. 5)<br>Ryan Ottley<br>Humberto Ramos<br>Michele Bandini<br>Chris Bachalo<br>(vol. 6)<br>John Romita Jr.}} \| inkers = {{collapsible list\|(vol. 1)<br>Mike Esposito<br>Frank Giacoia<br>Bob McLeod<br>(vol. 2)<br>Scott Hanna<br>(vol. 1 continued)<br>Joe Pimentel<br>Bill Reinhold<br>Tim Townsend<br>Andy Lanning<br>Klaus Janson<br>Mark Farmer<br>(vol. 3)<br>Victor Olazaba<br>Cam Smith<br>(vol. 4)<br>Cam Smith<br>(vol. 5)<br>Victor Olazaba<br>(vol. 6)<br>Scott Hanna}} \| colorists \| creators Stan Lee<br>Steve Ditko \| subcat = Spider-Man \| sort Amazing SpiderMan }} The Amazing Spider-Man is an ongoing American superhero comic book series featuring the Marvel Comics superhero Spider-Man as its title character and main protagonist. Being in the mainstream continuity of the franchise, it was the character's first title, launching seven months after his introduction in the final issue of Amazing Fantasy. The series began publication with a March 1963 cover date and has been published nearly continuously to date over six volumes with only one significant interruption. Issues of the title currently feature an issue number within its sixth volume, as well as a "legacy" number reflecting the issue's overall number across all Amazing Spider-Man volumes. The title reached 900 issues in 2022. The series began as a bimonthly periodical before being increased to monthly after four issues. It was the character's sole monthly headlining title until Peter Parker, the Spectacular Spider-Man would launch in 1976.<ref>{{Cite web \|titlePeter Parker, the Spectacular Spider-Man (1976 - 1998) {{!}} Comic Series {{!}} Marvel \|urlhttps://www.marvel.com/comics/series/2271/peter_parker,_the_spectacular_spider-man_(1976_-_1998) \|access-date2024-06-13 \|websitewww.marvel.com \|languageen}}</ref> After 441 issues, The Amazing Spider-Man was restarted in 1999 as issue No. 1 of Volume 2. It ran for 58 issues before reverting to the title's overall issue number with #500 in 2003. The series ran essentially continuously over the first two volumes from 1963 until its landmark 700th issue at the end of 2012 when it was replaced by The Superior Spider-Man as part of the Marvel NOW! relaunch of Marvel's comic lines.<ref name"SuperiorSM">{{cite web \|urlhttp://marvel.com/news/story/19523/marvel_now_qa_superior_spider-man \|titleMarvel NOW! Q&A: Superior Spider-Man \|lastMorse \|firstBen \|dateOctober 10, 2012 \|publisherMarvel Comics \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121225081932/http://marvel.com/news/story/19523/marvel_now_qa_superior_spider-man#ixzz28x0lcuK0 \|archive-dateDecember 25, 2012 \|url-statuslive \|access-dateOctober 10, 2012 \|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The title was occasionally published biweekly during the first two volumes, and was published three times a month from 2008 to 2010. After the relaunch of Action Comics and Detective Comics, The Amazing Spider-Man briefly became the highest-numbered active American comic book. The Amazing Spider-Man returned with volume 3 in April 2014 following the conclusion of The Superior Spider-Man story arc after 31 issues. In late 2015, the series was relaunched with a fourth volume following the 2015 Secret Wars event. After 45 years, the volume was once again relaunched as part of Marvel Legacy, returning to the overall "legacy" numbering with issue No. 789 in late 2017. Less than a year later, the series was relaunched again with a fifth volume as part of Marvel's Fresh Start. For the first time, although the issue numbers were again restarted from #1, the issues also bore the overall "legacy" issue number. A sixth volume commenced in April 2022 to celebrate Spider-Man's 60th anniversary. Since the second volume, the title has had various release schedules, including monthly and bi-weekly, among others. Publication history Writer-editor Stan Lee and artist/co-plotter Steve Ditko created the character of Spider-Man,<ref name"DeFalco87">{{cite book \|lastDeFalco \|firstTom \|author-linkTom DeFalco \|editor-lastGilbert \|editor-firstLaura \|chapter1960s \|titleMarvel Chronicle A Year by Year History \|publisherDorling Kindersley \|date2008 \|locationLondon, United Kingdom \|page87 \|isbn978-0756641238 \|quoteDeciding that his new character would have spider-like powers, [Stan] Lee commissioned Jack Kirby to work on the first story. Unfortunately, Kirby's version of Spider-Man's alter ego Peter Parker proved too heroic, handsome, and muscular for Lee's everyman hero. Lee turned to Steve Ditko, the regular artist on Amazing Adult Fantasy, who designed a skinny, awkward teenager with glasses.}}</ref> and the pair produced 38 issues from March 1963 to July 1966. Ditko left after the 38th issue, while Lee remained as writer until issue 100. Since then, many writers and artists have taken over the monthly comic through the years, chronicling the adventures of Marvel's most identifiable hero. The Amazing Spider-Man has been the character's flagship series for his first fifty years in publication, and was the only monthly series to star Spider-Man until Peter Parker, The Spectacular Spider-Man, in 1976, although 1972 saw the debut of Marvel Team-Up, with the vast majority of issues featuring Spider-Man along with a rotating cast of other Marvel characters. Most of the major characters and villains of the Spider-Man saga have been introduced in Amazing, and with few exceptions, it is where most key events in the character's history have occurred. The title was published continuously until No. 441 (Nov. 1998)<ref>{{gcdb series\|id1570\|title The Amazing Spider-Man}}</ref> when Marvel Comics relaunched it as vol. 2 No. 1 (Jan. 1999),<ref>{{gcdb series\|id7794\|title The Amazing Spider-Man vol. 2}}</ref> but on Spider-Man's 40th anniversary, this new title reverted to using the numbering of the original series, beginning again with issue No. 500 (Dec. 2003) and lasting until the final issue, No. 700 (Feb. 2013).<ref>{{gcdb series\|id11288\|title The Amazing Spider-Man (continuation of volume 1)}}</ref> <!-- {\| class="wikitable" ! Vol. 1 ! Vol. 2 ! Years \|- \| 1-49 \| \| 1963–1967 \|- \| 50-99 \| \| 1967–1971 \|- \| 100-149 \| \| 1971–1975 \|- \| 150-199 \| \| 1975–1979 \|- \| 200-249 \| \| 1980-1984 \|- \| 250-299 \| \| 1984-1988 \|- \| 300-349 \| \| 1988-1991 \|- \| 350–399 \| \| 1991–1995 \|- \| 401–441 \| \| 1995–1998 \|- \| (442–499) \| 1–58 \| 1999–2003 \|- \| \| 500–549 \| 2003–2008 \|- \| \| 550–599 \| 2008–2009 \|- \| \| 600–649 \| 2009–2011 \|- \| \| 650–700 \| 2011–2012\|} --> 1960s Due to strong sales on the character's first appearance in Amazing Fantasy No. 15, Spider-Man was given his own ongoing series in March 1963.<ref>DeFalco "1960s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 91: "Thanks to a flood of fan mail, Spider-Man was awarded his own title six months after his first appearance. Amazing Spider-Man began as a semi-monthly title, but was quickly promoted to a monthly."</ref> The initial years of the series, under Lee and Ditko, chronicled Spider-Man's nascent career as a masked super-human vigilante with his civilian life as hard-luck yet perpetually good-humored and well-meaning teenager Peter Parker. Peter balanced his career as Spider-Man with his job as a freelance photographer for The Daily Bugle under the bombastic editor-publisher J. Jonah Jameson to support himself and his frail Aunt May. At the same time, Peter dealt with public hostility towards Spider-Man and the antagonism of his classmates Flash Thompson and Liz Allan at Midtown High School, while embarking on a tentative, ill-fated romance with Jameson's secretary, Betty Brant. By focusing on Parker's everyday problems, Lee and Ditko created a groundbreakingly flawed, self-doubting superhero, and the first major teenaged superhero to be a protagonist and not a sidekick. Ditko's quirky art provided a stark contrast to the more cleanly dynamic stylings of Marvel's most prominent artist, Jack Kirby,<ref name="DeFalco87" /> and combined with the humor and pathos of Lee's writing to lay the foundation for what became an enduring mythos. Most of Spider-Man's key villains and supporting characters were introduced during this time. Issue No. 1 (Mar. 1963) featured the first appearances of J. Jonah Jameson<ref name"DeFalco91">DeFalco "1960s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 91</ref> and his astronaut son John Jameson,<ref>{{cite comic \|writerLee, Stan \|pencillerDitko, Steve \|inkerDitko Steve \|storySpider-Man \|titleThe Amazing Spider-Man \|issue1 \|dateMarch 1963}}</ref> and the supervillain the Chameleon.<ref name"DeFalco91" /> It included the hero's first encounter with the superhero team the Fantastic Four. Issue No. 2 (May 1963) featured the first appearance of the Vulture<ref>DeFalco "1960s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 92: "Introduced in the lead story of The Amazing Spider-Man No. 2 and created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko, the Vulture was the first in a long line of animal-inspired super-villains that were destined to battle everyone's favorite web-slinger."</ref> and the Tinkerer<ref>{{cite book \|titleHCA Heritage Comics Auction Catalog \|publisherHeritage Capital Corporation \|author1Dowell, Gary \|author2Holman, Greg \|author3Halperin, James L. \|dateOctober 2006 \|isbn9781599670935 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idOCd_8lwvycYC&pgPA42}}</ref> as well as the beginning of Parker's freelance photography career at the newspaper The Daily Bugle.<ref>{{cite comic \|writerLee, Stan \|pencillerDitko, Steve \|inkerDitko, Steve \|storyDuel to the Death with the Vulture! \|titleThe Amazing Spider-Man \|issue2 \|dateMay 1963}}</ref> The Lee-Ditko era continued to usher in a significant number of villains and supporting characters, including Doctor Octopus in No. 3 (July 1963);<ref>DeFalco "1960s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 93: "Dr. Octopus shared many traits with Peter Parker. They were both shy, both interested in science, and both had trouble relating to women...Otto Octavius even looked like a grown up Peter Parker. Lee and Ditko intended Otto to be the man Peter might have become if he hadn't been raised with a sense of responsibility"</ref><ref>{{cite comic \|writerLee, Stan \|pencillerDitko, Steve \|inkerDitko, Steve \|storySpider-Man Versus Doctor Octopus \|titleThe Amazing Spider-Man \|issue3 \|dateJuly 1963}}</ref> the Sandman and Betty Brant in No. 4 (Sept. 1963);<ref>{{cite comic \|writerLee, Stan \|pencillerDitko, Steve \|inkerDitko, Steve \|storyNothing Can Stop...The Sandman! \|titleThe Amazing Spider-Man \|issue4 \|dateSeptember 1963}}</ref> the Lizard in No. 6 (Nov. 1963);<ref>DeFalco "1960s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 95</ref><ref>{{cite comic \|writerLee, Stan \|pencillerDitko, Steve \|inkerDitko, Steve \|storyFace-to-Face With...the Lizard! \|titleThe Amazing Spider-Man \|issue6 \|dateNovember 1963}}</ref> Living Brain in No. 8 (Jan. 1964); Electro in No. 9 (Mar. 1964);<ref>DeFalco "1960s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 98</ref><ref>{{cite comic \|writerLee, Stan \|pencillerDitko, Steve \|inkerDitko, Steve \|storyThe Man Called Electro! \|titleThe Amazing Spider-Man \|issue9 \|dateFebruary 1964}}</ref> Mysterio in No. 13 (June 1964);<ref>{{cite comic \|writerLee, Stan \|pencillerDitko, Steve \|inkerDitko, Steve \|storyThe Menace of... Mysterio! \|titleThe Amazing Spider-Man \|issue13 \|dateJune 1964}}</ref> the Green Goblin in No. 14 (July 1964);<ref>DeFalco "1960s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 101: "When the Green Goblin soared into the webhead's life, Stan Lee and Steve Ditko didn't bother to discuss his secret identity. They just knew they had an interesting character to add to Spider-Man's growing gallery of villains."</ref><ref>{{cite comic \|writerLee, Stan \|pencillerDitko, Steve \|inkerDitko, Steve \|storyThe Grotesque Adventure of the Green Goblin! \|titleThe Amazing Spider-Man \|issue14 \|dateJuly 1964}}</ref> Kraven The Hunter in No. 15 (Aug. 1964);<ref>{{cite comic \|writerLee, Stan \|pencillerDitko, Steve \|inkerDitko, Steve \|storyKraven the Hunter! \|titleThe Amazing Spider-Man \|issue15 \|dateAugust 1964}}</ref> reporter Ned Leeds in No. 18 (Nov. 1964);<ref>{{cite comic \|writerLee, Stan \|pencillerDitko, Steve \|inkerDitko, Steve \|storyThe End of Spider-Man! \|titleThe Amazing Spider-Man \|issue18 \|dateNovember 1964}}</ref> and the Scorpion in No. 20 (Jan. 1965).<ref>{{cite comic \|writerLee, Stan \|pencillerDitko, Steve \|inkerDitko, Steve \|storyThe Coming of the Scorpion! \|titleThe Amazing Spider-Man \|issue20 \|dateJanuary 1965}}</ref> The Molten Man was introduced in No. 28 (Sept. 1965) which also featured Parker's graduation from high school.<ref>{{cite comic \|writerLee, Stan \|pencillerDitko, Steve \|inkerDitko, Steve \|storyThe Menace of the Molten Man! \|titleThe Amazing Spider-Man \|issue28 \|dateSeptember 1965}}</ref> Peter began attending Empire State University in No. 31 (Dec. 1965), which featured the first appearances of friends and classmates Gwen Stacy<ref>DeFalco "1960s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 111: "Gwen Stacy, the platinum blonde ex-beauty queen of Standard High, met Peter Parker on his first day in college in this issue."</ref> and Harry Osborn.<ref>{{cite comic \|writerLee, Stan \|pencillerDitko, Steve \|inkerDitko, Steve \|storyIf This Be My Destiny! \|titleThe Amazing Spider-Man \|issue31 \|date=December 1965}}</ref> Harry's father, Norman Osborn first appeared in No. 23 (April 1965) as a member of Jameson's country club but was not named nor revealed as Harry's father until No. 37 (June 1966). One of the most celebrated issues of the Lee-Ditko run is No. 33 (Feb. 1966), the third part of the story arc "If This Be My Destiny...!", which features the dramatic scene of Spider-Man, through force of will and thoughts of family, escaping from being pinned by heavy machinery. Comics historian Les Daniels noted that "Steve Ditko squeezes every ounce of anguish out of Spider-Man's predicament, complete with visions of the uncle he failed and the aunt he has sworn to save."<ref nameDanielsMarvel>{{Cite book \|lastDaniels \|firstLes \|author-linkLes Daniels \|titleMarvel: Five Fabulous Decades of the World's Greatest Comics \|publisherHarry N. Abrams \|date1991 \|locationNew York City \|page129 \|isbn9780810938212}}</ref> Peter David observed that "After his origin, this two-page sequence from Amazing Spider-Man No. 33 is perhaps the best-loved sequence from the Stan Lee/Steve Ditko era."<ref>{{cite book \|last1David \|first1Peter \|author-linkPeter David \|last2Greenberger \|first2Robert \|author2-linkRobert Greenberger \|titleThe Spider-Man Vault: A Museum-in-a-Book with Rare Collectibles Spun from Marvel's Web \|publisherRunning Press \|date2010 \|locationPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania \|page[https://archive.org/details/sinatrahollywood0000knig/page/29 29] \|isbn978-0762437726 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/sinatrahollywood0000knig/page/29}}</ref> Steve Saffel stated the "full page Ditko image from The Amazing Spider-Man No. 33 is one of the most powerful ever to appear in the series and influenced writers and artists for many years to come."<ref namesaffel>{{cite book \|lastSaffel \|firstSteve \|titleSpider-Man the Icon: The Life and Times of a Pop Culture Phenomenon \|publisherTitan Books \|date2007 \|locationLondon, United Kingdom \|isbn978-1-84576-324-4 \|chapterA Legend Is Born \|page22}}</ref> and Matthew K. Manning wrote that "Ditko's illustrations for the first few pages of this Lee story included what would become one of the most iconic scenes in Spider-Man's history."<ref>{{cite book \|lastManning \|firstMatthew K. \|editor-lastGilbert \|editor-firstLaura \|chapter1960s \|titleSpider-Man Chronicle Celebrating 50 Years of Web-Slinging \|publisherDorling Kindersley \|date2012 \|locationLondon, United Kingdom \|page34 \|isbn978-0756692360}}</ref> The story was chosen as No. 15 in the 100 Greatest Marvels of All Time poll of Marvel's readers in 2001. Editor Robert Greenberger wrote in his introduction to the story that "These first five pages are a modern-day equivalent to Shakespeare as Parker's soliloquy sets the stage for his next action. And with dramatic pacing and storytelling, Ditko delivers one of the great sequences in all comics."<ref>{{cite book \|editor-lastGreenberger \|editor-firstRobert \|title100 Greatest Marvels of All Time \|publisherMarvel Comics \|dateDecember 2001 \|locationNew York City \|page=67}}</ref> Although credited only as artist for most of his run, Ditko would eventually plot the stories as well as draw them, leaving Lee to script the dialogue. A rift between Ditko and Lee developed, and the two men were not on speaking terms long before Ditko completed his last issue, The Amazing Spider-Man No. 38 (July 1966). The exact reasons for the Ditko-Lee split have never been fully explained.<ref>DeFalco "1960s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 117: "To this day, no one really knows why Ditko quit. Bullpen sources reported he was unhappy with the way Lee scripted some of his plots, using a tongue-in-cheek approach to stories Ditko wanted handled seriously."</ref> Spider-Man successor artist John Romita Sr., in a 2010 deposition, recalled that Lee and Ditko "ended up not being able to work together because they disagreed on almost everything, cultural, social, historically, everything, they disagreed on characters..."<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://docs.google.com/viewer?av&pidexplorer&chrometrue&srcid0B_lZovnpi13JNWQ5MDJmOTgtZDMzYy00MzI3LTllYjctNmM0ZWE4NjgyOWEx&hlen_US \|titleConfidential Videotaped Deposition of John V. Romita \|publisherUnited States District Court, Southern District of New York: "Marvel Worldwide, Inc., et al., vs. Lisa R. Kirby, et al." \|page45 \|locationGarden City, New York \|date=October 21, 2010}}</ref> In successor penciler Romita Sr.'s first issue, No. 39 (Aug. 1966), nemesis the Green Goblin discovers Spider-Man's secret identity and reveals his own to the captive hero. Romita's Spider-Man – more polished and heroic-looking than Ditko's – became the model for two decades. The Lee-Romita era saw the introduction of such characters as Daily Bugle managing editor Robbie Robertson in No. 52 (Sept. 1967) and NYPD Captain George Stacy, father of Parker's girlfriend Gwen Stacy, in No. 56 (Jan. 1968). The most important supporting character to be introduced during the Romita era was Mary Jane Watson, who made her first full appearance in No. 42 (Nov. 1966),<ref>DeFalco "1960s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 119: "After teasing the readers for more than two years, Stan Lee finally allowed Peter Parker to meet Mary Jane Watson."</ref> although she first appeared in No. 25 (June 1965) with her face obscured and had been mentioned since No. 15 (Aug. 1964). Peter David wrote in 2010 that Romita "made the definitive statement of his arrival by pulling Mary Jane out from behind the oversized potted plant [that blocked the reader's view of her face in issue no. 25] and placing her on panel in what would instantly become an iconic moment."<ref>David and Greenberger, p. 38</ref> Romita has stated that in designing Mary Jane, he "used Ann-Margret from the movie Bye Bye Birdie as a guide, using her coloring, the shape of her face, her red hair and her form-fitting short skirts."<ref>Saffel "A Legend is Born", p. 27</ref> Lee and Romita toned down the prevalent sense of antagonism in Parker's world by improving Parker's relationship with the supporting characters and having stories focused as much on the social and college lives of the characters as they did on Spider-Man's adventures. The stories became more topical,<ref>Manning "1960s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 46: "Stan Lee tackled the issues of the day again when, with artists John Romita and Jim Mooney, he dealt with social unrest at Empire State University."</ref> addressing issues such as civil rights, racism, prisoners' rights, the Vietnam War, and political elections. Issue No. 50 (June 1967) introduced the highly enduring criminal mastermind the Kingpin,<ref>DeFalco "1960s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 122: "Stan Lee wanted to create a new kind of crime boss. Someone who treated crime as if it were a business...He pitched this idea to artist John Romita and it was Wilson Fisk who emerged in The Amazing Spider-Man #50."</ref><ref>{{cite comic \|writerLee, Stan \|pencillerRomita, John Sr. \|inkerEsposito, Mike \|storySpider-Man No More! \|titleThe Amazing Spider-Man \|issue50 \|dateJuly 1967}}</ref> who would become a major force as well in the superhero series Daredevil. Other notable first appearances in the Lee-Romita era include the Rhino in No. 41 (Oct. 1966),<ref>DeFalco "1960s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 119: "The first original super-villain produced by the new Spider-Man team of Stan Lee and John Romita was the Rhino."</ref><ref>{{cite comic \|writerLee, Stan \|pencillerRomita, John Sr. \|inkerEsposito, Mike \|storyThe Horns of the Rhino! \|titleThe Amazing Spider-Man \|issue41 \|dateOctober 1966}}</ref> the Shocker in No. 46 (Mar. 1967),<ref>DeFalco "1960s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 121</ref><ref>{{cite comic \|writerLee, Stan \|pencillerRomita, John Sr. \|inkerRomita, John Sr. \|storyThe Sinister Shocker! \|titleThe Amazing Spider-Man \|issue46 \|dateMarch 1967}}</ref> the Prowler in No. 78 (Nov. 1969),<ref>{{cite comic \|writerLee, Stan \|pencillerBuscema, John \|inkerMooney, Jim \|storyThe Night of the Prowler! \|titleThe Amazing Spider-Man \|issue78 \|dateNovember 1969}}</ref> and the Kingpin's son, Richard Fisk, in No. 83 (Apr. 1970).<ref>{{cite comic \|writerLee, Stan \|pencillerRomita, John Sr. \|inkerEsposito, Mike \|storyThe Schemer! \|titleThe Amazing Spider-Man \|issue83 \|dateApril 1970}}</ref>1970s <!-- Image with inadequate rationale removed: --> Several spin-off series debuted in the 1970s: Marvel Team-Up in 1972,<ref>Sanderson, Peter "1970s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 155: "Marvel Team-Up No. 1 inaugurated a new series in which Spider-Man teamed with a different hero in each issue.""</ref> and The Spectacular Spider-Man in 1976.<ref>Sanderson "1970s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 177: "Spider-Man already starred in two monthly series: The Amazing Spider-Man and Marvel Team-Up. Now Marvel added a third, Peter Parker, The Spectacular Spider-Man, initially written by Gerry Conway with art by Sal Buscema and Mike Esposito."</ref> A short-lived series titled Giant-Size Spider-Man began in July 1974 and ran six issues through 1975.<ref>{{gcdb series\|id2172\|title Giant-Size Spider-Man}}</ref> Spidey Super Stories, a series aimed at children ages 6–10, ran for 57 issues from October 1974 through 1982.<ref>{{gcdb series\|id2188\|title Spidey Super Stories}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|titleYoung Adult Literature in the Seventies: A Selection of Readings \|lastGoodgion \|firstLaurel F. \|editorJana Varlejs \|date1978 \|locationLanham, Maryland \|publisherThe Scarecrow Press \|isbn0-8108-1134-0 \|page[https://archive.org/details/youngadultlitera0000unse/page/348 348] \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/youngadultlitera0000unse/page/348}}</ref> The flagship title's second decade took a grim turn with a story in #89-90 (Oct.-Nov. 1970) featuring the death of Captain George Stacy.<ref>Manning "1970s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 55: "Captain George Stacy had always believed in Spider-Man and had given him the benefit of the doubt whenever possible. So in Spider-Man's world, there was a good chance that he would be destined to die."</ref> This was the first Spider-Man story to be penciled by Gil Kane,<ref name"GCD-Kane">{{gcdb\|typecredit\|searchGil+Kane\|title Gil Kane}}</ref> who would alternate drawing duties with Romita for the next year-and-a-half and would draw several landmark issues. One such story took place in the controversial issues #96–98 (May–July 1971). Writer-editor Lee defied the Comics Code Authority with this story, in which Parker's friend Harry Osborn, was hospitalized after over-dosing on pills. Lee wrote this story upon a request from the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare for a story about the dangers of drugs. Citing its dictum against depicting drug use, even in an anti-drug context, the CCA refused to put its seal on these issues. With the approval of Marvel publisher Martin Goodman, Lee had the comics published without the seal. The comics sold well and Marvel won praise for its socially conscious efforts.<ref>Saffel "Bucking the Establishment, Marvel Style", p. 60: "The stories received widespread mainstream publicity, and Marvel was hailed for sticking to its guns."</ref> The CCA subsequently loosened the Code to permit negative depictions of drugs, among other new freedoms.<ref>Daniels, pp. 152 and 154: "As a result of Marvel's successful stand, the Comics Code had begun to look just a little foolish. Some of its more ridiculous restrictions were abandoned because of Lee's decision."</ref> "The Six Arms Saga" of #100–102 (Sept.–Nov. 1971) introduced Morbius, the Living Vampire. The second installment was the first Amazing Spider-Man story not written by co-creator Lee,<ref>Manning "1970s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 59: "In the first issue of The Amazing Spider-Man to be written by someone other than Stan Lee, Roy Thomas was faced with the mammoth task of not only filling the vaunted writer's shoes but also solving the bizarre cliffhanger from the last issue."</ref> with Roy Thomas taking over writing the book for several months before Lee returned to write #105–110 (Feb.-July 1972).<ref>Manning "1970s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 61: "Stan Lee had returned to The Amazing Spider-Man for a handful of issues after leaving following issue No. 100 (September 1971). With issue No. 110. Lee once again departed the title into which he had infused so much of his own personality over his near 10-year stint as regular writer."</ref> Lee, who was going on to become Marvel Comics' publisher, with Thomas becoming editor-in-chief, then turned writing duties over to 19-year-old Gerry Conway,<ref>Manning "1970s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 62: "[The Amazing Spider-Man #111] marked the dawning of a new era: writer Gerry Conway came on board as Stan Lee's replacement. Alongside artist John Romita, Conway started his run by picking up where Lee left off."</ref> who scripted the series through 1975. Romita penciled Conway's first half-dozen issues, which introduced the gangster Hammerhead in No. 113 (Oct. 1972). Kane then succeeded Romita as penciler,<ref name="GCD-Kane" /> although Romita would continue inking Kane for a time. Issue 121 (June 1973 by Conway-Kane-Romita) featured the death of Gwen Stacy at the hands of the Green Goblin in "The Night Gwen Stacy Died."<ref>Sanderson "1970s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 159: "In June [1973], Marvel embarked on a story that would have far-reaching effects. The Amazing Spider-Man artist John Romita Sr. suggested killing off Spider-Man's beloved Gwen Stacy to shake up the book's status quo."</ref><ref>Manning "1970s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 68: "This story by writer Gerry Conway and penciler Gil Kane would go down in history as one of the most memorable events of Spider-Man's life."</ref><ref>David and Greenberger p. 49: "The idea of beloved supporting characters meeting their deaths may be standard operating procedure now but in 1973 it was unprecedented...Gwen's death took villainy and victimhood to an entirely new level."</ref> Her demise and the Goblin's apparent death one issue later formed a story arc widely considered as the most defining in the history of Spider-Man.<ref>Saffel "Death and the Spider", p. 65: "Death struck again, with repercussions that would ripple through comics from that day forward."</ref> The aftermath of the story deepened both the characterization of Mary Jane Watson and her relationship with Parker. In 1973 Gil Kane was succeeded by Ross Andru, whose run lasted from issue #125 (Oct. 1973) to #185 (Oct. 1978).<ref>{{gcdb\|typecredit\|search Ross+Andru\|title= Ross Andru}}</ref> Issue#129 (Feb. 1974) introduced the Punisher,<ref>Manning "1970s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 72: "Writer Gerry Conway and artist Ross Andru introduced two major new characters to Spider-Man's world and the Marvel Universe in this self-contained issue. Not only would the vigilante known as the Punisher go on to be one of the most important and iconic Marvel creations of the 1970s, but his instigator, the Jackal, would become the next big threat in Spider-Man's life."</ref> who would become one of Marvel Comics' most popular characters. The Conway-Andru era featured the first appearances of the Man-Wolf in #124–125 (Sept.-Oct. 1973); the near-marriage of Doctor Octopus and Aunt May in #131 (Apr. 1974); Harry Osborn stepping into his father's role as the Green Goblin in #135–137 (Aug.-Oct.1974); and the original "Clone Saga", containing the introduction of Spider-Man's clone, in #147–149 (Aug.-Oct. 1975). Archie Goodwin and Gil Kane produced the title's 150th issue (Nov. 1975) before Len Wein became writer with issue No. 151.<ref>Manning "1970s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 85: "To signify the start of this new era Spider-Man's new regular chronicler writer Len Wein would come onboard with this issue."</ref> During Wein's tenure, Harry Osborn and Liz Allen dated and became engaged; J. Jonah Jameson was introduced to his eventual second wife, Marla Madison; and Aunt May suffered a heart attack. Wein's last story on Amazing was a five-issue arc in #176–180 (Jan.-May 1978) featuring a third Green Goblin (Harry Osborn's psychiatrist, Bart Hamilton). Marv Wolfman, Marvel's editor-in-chief from 1975 to 1976, succeeded Wein as writer and, in his first issue, #182 (July 1978), had Parker propose marriage to Watson, who refused in the following issue.<ref>Manning "1970s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 103: "As new regular writer Marv Wolfman took over the scripting duties from Len Wein and partnered with artist Ross Andru, Peter Parker decided to make a dramatic change in his personal life."</ref> Keith Pollard succeeded Andru as artist shortly afterward and, with Wolfman, introduced the likable rogue the Black Cat (Felicia Hardy) in #194 (July 1979).<ref>Manning "1970s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 107: "Spider-Man wasn't exactly sure what to think about his luck when he met a beautiful new thief on the prowl named the Black Cat, courtesy of a story by writer Marv Wolfman and artist Keith Pollard."</ref> As a love interest for Spider-Man, the Black Cat would go on to be an important supporting character for the better part of the next decade and remain a friend and occasional lover into the 2010s. 1980s and Klaus Janson.]] The Amazing Spider-Man #200 (Jan. 1980) featured the return and death of the burglar who killed Spider-Man's Uncle Ben.<ref>{{cite journal \|lastMartini \|firstFrank \|titleMarv Wolfman's Bicentennial Battles \|journalBack Issue! \|issue69 \|pages44–47 \|publisherTwoMorrows Publishing \|dateDecember 2013 \|locationRaleigh, North Carolina}}</ref> Writer Marv Wolfman and penciler Keith Pollard both left the title by mid-year, succeeded by Dennis O'Neil, a writer known for groundbreaking 1970s work at rival DC Comics,<ref>Manning "1980s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 115: "Acclaimed writer Denny O'Neil had returned to Marvel and...took over as the regular writer on The Amazing Spider-Man from issue No. 207 (August [1980]) until the end of 1981."</ref> and penciler John Romita Jr. O'Neil wrote two issues of The Amazing Spider-Man Annual which were both drawn by Frank Miller. The 1980 Annual featured a team-up with Doctor Strange<ref>Manning "1980s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 114: "Writer Denny O'Neil and artist Frank Miller...used their considerable talents in this rare collaboration that teamed two other legends – Dr. Strange and Spider-Man."</ref> while the 1981 Annual showcased a meeting with the Punisher.<ref>Manning "1980s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 120: "Writer Denny O'Neil teamed with artist Frank Miller to concoct a Spider-Man annual that played to both their strengths. Miller and O'Neil seemed to flourish in the gritty world of street crime so tackling a Spider/Punisher fight was a natural choice."</ref> Roger Stern, who had written nearly 20 issues of sister title The Spectacular Spider-Man, took over Amazing with #224 (Jan. 1982).<ref>Manning "1980s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 126: "Writer Roger Stern moved from the helm of Peter Parker, The Spectacular Spider-Man to sit behind the wheel as the new regular writer of The Amazing Spider-Man with this issue."</ref> During his two years on the title, Stern augmented the backgrounds of long-established Spider-Man villains and, with Romita Jr., created the mysterious supervillain the Hobgoblin in #238–239 (Mar.–Apr. 1983).<ref name"Vault68" /><ref>Manning "1980s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 133: "Writer Roger Stern and artists John Romita Jr. and John Romita Sr. introduced a new – and frighteningly sane – version of the [Green Goblin] concept with the debut of the Hobgoblin."</ref> Fans engaged with the mystery of the Hobgoblin's secret identity, which continued throughout #244–245 and 249–251 (Sept.-Oct. 1983 and Feb.-April 1984). One lasting change was the reintroduction of Mary Jane Watson as a more serious, mature woman who becomes Peter's confidante after she reveals that she knows his secret identity. Stern also wrote "The Kid Who Collects Spider-Man" in The Amazing Spider-Man #248 (Jan. 1984), a story which ranks among his most popular.<ref name"Vault68">David and Greenberger, pp. 68–69: "Writer Roger Stern is primarily remembered for two major contributions to the world of Peter Parker. One was a short piece entitled 'The Kid Who Collects Spider-Man'...[his] other major contribution was the introduction of the Hobgoblin."</ref><ref name"Cronin">{{cite web \|urlhttp://goodcomics.comicbookresources.com/2010/05/22/the-greatest-roger-stern-stories-ever-told/ \|titleThe Greatest Roger Stern Stories Ever Told! \|firstBrian \|lastCronin \|dateMay 10, 2010 \|websiteComic Book Resources \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111026034402/http://goodcomics.comicbookresources.com/2010/05/22/the-greatest-roger-stern-stories-ever-told/ \|archive-dateOctober 26, 2011 \|url-statuslive \|access-dateFebruary 20, 2012 \|quoteStern and guest-artist Ron Frenz tell the heartfelt tale of a little boy who might be Spider-Man's biggest fan. Spidey visits the boy and has a nice talk with him (and naturally, there is a twist to the tale). \|dfmdy-all}}</ref> By mid-1984, Tom DeFalco and Ron Frenz took over scripting and penciling. DeFalco helped establish Parker and Watson's mature relationship, laying the foundation for the characters' wedding in 1987. Notably, in #257 (Oct. 1984), Watson tells Parker that she knows he is Spider-Man, and in #259 (Dec. 1984), she reveals to Parker the extent of her troubled childhood. Other notable issues of the DeFalco-Frenz era include #252 (May 1984), the first appearance of Spider-Man's black costume, which the hero would wear almost exclusively for the next four years' worth of comics; the debut of criminal mastermind the Rose in #253 (June 1984); the revelation in #258 (Nov. 1984) that the black costume is a living being, a symbiote; and the introduction of the female mercenary Silver Sable in #265 (June 1985). DeFalco and Frenz were both removed from The Amazing Spider-Man in 1986 by editor Jim Owsley under acrimonious circumstances.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://lamerciepark.com/legacy/comics/spidey.html \|titleOswald: Why I Never Discuss Spider-Man \|firstChristopher J. \|lastPriest \|dateMay 2002 \|publisherDigitalPriest.com \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120722130102/http://lamerciepark.com/legacy/comics/spidey.html \|archive-dateJuly 22, 2012 \|url-statuslive \|access-dateApril 14, 2013 \|quoteThe catalyst for my demise was my firing Tom DeFalco and Ron Frenz off of Amazing Spider-Man. \|dfmdy-all}}</ref> A succession of artists including Alan Kupperberg, John Romita Jr., and Alex Saviuk penciled the series from 1987 to 1988, and Owsley wrote the book for the first half of 1987, scripting the five-part "Gang War" story (#284–288) that DeFalco plotted. Former Spectacular Spider-Man writer Peter David scripted #289 (June 1987), which revealed Ned Leeds as being the Hobgoblin although this was retconned in 1996 by Roger Stern into Leeds not being the original Hobgoblin after all. David Michelinie took over as writer in the next issue, for a story arc in #290–292 (July–Sept. 1987) that led to the marriage of Peter Parker and Mary Jane Watson in Amazing Spider-Man Annual No. 21. The "Kraven's Last Hunt" storyline by writer J.M. DeMatteis and artists Mike Zeck and Bob McLeod crossed over into The Amazing Spider-Man #293 and 294.<ref>DeFalco "1980s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 231: "The six-issue story arc...ran through all the Spider-Man titles for two months."</ref> Issue No.298 (Mar. 1988) was the first Spider-Man comic to be drawn by future industry star Todd McFarlane, the first regular artist on The Amazing Spider-Man since Frenz's departure. McFarlane revolutionized Spider-Man's look. His depiction – "Ditko-esque" poses,<ref name"Spider-Man Britannica">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/Spider-Man-comic-book-character \|titleSpider-Man fictional character \|author \|publisherBritannica \|access-date25 January 2021 \|archive-date12 December 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201212050756if_/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Spider-Man-comic-book-character \|url-status=live}}</ref> large eyes; wiry, contorted limbs; and messy, knotted, convoluted webbing – influenced the way virtually all subsequent artists would draw the character. McFarlane's other significant contribution to the Spider-Man canon was the design for what would become one of Spider-Man's most wildly popular antagonists, the supervillain Venom.<ref>Manning "1980s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 169: "In this landmark installment [issue No. 298], one of the most popular characters in the wall-crawler's history would begin to step into the spotlight courtesy of one of the most popular artists to ever draw the web-slinger."</ref> Issue No. 299 (Apr. 1988) featured Venom's first appearance (a last-page cameo) before his first full appearance in #300 (May 1988). The latter issue featured Spider-Man reverting to his original red-and-blue costume. Other notable issues of the Michelinie-McFarlane era include #312 (Feb. 1989), featuring the Green Goblin vs. the Hobgoblin; and #315–317 (May–July 1989), with the return of Venom. In July 2012, Todd McFarlane's original cover art for The Amazing Spider-Man No. 328 sold for a bid of $657,250, making it the most expensive American comic book art ever sold at auction at the time.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.bornrich.com/spider-man-cover-art-sells-record-657250.html \|titleAmazing Spider-Man No. 328 Cover Art by Todd McFarlane sells for a record $657,250 \|firstKaranvir \|lastSingh \|dateJuly 30, 2012 \|publisherBornRich.com \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130402232454/http://www.bornrich.com/spider-man-cover-art-sells-record-657250.html \|archive-dateApril 2, 2013 \|url-statuslive \|access-dateApril 14, 2013 \|dfmdy-all}}</ref>1990sWith a civilian life as a married man, the Spider-Man of the 1990s was different from the superhero of the previous three decades. McFarlane left the title in 1990 to write and draw a new series titled simply Spider-Man. His successor, Erik Larsen, penciled the book from early 1990 to mid-1991. After issue No. 350, Larsen was succeeded by Mark Bagley, who had won the 1986 Marvel Tryout Contest<ref>Saffel "Taking Stock: The 1990s" pp. 185–186</ref> and was assigned a number of low-profile penciling jobs followed by a run on New Warriors in 1990. Bagley penciled the flagship Spider-Man title from 1991 to 1996.<ref>[http://www.comics.org/search/advanced/process/?targetsequence&methodicontains&logicFalse&keywords&order1date&order2&order3&start_date&end_date&title&feature&job_number&pages&script&pencilsMark+Bagley&inks&colors&letters&story_editing&genre&characters&synopsis&reprint_notes&story_reprintedNone&notes&pub_name&pub_notes&brand&brand_notes&indicia_publisher&is_surrogateNone&ind_pub_notes&seriesAmazing+Spider-Man&series_year_began&series_notes&tracking_notes&issue_count&is_comicsNone&format&color&dimensions&paper_stock&binding&publishing_format&issues&volume&issue_title&variant_name&issue_date&indicia_frequency&price&issue_pages&issue_editing&isbn&barcode&issue_notes&issue_reprintedNone&is_indexed=None Mark Bagley's run on The Amazing Spider-Man] at the Grand Comics Database</ref> During that time, Bagley's rendition of Spider-Man was used extensively for licensed material and merchandise. Issues #361–363 (April–June 1992) introduced Carnage,<ref>Cowsill, Alan "1990s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 197: "Artist Mark Bagley's era of The Amazing Spider-Man hit its stride as Carnage revealed the true face of his evil. Carnage was a symbiotic offspring produced when Venom bonded to psychopath Cletus Kasady."</ref> a second symbiote nemesis for Spider-Man. The series' 30th-anniversary issue, No. 365 (Aug. 1992), was a double-sized, hologram-cover issue<ref>Cowsill "1990s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 199</ref> with the cliffhanger ending of Peter Parker's parents, long thought dead, reappearing alive. It would be close to two years before they were revealed to be impostors, who are killed in No. 388 (April 1994), scripter Michelinie's last issue. His 1987–1994 stint gave him the second-longest run as writer on the title, behind Stan Lee. Issue No. 375 was released with a gold foil cover.<ref>Cowsill "1990s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 203</ref> There was an error affecting some issues, which caused them to be missing the majority of the foil.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://scoop.diamondgalleries.com/Home/4/1/73/1012?articleID47490 \|titleComic Printing Errors \|publisherGemstone Publishing \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130615010822/http://scoop.diamondgalleries.com/Home/4/1/73/1012?articleID47490 \|archive-dateJune 15, 2013 \|url-statusdead \|access-dateApril 17, 2013 \|dfmdy-all}}</ref> With No. 389, writer J. M. DeMatteis, whose Spider-Man credits included the 1987 "Kraven's Last Hunt" story arc and a 1991–1993 run on The Spectacular Spider-Man, took over the title. From October 1994 to June 1996, Amazing stopped running stories exclusive to it, and ran installments of multi-part stories that crossed over into all the Spider-Man books. One of the few self-contained stories during this period was in No. 400 (April 1995), which featured the death of Aunt May – later revealed to have been faked (although the death still stands in the MC2 continuity). The "Clone Saga" culminated with the revelation that the Spider-Man who had appeared in the previous 20 years of comics was a clone of the real Spider-Man. This plot twist was massively unpopular with many readers,<ref>{{cite magazine \|urlhttp://www.peterdavid.net/2012/12/24/the-illusion-of-change/ \|titleThe Illusion of Change \|firstPeter \|lastDavid \|dateJuly 3, 1998 \|magazineComics Buyer's Guide \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130305180911/http://www.peterdavid.net/2012/12/24/the-illusion-of-change/ \|archive-dateMarch 5, 2013 \|url-statuslive \|access-dateApril 17, 2013 \|quote[Marvel] came up with the Spider-Man clone. Free of any of the baggage the character had accrued since the death of Gwen, he was supposed to reconnect the audience to Spider-Man. The problem is, all writing is a magic trick. You try to pull fast ones on the audience so that they don't look too closely. In this case, it was easy to cast Marvel as Bullwinkle, announcing his intention to pull a rabbit out of his hat, and the fans as a skeptical Rocky loudly proclaiming, 'That trick never works!' And it didn't. Because fans don't like to be treated as if they're stupid. \|dfmdy-all}}</ref> and was later reversed in the "Revelations" story arc that crossed over the Spider-Man books in late 1996. The Clone Saga tied into a publishing gap after No. 406 (Oct. 1995), when the title was temporarily replaced by The Amazing Scarlet Spider #1–2 (Nov.-Dec. 1995), featuring Ben Reilly. The series picked up again with No. 407 (Jan. 1996), with Tom DeFalco returning as writer. Bagley completed his 5½-year run by September 1996. A succession of artists, including Ron Garney, Steve Skroce, Joe Bennett, Rafael Kayanan and John Byrne penciled the book until the final issue, No. 441 (Nov. 1998), after which Marvel rebooted the title with vol. 2, No. 1 (Jan. 1999). Relaunch and the 2000s Marvel began The Amazing Spider-Man relaunching the 'Amazing' comic book series with (vol. 2) #1 (Jan. 1999).<ref name"Marvel 500s">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.comicbookresources.com/?pagearticle&id17588 \|websiteComic Book Resources \|titleThe Marvel 500s: How Many Are There? \|firstJames \|lastHunt \|dateAugust 5, 2008 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130623235852/http://www.comicbookresources.com/?pagearticle&id17588 \|archive-dateJune 23, 2013 \|url-statuslive \|access-dateApril 14, 2013 \|dfmdy-all}}</ref><ref>Cowsill "1990s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 246: "This new series heralded a fresh start for the web-slinger's adventures."</ref> Howard Mackie wrote the first 29 issues. The relaunch included the Sandman being regressed to his criminal ways and the "death" of Mary Jane, which was ultimately reversed. Other elements included the introduction of a new Spider-Woman (who was spun off into her own short-lived series) and references to John Byrne's miniseries Spider-Man: Chapter One, which was launched at the same time as the reboot. Byrne also penciled issues #1–18 (from 1999 to 2000) and wrote #13–14, John Romita Jr. took his place soon after in October 2000. Mackie's run ended with The Amazing Spider-Man Annual 2001, which saw the return of Mary Jane, who then left Parker upon reuniting with him. With issue No. 30 (June 2001), J. Michael Straczynski took over as writer<ref>Cowsill "2000s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 262: "J. Michael Straczynski and artist John Romita Jr. took the helm in this issue to create some of the best Spider-Man stories of the decade."</ref> and oversaw additional storylines – most notably his lengthy "Spider-Totem" arc, which raised the issue of whether Spider-Man's powers were magic-based, rather than as the result of a radioactive spider's bite. Additionally, Straczynski resurrected the plot point of Aunt May discovering her nephew was Spider-Man,<ref>{{cite comic \|writerStraczynski, J. Michael \|pencillerRomita, John Jr. \|inkerHanna, Scott \|storyInterlude \|titleThe Amazing Spider-Man \|volume2 \|issue37 \|dateJanuary 2002}}</ref> and returned Mary Jane, with the couple reuniting in The Amazing Spider-Man (vol. 2) #50. Straczynski gave Spider-Man a new profession, having Parker teach at his former high school. Issue No. 30 began a dual numbering system, with the original series numbering (#471) returned and placed alongside the volume two number on the cover. Other longtime, rebooted Marvel Comics titles, including Fantastic Four, likewise were given the dual numbering around this time. After (vol. 2) #58 (Nov. 2003), the title reverted completely to its original numbering for issue No. 500 (Dec. 2003).<ref name="Marvel 500s"/> Mike Deodato Jr. penciled the series from mid-2004 until 2006. That year Peter Parker revealed his Spider-Man identity on live television in the company-crossover storyline "Civil War",<ref>{{cite comic \|writerStraczynski, J. Michael \|pencillerGarney, Ron \|inkerReinhold, Bill \|storyThe War at Home \|titleThe Amazing Spider-Man \|issue532 \|dateJuly 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite comic \|writerStraczynski, J. Michael \|pencillerGarney, Ron \|inkerReinhold, Bill \|storyThe Night the War Came Home Part Two \|titleThe Amazing Spider-Man \|issue533 \|dateAugust 2006}}</ref> in which the superhero community is split over whether to conform to the federal government's new Superhuman Registration Act. This knowledge was erased from the world with the event of the four-part, crossover story arc, "One More Day", written partially by J. Michael Straczynski and illustrated by Joe Quesada, running through The Amazing Spider-Man #544–545 (Nov.-Dec. 2007), Friendly Neighborhood Spider-Man No. 24 (Nov. 2007) and The Sensational Spider-Man No. 41 (Dec. 2007), the final issues of those two titles. Here, the demon Mephisto makes a Faustian bargain with Parker and Mary Jane, offering to save Parker's dying Aunt May if the couple will allow their marriage to have never existed, rewriting that portion of their pasts. This story arc marked the end of Straczynski's work on the title. Following this, Marvel made The Amazing Spider-Man the company's sole Spider-Man title, increasing its frequency of publication to three issues monthly, and inaugurating the series with a sequence of "back to basics" story arcs under the banner of "Brand New Day". Parker now exists in a changed world where he and Mary Jane had never married, and Parker has no memory of being married to her, with domino effect differences in their immediate world. The most notable of these revisions to Spider-Man continuity are the return of Harry Osborn, whose death in The Spectacular Spider-Man No. 200 (May 1993) is erased; and the reestablishment of Spider-Man's secret identity, with no one except Mary Jane able to recall that Parker is Spider-Man (although he soon reveals his secret identity to the New Avengers and the Fantastic Four). Under the banner of Brand New Day, Marvel tried to only use newly created villains instead of relying on older ones. Characters like Mister Negative and Overdrive both in Free Comic Book Day 2007 Spider-Man (July 2007), Menace in No. 549 (March 2008), Ana and Sasha Kravinoff in No. 565 (September 2008) and No. 567 (October 2008) respectively, and several more were introduced. The alternating regular writers were initially Dan Slott, Bob Gale, Marc Guggenheim, and Zeb Wells, joined by a rotation of artists that included Steve McNiven, Salvador Larroca, Phil Jimenez, Barry Kitson, Chris Bachalo, Mike McKone, Marcos Martín, and John Romita Jr. Joe Kelly, Mark Waid, Fred Van Lente and Roger Stern later joined the writing team and Paolo Rivera, Lee Weeks and Marco Checchetto the artist roster. Waid's work on the series included a meeting between Spider-Man and Stephen Colbert in The Amazing Spider-Man No. 573 (Dec. 2008).<ref>Cowsill "2000s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 316: "The issue [#573] also saw TV star Stephen Colbert team up with Spider-Man in a back-up story written by Mark Waid and drawn by Patrick Olliffe."</ref> Issue No. 583 (March 2009) included a back-up story in which Spider-Man meets President Barack Obama.<ref>Cowsill "2000s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 319: "With President Obama about to be inaugurated, Marvel produced a special variant issue of The Amazing Spider-Man complete with...a five-page back-up strip co-starring the President, written by Zeb Wells and drawn by Todd Nauck."</ref><ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://usatoday30.usatoday.com/life/books/news/2009-01-07-obama-spiderman-comic_N.htm \|titleObama, Spider-Man on the same comic-book page \|firstDavid \|lastColton \|dateJanuary 7, 2009 \|newspaperUSA Today \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121023171207/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/life/books/news/2009-01-07-obama-spiderman-comic_N.htm \|archive-dateOctober 23, 2012 \|url-statuslive}}</ref>2010s and temporary end of publicationMark Waid scripted the opening of "The Gauntlet" storyline in issue No. 612 (Jan. 2010).<ref>Cowsill "2010s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 327: "Written by Mark Waid and drawn by Paul Azaceta, the two-part opening mixed the real-world drama of the economic meltdown with some Spidey action."</ref> The Gauntlet story was concluded by Grim Hunt (No. 634–637) which saw the resurrection of long-dead Spider-Man villain, Kraven the Hunter. The series became a twice-monthly title with Dan Slott as sole writer at issue No. 648 (Jan. 2011), launching the Big Time storyline.<ref>Cowsill "2010s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 334: "Spidey's adventures were about to take an exciting new direction as Dan Slott became the title's sole writer."</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.comicbookresources.com/?pagearticle&id27464 \|titleCCI: The Marvel: Spider-Man Panel \|firstJosh \|lastWigler \|dateJuly 25, 2010 \|websiteComic Book Resources \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131020210035/http://www.comicbookresources.com/?pagearticle&id27464 \|archive-dateOctober 20, 2013 \|url-statuslive}} Archive requires scrolldown</ref> Eight additional pages were added per issue. Big Time saw major changes in Spider-Man/Peter Parker's life, Peter would start working at Horizon Labs and begin a relationship with Carlie Cooper (his first serious relationship since his marriage to Mary Jane), Mac Gargan returned as Scorpion after spending the past few years as Venom, Phil Urich would take up the mantle of Hobgoblin, and the death of J. Jonah Jameson's wife, Marla Jameson. Issues 654 and 654.1 saw the birth of Agent Venom, Flash Thompson bonded with the Venom symbiote, which would lead to Venom getting his own series Venom (volume 2). Starting in No. 659 and going to No. 665, the series built-up to the Spider-Island event which officially started in No. 666 and ended in No. 673. Ends of the Earth was the next event that ran from No. 682 through No. 687. This publishing format lasted until issue No. 700, which concluded the "Dying Wish" storyline, in which Parker and Doctor Octopus swapped bodies, and the latter taking on the mantle of Spider-Man when Parker apparently died in Doctor Octopus' body. The Amazing Spider-Man ended with this issue, with the story continuing in the new series The Superior Spider-Man.<ref>{{cite news \|titleMarvel's Peter Parker in Perilous Predicament \|urlhttps://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/wireStory/marvels-peter-parker-perilous-predicament-18066448 \|firstMatt \|lastMoore \|publisherAssociated Press via ABC News \|dateDecember 26, 2012 \|access-dateDecember 29, 2012 \|archive-dateDecember 26, 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121226165546/https://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/wireStory/marvels-peter-parker-perilous-predicament-18066448#.UN9OHonjmJK \|url-statuslive \|dfmdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.cnn.com/2012/12/26/showbiz/celebrity-news-gossip/spidey-700-controversy \|titleEvents in landmark Spider-Man issue have fans in a frenzy \|firstHenry \|lastHanks \|dateDecember 31, 2012 \|publisherCNN \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130604141800/http://www.cnn.com/2012/12/26/showbiz/celebrity-news-gossip/spidey-700-controversy \|archive-dateJune 4, 2013 \|url-statuslive \|dfmdy-all}}</ref> Despite The Superior Spider-Man being considered a different series to The Amazing Spider-Man, the first 33 issue run goes towards the legacy numbering of The Amazing Spider-Man acting as issues 701–733. In December 2013, the series returned for five issues, numbered 700.1 through 700.5, with the first two written by David Morrell and drawn by Klaus Janson.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://comicsbeat.com/marvel-in-december-welcome-back-peter-parker-bye-kaine/ \|titleMarvel in December: Welcome Back, Peter Parker, Bye Kaine \|firstSteve \|lastMorris \|dateSeptember 12, 2013 \|publisherThe Beat \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131126035518/http://comicsbeat.com/marvel-in-december-welcome-back-peter-parker-bye-kaine/ \|archive-dateNovember 26, 2013 \|url-statuslive \|access-dateNovember 25, 2013}}</ref>2014 relaunchIn January 2014, Marvel confirmed that The Amazing Spider-Man would be relaunched on April 30, 2014, starting from issue No. 1, with Peter Parker as Spider-Man once again.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/comics/exclusive-spider-man-alter-ego-peter-parker-return-death-article-1.1575793 \|titleExclusive: Peter Parker to return from death in Amazing Spider-Man #1 this April \|lastSacks \|firstEthan \|newspaperDaily News \|locationNew York \|dateJanuary 12, 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140712234030/http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/comics/exclusive-spider-man-alter-ego-peter-parker-return-death-article-1.1575793 \|archive-dateJuly 12, 2014 \|url-statuslive \|access-dateJanuary 13, 2013}}</ref> The first issue of this new version of The Amazing Spider-Man was, according to Diamond Comics Distributors, the "best-selling comic book... in over a decade."<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://blog.comichron.com/2014/05/april-2014-comics-sales-amazing-spider.html \|titleApril 2014 comics sales: Amazing Spider-Man #1 best-selling issue of 21st Century \|firstJohn Jackson \|lastMiller \|dateMay 9, 2014 \|publisherComichron.com \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140719150815/http://blog.comichron.com/2014/05/april-2014-comics-sales-amazing-spider.html \|archive-dateJuly 19, 2014 \|url-status=live}}</ref> Issues #1–6 were a story arc called "Lucky to be Alive", taking place immediately after "Goblin Nation", with issues No. 4 and No. 5 being a crossover with the Original Sin storyline. Issue No. 4 introduced Silk, a new heroine who was bitten by the same spider as Peter Parker. Issues #7–8 featured a team-up between Ms. Marvel and Spider-Man, and had backup stories that tied into "Edge of Spider-Verse". The next major plot arc, titled "Spider-Verse", began in Issue No. 9 and ended in No. 15, features every Spider-Man from across the dimensions being hunted by Morlun, and a team-up to stop him, with Peter Parker of Earth-616 in command of the Spider-Men's Alliance. The Amazing Spider-Man Annual No. 1 of the relaunched series was released in December 2014, featuring stories unrelated to "Spider-Verse". The Amazing Spider-Man: Renew Your Vows In 2015, Marvel started the universe wide Secret Wars event where the core and several other Marvel universes were combined into one big planet called Battleworld. Battleworld was divided into sections with most of them being self-contained universes. Marvel announced that several of these self-contained universes would get their own tie in series and one of them was Amazing Spider-Man: Renew Your Vows, an alternate universe where Peter Parker and Mary Jane are still married and give birth to their child Annie May Parker, written by Dan Slott. Despite the series being considered separate from the main Amazing Spider-Man series, the original 5 issue run is counted towards its legacy numbering acting as No. 752-756. 2015 relaunch Following the 2015 Secret Wars event, a number of Spider-Man-related titles were either relaunched or created as part of the "All-New, All-Different Marvel" event. Among them, The Amazing Spider-Man was relaunched as well and primarily focused on Peter Parker continuing to run Parker Industries and becoming a successful businessman operating worldwide.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.newsarama.com/24993-peter-parker-stepped-up-as-high-tech-tycoon-in-amazing-spider-man.html \|titlePeter Parker 'Stepped Up' As High Tech Tycoon In Amazing Spider-Man \|firstChris \|lastArrant \|dateJune 30, 2015 \|workNewsarama \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150906003627/http://www.newsarama.com/24993-peter-parker-stepped-up-as-high-tech-tycoon-in-amazing-spider-man.html \|archive-dateSeptember 6, 2015 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> It also tied with Civil War II (involving an Inhuman named Ulysses Cain who can predict possible futures), Dead No More (where Ben Reilly [the original Scarlet Spider] revealed to be revived and as one of the antagonists instead), and Secret Empire (during Hydra's reign led by a Hydra influenced Captain America/Steve Rogers, and the dismissal of Parker Industries by Peter Parker to stop Otto Octavius). Starting in September 2017, Marvel started the Marvel Legacy event which renumbered several Marvel series to their original numbering. The Amazing Spider-Man was put back to its original numbering for #789. Issues #789 through 791 focused on the aftermath of Peter destroying Parker Industries and his fall from grace. Issues #792 and 793 were part of the Venom Inc. story. Threat Level: Red was the story for the next three issues which saw Norman Osborn obtain and bond with the Carnage symbiote. Go Down Swinging saw the results of the combination of Osborn's goblin serum and Carnage symbiote creating the Red Goblin. Issue No. 801 was Dan Slott's goodbye issue.2018 relaunchIn March 2018, it was announced that writer Nick Spencer would be writing the main semi-monthly The Amazing Spider-Man series beginning with a new No. 1, replacing long-time writer Dan Slott, as part of the Fresh Start relaunch that July.<ref>{{cite web \|dateJune 23, 2018 \|titleAmazing Spider-Man Being Relaunched By Spencer & Ottley \|urlhttps://www.cbr.com/amazing-spider-man-spencer-ottley-marvel-fresh-start \|access-date23 June 2018 \|publisherComic Book Resources.com}}</ref> The first five-issue story arc was titled 'Back to Basics.' During the Back to Basics story, Kindred, a mysterious villain with some relation to Peter's past, was introduced, and Peter resumed his romantic relationship with Mary Jane once more. The first major story under Spencer was Hunted which ran through issues 16 through 23, the story also included four ".HU" issues for issues 16, 18, 19, and 20. The end of the story saw the death of long-running Spider-Man villain Kraven the Hunter, being replaced by his clone son, The Last Son of Kraven. 2020s Issue 45 kicked off the Sins Rising story which saw the resurrected Sin-Eater carry out the plans of Kindred to cleanse the world of sin, particularly that of Norman Osborn. The story concluded with issue 49, issue 850 in legacy numbering, seeing Spider-Man and Green Goblin team up to defeat Sin-Eater. Last Remains started in issue 50 and concluded in issue 55, the story saw Kindred's plans come to fruition as he tormented Spider-Man. The story has also seen five ".LR" for issues 50, 51, 52, 53, and 54 which focused on The Order of the Web, a new faction of Spider-People consisting of Julia Carpenter (Madame Web), Miles Morales (Spider-Man), Gwen Stacy (Ghost-Spider), Cindy Moon (Silk), Jessica Drew (Spider-Woman), and Anya Corazon (Spider-Girl) . The story also revealed that Kindred is Harry Osborn. Last Remains also received two fallout issues called Last Remains Post-Mortem. Nick Spencer concluded his run with the Sinister War story which wrapped up in No. 74 (legacy numbering 875). The story saw several retcons to the Spider-Man mythos including that Kindred was Gabriel and Sarah Stacy all along, the fact that the Stacy twins were actually genetically engineered beings using Norman Osborn and Gwen Stacy's DNA, that the Harry Osborn that returned in Brand New Day was actually a clone, and that Norman had made a deal with Mephisto where he sold Harry's soul to the demon. The story ended with the deaths of the Harry clone, Gabriel, and Sarah and the real Harry's soul being freed from Mephisto's grasp. After Spencer left the book, Marvel announced the "Beyond" era of Spider-Man would start in #75. The book would be moving back to the format it had during Brand New Day where it would have a rotating cast of writers including Kelly Thompson, Saladin Ahmed, Cody Ziglar, Patrick Gleason, and Zeb Wells. The book would also be released three times a month. "Beyond" would focus on Ben Reilly taking up the mantle of Spider-Man once again but backed by the Beyond corporation. Peter also falls ill and cannot be Spider-Man so he gives Ben his blessing to carry on as the main Spider-Man. However, following the conclusion of the storyline in #93, Peter has resumed active duties as Spider-Man, while Ben suffers a mental breakdown after losing his memories and becomes the villain Chasm. 2022 relaunch In January 2022, it was announced that writer Zeb Wells and John Romita Jr. would be working on a relaunched The Amazing Spider-Man, bringing the number of volumes for the title to its sixth, with the series beginning in April 2022 as a semi-monthly publication. The relaunch encompasses both a legacy numbering of #900 as well as the 60th anniversary for the character. The relaunch took place months after a mysterious event that left Peter on bad terms with the superhero community and ended his relationship with Mary Jane. He ends up taking a job at Oscorp and begins working closely with Norman Osborn (who becomes the heroic Gold Goblin) and starts dating Black Cat. The volume's first crossover event was entitled Dark Web, with Chasm having teamed up with Madelyne Pryor to bring limbo to Earth. It's later revealed that Benjamin Rabin, the emissary of the Mayan god of mischief Wayeb', sent Peter and Mary Jane to an alternate dimension to conduct a ceremony that would allow Wayeb to control the Earth. Peter was sent back to his Earth, while due to the alternative passage of time, Mary Jane and Paul, Rabin's son in that dimension, spent four years in the realm together and adopted two children. When Peter eventually rescued them, Mary Jane refused to part with her new family. Rabin then planned to sacrifice Mary Jane to resurrect Wayeb, but is ultimately stopped by Ms. Marvel sacrificing herself, but not before Rabin reveals that Paul and Mary Jane's kids were illusions created by him and ceased their existence. Mary Jane becomes the superheroine Jackpot using the bracelet acquired from the other dimension as Black Cat breaks up with Peter shortly before Janice Lincoln and Randy Robertson's wedding. The second crossover event was entitled Gang War, where Peter led a team of street-level superheroes to stop a massive war between New York's gangs led by Madam Masque, Tombstone, and Beetle. During an encounter with Kraven the Hunter, Peter temporarily becomes infected by Norman Osborn's sins and becomes the villainous Spider-Goblin. Eventually, Norman's sins return to him and he resumes being the Green Goblin. While fighting Spider-Man, the goblin reveals that he implanted a trigger phrase within Peters's mind that would bring forth the Spider-Goblin persona. Norman then sends Spider-Goblin to attack the Sinister Six, who he brutally defeats, but is stopped from killing them due to the intervention of Chasm. With help from the Living Brain and his allies, Peter is able to purge himself and Norman of the Goblin for good. Wells' run ended in June 2024 with a climactic showdown between Spider-Man and Tombstone, where the former stops the latter from killing his daughter to establish his dominance over New York's gangs. Peter also begins to date Shay Marken, a nurse at the Ravencroft Institute. In July 2024, it was announced that following the conclusion of Wells' run, a 10-issue event would begin publication in the Fall called The 8 Deaths of Spider-Man. The series was written by Joe Kelly and Justina Ireland and illustrated by Ed McGuinness and Gleb Melnikov. The event featured the recently crowned Sorcerer Supreme Doctor Doom designating Spider-Man as Earth's champion to take on Doctor Strange's annual task of facing the Scions of Cyttorak, giving him an arcane armor and eight reeds that could revive him if he got killed. After being killed several times and being forced to face Cyra's challenge of enduring the future deaths of his loved ones and millions of others, Peter became disillusioned and gave up until his inactivity nearly costs the lives of Aunt May and his friends. He uses his remaining reeds to resurrect them before teaming up with Juggernaut and the X-Men to take on Callix, who had been infected by the Blight and killed his siblings. After Callix kills him, Cyra, inspired by Peter's indomitable will, sacrifices her immortality to resurrect him and briefly imbue him with Juggernaut's strength. Cyttorak, seeing Peter willing to risk his life in the face of tragedy, decides to shield his remaining children from the Blight, saving the planet.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastRoss \|firstPatrick \|date2024-07-03 \|titleMarvel teases 'The 8 Deaths of Spider-Man' for this fall \|urlhttps://aiptcomics.com/2024/07/03/marvel-the-8-deaths-of-spider-man-fall/ \|access-date2024-07-04 \|websiteaiptcomics.com \|languageen-us}}</ref> 2025 relaunch In December 2024, it was announced that Kelly would become the writer of a new volume of ASM that will launch after 8 Deaths of Spider-Man in April 2025, with John Romita Jr. and Pepe Larraz providing the work on the art.<ref>{{Cite web \|title'Amazing Spider-Man' Begins a New Era with Joe Kelly, Pepe Larraz and John Romita Jr. \|urlhttps://www.marvel.com/articles/comics/amazing-spider-man-2025-joe-kelly-pepe-larraz-john-romita-jr \|access-date2025-01-21 \|websitewww.marvel.com}}</ref> Contributors Vol. 1 (1963–1998, 2003–2014, 2017–2018) Writers {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Years ! Writer ! Issues \|- \| align="center"\| 1963–1972, 1973, 1980, 1984 \| align="center"\|Stan Lee \| align="center"\| #1-100, #105-110, #116-118, #200 (epilogue), Annual #1-5, #18 \|- \| align="center"\| 1971–1972 \| align="center"\| Roy Thomas \| align="center"\| #101-104 \|- \| align="center"\| 1972–1975 \| align="center"\| Gerry Conway \| align="center"\| #111-149, Giant-Size Super-Heroes #1 \|- \| align="center"\| 1975–1978 \| align="center"\| Archie Goodwin \| align="center"\| #150, #181, Annual #11 \|- \| align="center"\| 1975–1978 \| align="center"\| Len Wein \| align="center"\| #151-181, Annual #10 \|- \| align="center"\| 1976–1978, 1981, 1983 \| align="center"\| Bill Mantlo \| align="center"\| #181, #222, Annual #10-11, #17 \|- \| align="center"\| 1978–1980 \| align="center"\| Marv Wolfman \| align="center"\| #182-204, Annual #13 \|- \| align="center"\| 1978 \| align="center"\| Jim Starlin \| align="center"\| #187 \|- \| align="center"\| 1980, 1987–1994 \| align="center"\| David Michelinie \| align="center"\| #205, #290-292, #296-352, #359-375, #377-388, Annual #21 \|- \| align="center"\| 1980, 1982–1984, 2009–2010 \| align="center"\| Roger Stern \| align="center"\| #206, #224-227, #229-252, #580, #627-629, Annual #16-17 \|- \| align="center"\| 1980–1982 \| align="center"\| Dennis O’Neil \| align="center"\| #207-219, #221, #223, Annual #14-15 \|- \| align="center"\| 1980 \| align="center"\| Jim Shooter \| align="center"\| #208 \|- \| align="center"\| 1980 \| align="center"\| Mark Gruenwald \| align="center"\| #208 \|- \| align="center"\| 1981 \| align="center"\| Michael Fleisher \| align="center"\| #220 \|- \| align="center"\| 1981, 1987, 1994–1995 \| align="center"\| J. M. DeMatteis \| align="center"\| #223, #293-294, #389-406 \|- \| align="center"\| 1982 \| align="center"\| Jan Strnad \| align="center"\| #228 \|- \| align="center"\| 1984–1987, 1992–1993, 1996–1998 \| align="center"\| Tom DeFalco \| align="center"\| #251-261, #263, #265, #268-285, #365, #375, #407-439, #-1 \|- \| align="center"\| 1985 \| align="center"\| Bob Layton \| align="center"\| #262 \|- \| align="center"\| 1985 \| align="center"\| Craig Anderson \| align="center"\| #264 \|- \| align="center"\| 1985–1987 \| align="center"\| Peter David \| align="center"\| #266-267, #278, #289 \|- \| align="center"\| 1985 \| align="center"\| Louise Simonson \| align="center"\| Annual #19 \|- \| align="center"\| 1986 \| align="center"\| Jo Duffy \| align="center"\| #278 \|- \| align="center"\| 1987 \| align="center"\| Jim Owsley \| align="center"\| #284-288 \|- \| align="center"\| 1987 \| align="center"\| Ann Nocenti \| align="center"\| #295 \|- \| align="center"\| 1987 \| align="center"\| Jim Shooter \| align="center"\| Annual #21 \|- \| align="center"\| 1991–1993 \| align="center"\| Al Milgrom \| align="center"\| #353-358, #371-372 \|- \| align="center"\| 1993 \| align="center"\| Steven Grant \| align="center"\| #376-377 \|- \| align="center"\| 1995 \| align="center"\| Todd Dezago \| align="center"\| #404-405 \|- \| align="center"\| 1998 \| align="center"\| John Byrne \| align="center"\| #440-441 \|- \| align="center"\| 1998–2003 \| align="center"\| J. Michael Straczynski \| align="center"\| #442-499 (vol. 2 #1-58) \|- \| align="center"\| 2003–2007 \| align="center"\| J. Michael Straczynski \| align="center"\| #500-545 \|- \| align="center"\| 2008–2013, 2017–2018 \| align="center"\| Dan Slott \| align="center"\| #546–548, #559–561, #564, #568–573, #581–582, #590–591, #600, #618–621, #647–660, #662–676, #678–700, #789-801; #679.1, #699.1 \|- \| align="center"\| 2008–2010 \| align="center"\| Marc Guggenheim \| align="center"\| #549-551, #564-567, #574, #584-588, #608-610, #647 \|- \| align="center"\| 2008 \| align="center"\| Bob Gale \| align="center"\| #552-554, #558, #562-564, #647 \|- \| align="center"\| 2008–2010 \| align="center"\| Zeb Wells \| align="center"\| #555-557, #577, #583, #630-633, #636, #647 \|- \| align="center"\| 2008–2010 \| align="center"\| Joe Kelly \| align="center"\| #575-577, #595-599, #606-607, #611-612, #617, #625, #634-637 \|- \| align="center"\| 2009–2012 \| align="center"\| Mark Waid \| align="center"\| #578-579, #583, #592-594, #601, #612-614, #623-624, #642-646, #647, #677 \|- \| align="center"\| 2009–2011 \| align="center"\| Fred Van Lente \| align="center"\| #589, #602-605, #615-616, #622, #626, #647, #654, #659-660 \|- \| align="center"\| 2010 \| align="center"\| Tom Peyer \| align="center"\| #623-624 \|- \| align="center"\| 2010 \| align="center"\| Joe Quesada \| align="center"\| #638-641 \|- \| align="center"\| 2011–2013, 2017–2018 \| align="center"\| Christos Gage \| align="center"\| #661-662, #664, #695-697, #790, #794-795 \|- \| align="center"\| 2012 \| align="center"\| Christopher Yost \| align="center"\| #679.1, #680-681 \|- \| align="center"\| 2013 \| align="center"\| Joe Keatinge \| align="center"\| #699.1 \|- \| align="center"\| 2014 \| align="center"\| David Morrell \| align="center"\| #700.1-700.2 \|- \| align="center"\| 2014 \| align="center"\| Joe Casey \| align="center"\| #700.3-700.4 \|- \| align="center"\| 2014 \| align="center"\| Brian Reed \| align="center"\| #700.5 \|} Pencilers {\| class"wikitable" style"vertical-align:text-top" \|- ! Years ! Penciler ! Issues \|- \| align="center"\| 1963–1966 \| align="center"\| Steve Ditko \| align="center"\| #1–38, Annual #1-2 \|- \| align="center"\| 1966–1974, 1992, 2003 \| align="center"\| John Romita Sr. \| align="center"\| #39-75, #82-88, #93–95, #106–119, #132, #365, #500, Annual #3-4 \|- \| align="center"\| 1968 \| align="center"\| Larry Lieber \| align="center"\| Annual #5 \|- \| align="center"\| 1968 \| align="center"\| Don Heck \| align="center"\| #57, #59-63, #66 \|- \| align="center"\| 1969–1970, 1980 \| align="center"\| Jim Mooney \| align="center"\| #68-69, #71, #80, #84-87, #207 \|- \| align="center"\| 1969–1970 \| align="center"\| John Buscema \| align="center"\| #72-73, #76-81, #84-85 \|- \| align="center"\| 1970–1973, 1975–1976 \| align="center"\| Gil Kane \| align="center"\| #89-92, #96–105, #120–124, #150, Annual #10 \|- \| align="center"\| 1973–1978 \| align="center"\| Ross Andru \| align="center"\| #125–131, #133–149, #151–153, #156–180, #182–185 \|- \| align="center"\| 1976–1979, 1985–1986 \| align="center"\| Sal Buscema \| align="center"\| #154-155, #181, #198-199, #266, #272 \|- \| align="center"\| 1978–1981 \| align="center"\| Keith Pollard \| align="center"\| #186, #188, #191-195, #197, #200-205 \|- \| align="center"\| 1978 \| align="center"\| Jim Starlin \| align="center"\| #187 \|- \| align="center"\| 1979–1980 \| align="center"\| John Byrne \| align="center"\| #189-190, #206, Annual #13 \|- \| align="center"\| 1979 \| align="center"\| Al Milgrom \| align="center"\| #196 \|- \| align="center"\| 1980–1984, 1987, 1998, 2003–2004, 2008–2009 \| align="center"\| John Romita Jr. \| align="center"\| #208, #210-218, #223–227, #229–236, #238–250, #290-291, #432, #500-508, #568-573, #584–585, #587-588, #600, Annual #16 \|- \| align="center"\| 1980 \| align="center"\| Alan Weiss \| align="center"\| #209 \|- \| align="center"\| 1980–1981 \| align="center"\| Frank Miller \| align="center"\| Annual #14-15 \|- \| align="center"\| 1981 \| align="center"\| Luke McDonnell \| align="center"\| #219 \|- \| align="center"\| 1981, 1985 \| align="center"\| Bob McLeod \| align="center"\| #220, #267 \|- \| align="center"\| 1981, 1987 \| align="center"\| Alan Kupperberg \| align="center"\| #221, #285-286, #288-289 \|- \| align="center"\| 1981–1983 \| align="center"\| Bob Hall \| align="center"\| #222, #237 \|- \| align="center"\| 1982–1986 \| align="center"\| Rick Leonardi \| align="center"\| #228, #253-254, #279, #282 \|- \| align="center"\| 1983 \| align="center"\| Ed Hannigan \| align="center"\| Annual #17 \|- \| align="center"\| 1984–1986, 1996 \| align="center"\| Ron Frenz \| align="center"\| #248, #251-252, #255–261, #263, #265, #268-277, #280-281, #283-284, Annual #18, Annual ‘96 \|- \| align="center"\| 1985 \| align="center"\| Bob Layton \| align="center"\| #262 \|- \| align="center"\| 1985 \| align="center"\| Paty Cockrum \| align="center"\| #264 \|- \| align="center"\| 1985 \| align="center"\| Mary Wilshire \| align="center"\| Annual #19 \|- \| align="center"\| 1986 \| align="center"\| Tom Morgan \| align="center"\| #274, #289 \|- \| align="center"\| 1986 \| align="center"\| James Fry \| align="center"\| #274 \|- \| align="center"\| 1986 \| align="center"\| Mike Harris \| align="center"\| #278 \|- \| align="center"\| 1986–1987 \| align="center"\| Brett Breeding \| align="center"\| #280, #284 \|- \| align="center"\| 1986 \| align="center"\| Mark Beachum \| align="center"\| Annual #20 \|- \| align="center"\| 1987, 1989-1991 \| align="center"\| Erik Larsen \| align="center"\| #287, #324, #327, #329-344, #346-350 \|- \| align="center"\| 1987-1988 \| align="center"\| Alex Saviuk \| align="center"\| #292, #296-297 \|- \| align="center"\| 1987 \| align="center"\| Mike Zeck \| align="center"\| #293-294 \|- \| align="center"\| 1987 \| align="center"\| Cindy Martin \| align="center"\| #295 \|- \| align="center"\| 1988-1990 \| align="center"\| Todd McFarlane \| align="center"\| #298-323, #325, #328 \|- \| align="center"\| 1991-1996 \| align="center"\| Mark Bagley \| align="center"\| #345, #351-358, #361-365, #368–375, #378–404, #407–415 \|- \| align="center"\| 1992 \| align="center"\| Chris Marrinan \| align="center"\| #359-360 \|- \| align="center"\| 1992 \| align="center"\| Jerry Bingham \| align="center"\| #366-367 \|- \| align="center"\| 1992 \| align="center"\| Scott McDaniel \| align="center"\| Annual #26 \|- \| align="center"\| 1993 \| align="center"\| Jeff Johnson \| align="center"\| #376-377 \|- \| align="center"\| 1995 \| align="center"\| Darick Robertson \| align="center"\| #405 \|- \| align="center"\| 1995 \| align="center"\| Angel Medina \| align="center"\| #406 \|- \| align="center"\| 1996, 2006-2007 \| align="center"\| Ron Garney \| align="center"\| #416-417, #529, #532-543 \|- \| align="center"\| 1996-1997 \| align="center"\| Steve Skroce \| align="center"\| #418-421, #425-428 \|- \| align="center"\| 1997–1998 \| align="center"\| Joe Bennett \| align="center"\| #422-424, #429-431, #434-436, #-1 \|- \| align="center"\| 1997–1998 \| align="center"\| Tom Lyle \| align="center"\| #433, Annual ‘97-‘98 \|- \| align="center"\| 1998 \| align="center"\| Rafael Kayanan \| align="center"\| #437, #439-441 \|- \| align="center"\| 1998 \| align="center"\| Scott Kolins \| align="center"\| #438 \|- \| align="center"\| 2004–2006 \| align="center"\| Mike Deodato \| align="center"\| #509-528 \|- \| align="center"\| 2006 \| align="center"\| Tyler Kirkham \| align="center"\| #530-531 \|- \| align="center"\| 2007, 2010 \| align="center"\| Joe Quesada \| align="center"\| #544-545, #638-641 \|- \| align="center"\| 2008 \| align="center"\| Steve McNiven \| align="center"\| #546-548 \|- \| align="center"\| 2008 \| align="center"\| Salvador Larroca \| align="center"\| #549-551 \|- \| align="center"\| 2008–2009 \| align="center"\| Phil Jimenez \| align="center"\| #552-554, #565-567, #595 \|- \| align="center"\| 2008–2010 \| align="center"\| Chris Bachalo \| align="center"\| #555-557, #575-576, #630-633 \|- \| align="center"\| 2008–2009 \| align="center"\| Barry Kitson \| align="center"\| #558, #574, #577, #583, #586, #590-591, #594, #602, #604 \|- \| align="center"\| 2008–2011, 2018 \| align="center"\| Marcos Martin \| align="center"\| #559-561, #578-579, #618-620, #655-657, #800-801 \|- \| align="center"\| 2008–2009, 2011 \| align="center"\| Mike McKone \| align="center"\| #562-563, #581-582, #592-594, #606-607, #660 \|- \| align="center"\| 2008–2009 \| align="center"\| Paulo Siqueira \| align="center"\| #564, #589, #596, #598-599 \|- \| align="center"\| 2008 \| align="center"\| Mark Pennington \| align="center"\| #566 \|- \| align="center"\| 2008 \| align="center"\| Andy Lanning \| align="center"\| #567 \|- \| align="center"\| 2009–2010 \| align="center"\| Paolo Rivera \| align="center"\| #577, #638-641 \|- \| align="center"\| 2009–2010 \| align="center"\| Lee Weeks \| align="center"\| #580, #627-629 \|- \| align="center"\| 2009 \| align="center"\| Klaus Janson \| align="center"\| #582 \|- \| align="center"\| 2009–2010, 2013 \| align="center"\| Marco Checchetto \| align="center"\| #597-599, #608-610, #636-637, #699.1 \|- \| align="center"\| 2009 \| align="center"\| Stephen Segovia \| align="center"\| #599 \|- \| align="center"\| 2009 \| align="center"\| Mario Alberti \| align="center"\| #601 \|- \| align="center"\| 2009 \| align="center"\| Robert Atkins \| align="center"\| #603 \|- \| align="center"\| 2009–2011 \| align="center"\| Javier Pulido \| align="center"\| #605, #615-617, #620, #658, #661 \|- \| align="center"\| 2009 \| align="center"\| Adriana Melo \| align="center"\| #607 \|- \| align="center"\| 2009–2010 \| align="center"\| Luke Ross \| align="center"\| #608-610 \|- \| align="center"\| 2010 \| align="center"\| Eric Canete \| align="center"\| #611 \|- \| align="center"\| 2010 \| align="center"\| Paul Azaceta \| align="center"\| #612-614, #623-624, #642-646 \|- \| align="center"\| 2010 \| align="center"\| Ken Niimura \| align="center"\| #612 \|- \| align="center"\| 2010 \| align="center"\| Max Fiumara \| align="center"\| #617, #625, #647 \|- \| align="center"\| 2010 \| align="center"\| Michael Lark \| align="center"\| #621, #634-637 \|- \| align="center"\| 2010 \| align="center"\| Joe Quinones \| align="center"\| #622 \|- \| align="center"\| 2010 \| align="center"\| Javier Rodriguez \| align="center"\| #624 \|- \| align="center"\| 2010 \| align="center"\| Michael Gaydos \| align="center"\| #626 \|- \| align="center"\| 2010, 2012 \| align="center"\| Emma Rios \| align="center"\| #631-633, #677 \|- \| align="center"\| 2011–2013, 2018 \| align="center"\| Humberto Ramos \| align="center"\| #648-651, #654.1, #667–672, #676, #678–679, #684–685, #692–694, #699–700, #800 \|- \| align="center"\| 2011–2012 \| align="center"\| Stefano Caselli \| align="center"\| #652-654, #657, #659-660, #666, #673, #682-683, #686-687 \|- \| align="center"\| 2011 \| align="center"\| Ty Templeton \| align="center"\| #657 \|- \| align="center"\| 2011 \| align="center"\| Nuno Plati \| align="center"\| #657 \|- \| align="center"\| 2011 \| align="center"\| Reilly Brown \| align="center"\| #661-662 \|- \| align="center"\| 2011–2013, 2018 \| align="center"\| Giuseppe Camuncoli \| align="center"\| #663-665, #674-675, #680-681, #688-691, #695-697, #700, #800 \|- \| align="center"\| 2011, 2018 \| align="center"\| Ryan Stegman \| align="center"\| #665, #792-793 \|- \| align="center"\| 2012 \| align="center"\| Matthew Clark \| align="center"\| #679.1 \|- \| align="center"\| 2013 \| align="center"\| Richard Elson \| align="center"\| #698 \|- \| align="center"\| 2013 \| align="center"\| Valentine De Landro \| align="center"\| #699.1 \|- \| align="center"\| 2014 \| align="center"\| Klaus Janson \| align="center"\| #700.1-700.2 \|- \| align="center"\| 2014 \| align="center"\| Timothy Green \| align="center"\| #700.3-700.4 \|- \| align="center"\| 2014 \| align="center"\| Sean Chen \| align="center"\| #700.5 \|- \| align="center"\| 2017–2018 \| align="center"\| Stuart Immonen \| align="center"\| #789–791, #794, #797–800 \|- \| align="center"\| 2018 \| align="center"\| Mike Hawthorne \| align="center"\| #795-796, #800 \|- \| align="center"\| 2018 \| align="center"\| Nick Bradshaw \| align="center"\| #800 \|} Vol. 2 (1999–2003) Writers {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Years ! Writer ! Issues \|- \| align="center"\| 1999–2001 \| align="center"\| Howard Mackie \| align="center"\| (vol. 2) #1-13, #15-29 \|- \| align="center"\| 2000 \| align="center"\| John Byrne \| align="center"\| #13-14 \|- \| align="center"\| 2001–2003 \| align="center"\| J. Michael Straczynski \| align="center"\| #30-58 \|} Pencilers {\| class"wikitable" style"vertical-align:text-top" \|- ! Years ! Penciler ! Issues \|- \| align="center"\| 1999–2000 \| align="center"\| John Byrne \| align="center"\| (vol. 2) #1-18 \|- \| align="center"\| 2000 \| align="center"\| Erik Larsen \| align="center"\| (vol. 2) #19-21 \|- \| align="center"\| 2000–2003 \| align="center"\| John Romita Jr. \| align="center"\| (vol. 2) #22-27, #30-58 \|- \| align="center"\| 2001 \| align="center"\| Joe Bennett \| align="center"\| (vol. 2) #28 \|- \| align="center"\| 2001 \| align="center"\| Lee Weeks \| align="center"\| (vol. 2) #29 \|} Vol. 3 (2014–2015) Writers {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Years ! Writer ! Issues \|- \| align="center"\| 2014–2015 \| align="center"\| Dan Slott \| align="center"\| #1-18 \|- \| align="center"\| 2015 \| align="center"\| Gerry Conway \| align="center"\| #16.1-20.1 \|} Pencilers {\| class"wikitable" style"vertical-align:text-top" \|- ! Years ! Penciler ! Issues \|- \| align="center"\| 2014–2015 \| align="center"\| Humberto Ramos \| align="center"\| (vol. 3) #1-6, #8, #16-18 \|- \| align="center"\| 2014–2015 \| align="center"\| Giuseppe Camuncoli \| align="center"\| (vol. 3) #1, #7-9, #12–15 \|- \| align="center"\| 2015 \| align="center"\| Olivier Coipel \| align="center"\| (vol. 3) #9-11 \|- \| align="center"\| 2015 \| align="center"\| Carlo Barberi \| align="center"\| #16.1-20.1 \|} Vol. 4 (2015–2017) Writers {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Years ! Writer ! Issues \|- \| align="center"\| 2015–2017 \| align="center"\| Dan Slott \| align="center"\| #1-32 \|} Pencilers {\| class"wikitable" style"vertical-align:text-top" \|- ! Years ! Penciler ! Issues \|- \| align="center"\| 2015–2017 \| align="center"\| Giuseppe Camuncoli \| align="center"\| #1–5, #9–16, #19–24 \|- \| align="center"\| 2016 \| align="center"\| Matteo Buffagni \| align="center"\| #6-8 \|- \| align="center"\| 2016 \| align="center"\| R.B. Silva \| align="center"\| #17-18 \|- \| align="center"\| 2017 \| align="center"\| Stuart Immonen \| align="center"\| #25-31 \|- \| align="center"\| 2017 \| align="center"\| Greg Smallwood \| align="center"\| #32 \|} Vol. 5 (2018–2022) Writers {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Years ! Writer ! Issues \|- \| align="center"\| 2018–2021 \| align="center"\| Nick Spencer \| align="center"\| #1-74; #18.HU-20.HU; #50.LR-54.LR \|- \| align="center"\| 2020–2021 \| align="center"\| Matthew Rosenberg \| align="center"\| #50.LR-54.LR \|- \| align="center"\| 2021 \| align="center"\| Ed Brisson \| align="center"\| #68-69 \|- \| align="center"\| 2021 \| align="center"\| Christos Gage \| align="center"\| #74 \|- \| align="center"\| 2021–2022 \| align="center"\| Zeb Wells \| align="center"\| #75-76, #86, #93; #92.BEY \|- \| align="center"\| 2021–2022 \| align="center"\| Kelly Thompson \| align="center"\| #77-78, #91-92 \|- \| align="center"\| 2022 \| align="center"\| Jed MacKay \| align="center"\| #87-88, #92; #78.BEY, #92.BEY \|- \| align="center"\| 2022 \| align="center"\| Cody Ziglar \| align="center"\| #79-80, #84-85; #80.BEY, #92.BEY \|- \| align="center"\| 2022 \| align="center"\| Saladin Ahmed \| align="center"\| #81-82 \|- \| align="center"\| 2022 \| align="center"\| Patrick Gleason \| align="center"\| #83, #89-90 \|- \| align="center"\| 2022 \| align="center"\| Geoffrey Thorne \| align="center"\| #88.BEY \|} Pencilers {\| class"wikitable" style"vertical-align:text-top" \|- ! Years ! Penciler ! Issues \|- \| align="center"\| 2018–2020 \| align="center"\| Ryan Ottley \| align="center"\| #1-5, #11-13, #16, #23-25, #30-31, #37, #41-43, #49 \|- \| align="center"\| 2018–2021 \| align="center"\| Humberto Ramos \| align="center"\| #6-10, #17-18, #20, #22, #25, #49, #74 \|- \| align="center"\| 2018 \| align="center"\| Steve Lieber \| align="center"\| #6-7 \|- \| align="center"\| 2019 \| align="center"\| Michele Bandini \| align="center"\| #9-10 \|- \| align="center"\| 2019 \| align="center"\| Chris Bachalo \| align="center"\| #14-15 \|- \| align="center"\| 2019 \| align="center"\| Alberto Jimenez Alburquerque \| align="center"\| #16 \|- \| align="center"\| 2019 \| align="center"\| Gerardo Sandoval \| align="center"\| #19, #21 \|- \| align="center"\| 2019–2022 \| align="center"\| Patrick Gleason \| align="center"\| #25, #32-34, #50-52, #55, #61-62, #75-76, #83, #93 \|- \| align="center"\| 2019 \| align="center"\| Kev Walker \| align="center"\| #25-28 \|- \| align="center"\| 2019 \| align="center"\| Francesco Manna \| align="center"\| #29 \|- \| align="center"\| 2020, 2022 \| align="center"\| Jan Bazaldua \| align="center"\| #35-36, #88.BEY \|- \| align="center"\| 2020 \| align="center"\| Iban Coello \| align="center"\| #38-40 \|- \| align="center"\| 2020 \| align="center"\| José Carlos Silva \| align="center"\| #40 \|- \| align="center"\| 2020 \| align="center"\| Kim Jacinto \| align="center"\| #44 \|- \| align="center"\| 2020, 2022 \| align="center"\| Bruno Oliveira \| align="center"\| #44; #92.BEY \|- \| align="center"\| 2020–2022 \| align="center"\| Mark Bagley \| align="center"\| #45, #48–49, #53–54, #56–57, #60, #64, #66–69, #74, #89-90, #93; #92.BEY \|- \| align="center"\| 2020–2021 \| align="center"\| Marcelo Ferreira \| align="center"\| #46-47, #58-59, #67-69, #72-74 \|- \| align="center"\| 2021 \| align="center"\| Federico Vicentini \| align="center"\| #63-65, #70-72 \|- \| align="center"\| 2021 \| align="center"\| Federico Sabbatini \| align="center"\| #65, #71 \|- \| align="center"\| 2021–2022 \| align="center"\| Carlos Gómez \| align="center"\| #67-69, #72-74, #81, #87; #80.BEY \|- \| align="center"\| 2021 \| align="center"\| Ze Carlos \| align="center"\| #68-69, #72-74 \|- \| align="center"\| 2021 \| align="center"\| Travel Foreman \| align="center"\| #75 \|- \| align="center"\| 2021–2022 \| align="center"\| Sara Pichelli \| align="center"\| #77-78, #91-93 \|- \| align="center"\| 2021–2022 \| align="center"\| Jim Towe \| align="center"\| #78, #88.BEY \|- \| align="center"\| 2022 \| align="center"\| Elenora Carlini \| align="center"\| #78.BEY \|- \| align="center"\| 2022 \| align="center"\| Michael Dowling \| align="center"\| #79-80, #86, #88 \|- \| align="center"\| 2022 \| align="center"\| Jorge Fornes \| align="center"\| #82 \|- \| align="center"\| 2022 \| align="center"\| Paco Medina \| align="center"\| #84-85; #80.BEY \|- \| align="center"\| 2022 \| align="center"\| Ivan Fiorelli \| align="center"\| #80.BEY \|- \| align="center"\| 2022 \| align="center"\| Fran Galán \| align="center"\| #91-92; #92.BEY \|- \| align="center"\| 2022 \| align="center"\| José Carlos Silva \| align="center"\| #92 \|- \| align="center"\| 2022 \| align="center"\| Luigi Zagaria \| align="center"\| #92.BEY \|} Vol. 6 (2022–2025) Writers {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Years ! Writer ! Issues \|- \| align="center"\| 2022–present \| align="center"\| Zeb Wells \| align="center"\| #1-18, #21-60 \|- \| align="center"\| 2022–2023 \| align="center"\| Dan Slott \| align="center"\| #6, #31 \|- \| align="center"\| 2022 \| align="center"\| Daniel Kibblesmith \| align="center"\| #6 \|- \| align="center"\| 2022 \| align="center"\| Jeff Loveness \| align="center"\| #6 \|- \| align="center"\| 2023-2025 \| align="center"\| Joe Kelly \| align="center"\| #19-20, #61-62, #65, #69-70 \|- \| align="center"\| 2023 \| align="center"\| Celeste Bronfman \| align="center"\| #31 \|- \| align="center"\| 2023 \| align="center"\| Cale Atkinson \| align="center"\| #31 \|- \| align="center"\| 2023 \| align="center"\| Albert Monteys \| align="center"\| #31 \|- \| align="center"\| 2023 \| align="center"\| Steve Foxe \| align="center"\| #31 \|- \|2024-2025 \|Justina Ireland \|#63-64, #66-68 \|- \| rowspan="2" \|2025 \|Derek Landy \|#65.DEATHS \|- \|Christos Gage \|#68.DEATHS \|} Pencilers {\| class"wikitable" style"vertical-align:text-top" \|- ! Years ! Penciler ! Issues \|- \| align="center"\| 2022–2024 \| align="center"\| John Romita Jr. \| align="center"\| #1-5, #7-8, #11-13, #21-26, #31, #39-44, #49, #55-60 \|- \| align="center"\| 2022–2025 \| align="center"\| Ed McGuinness \| align="center"\| #6, #15-18, #27-30, #37-38, #50-54, #60-62, #69-70 \|- \| align="center"\| 2022–2023 \| align="center"\| Patrick Gleason \| align="center"\| #9, #32-36, #60 \|- \| align="center"\| 2022 \| align="center"\| Nick Dragotta \| align="center"\| #10 \|- \| align="center"\| 2023 \| align="center"\| Michael Dowling \| align="center"\| #14 \|- \| align="center"\| 2023 \| align="center"\| Kyle Hotz \| align="center"\| #14 \|- \| align="center"\| 2023 \| align="center"\| Terry Dodson \| align="center"\| #14, #19-20 \|- \| align="center"\| 2023 \| align="center"\| Ryan Stegman \| align="center"\| #14 \|- \| align="center"\| 2023 \| align="center"\| Ze Carlos \| align="center"\| #31 \|- \| align="center"\| 2023 \| align="center"\| Emilio Laiso \| align="center"\| #31, #55 \|- \| align="center"\| 2024 \| align="center"\| Carmen Carnero \| align="center"\| #45-46 \|- \| align="center"\| 2024 \| align="center"\| Todd Nauck \| align="center"\| #47-48, #51-54 \|- \|2024 \|Gleb Melnikov \|#63-64 \|- \|2025 \|CAFU \|#65 \|- \|2025 \|Kev Walker \|#65.DEATHS \|- \|2025 \|Andrea Broccardo \|#66-68 \|- \|2025 \|Mark Buckingham \|#68.DEATHS \|} Collected editions See: Spider-Man Collected Editions See also {{Main\|List of The Amazing Spider-Man issues}} {{Main\|List of Spider-Man titles}} References {{Reflist}} {{comicbookdb\|typetitle\|id348\|title=The Amazing Spider-Man}} {{comicbookdb\|typetitle\|id1963\|title=The Amazing Spider-Man vol. 2}} [http://www.comichron.com/titlespotlights/amazingspiderman.html The Amazing Spider-Man comic book sales figures] from 1966–present at The Comics Chronicles [http://www.marvel.com/universe/Spider-Man_(Peter_Parker) Spider-Man] at Marvel Comics wikia [http://www.coverbrowser.com/covers/amazing-spider-man The Amazing Spider-Man cover gallery] [https://web.archive.org/web/20140514001850/http://www.spidermanvideos.info/ Spiderman Videos] {{Spider-Man publications}} {{Spider-Man}} {{Steve Ditko}} {{Stan Lee}} {{J. Michael Straczynski \|state=collapsed}} {{Portal bar\|Comics\|1960s\|1970s\|1980s\|1990s\|2000s}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Amazing Spider-Man}} Category:1963 comics debuts Category:Comics by Archie Goodwin (comics) Category:Comics by Dennis O'Neil Category:Comics by Gerry Conway Category:Comics by J. M. DeMatteis Category:Comics by J. Michael Straczynski Category:Comics by John Byrne (comics) Category:Comics by Len Wein Category:Comics by Mark Waid Category:Comics by Marv Wolfman Category:Comics by Roger Stern Category:Comics by Stan Lee Category:Comics by Steve Ditko Category:Spider-Man titles	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Amazing_Spider-Man	2025-04-05T18:25:26.872962
933	AM	AM or Am may refer to: Arts and entertainment Music A minor, a minor scale in music A.M. (Chris Young album) A.M. (Wilco album) AM (Abraham Mateo album) AM (Arctic Monkeys album) AM (musician), American musician Am, the A minor chord symbol Armeemarschsammlung (Army March Collection), catalog of German military march music Andrew Moore (musician), Canadian musician known as A.M. DJ AM, American DJ and producer Skengdo & AM, British hip hop duo Television and radio AM (radio program), Australian current affairs radio program American Morning, American morning television news program Am, Antes del Mediodía, Argentine current affairs television program Am, a character in the anthology Star Wars: Visions @fter Midnight (TV series) (logo: @m), American late night comedy celebrity game show Other media Allied Mastercomputer, the antagonist of the short story "I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream" Business Aston Martin, a British sportscar manufacturer Education Active Minds, a mental health awareness charity Arts et Métiers ParisTech, a French engineering school Australian Museum, a museum in Australia Master of Arts, an academic degree Military A US Navy hull classification symbol: Minesweeper (AM) Air marshal, a senior air officer rank used in Commonwealth countries Anti-materiel rifle, rifle designed for use against military equipment Aviation structural mechanic, a U.S. Navy occupational rating Science AM, a complexity class related to Arthur–Merlin protocol Adrenomedullin, a protein Air mass (astronomy), measure of the amount of air along the line of sight in astronomical observations Am, tropical monsoon climate in the Köppen climate classification Americium, symbol Am, a chemical element Attometre, a unit of length attomolar (aM), a unit of molar concentration Technology Amplitude modulation, an electronic communication technique AM broadcasting, radio broadcasting using amplitude modulation Additive manufacturing, or 3-D printing, a process of making a three-dimensional solid object of virtually any shape from a digital model. Agile modeling, a software engineering methodology for modeling and documenting software systems Automated Mathematician, an artificial intelligence program .am, Internet domain for Armenia .am, a file extension associated with Automake software Timekeeping a.m., ante meridiem, the time period from midnight to noon, written e.g., 6a.m. Anno Mundi, a calendar era based on the biblical creation of the world Transportation A.M. (automobile), a 1906 French car Aeroméxico (IATA airline code AM), airline in Mexico All-mountain, a discipline of mountain biking Arkansas and Missouri Railroad Other uses First-person singular present of the copula verb to be Am (cuneiform), a written syllable Member of the Order of Australia, postnominal letters which can be used by a Member of the Order Assembly Member (disambiguation), a political office formerly a Member of the National Assembly for Wales, now Member of the Senedd Member of the London Assembly Amharic language (ISO 639-1 language code am) Anguilla, LOC MARC code AM Armenia (ISO country code AM) Attacking midfielder, a position in association football The Book of Amos, part of the Tanakh and Old Testament Australian Museum, Sydney See also Pro–am `am (disambiguation) A&M (disambiguation) AM2 (disambiguation) AMS (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM	2025-04-05T18:25:26.880427
951	Antigua and Barbuda	{{Short description\|Country in the Lesser Antilles of the West Indies}} {{About\|the country\|its main islands\|Antigua\|and\|Barbuda\|other uses\|Antigua (disambiguation)\|and\|Barbuda (disambiguation)}} {{Use Antiguan and Barbudan English\|date=December 2024}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=April 2020}} {{Infobox country \| conventional_long_name = Antigua and Barbuda \| languages_type = Vernacular language \| languages = Antiguan and Barbudan Creole \| languages2_type = Working language \| common_name = Antigua and Barbuda \| native_name {{native name\|aig\|Aanteega an' Baabyuuda\|parenomit}} (Antiguan and Barbudan Creole) \| image_flag = Flag of Antigua and Barbuda.svg \| image_coat = Coat of arms of Antigua and Barbuda.svg \| symbol_type = Coat of arms \| national_motto = "Each Endeavouring, All Achieving" \| national_anthem "Fair Antigua, We Salute Thee"{{efn\|nameanthem\|Antigua and Barbuda also has a royal anthem, "God Save the King", which may be played in place of or alongside the national anthem when members of the royal family are present. If not played alongside the royal anthem, the national anthem is instead played at the end of an official event.}}<div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center\|}}</div> \| image_map = {{switcher\|\|Show globe\|\|Show map of Antigua and Barbuda}} \| image_map2 \| capital St. John's{{efn\|Antigua and Barbuda does not have an official capital but St. John's is the seat of parliament.}} \| coordinates = {{Coord\|17\|7\|N\|61\|51\|W\|type:city}} \| largest_city = capital \| official_languages None{{efn\|namelanguage\|Antigua and Barbuda has not declared an official language de jure. English is used in most government proceedings.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://ab.gov.ag/detail_page.php?page28\|titleGovernment of Antigua and Barbuda\|access-date23 March 2022\|archive-date3 May 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220503152657/https://ab.gov.ag/detail_page.php?page28\|url-statuslive}}</ref>}} \| national_languages \| languages2 \| ethnic_groups = {{vunblist \|87.3% African (Black) \|4.7% Multiracial \|1.7% European (White) \|6.3% other}} \| ethnic_groups_year 2011<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://redatam.org/binatg/RpWebUtilities.exe/reporte.pdf?LFNRpBases%5CTempo%5C85783%5C~tmp_8578301.pdf \|titleECLAC/CELADE Redatam+SP 03/21/2022 \|websiteredatam.org \|access-date23 March 2022 \|archive-date21 March 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220321233341/https://redatam.org/binatg/RpWebUtilities.exe/reporte.pdf?LFNRpBases%5CTempo%5C85783%5C~tmp_8578301.pdf \|url-statusdead }}</ref> \| religion {{ublist \|item_stylewhite-space:nowrap; \|{{Tree list}} 92.7% Christianity 66.6% Protestantism 26.1% other Christian {{Tree list/end}} \|3.6% Rastafari \|1.9% no religion \|1.1% Baháʼí Faith \|0.7% other}} \| religion_year 2020<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u10c \| titleNational Profiles }}</ref> \| demonym = Antiguan and Barbudan \| government_type = Unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy \| leader_title1 = Monarch \| leader_title2 = {{nowrap\|Governor-General}} \| leader_name1 = Charles III \| leader_name2 = Sir Rodney Williams \| leader_title3 = Prime Minister \| leader_name3 = {{Current prime minister of Antigua and Barbuda}} \| legislature = Parliament \| upper_house = Senate \| lower_house = {{nowrap\|House of Representatives}} \| sovereignty_type = Formation \| sovereignty_note \| established_event1 Union \| established_date1 = 1 August 1860 \| established_event2 = Redonda \| established_date2 = 26 March 1872 \| established_event3 = Associated state \| established_date3 = 27 February 1967 \| established_event4 = Independence \| established_date4 = 1 November 1981 \| area_km2 = 440 \| area_rank = 182nd <!-- Should match List of countries and dependencies by area --> \| area_sq_mi = 170 \| percent_water = negligible \| population_estimate {{IncreaseNeutral}} 100,772<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://statistics.gov.ag/subjects/population-and-demography/population-projections-by-age-group-annual-1991-2026/ \|titlePopulation projections by age group, annual 1991 to 2026 \|publisherStatistics Division, Ministry of Finance and Corporate Governance of Antigua and Barbuda \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220627133401/https://statistics.gov.ag/subjects/population-and-demography/population-projections-by-age-group-annual-1991-2026/ \|archive-date27 June 2022 }}</ref> \| population_census = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 84,816 \| population_estimate_year = 2022 \| population_estimate_rank = 182nd \| population_census_year = 2011 \| population_density_km2 = 186 \| population_density_sq_mi = 481 \| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $2.6&nbsp;billion \| GDP_PPP_year = 2023 \| GDP_PPP_rank = 196th \| GDP_PPP_per_capita {{increase}} $25,449<ref nameIMF>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c311,&sNGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy2022&ey2024&ssm0&scsm1&scc0&ssd1&ssc0&sic0&sortcountry&ds.&br1 \|publisherInternational Monetary Fund \|dateOctober 2023 \|access-date13 December 2023 \|titleWorld Economic Outlook October 2023 (Antigua and Barbuda)}}</ref> \| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 59th \| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $1.95&nbsp;billion \| GDP_nominal_year = 2023 \| GDP_nominal_rank = 193rd \| GDP_nominal_per_capita {{increase}} $19,068<ref nameIMF /> \| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 49th \| Gini \| Gini_change increase \| Gini_ref <ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/12127652 \|titleAn Assessment of Income Inequality and Poverty in Antigua and Barbuda in 2007 \|last1Horsford \|first1Ian \|access-date23 March 2022 \|archive-date18 April 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220418001231/https://www.academia.edu/12127652 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.cepal.org/sites/default/files/events/files/egm_ppt.pdf \|titleComparison of Poverty measurement indicators \|year2006 \|publisherEconomic Commission for Latin America (ECLA) \|access-date23 March 2022 \|archive-date2 May 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210502080925/https://www.cepal.org/sites/default/files/events/files/egm_ppt.pdf \|url-status=live }}</ref> \| HDI = 0.826<!-- number only --> \| HDI_year = 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year --> \| HDI_change = increase<!-- increase/decrease/steady --> \| HDI_ref <ref name"UNHDR">{{cite web\|urlhttps://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf\|titleHuman Development Report 2023/24\|languageen\|publisherUnited Nations Development Programme\|date13 March 2024\|pages274–277\|access-date=15 March 2024}}</ref> \| HDI_rank = 54th \| currency = East Caribbean dollar \| currency_code = XCD \| time_zone = AST \| utc_offset = -04:00 \| drives_on = left \| calling_code = +1-268 \| cctld = .ag }} Antigua and Barbuda{{efn\|namepronounce\|{{IPAc-en\|æ\|n\|ˈ\|t\|iː\|ɡ\|ə\|...\|b\|ɑːr\|ˈ\|b\|(\|j\|)\|uː\|d\|ə}};<ref>{{Cite news \|titleHow to pronounce Antigua and Barbuda in English \|urlhttps://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/pronunciation/english/antigua-and-barbuda \|archive-urlhttp://web.archive.org/web/20230222202007/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/pronunciation/english/antigua-and-barbuda \|archive-date2023-02-22 \|access-date2025-01-04 \|languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|lastWells \|firstJ. C. (John Christopher) \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/longmanpronuncia00jcwe/page/32/mode/2up \|titleLongman pronunciation dictionary \|date2000 \|publisherHarlow [England] : Pearson Education Ltd. \|othersInternet Archive \|isbn978-0-582-36467-7}}</ref> {{langx\|aig\|Aanteega an' Baabyuuda\|labelAntiguan and Barbudan Creole}}<ref>{{Cite web \|date2025-02-03 \|titleAntiguan and Barbudan Creole orthography \|urlhttps://www.axarplex.com/items/antiguan-and-barbudan-creole-orthography \|access-date2025-02-03 \|websiteAxarplex \|languageen}}</ref>}} is a sovereign archipelagic country composed of Antigua, Barbuda, and numerous other small islands. Antigua and Barbuda has a total area of 440&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (170 sq mi), making it one of the smallest countries in the Caribbean. The country is mostly flat, with the highest points on Antigua being in the Shekerley Mountains and on Barbuda the Highlands. The country has a tropical savanna climate, with pockets of tropical monsoon in Antigua's southwest. Its most populated city is St. John's, followed by All Saints and Bolans. Most of the country resides in the corridor between St. John's and English Harbour. Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east and the Caribbean Sea on the west, Antigua and Barbuda is located within the Leeward Islands moist forest and Leeward Islands xeric scrub ecoregions. The country shares maritime borders with Anguilla, Saint Barthélemy, and Saint Kitts and Nevis to the west, Montserrat to the southwest, and Guadeloupe to the south. Antigua and Barbuda has numerous natural parks, including Codrington Lagoon, one of the largest internal bodies of water in the Lesser Antilles. Despite its dense population, the country has large swaths of undeveloped land, however, Antigua and Barbuda has experienced many environmental issues due to climate change. Hunter-gatherers settled the islands starting around 3000 BC, likely arriving on canoes from Central and South America. They were followed by the Arawaks of Venezuela during the Ceramic Period. In 1493, Christopher Columbus surveyed the island of Antigua, which resulted in an attempt at Spanish settlement in 1520. Antigua remained uncolonised until 1632 when Edward Warner and his small party created the first successful British colony. Barbuda was under the control of the Codrington family until the 1860s. Antiguan independence was first proposed by Prince Klaas in 1728, who attempted to make the island an independent kingdom. After emancipation in 1834, Antigua's autonomy slowly increased, while Barbuda was slowly integrated into Antigua. The first democratic elections were held in 1951, and by 1981, Antigua and Barbuda was independent. From 1960 until 2004, the Bird family dominated the archipelago's politics with only one interruption, which ended with the election of Baldwin Spencer to the premiership. Since 2014, the Labour Party has dominated national politics. Antigua and Barbuda is a member of the Commonwealth and a Commonwealth realm, being a constitutional monarchy with Charles III as its head of state. The country is a unitary state, with Barbuda being governed by the Barbuda Council since 1976. Antigua is divided into six parishes. The central government is composed of three main branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. It has a bicameral national legislature comprising the directly elected House of Representatives and the Senate appointed by the Governor-General, the representative of the monarch. The Labour Party and the United Progressive Party have dominated the country's politics since 1994. Antigua and Barbuda has a proportionally high foreign-born population, in addition to having the second highest Human Development Index in the Caribbean. Most people are of African descent, with significant populations of Europeans, Hispanics, and Indians. The country is also majority Christian, with most being Protestant. The most spoken language in the country is Antiguan and Barbudan Creole. Compared to neighboring countries, Antigua and Barbuda ranks highly in most economic indicators, and ranks about average in political freedoms. Antigua and Barbuda is a high-income country. It is a member of the United Nations, the OECS, the Regional Security System, CARICOM, and the World Trade Organisation. Antigua and Barbuda is one of the only countries in the Caribbean to maintain an air force, and has a mostly service-based economy. Antigua and Barbuda maintains significant influence in the former British Leeward Islands and the eastern Caribbean, having the largest economy and population in the former colony. However, the country continues to struggle with human rights and political polarisation, with a significant Barbudan independence movement re-emerging and declining freedom of the press. Etymology {{lang\|es\|Antigua}} is Spanish for 'ancient' and {{lang\|es\|barbuda}} is Spanish for 'bearded'.<ref nameFactbook /> The island of Antigua was originally called {{lang\|tnq\|Waladli}} by the Arawaks and is locally known by that name today; the Caribs possibly called Barbuda {{lang\|crb\|Wa'omoni}}. Christopher Columbus, while sailing by in 1493, may have named it {{lang\|es\|Santa Maria la Antigua}}, after an icon in the Spanish Seville Cathedral. The "bearded" of Barbuda is thought to refer either to the male inhabitants of the island, or the bearded fig trees present there.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastIT \|date2020-03-03 \|titleHistory Of Antigua – Antigua And Barbuda \|urlhttps://embassy.ag/dario-item-antigua-barbuda-antigua-barbuda-history/ \|access-date2022-07-19 \|websiteAntigua and Barbuda Embassy in Madrid – Ambassador Dario Item \|languageen-US}}</ref> History {{Main\|History of Antigua and Barbuda}} Pre-colonial period {{Main\|Pre-Columbian Antigua and Barbuda}} Antigua was first settled by archaic age Indigenous hunter-gatherers called the Ciboney.<ref nameFactbook /><ref nameBritannica>{{cite encyclopedia \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/place/Antigua-and-Barbuda \|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica \|titleAntigua and Barbuda \|last1Niddrie \|first1David Lawrence \|last2Momsen \|first2Janet D. \|last3Tolson \|first3Richard \|access-date8 July 2019 \|archive-date3 April 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190403214208/https://www.britannica.com/place/Antigua-and-Barbuda \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref nameCommonwealth>{{cite web \|urlhttp://thecommonwealth.org/our-member-countries/antigua-and-barbuda/history \|publisherThe Commonwealth \|titleAntigua and Barbuda : History \|access-date8 July 2019 \|archive-date24 June 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190624235053/http://thecommonwealth.org/our-member-countries/antigua-and-barbuda/history \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Carbon dating has established the earliest settlements started around 3100 BC.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Napolitano\|first1Matthew F.\|last2DiNapoli\|first2Robert J.\|last3Stone\|first3Jessica H.\|last4Levin\|first4Maureece J.\|last5Jew\|first5Nicholas P.\|last6Lane\|first6Brian G.\|last7O'Connor\|first7John T.\|last8Fitzpatrick\|first8Scott M.\|date2019-12-18\|titleReevaluating human colonization of the Caribbean using chronometric hygiene and Bayesian modeling\|journalScience Advances\|volume5\|issue12\|pageseaar7806\|doi10.1126/sciadv.aar7806\|issn2375-2548\|pmc6957329\|pmid31976370\|bibcode2019SciA....5R7806N}}</ref> They were succeeded by the ceramic age pre-Columbian Arawak-speaking Saladoid people who migrated from the lower Orinoco River.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleCaribbean Trade and Networks (U.S. National Park Service) \|urlhttps://www.nps.gov/articles/caribbean-trade-and-networks.htm \|access-date2022-07-19 \|websitenps.gov \|languageen}}</ref> They introduced agriculture, raising, among other crops, the famous Antigua Black Pineapple (Ananas comosus), corn, sweet potatoes, chiles, guava, tobacco, and cotton.<ref>Duval, D. T. (1996). Saladoid archaeology on St. Vincent, West Indies: results of the 1993/1994 University of Manitoba survey</ref> Later on the Caribs settled the island.<ref>{{cite web \|titleArchaeologists say early Caribbeans were not 'savage cannibals', as colonists wrote\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/24/archeology-caribbean-carib-people-cannibalism-colonial-history-wrong\|lastHandy\|firstGemma\|locationEnglish Harbor, Antigua\|date24 April 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240822165049/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/24/archeology-caribbean-carib-people-cannibalism-colonial-history-wrong\|url-statuslive\|archive-date22 August 2024\|workThe Guardian}}</ref>European arrival and slaveryChristopher Columbus was the first European to sight the islands in 1493.<ref nameBritannica /><ref nameCommonwealth /> The Spanish did not colonise Antigua until after a combination of European and African diseases, malnutrition, and slavery eventually extirpated most of the native population; smallpox was probably the greatest killer.<ref>{{cite book\| last Austin Alchon\| first Suzanne\| title A pest in the land: new world epidemics in a global perspective\| url https://books.google.com/books?idYiHHnV08ebkC&pgPA62\| year 2003\| publisher University of New Mexico Press\| isbn 0-8263-2871-7\| pages 62–63\| access-date 11 September 2020\| archive-date 29 November 2021\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20211129165420/https://books.google.com/books?idYiHHnV08ebkC&pgPA62\| url-status = live}}</ref> The English settled on Antigua in 1632;<ref nameCommonwealth /><ref nameBritannica /> Christopher Codrington settled on Barbuda in 1685.<ref nameCommonwealth /><ref nameBritannica /> Tobacco and then sugar was grown, worked by a large population of slaves transported from West Africa, who soon came to vastly outnumber the European settlers.<ref nameBritannica />Colonial eraThe English maintained control of the islands, repulsing an attempted French attack in 1666.<ref nameBritannica /> The brutal conditions endured by the slaves led to revolts in 1701 and 1729 and a planned revolt in 1736, the last led by Prince Klaas, though it was discovered before it began and the ringleaders were executed.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/antiguas-disputed-slave-conspiracy-of-1736-117569/ \|titleAntigua's Disputed Slave Conspiracy of 1736 \|access-date8 July 2019 \|archive-date8 July 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190708151331/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/antiguas-disputed-slave-conspiracy-of-1736-117569/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Slavery was abolished in the British Empire in 1833, affecting the economy.<ref nameCommonwealth /><ref nameBritannica /> This was exacerbated by natural disasters such as the 1843 earthquake and the 1847 hurricane.<ref nameBritannica /> Mining occurred on the isle of Redonda, however, this ceased in 1929 and the island has since remained uninhabited.<ref name"kras-2008">{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTnItHSAgevMC&pgPA18\|page18\|titleAntigua and Barbuda\|firstSara Louise\|lastKras\|publisherMarshall Cavendish\|year2008\|isbn9780761425700\|seriesCultures of the World\|volume26\|quotea cableway using baskets was built to transfer the mined phosphate to a pier for shipping\|access-date11 September 2020\|archive-date18 April 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210418004906/https://books.google.com/books?idTnItHSAgevMC&pgPA18\|url-status=live}}</ref> Part of the Leeward Islands colony, Antigua and Barbuda became part of the short-lived West Indies Federation from 1958 to 1962.<ref nameCommonwealth /><ref nameBritannica /> Antigua and Barbuda subsequently became an associated state of the United Kingdom with full internal autonomy on 27 February 1967.<ref nameBritannica /> The 1970s were dominated by discussions as to the islands' future and the rivalry between Vere Bird of the Antigua and Barbuda Labour Party (ABLP) (Premier from 1967 to 1971 and 1976 to 1981) and the Progressive Labour Movement (PLM) of George Walter (Premier 1971–1976). Eventually, Antigua and Barbuda gained full independence on 1 November 1981; Vere Bird became prime minister of the new country.<ref nameBritannica /> The country opted to remain within the Commonwealth, retaining Elizabeth II ({{reign\|1952\|2022}}) as head of state, with the first governor, Sir Wilfred Jacobs, as governor-general. Succeeding Wilfred Jacobs were James Carlisle (1993–2007), Louise Lake-Tack (2007–2014), and the present since 2014 being Rodney Williams. Independence era The first two decades of Antigua's independence were dominated politically by the Bird family and the ABLP, with Vere Bird ruling from 1981 to 1994, followed by his son Lester Bird from 1994 to 2004.<ref nameBritannica /> Though providing a degree of political stability, and boosting tourism to the country, the Bird governments were frequently accused of corruption, cronyism and financial malfeasance.<ref nameCommonwealth /><ref nameBritannica /> Vere Bird Jr., the elder son, was forced to leave the cabinet in 1990 following a scandal in which he was accused of smuggling Israeli weapons to Colombian drug-traffickers.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?idbAsgAAAAIBAJ&pg1313,5601929\|titleAntiguan Quits in Weapons Scandal\|date26 April 1990\|workSun-Journal\|access-date4 July 2011\|archive-date31 May 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220531122652/https://news.google.com/newspapers?idbAsgAAAAIBAJ&pg1313,5601929\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|titleAntigua-Barbuda: Government Finally Orders Probe of Arms Shipment\|date25 April 1990\|workIPS-Inter Press Service}}</ref><ref nameCommonwealth /> Another son, Ivor Bird, was convicted of selling cocaine in 1995.<ref>{{cite news\|titleYounger Brother of Prime Minister Lester Bird Is Arrested on Cocaine Charges\|lastMassiah\|firstDavid\|date7 May 1995\|workAssociated Press Worldstream\|agencyAssociated Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|titlePrime Minister Lester Bird Promises No Intervention in Brother's Arrest\|lastMassiah\|firstDavid\|date8 May 1995\|workAssociated Press Worldstream\|agency=Associated Press}}</ref> In 1995, Hurricane Luis caused severe damage on Barbuda.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://anumetservice.wordpress.com/2015/09/05/20th-anniversary-of-hurricane-luis/\|title20th Anniversary of Hurricane Luis\|date5 September 2015\|websiteAnumetservice.wordpress.com\|access-date30 September 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170912011401/https://anumetservice.wordpress.com/2015/09/05/20th-anniversary-of-hurricane-luis/\|archive-date12 September 2017\|url-statusdead}}</ref> The ABLP's dominance of Antiguan politics ended with the 2004 Antiguan general election, which was won by Winston Baldwin Spencer's United Progressive Party (UPP).<ref nameBritannica /> Winston Baldwin Spencer was Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda from 2004 to 2014.<ref>{{cite web \|titleCaribbean Elections Biography {{!}} Winston Baldwin Spencer \|urlhttp://www.caribbeanelections.com/knowledge/biography/bios/spencer_baldwin.asp \|websitewww.caribbeanelections.com \|access-date29 December 2021 \|archive-date25 December 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211225020401/http://www.caribbeanelections.com/knowledge/biography/bios/spencer_baldwin.asp \|url-statuslive }}</ref> However the UPP lost the 2014 Antiguan general election, with the ABLP returning to power under Gaston Browne.<ref name"bald">{{cite web \|lastCharles \|firstJacqueline \|urlhttp://www.miamiherald.com/2014/06/13/4175779/antigua-prime-minister-baldwin.html \|titleBrowne becomes new prime minister of Antigua, youngest ever \|workThe Miami Herald \|access-date14 June 2014 \|archive-date14 July 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140714173815/http://www.miamiherald.com/2014/06/13/4175779/antigua-prime-minister-baldwin.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> ABLP won 15 of the 17 seats in the 2018 snap election under the leadership of incumbent Prime Minister Gaston Browne.<ref>{{cite news \|titleSpeculation about early election in Antigua \|urlhttps://barbadostoday.bb/2021/06/12/speculation-about-early-election-in-antigua/ \|workBarbados Today \|date12 June 2021 \|access-date29 December 2021 \|archive-date18 December 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211218232206/https://barbadostoday.bb/2021/06/12/speculation-about-early-election-in-antigua/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In 2016, Nelson's Dockyard was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.<ref>{{cite news \|titleNelson's Dockyard in Antigua now a Unesco heritage site: Travel Weekly \|urlhttps://www.travelweekly.com/Caribbean-Travel/Nelsons-Dockyard-in-Antigua-now-a-Unesco-heritage-site \|worktravelweekly.com \|languageen}}</ref> Most of Barbuda was devastated in early September 2017 by Hurricane Irma, which brought winds with speeds reaching 295&nbsp;km/h (185&nbsp;mph). The storm damaged or destroyed 95% of the island's buildings and infrastructure, leaving Barbuda "barely habitable" according to Prime Minister Gaston Browne. Nearly everyone on the island was evacuated to Antigua.<ref name"auto">{{Cite news \|last1Panzar \|first1Javier \|last2Willsher \|first2Kim \|date9 September 2017 \|titleHurricane Irma leaves Caribbean Islands Devastated \|urlhttp://www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-irma-islands-20170909-story.html \|workLos Angeles Times \|access-date11 September 2017 \|archive-date11 September 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170911024806/http://www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-irma-islands-20170909-story.html \|url-status=live }}</ref> Amidst the following rebuilding efforts on Barbuda that were estimated to cost at least $100&nbsp;million,<ref name"time.com">{{cite magazine\|urlhttps://time.com/4935433/hurricane-irma-barbuda-antigua-survivors-caribbean/\|titleHurricane Irma Flattens Barbuda, Leaving Population Stranded\|firstTara\|lastJohn\|date11 September 2017\|magazineTime\|access-date1 September 2020\|archive-date7 August 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200807130608/https://time.com/4935433/hurricane-irma-barbuda-antigua-survivors-caribbean/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> the government announced plans to revoke a century-old law of communal land ownership by allowing residents to buy land; a move that has been criticised as promoting "disaster capitalism".<ref name"NACLA-disaster-capitalism">{{cite news \|last1Boger \|first1Rebecca \|last2Perdikaris \|first2Sophia \|titleAfter Irma, Disaster Capitalism Threatens Cultural Heritage in Barbuda \|urlhttps://nacla.org/news/2019/02/12/after-irma-disaster-capitalism-threatens-cultural-heritage-barbuda \|access-date1 September 2020 \|workNACLA \|date11 February 2019 \|languageen \|archive-date25 December 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211225153657/https://nacla.org/news/2019/02/12/after-irma-disaster-capitalism-threatens-cultural-heritage-barbuda \|url-statuslive }}</ref>Geography {{Main\|Geography of Antigua and Barbuda}} {{Location map many \|Antigua and Barbuda \|width = 300 \|caption = Antigua and Barbuda \|lat1_deg = 17.083333 \|lon1_deg = -61.8 \|label1 = Antigua \|lat2_deg = 17.616667 \|lon2_deg = -61.8 \|label2 = Barbuda \|lat3_deg = 16.938889 \|lon3_deg = -62.341667 \|label3 = Redonda }} Limestone formations, rather than volcanic activity, have had the most impact on the topography of both Antigua and Barbuda, which are both relatively low-lying islands. Boggy Peak, also known as Mt. Obama from 2008 to 2016, is the highest point on both Antigua and Barbuda. It is the remnant of a volcanic crater and rises a total of 402 meters. Boggy Peak is located in the southwest of Antigua (1,319 feet).<ref nameFactbook /><ref nameBritannica /> Both of these islands have very irregularly shaped coastlines that are dotted with beaches, lagoons, and natural harbours. There are reefs and shoals that surround the islands on all sides. Because of the low amount of rainfall, there are not many streams. On neither of these islands can sufficient quantities of fresh groundwater be found.<ref name=Factbook /> Redonda is a small, uninhabited island located about 40 kilometres (25 miles) to the south-west of Antigua. Redonda is a rocky island.<ref name=Britannica /> In Antigua and Barbuda forest cover is about 18% of the total land area, equivalent to 8,120 ha of forests in 2020, down from 10,110 ha in 1990.<ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttps://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a6e225da-4a31-4e06-818d-ca3aeadfd635/content \|titleTerms and Definitions FRA 2025 Forest Resources Assessment, Working Paper 194 \|publisherFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations \|year2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleGlobal Forest Resources Assessment 2020, Antigua and Barbuda \|urlhttps://fra-data.fao.org/assessments/fra/2020/ATG/home/overview \|websiteFood Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}}</ref> Cities and villages {{Further\|List of cities in Antigua and Barbuda}} The most populous cities in Antigua and Barbuda are mostly on Antigua, being Saint John's, All Saints, Piggotts, and Liberta.<ref>{{cite web \|titleLargest cities in Antigua and Barbuda \|urlhttps://population.mongabay.com/population/antigua-and-barbuda/ \|websiteMongabay \|access-date3 February 2021 \|archive-date12 January 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210112054023/https://population.mongabay.com/population/antigua-and-barbuda/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The most populous city on Barbuda is Codrington. It is estimated that 25% of the population lives in an urban area, which is much lower than the international average of 55%.<ref>{{cite web \|titleUrban Population (%of total population) \|urlhttps://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS \|websiteThe World Bank \|access-date3 February 2021 \|archive-date7 November 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171107010632/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleAntigua and Barbuda – Urban Population \|urlhttps://www.indexmundi.com/facts/antigua-and-barbuda/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS \|websiteIndex Mundi \|access-date3 February 2021 \|archive-date18 April 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210418011502/https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/antigua-and-barbuda/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS \|url-statuslive }}</ref>Islands {{Further\|List of islands of Antigua and Barbuda}} Antigua and Barbuda consists mostly of its two namesake islands, Antigua, and Barbuda. Other than that, Antigua and Barbuda's biggest islands are Guiana Island and Long Island off the coast of Antigua, and Redonda island, which is far from both of the main islands. Climate Rainfall averages {{convert\|990\|mm\|in\|0\|abbr=on}} per year, with the amount varying widely from season to season. In general the wettest period is between September and November. The islands generally experience low humidity and recurrent droughts. Temperatures average {{convert\|27\|°C\|1}}, with a range from {{convert\|23\|°C\|1}} to {{convert\|29\|°C\|1}} in the winter to from {{convert\|25\|°C\|1}} to {{convert\|30\|°C\|1}} in the summer and autumn. The coolest period is between December and February. Hurricanes strike on an average of once a year, including the powerful Category 5 Hurricane Irma, on 6 September 2017, which damaged 95% of the structures on Barbuda.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.cnn.com/2017/09/06/us/hurricane-irma-puerto-rico-florida/index.html \|titleHurricane Irma: Powerful storm blamed for three deaths \|first1Jason \|last1Hanna \|first2Joe \|last2Sterling \|first3Steve \|last3Almasy \|workABS TV Radio Antigua & Barbuda \|publisherCNN \|date6 September 2017 \|access-date6 September 2017 \|archive-date24 June 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180624010702/https://www.cnn.com/2017/09/06/us/hurricane-irma-puerto-rico-florida/index.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Some 1,800 people were evacuated to Antigua.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-irma-islands-20170909-story.html\|titleHurricane Irma leaves Caribbean islands devastated\|firstJavier\|lastPanzar\|date9 September 2017\|workLos Angeles Times\|access-date11 September 2017\|archive-date11 September 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170911110633/http://www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-irma-islands-20170909-story.html\|url-status=live}}</ref> Officials quoted by Time indicated that over $100&nbsp;million would be required to rebuild homes and infrastructure. Philmore Mullin, Director of Barbuda's National Office of Disaster Services, said that "all critical infrastructure and utilities are non-existent – food supply, medicine, shelter, electricity, water, communications, waste management". He summarised the situation as follows: "Public utilities need to be rebuilt in their entirety... It is optimistic to think anything can be rebuilt in six months ... In my 25 years in disaster management, I have never seen something like this."<ref>{{cite magazine\|urlhttps://time.com/4935433/hurricane-irma-barbuda-antigua-survivors-caribbean/\|title'There Is No Home to Go Back to.' Hurricane Irma Flattens Barbuda, Leaving Population Stranded\|firstTara /\|lastJohn\|magazineTime\|access-date11 September 2017\|archive-date11 September 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170911201738/http://time.com/4935433/hurricane-irma-barbuda-antigua-survivors-caribbean/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Environmental issues {{Excerpt\|Environmental issues in Antigua and Barbuda}}Demographics{{Main\|Demographics of Antigua and Barbuda}}Ethnic groups {{Main\|Ethnic groups in Antigua and Barbuda}} Antigua has a population of {{UN_Population\|Antigua and Barbuda}},{{UN_Population\|ref}} mostly made up of people of West African, British, and Portuguese descent. The ethnic distribution consists of 91% Black, 4.4% mixed race, 1.7% White, and 2.9% other (primarily East Indian). Most Whites are of British descent. Christian Levantine Arabs and a small number of East Asians and Sephardic Jews make up the remainder of the population. An increasingly large percentage of the population lives abroad, most notably in the United Kingdom (Antiguan Britons), the United States and Canada. A minority of Antiguan residents are immigrants from other countries, particularly from Dominica, Guyana and Jamaica, and, increasingly, from the Dominican Republic, St. Vincent and the Grenadines and Nigeria. An estimated 4,500 American citizens also make their home in Antigua and Barbuda, making their numbers one of the largest American populations in the English-speaking Eastern Caribbean.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2336.htm \|titleBackground Note: Antigua and Barbuda \|workstate.gov \|access-date23 August 2007 \|archive-date22 January 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170122194319/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2336.htm \|url-statuslive }}</ref> 68.47% of the population was born in Antigua and Barbuda.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleECLAC/CELADE Redatam+SP 11/12/2022\|urlhttps://redatam.org/binatg/RpWebUtilities.exe/reporte.pdf?LFNRpBases%5CTempo%5C66927%5C~tmp_6692731.pdf\|websiteredatam.org\|access-date12 November 2022\|archive-date12 November 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221112163433/https://redatam.org/binatg/RpWebUtilities.exe/reporte.pdf?LFNRpBases%5CTempo%5C66927%5C~tmp_6692731.pdf\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Languages {{Main\|Languages of Antigua and Barbuda}} The language most commonly used in business is English. There is a noticeable distinction between the Antiguan accent and the Barbudan one. When compared to Antiguan Creole, Standard English was the language of choice in the years leading up to Antigua and Barbuda's attainment of their independence. The Antiguan Creole language is looked down upon by the upper and middle classes in general. The Antiguan Creole language is discouraged from use in the educational system, and instruction is carried out in Standard (British) English instead. A significant number of the words that are used in the Antiguan dialect are derived from both the British and African languages. This is readily apparent in phrases such as "Innit?" which literally translates to "Isn't it?" Many common island proverbs can be traced back to Africa, such as the pidgin language. Approximately 10,000 people are able to speak in Spanish.<ref>Farquhar, Bernadette, [http://www.cavehill.uwi.edu/BNCCde/antigua/conference/papers/farquhar.html "The Spanish Language in Antigua and Barbuda: Implications for Language Planning and Language Research"] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130715015910/http://www.cavehill.uwi.edu/BNCCde/antigua/conference/papers/farquhar.html \|date15 July 2013 }}</ref> Education {{excerpt\|Education in Antigua and Barbuda}} Religion {{Main\|Religion in Antigua and Barbuda}} {{Gallery \| align =right \| height =113 \| width =200 \| File:Stjohnscathedralantigua.jpg \| <small>St. John's Cathedral, St. John's</small> \| alt2= \| File:Antigua and Barbuda, English Harbour (29), Baxter Memorial Methodist Church.jpg \| <small>Baxter Memorial Methodist Church, St.Paul Parish</small> \| alt3= }} A majority (77%)<ref name=Factbook /> of Antiguans are Christians, with the Anglicans (17.6%) being the largest single denomination. Other Christian denominations present are Seventh-day Adventist Church (12.4%), Pentecostalism (12.2%), Moravian Church (8.3%), Roman Catholics (8.2%), Methodist Church (5.6%), Wesleyan Holiness Church (4.5%), Church of God (4.1%), Baptists (3.6%),<ref nameFactbookAttribution/> Mormonism (<1.0%), as well as Jehovah's Witnesses. Government and politics {{Main\|Politics of Antigua and Barbuda}} Government ]] , the official residence and working place of the Governor-General]] Antigua and Barbuda is a unitary<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAntigua and Barbuda - CLGF \|urlhttps://www.clgf.org.uk/regions/clgf-americas/antigua-and-barbuda/ \|access-date2024-06-22 \|websitewww.clgf.org.uk}}</ref> parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleAntigua & Barbuda: Foreign Policy & Government Guide \|dateMay 2004 \|publisherInternational Business Publications, USA \|isbn0-7397-9643-7}}</ref> The current Constitution of Antigua and Barbuda was adopted upon independence on 1 November 1981.<ref name":0">{{Cite web \|titleThe Antigua and Barbuda Constitution Order 1981 \|urlhttps://laws.gov.ag/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/cap-23.pdf}}</ref> This replaced the pre-independence constitution of the Associated State of Antigua, which did not thoroughly define the relationship between the two islands.<ref name"Constitution Order 1967">{{Cite web \|titleAntigua Constitution Order 1967 \|urlhttps://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1967/225/pdfs/uksi_19670225_en.pdf}}</ref> The island of Barbuda maintains much autonomy, while the island of Antigua is directly governed by the national government.<ref name=":0" /> The executive branch has two primary leaders. The Governor-General, currently Rodney Williams, exercises the functions of the Monarch of Antigua and Barbuda, in whom executive power is vested in. The Governor-General serves at the pleasure of the Monarch,<ref name":0" /> and usually serves a similar term to that of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister, currently {{Current prime minister of Antigua and Barbuda}}, is the head of government, and is appointed by the Governor-General. The Prime Minister must be a member of the House of Representatives, and must be the member of the House of Representatives who is most likely to command the support of the majority of members. The Governor-General has the ability to dissolve Parliament on the advice of the Prime Minister, or when the majority of the members of the House of Representatives pass a motion of no confidence, and the Prime Minister does not within seven days resign or advise the Governor-General to dissolve Parliament.<ref name":0" /> The legislative power of Antigua and Barbuda is vested in Parliament, which is composed of the Monarch, the Senate, and the House of Representatives. The Senate is composed of seventeen members, who are appointed by the Governor-General. Ten of the members are appointed on the advice of the Prime Minister, these members being known as government senators. An eleventh government senator is also appointed on the advice of the Prime Minister, who must be an inhabitant of Barbuda. Four of the members are appointed on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition, these senators being known as opposition senators. One of the members is appointed on the advice of the Barbuda Council, and an independent senator is appointed under the discretion of the Governor-General himself. The House of Representatives is currently composed of seventeen elected members, as well as the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members of the House itself. The Attorney General, while currently an elected member of Parliament, Steadroy Benjamin, may also be appointed to the House of Representatives as an ex officio member. The Attorney-General also attends sittings of the Senate. Any bill except money bills may be introduced in either chamber: money bills may only be introduced in the House. Parliament may not amend the Barbuda Local Government Act without the consent of the Barbuda Council.<ref name=":0" /> The judiciary of Antigua and Barbuda is composed of the magistrates' courts, the Supreme Court including the High Court and the Court of Appeal, and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, the country's final court.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleCountries \|urlhttps://www.commonwealthgovernance.org/countries/ \|access-date2023-09-10 \|websiteCommonwealth Governance \|languageen-US}}</ref> Antiguan and Barbudan voters rejected a proposal to make the Caribbean Court of Justice the final court in 2018.<ref>[http://www.abec.gov.ag/referendum_2018/results.php 2018 Referendum Results] ABEC</ref> Antigua and Barbuda is composed of three magistrates' courts districts,<ref name"Code of Procedure Act">{{Cite web \|titleMagistrate's Code of Procedure Act \|urlhttp://laws.gov.ag/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/cap-255.pdf}}</ref> and is part of the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court system.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleEastern Caribbean Supreme Court \|urlhttps://www.eccourts.org/welcome-to-eastern-caribbean-supreme-courts-website \|access-date2024-06-22 \|websitewww.eccourts.org \|language=en}}</ref> The acting chief justice of the Supreme Court is Mario Michel, serving since 5 May 2024. Since the 1990s, the two major parties in Antigua have been the centre-right (formerly left-wing) Antigua and Barbuda Labour Party, and the left-wing social democratic United Progressive Party. The Labour Party and its predecessors have traditionally been the dominant party on the national level since the 1946 general elections, with brief pauses during the Progressive Labour Movement government (predecessor of the UPP) from 1971 to 1976, and the United Progressive Party government from 2004 until 2014.<ref name":3">{{Cite web \|titleАНТИГУА И БАРБУДА {{!}} Энциклопедия Кругосвет \|urlhttps://www.krugosvet.ru/enc/strany_mira/ANTIGUA_I_BARBUDA.html \|access-date2024-06-22 \|websitewww.krugosvet.ru \|languageru}}</ref> On Barbuda, dominant party is traditionally the Barbuda People's Movement, being the only political grouping in the Barbuda Council since 2021.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleLocal Government \|urlhttps://barbudaful.net/the-barbudaful-community/barbudaful-politics/local-government// \|websiteBarbudaful}}</ref><ref name":3" /> Administrative divisions in Codrington]] Antigua and Barbuda is composed of six parishes and two dependencies. Saint John is the most populous parish, home to well over half of Antigua and Barbuda's population.<ref>{{cite web \|author\|dateOctober 2020 \|titleAntigua and Barbuda 2018 Labour Force Survey Report \|urlhttps://statistics.gov.ag/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/2018-Antigua-and-Barbuda-LFS-Report.pdf \|access-date2022-09-03 \|websiteAntigua & Barbuda Statistics Division (statistics.gov.ag) \|quoteTable 6.2.1}}</ref> During colonial times, the parishes were governed by parish vestries, however, the parishes now lack any sort of government.<ref name":02">{{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIb5FAAAAcAAJ&qparish&pgPA245 \|titleThe Laws of the Island of Antigua: Consisting of the Acts of the Leeward Islands, Commencing 8. Novem. 1690 Ending 21. April 1798, and the Acts of Antigua Commencing 10. April 1668, Ending 7. May 1804 : with Prefixed to Each Volume, Analytical Tables of the Titles of the Acts, and at the End of the Whole, a Copious Digested Index \|date1805 \|publisherBagster \|languageen}}</ref> Since the 2023 general elections, various proposals have been made to establish parish councils, however, as of January 2025, none have been established.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleManifesto \|urlhttps://asotmichael.com/manifesto/ \|access-date2023-01-19 \|websiteAsot A Michael \|languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titlePolicy Highlight: Parish Councils \|urlhttps://dnaab.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/RACK-CARDS-PARISH-WEB.pdf}}</ref> The dependency of Redonda is part of the parish of Saint John under the Redonda Annexation Act, in Magistrates' District "A".<ref>{{Cite web \|titleRedonda Annexation Act \|url=https://laws.gov.ag/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/cap-373.pdf}}</ref> {\| \| Parishes # Saint George # Saint John # Saint Mary # Saint Paul # Saint Peter # Saint Philip * Dependencies # Barbuda # Redonda \| style="width:400px;" \|{{Map of Antigua and Barbuda}} \|} Local government in Antigua and Barbuda is completely inactive, except for the Barbuda Council which is enshrined in the Constitution.<ref name":03">{{Cite web \|titleVoice, Participation and Governance: The Case of the Eastern Caribbean \|urlhttp://web.worldbank.org/archive/website00951/WEB/OTHER/CC47E0-5.HTM?OpenDocument&ExpandSection4 \|access-date2023-01-06 \|websiteweb.worldbank.org}}</ref> Antigua historically had a system of village councils in the 1940s (although the legislation was never repealed), however, the Gaston Browne administration has expressed opposition to all forms of local governance.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastjennelsa.johnson \|date2020-03-12 \|titleThe political Neanderthal \|urlhttps://antiguaobserver.com/the-political-neanderthal/ \|access-date2023-02-05 \|websiteAntigua Observer Newspaper \|languageen-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date2020-09-04 \|titleHurst Says Request For Barbuda To Separate Is "Nonsense Talk" \|urlhttps://antiguanewsroom.com/hurst-says-request-for-barbuda-to-separate-is-nonsense-talk/ \|access-date2024-06-22 \|websiteAntigua News Room \|languageen-US}}</ref> St. John's also historically had a city council during the late 1800s and early 1900s,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleThe Public Health Act \|urlhttp://laws.gov.ag/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/cap-353.pdf}}</ref><ref name":12">{{Cite news \|lastAbbott \|firstW.J. \|date13 August 1914 \|titleAt a meeting of the Saint John's City Commissioners held at their office in Church Lane on Thursday the 16th day of July, 1914. \|urlhttps://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/UF/00/07/68/63/01698/1914081301.pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240624225144/https://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/UF/00/07/68/63/01698/1914081301.pdf \|archive-date24 June 2024 \|access-date24 June 2024 \|workThe Leeward Islands Gazette \|pages272–273}}</ref> however the St. John's Development Corporation has since consumed most of its functions.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleSt. John's Development Corporation Act \|urlhttps://laws.gov.ag/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/cap-392.pdf}}</ref> Foreign relations {{Main\|Foreign relations of Antigua and Barbuda}} The Minister of Foreign Affairs, Trade and Barbuda Affairs is responsible for overseeing the foreign relations of Antigua and Barbuda.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMinistry of Foreign Affairs, Agriculture, Trade & Barbuda Affairs {{!}} Montevideo Consensus on Population and Development \|urlhttps://consensomontevideo.cepal.org/en/institution/ministry-foreign-affairs-agriculture-trade-barbuda-affairs \|access-date2024-06-23 \|websiteconsensomontevideo.cepal.org}}</ref> The current minister is Paul Chet Greene.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleGovernment of Antigua and Barbuda \|urlhttps://ab.gov.ag/detail_page.php?page17 \|access-date2024-06-23 \|websiteab.gov.ag}}</ref> Antigua and Barbuda is a founding member of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States,<ref>{{Cite web \|lastAdministrator \|firstOECS \|date2024-04-18 \|titleAbout Us \|urlhttps://oecs.int/en/who-we-are/about-us \|access-date2024-06-23 \|websiteOrganisation of Eastern Caribbean States \|languageen-gb}}</ref> as well as a member of the United Nations,<ref>{{Cite web \|lastNations \|firstUnited \|titleMember States \|urlhttps://www.un.org/en/about-us/member-states \|access-date2024-06-23 \|websiteUnited Nations \|languageen}}</ref> the Caribbean Community,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMember States and Associate Members \|urlhttps://caricom.org/member-states-and-associate-members/ \|websiteCaribbean Community}}</ref> the Alliance of Small Island States,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMember States – AOSIS \|urlhttps://www.aosis.org/about/member-states/ \|access-date2024-06-23 \|languageen-US}}</ref> and the World Trade Organisation.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleWTO Members and Observers \|urlhttps://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/org6_e.htm \|access-date2024-06-23 \|websitewww.wto.org \|languageen}}</ref> Antigua and Barbuda's foreign policy has been described by Gaston Browne as "we are friends of all; enemies of none". Antigua and Barbuda has rejected the notion that it is in any country's "backyard".<ref>{{Cite web \|last1Reporter \|first1Didi Kirsten Tatlow Senior \|last2Investigations \|first2International Affairs / \|date2024-04-20 \|titleAntigua says it is a friend of both U.S. and China, after Newsweek article \|urlhttps://www.newsweek.com/antigua-says-it-friend-both-us-china-after-newsweek-article-1892475 \|access-date2024-06-23 \|websiteNewsweek \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleFacebook \|urlhttps://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid990517419313652&setpb.100050662081603.-2207520000 \|access-date2024-06-23 \|websitewww.facebook.com}}</ref> Antigua and Barbuda usually maintains close relations with other Small Island Developing States, and has hosted various summits on that subject.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2024-05-27 \|titleSmall island development 'a test case' for climate and financial justice, says Guterres {{!}} UN News \|urlhttps://news.un.org/en/story/2024/05/1150266 \|access-date2024-06-23 \|websitenews.un.org \|languageen}}</ref> The United Nations has also praised Antigua and Barbuda for its "United Nations-based multilateralism" efforts.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastRadio \|firstABS TV / \|date2024-06-18 \|titleUNITED NATIONS PRAISES ANTIGUA & BARBUDA'S MULTILATERALISM EFFORTS - ABS TV Radio Antigua & Barbuda \|urlhttps://abstvradio.com/united-nations-praises-antigua-barbudas-multilateralism-efforts/ \|access-date2024-06-23 \|languageen-US}}</ref> Antigua and Barbuda also has close relations with many Caribbean countries and territories, especially Montserrat,<ref>{{Cite news \|titleAntigua and Barbuda and Montserrat Forge Closer Ties \|urlhttps://caricom.org/antigua-and-barbuda-and-montserrat-forge-closer-ties/#:~:textIn%20announcing%20the%20establishment%20of,adopted%20by%20the%20OECS%20or \|workCaribbean Community}}</ref> which Antigua and Barbuda accepted 3,000 refugees from in 1997 after the Soufrière Hills eruption.<ref>{{cite news \|date23 August 1997 \|titleAntigua wants Montserrat refugee help \|workUnited Press International}}</ref> Many policies adopted by the Antiguan and Barbudan government have also often had an impact on Montserrat, due to Antigua and Barbuda hosting the only air and transportation links into the territory.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2022-03-08 \|titleUnvaccinated Travelers To and From Montserrat Given the Green Light to Transit through Antigua \|urlhttps://www.zjbradio.com/news/2022/3/8/unvaccinated-travelers-to-and-from-montserrat-given-the-green-light-to-transit-through-antigua \|access-date2024-06-23 \|websiteZJB Radio: Community Radio At Its Best \|languageen-US}}</ref> Defence and national security {{Main\|National security of Antigua and Barbuda}} at a sugar estate]] The Minister of Finance, Corporate Governance and Public Private Partnerships is responsible for the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force, the country's military.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleGovernment of Antigua and Barbuda \|urlhttps://ab.gov.ag/detail_page.php?page13 \|access-date2024-06-23 \|websiteab.gov.ag}}</ref> The Minister of Legal Affairs, Public Safety, Immigration and Labour is responsible for the national security of Antigua and Barbuda.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleGovernment of Antigua and Barbuda \|urlhttps://ab.gov.ag/detail_page.php?page14 \|access-date2024-06-23 \|websiteab.gov.ag}}</ref> The Defence Force consists of the Regiment (army), the Air Wing, the Coast Guard, and the Service and Support Unit. The Defence Force is led by the Chief of Defence Staff, who is subject to the orders of the Governor-General.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleDefence Act \|urlhttps://laws.gov.ag/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/a2006-10.pdf}}</ref> The Defence Force is headquartered at Camp Blizzard. The National Security Council is responsible for the coordination of Antigua and Barbuda's national security. The National Security Adviser is a member of the council and is responsible for the gathering of intelligence and information on national security matters.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleNational Security Council Act \|urlhttps://laws.gov.ag/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/No.-14-of-2006-The-National-Security-Council-Act-2006.pdf}}</ref> The Royal Police Force of Antigua and Barbuda is the national police department.<ref>{{Cite web \|titlePolice Act \|urlhttps://laws.gov.ag/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/cap-330.pdf}}</ref> The Special Service Unit is Antigua and Barbuda's police tactical unit.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleSpecial Service Unit \|urlhttps://mpsl.gov.ag/departments/police/department/special-service-unit/ \|websiteMinistry of Public Safety and Labour}}</ref> The Police Force is composed of four lettered regional divisions, and subordinated service districts.<ref>{{Cite web \|title"B" Division \|urlhttps://mpsl.gov.ag/departments/police/division/b-division/ \|websiteMinistry of Public Safety and Labour}}</ref> Human rights {{Main\|Human rights in Antigua and Barbuda}} Same-sex sexual activity has been legal in Antigua and Barbuda since July 2022.<ref>{{cite news \|firstDaniel \|lastAvery \|title71 Countries Where Homosexuality is illegal \|urlhttps://www.newsweek.com/73-countries-where-its-illegal-be-gay-1385974 \|workNewsweek \|date4 April 2019 \|access-date16 August 2019 \|archive-date11 December 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191211204842/https://www.newsweek.com/73-countries-where-its-illegal-be-gay-1385974 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|titleState-Sponsored Homophobia\|urlhttps://ilga.org/state-sponsored-homophobia-report\|websiteInternational Lesbian Gay Bisexual Trans and Intersex Association\|date20 March 2019\|access-date16 August 2019\|archive-date8 February 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200208040345/https://ilga.org/state-sponsored-homophobia-report\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Economy {{Main\|Economy of Antigua and Barbuda}} {{Gallery \| align =right \| height =113 \| width =200 \| File:Antigua and Barbuda, English Harbour (28), marina by evening.jpg \| <small>Antigua is a high end travel destination, as seen here in the marina of English Harbour . . .</small> \| File:Antigua and Barbuda, English Harbour (30), modest houses.jpg \| <small>. . . but poverty is never far away.</small> }} Tourism dominates the economy, accounting for more than half of the gross domestic product (GDP).<ref name"Factbook">{{Cite CIA World Factbook\|countryAntigua and Barbuda\|access-date24 January 2021\|year2021}}</ref><ref nameBritannica /> As a destination for the most affluent travelers, Antigua is well known for its extensive collection of five-star resorts. However, weaker tourist activity in lower and middle market segments since the beginning of the year 2000 has slowed the economy and put the government into a tight fiscal corner.<ref nameFactbook /> Antigua and Barbuda has enacted policies to attract high-net-worth citizens and residents, such as enacting a 0% personal income tax rate in 2019.{{Citation needed\|date=January 2025}} The provision of investment banking and financial services also constitutes a significant portion of the economy. Major international financial institutions such as the Royal Bank of Canada (RBC) and Scotiabank both maintain offices in Antigua. PriceWaterhouseCoopers, Pannell Kerr Forster, and KPMG are some of the other companies in the financial services industry that have offices in Antigua.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAntigua: a Mature Financial Centre \|urlhttps://www.ifcreview.com/articles/2009/may/antigua-a-mature-financial-centre/ \|access-date2022-10-11 \|websiteIFC Review \|languageen}}</ref> In February 2009 the United States Securities and Exchange Commission leveled allegations against the Antigua-based Stanford International Bank, part of the Stanford Financial Group, which was owned by Texas billionaire Allen Stanford, of orchestrating a massive fraud that resulted in the theft of approximately $8&nbsp;billion from investors. He was charged and arrested later that year. In March 2012 he was convicted and sentenced to life in prison.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/21/business/21stanford.html \|workThe New York Times \|titleFraud Case Shakes a Billionaire's Caribbean Realm \|first1Clifford \|last1Krauss \|first2Julie \|last2Creswell \|first3Charlie \|last3Savage \|date21 February 2009 \|access-date14 April 2010 \|archive-date16 April 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090416023254/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/21/business/21stanford.html \|url-status=live }}</ref> The nation, which consists of two islands, directs the majority of its agricultural production toward the markets that are found within the nation. This is done despite the fact that the nation has a limited water supply and a shortage of laborers as a result of the higher wages offered in the tourism and construction industries.<ref name=FactbookAttribution/> Manufacturing comprises 2% of GDP and is made up of enclave-type assembly for export, the major products being bedding, handicrafts, and electronic components.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleManufacturing, value added (% of GDP) – Antigua and Barbuda, Germany {{!}} Data \|urlhttps://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NV.IND.MANF.ZS?locationsAG-DE \|access-date2022-10-11 \|publisherWorld Bank}}</ref> Prospects for economic growth in the medium term will continue to depend on income growth in the industrialised world, especially in the United States,<ref nameFactbookAttribution>{{citation-attribution\|1{{Cite CIA World Factbook\|countryAntigua and Barbuda\|access-date24 January 2021\|year2021}} }}</ref> from which about one-third to one-half of all tourists come.<ref>{{cite web \|lastNewsdesk \|date2021-09-15 \|titleAntigua and Barbuda's Tourism Growth Continues \|urlhttps://www.travelagentcentral.com/destinations/antigua-and-barbudas-tourism-growth-continues \|access-date2022-04-24 \|websiteTravel Agent Central \|languageen \|archive-date16 September 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210916104715/https://www.travelagentcentral.com/destinations/antigua-and-barbudas-tourism-growth-continues \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Access to biocapacity is lower than world average. In 2016, Antigua and Barbuda had 0.8 global hectares<ref namefootprintdata>{{cite web\|urlhttp://data.footprintnetwork.org/#/countryTrends?cn8&typeBCpc,EFCpc\|titleCountry Trends\|publisherGlobal Footprint Network\|access-date4 June 2020\|archive-date8 August 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170808050235/http://data.footprintnetwork.org/#/countryTrends?cn8&typeBCpc,EFCpc\|url-statuslive}}</ref> of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Lin\|first1David\|last2Hanscom\|first2Laurel\|last3Murthy\|first3Adeline\|last4Galli\|first4Alessandro\|last5Evans\|first5Mikel\|last6Neill\|first6Evan\|last7Mancini\|first7MariaSerena\|last8Martindill\|first8Jon\|last9Medouar\|first9FatimeZahra\|last10Huang\|first10Shiyu\|last11=Wackernagel \|first11Mathis\|year2018\|titleEcological Footprint Accounting for Countries: Updates and Results of the National Footprint Accounts, 2012–2018\|journalResources\|languageen\|volume7\|issue3\|page58\|doi10.3390/resources7030058\|doi-accessfree\|bibcode2018Resou...7...58L }}</ref> In 2016, Antigua and Barbuda used 4.3 global hectares of biocapacity per person – their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use more biocapacity than Antigua and Barbuda contains. As a result, Antigua and Barbuda are running a biocapacity deficit.<ref namefootprintdata/> The Citizenship by Investment Unit (CIU) is the government authority responsible for processing all applications for Agent's Licenses as well as all applications for Citizenship by Investment made by applicants and their family members. This unit was established by the Prime Minister and is known as the Citizenship by Investment Unit.<ref name"CIU">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.cip.gov.ag \|titleAntigua and Barbuda Citizenship by Investment Program \|authorCitizenship by Investment Unit \|publisherAntigua and Barbuda \|access-date2 November 2019 \|archive-date2 November 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191102060056/https://www.cip.gov.ag/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Culture {{Main\|Culture of Antigua and Barbuda}} ]] The music of Antigua and Barbuda has some African characteristics, with minimal influence from European music, but the music is distinct.<ref name"Garland">McDaniel, pp. 798-800</ref> The first known records of music in Antigua and Barbuda dates back to Christopher Columbus' discovery of the island nation in 1493, when it was still home to Arawak and Carib people. Still, very little research has been done on early music from the islands. African labourers are documented in history to have danced outside in the 1780s to the toombah (later tum tum), a drum adorned with tin and shell jingles, and the banjar (later bangoe, maybe related to the European banjo).<ref name"Luffman 1788">{{cite book \|authorLuffman, John \|titleA Brief Account of the Island of Antigua \|year1788 \|locationLondon}} cited in McDaniel, pp 798-800</ref> Antigua's indigenous music, known as Benna, came into being after slavery was abolished. Benna uses a call-and-response format, and its audience is typically interested in obscene gossip and rumours. Benna was widely utilised as a popular communication tool by the beginning of the 20th century, disseminating information around the island.<ref name"Luffman 1788" /><ref>[http://www.antiguamuseums.org/cultural.htm#Calypso Antigua and Barbuda's Cultural Heritage] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051026090344/http://www.antiguamuseums.org/cultural.htm\|date=2005-10-26}} and McDaniel, pp 798-800</ref> Benna has long been eclipsed by Calypso and increasingly Soca, which includes South Asian rhythms. The art of Antigua and Barbuda began with the Arawak people. Their artwork included pictographs and petroglyphs. These geometric shapes, animals, and plant artworks are said to have been used for ceremonial or religious purposes. Painting, sculpture, and ceramics were among the artistic traditions that European settlers brought to Antigua and Barbuda. Local painters used European art forms to produce Antiguan and Barbudan art in their own unique styles. Social issues, nature, and Caribbean identity were the subjects of this artwork.<ref name"Design Encyclopedia">{{Cite web \|titleA' Design Award and Competition - Design Encyclopedia - History Of Art In Antigua And Barbuda \|urlhttps://competition.adesignaward.com/design-encyclopedia.php?e240199 \|access-date2023-08-16 \|websitecompetition.adesignaward.com}}</ref> Traditional crafts from Antigua and Barbuda include scrimshaw, pottery, sculptures, ethnic dolls, and photography.<ref name":1">{{Cite web \|titleAntigua and Barbuda / Pressroom \|urlhttp://www.antigua-barbuda.org/press132.htm \|access-date2023-08-16 \|website=www.antigua-barbuda.org}}</ref> Every year, on the island of Antigua, people celebrate their freedom from slavery with the Antigua Carnival modelled after European pre-Lent Carnival. Over thirteen days, there are brightly coloured costumes, talent events, beauty pageants and music. The celebration runs from late July to Carnival Tuesday, the first Tuesday in August. On the island, Carnival Tuesday and Monday are both observed as public holidays. In an effort to boost travel to Antigua and Barbuda, the Old Time Christmas Festival was replaced in 1957 by the Antiguan Carnival.<ref name":22">{{Cite web \|titleHistory of Antigua's Carnival \|urlhttps://antiguacarnival.com/about/history \|access-date2024-04-28 \|websiteAntigua's Carnival {{!}} Antigua Barbuda Festivals Commission \|languageen-gb}}</ref><ref name":022">{{Cite web \|date2018-09-17 \|titleAntigua's Carnival \|urlhttps://www.visitantiguabarbuda.com/antiguas-carnival/ \|access-date2024-04-28 \|websiteVisit Antigua & Barbuda \|languageen-US}}</ref><ref name"best Caribbean carnivals">{{Cite web \|date2023-07-14 \|title8 of the best Caribbean carnivals \|urlhttps://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/best-caribbean-carnivals \|access-date2024-04-28 \|websiteTravel \|languageen}}</ref> Another annual festival held in Antigua is Antigua Sailing Week. Sailing Week is a week-long yacht regatta held in the waters of English Harbour. Sailing Week was founded in 1967 and is known for being one of the top regattas in the world.<ref name"Beckett">{{cite book \|lastBeckett \|firstLuisa \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqINzbC0D8eUC&pgPA50 \|titleYachting Escapes: The Caribbean \|publisherThe Escapes Group ltd \|isbn978-1-60643-795-7 \|page50 \|accessdate24 March 2012}}</ref><ref name"Vaitilingam2002">{{cite book \|lastVaitilingam \|firstAdam \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idmIP0T3hGT1UC&pgPA129 \|titleThe Rough Guide to Antigua and Barbuda \|date31 January 2002 \|publisherRough Guides \|isbn978-1-85828-715-7 \|page129 \|accessdate24 March 2012}}</ref> The main festival held in Barbuda is Caribana. Caribana takes place every year during Whit Monday weekend<ref name":2">{{Cite web \|titleAntigua and Barbuda Public Holidays \|urlhttps://ab.gov.ag/detail_page.php?page4 \|access-date2024-06-24 \|websiteab.gov.ag}}</ref> and features various pageants, calypso competitions, and weekend beach parties.<ref name":11">{{Cite web \|titlethe barbudaful community \|urlhttps://barbudaful.net/the-barbudaful-community/ \|access-date2023-07-22 \|websiteBarbudaful \|language=en-GB}}</ref> Antigua and Barbuda has eleven public holidays.<ref name":2" /> On the advice of the Cabinet, the Governor-General may also proclaim other holidays.<ref>{{Cite web \|titlePublic Holidays Act \|urlhttps://laws.gov.ag/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/cap-354.pdf}}</ref> Historically, about three weeks before Christmas Day, carol singers would roam the various villages, carrying carol trees and lanterns. "John Bulls" are replicas of "masked African witch doctors", that often dominated the country's Christmas festivities. Jazz bands were also common sights, dressed in red and green clown costumes.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleANTIGUA & BARBUDA'S CULTURAL HERITAGE \|urlhttp://antiguahistory.net/Museum/cultural.htm \|access-date2024-06-24 \|websiteantiguahistory.net}}</ref> Cuisine {{Main\|Cuisine of Antigua and Barbuda}} The islands' cuisine is mostly of European origin (UK and Portugal) with regional ingredients. Fungee (pronounced "foon-jee") and pepperpot are the national dishes. Fungee is a cornmeal-based dish that resembles polenta <ref name"recipeisland">[http://recipeisland.com/blog1/recipe-island/antigua-barbuda-recipes/antigua-barbuda-national-dish-recipe "Antigua & Barbuda National Dish & Recipe."] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101013171821/http://recipeisland.com/blog1/recipe-island/antigua-barbuda-recipes/antigua-barbuda-national-dish-recipe\|dateOctober 13, 2010}} [http://recipeisland.com Recipeisland.com]. Pepperpot is a spinach and okra stew, with and without beef parts or chicken. Accessed July 2011.</ref> Other national foods include saltfish (cod), lobster (from Barbuda), ducana (a sweet dumpling made from sweet potatoes and coconut), and seasoned rice, similar to Palau or arroz con pollo. Additionally, there are confections such as peanut brittle, sugar cake (made from coconut and sugar), fudge, and raspberry (local) and tamarind stew (sauce). The Antigua black pineapple is prized for its juicy, sweet flesh. It is a well-liked fruit in the area and is included in many regional specialties and sweets. It is said to be the sweetest variety of pineapple.<ref name"Antigua Black Pineapple">{{Cite web \|titleAntigua Black Pineapple {{!}} Local Pineapple From Antigua and Barbuda \|urlhttps://www.tasteatlas.com/antigua-black-pineapple \|access-date2023-02-05 \|websitewww.tasteatlas.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date2019-01-02 \|titleThe Antigua Black Pineapple: An Island Treasure {{!}} Sandals Blog \|urlhttps://www.sandals.com/blog/antigua-black-pineapple/ \|access-date2023-02-05 \|websiteHello Paradise - The Official Sandals Resorts Travel & Lifestyle Blog}}</ref> An important part of the Antiguan and Barbudan breakfast is Antigua Sunday bread. It is sold in many bakeries on both islands, and instead of being made with butter, it is made with lard. There are often decorative twists on the crust of the bread.<ref name":04">{{Cite web \|lastadmin \|date2016-06-01 \|titleAntigua Sunday Bread \|urlhttp://www.cookingsensemag.com/antigua-sunday-bread/ \|access-date2023-02-05 \|websiteCooking Sense Magazine \|languageen}}</ref><ref name":13">{{Cite news \|date2022-09-03 \|titleAntigua's traditional bread shops struggle amid food price hikes \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-62595443 \|access-date2023-02-05 \|workBBC News \|languageen-GB}}</ref> Antiguan raisin buns, often called "bun and cheese", is another traditional bread, which is sweet and most popular during Easter. It is sometimes made with spices such as nutmeg.<ref name":05">{{Cite web \|lastChainBaker \|date2021-05-02 \|titleAntiguan Raisin Buns, Unique Bun & Cheese Recipe \|urlhttps://www.chainbaker.com/antiguan-bun-and-cheese/ \|access-date2023-02-05 \|websiteChainBaker \|languageen-GB}}</ref> Sport , the national stadium]] Cricket is the most popular sport within the islands. With Sir Isaac Vivian Alexander Richards {{post-nominals\|listKNH OBE OOC}} who represented the West Indies cricket team between 1974 and 1991, Antigua had one of the world's most famous batsmen ever.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2 April 2011 \|titleViv Richards was a complete genius: Imran Khan \|urlhttps://www.dawn.com/2011/04/02/viv-richards-was-a-complete-genius-imran-khan/ \|access-date25 January 2021 \|websiteDawn \|languageen \|locationPakistan}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|authorFeatured Columnist \|date13 November 2013 \|titleThe ICC Ranking System's Top 10 Batsmen in ODI Cricket History \|urlhttp://bleacherreport.com/articles/1848478-the-icc-ranking-systems-top-10-batsmen-in-odi-cricket-history/page/11 \|access-date7 August 2014 \|publisherBleacher Report}}</ref> The Antigua and Barbuda national cricket team represented the country at the 1998 Commonwealth Games, but Antiguan cricketers otherwise play for the Leeward Islands cricket team in domestic matches and the West Indies cricket team internationally. Teams from the various villages and parishes compete in the Parish League.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2024-01-20 \|titleACB Antigua Parish League \|urlhttps://cricket268.com/acb-antigua-parish-league/ \|access-date2024-06-24 \|websiteCricket268 \|languageen-US}}</ref> Association football is the second most popular sport in the country,<ref name"worldsoccer2">{{cite web \|titleAntigua & Barbuda taking small steps towards respectability &#124; World Soccer \|urlhttp://www.worldsoccer.com/blogs/antigua-barbuda-taking-small-steps-towards-respectability \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140324045016/http://www.worldsoccer.com/blogs/antigua-barbuda-taking-small-steps-towards-respectability \|archive-date2014-03-24 \|access-date2014-03-25 \|publisherworldsoccer.com}}</ref> with the Antigua and Barbuda national football team being founded in 1928.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2021-03-07 \|titleANTIGUA AND BARBUDA \|urlhttps://www.concacaf.com/inside-concacaf/member-associations/antigua-and-barbuda/ \|access-date2024-04-16 \|websiteConcacaf \|languageen}}</ref> See also {{Portal\|Caribbean}} * Outline of Antigua and Barbuda * Index of Antigua and Barbuda–related articles {{Clear}} Notes {{notelist}} References {{reflist\|colwidth30em}}Further reading * Nicholson, Desmond V., Antigua, Barbuda, and Redonda: A Historical Sketch, St. Johns, Antigua: Antigua and Barbuda Museum, 1991. * Dyde, Brian, A History of Antigua: The Unsuspected Isle, London: Macmillan Caribbean, 2000. * Gaspar, David Barry – Bondmen & Rebels: A Study of Master-Slave Relations in Antigua, with Implications for Colonial America. * Harris, David R. – Plants, Animals, and Man in the Outer Leeward Islands, West Indies. An Ecological Study of Antigua, Barbuda, and Anguilla. * Henry, Paget – Peripheral Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Antigua. * Lazarus-Black, Mindie – Legitimate Acts and Illegal Encounters: Law and Society in Antigua and Barbuda. * Riley, J. H. – Catalogue of a Collection of Birds from Barbuda and Antigua, British West Indies. * Rouse, Irving and Birgit Faber Morse – Excavations at the Indian Creek Site, Antigua, West Indies. * Thomas Hearne. Southampton. External links {{Wikibooks\|Wikijunior:Countries A-Z\|Antigua and Barbuda}} {{Sister project links\|voy=Antigua and Barbuda\|Antigua and Barbuda}} * {{Official website\|www.ab.gov.ag\|The Official Website of the Government of Antigua and Barbuda}} * {{Wikiatlas\|Antigua and Barbuda}} * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/international/hispanic/antigua/antigua.html Antigua and Barbuda], United States Library of Congress * [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/antigua-and-barbuda/ Antigua and Barbuda]. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080704133113/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/antiguabarbuda.htm Antigua and Barbuda] from UCB Libraries GovPubs * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-18706079 Antigua and Barbuda] from the BBC News * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080428172529/http://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?PTYPECP&CCODEATG World Bank's country data profile] for Antigua and Barbuda * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100602034331/http://www.archaeologyantigua.org/background_archaic.htm ArchaeologyAntigua.org] – 2010March13 source of archaeological information for Antigua and Barbuda * [https://antiguabarbuda.com Antigua & Barbuda Official Business Hub] {{Antigua and Barbuda topics}} {{Navboxes \|title =Related articles \|list = {{Countries of North America}} {{Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas (ALBA)}} {{Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS)\|state=collapsed}} {{Caribbean Community (CARICOM)\|state=collapsed}} {{Commonwealth of Nations}} {{Monarchies}} {{Commonwealth realms}} {{English official language clickable map}}}} {{Authority control}} {{Portal bar\|Caribbean\|North America}} {{Coord\|17\|03\|N\|61\|48\|W\|type:country_region:AG\|display=title}} Category:Countries in the Caribbean Category:Island countries Category:Commonwealth realms Category:Countries in North America Category:Member states of the Caribbean Community Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations Category:Member states of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States Category:Member states of the United Nations Category:Small Island Developing States Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in the Americas Category:Former colonies in North America Category:1630s establishments in the Caribbean Category:1632 establishments in the British Empire Category:1981 disestablishments in the United Kingdom Category:States and territories established in 1981 *	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigua_and_Barbuda	2025-04-05T18:25:26.943719
953	Azincourt	{{About\|the commune (town)\|the novel by Bernard Cornwell\|Azincourt (novel)}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=October 2015}} {{Infobox French commune \|name = Azincourt \|commune status = Commune \|image = Azincourt 1.jpg \|caption = Site of the battle of Azincourt \|image coat of arms = Blason Jean II Le Meingre, dit Boucicaut (selon Gelre).svg \|arrondissement = Montreuil \|canton = Auxi-le-Château \|intercommunality = CC des 7 Vallées \|mayor Nicolas Poclet<ref>{{cite web\|titleRépertoire national des élus: les maires\|urlhttps://www.data.gouv.fr/fr/datasets/r/2876a346-d50c-4911-934e-19ee07b0e503\|publisherdata.gouv.fr, Plateforme ouverte des données publiques françaises\|date13 September 2022\|languagefr}}</ref> \|term = 2020&ndash;2026 \|INSEE = 62069 \|postal code = 62310 \|coordinates {{coord\|50.46\|2.13\|type:landmark_region:FR-62\|formatdms\|display=inline,title}} \|area km2 = 8.46 \|elevation min m = 100 \|elevation max m = 142 \|population = {{France metadata Wikidata\|population_total}} \|population date = {{France metadata Wikidata\|population_as_of}} \|population footnotes = {{France metadata Wikidata\|population_footnotes}} }} Azincourt ({{IPAc-en\|ˈ\|æ\|z\|ɪ\|n\|k\|ɔːr\|(\|t\|)}} {{respell\|AZ\|in\|kor(t)}} ; {{IPA\|fr\|azɛ̃kuʁ}}) is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in northern France.<ref>[https://www.insee.fr/fr/metadonnees/geographie/commune/62069-azincourt INSEE commune file]</ref> It is situated {{convert\|12\|mi\|0\|abbr=off}} north-west of Saint-Pol-sur-Ternoise on the D71 road between Hesdin and Fruges. The Late Medieval Battle of Agincourt between the English and the French took place in the commune in 1415. Toponym The name is attested as Aisincurt in 1175, derived from a Germanic masculine name Aizo, Aizino and the early Northern French word curt (which meant a farm with a courtyard; derived from the Late Latin cortem). It is often known as Agincourt in English. There is a village that is named "Agincourt", located in the Meurthe-et-Moselle department in Eastern France. The name has no etymological link with Azincourt, and is derived separately from another Germanic male name Ingin-.<ref>{{cite book\|author1Albert Dauzat \|author2Charles Rostaing \| titleDictionnaire étymologique des noms de lieux en France\| publisher éditions Larousse\|year1968\|page 4}}</ref> History Azincourt is known for being near the site of the battle fought on 25 October 1415 in which the army led by King Henry V of England defeated the forces led by Charles d'Albret on behalf of Charles VI of France, which has gone down in history as the Battle of Agincourt. According to M. Forrest, the French knights were so encumbered by their armour that they were exhausted even before the start of the battle.<ref>The House of Commons: 1509–1558, Volume 4; Stanley T. Bindoff, John S. Roskell, Lewis Namier, Romney Sedgwick, David Hayton, Eveline Cruickshanks, R. G. Thorne, P. W. Hasler (Boydell & Brewer, 1982)</ref> After he became king in 1509, Henry VIII is purported to have commissioned an English translation of a Life of Henry V<ref>Henry VIII; J. J. Scarisbrick, p. 23</ref> so that he could emulate him, on the grounds that he thought that launching a campaign against France would help him to impose himself on the European stage. In 1513, Henry VIII crossed the English Channel, stopping by at Azincourt. {{wide image\|AGINCOURT.hto3.jpg\|800px\|The battlefield today\|left}} The battle, as was the tradition, was named after a nearby castle called Azincourt. The castle has since disappeared and the settlement now known as Azincourt adopted the name in the seventeenth century.<ref>John Cassell's Illustrated History of England, vol. 1 (1857), [https://books.google.com/books?idRS4OAAAAQAAJ&pgPA534 p. 532].</ref> John Cassell wrote in 1857 that "the village of Azincourt itself is now a group of dirty farmhouses and wretched cottages, but where the hottest of the battle raged, between that village and the commune of Tramecourt, there still remains a wood precisely corresponding with the one in which Henry placed his ambush; and there are yet existing the foundations of the castle of Azincourt, from which the king named the field."<ref>John Cassell's Illustrated History of England, vol. 1 (1857), [https://books.google.com/books?idRS4OAAAAQAAJ&pgPA534 p. 534].</ref> Population {{Historical populations \|source INSEE<ref namepophist>[https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/4515315?geo=COM-62069#ancre-POP_T1 Population en historique depuis 1968], INSEE</ref> \|percentages = pagr \|align = none \|1968 \|220 \|1975 \|210 \|1982 \|228 \|1990 \|250 \|1999 \|273 \|2007 \|291 \|2012 \|303 \|2017 \|307 }} Sights The original battlefield museum in the village featured model knights made out of Action Man figures.{{Citation needed\|dateNovember 2019}} This has now been replaced by the Centre historique médiéval d'Azincourt (CHM)—a more professional museum, conference centre and exhibition space incorporating laser, video, slide shows, audio commentaries, and some interactive elements.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAzincourt Centre Historique \|urlhttps://illucolor.fr/7_vallees_comm/Azincourt/index.html \|date20 February 2018}}</ref> The museum building is shaped like a longbow similar to those used at the battle by archers under King Henry. Since 2004 a large medieval festival organised by the local community, the CHM, The Azincourt Alliance,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.azincourt-alliance.org.uk/ \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20001204190300/http://www.azincourt-alliance.org.uk/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-date4 December 2000 \|titleAzincourt Alliance Home Page }}</ref> and various other UK societies commemorating the battle, local history and medieval life, arts and crafts has been held in the village.<ref>[http://www.azincourt-alliance.org.uk/ "Videos from Azincourt" at Azincourt Alliance] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140203110608/http://www.azincourt-alliance.org.uk/ \|date3 February 2014 }}</ref> Prior to this date the festival was held in October, but due to the inclement weather and local heavy clay soil (like the battle) making the festival difficult, it was moved to the last Sunday in July.International relations {{See also\|List of twin towns and sister cities in France}} Azincourt is twinned with Middleham, United Kingdom.<ref name"Archant twinning 3">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.completefrance.com/language-culture/twin-towns\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130705094933/http://www.completefrance.com/language-culture/twin-towns\|titleBritish towns twinned with French towns [via WaybackMachine.com]\|access-date20 July 2013\|archive-date5 July 2013\|workArchant Community Media Ltd}}</ref>See also Communes of the Pas-de-Calais department * The neighbourhood of Agincourt, Toronto, Canada, named for Azincourt, not Agincourt, Meurthe-et-Moselle References {{Reflist}} External links * {{Commons category inline\|Azincourt}} {{Pas-de-Calais communes}} {{Authority control}} Category:Artois Category:Communes of Pas-de-Calais	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azincourt	2025-04-05T18:25:26.951827
954	Albert Speer	{{short description\|German architect and Nazi planner (1905–1981)}} {{Other uses}} {{Featured article}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=November 2021}} {{CS1 config\|mode=cs2}} {{Use American English\|date=April 2019}} {{Use shortened footnotes\|date=September 2024}} {{Infobox officeholder \| image = Bundesarchiv Bild 146II-277, Albert Speer.jpg \| alt = Monochrome photograph of the upper body of Albert Speer, signed at the bottom \| caption = Speer in 1933 \| office1 = Reich Minister of Armaments and War Production{{efn\|Until 2 September 1943, the position's official name was Reich Minister of Armaments and Munitions.}} \| term_start1 = 8 February 1942 \| term_end1 = 30 April 1945 \| 1blankname1 = Führer \| 1namedata1 = Adolf Hitler \| predecessor1 = Fritz Todt (as Minister of Armaments and Munitions) \| successor1 = Karl Saur (as Minister of Munitions) \| office2 = Reich Minister of Industry and Production \| term_start2 = 5 May 1945 \| term_end2 = 23 May 1945 \| 1blankname2 = Head of state \| 1namedata2 = Karl Dönitz \| 2blankname2 = Head of government \| 2namedata2 = Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk \| predecessor2 = Position established \| successor2 = Position abolished \| office3 = Inspector General of German Roadways \| term_start3 = 8 February 1942 \| term_end3 = 23 May 1945 \| predecessor3 = Fritz Todt \| successor3 = Position abolished \| office4 = Inspector General for Water and Energy \| term_start4 = 8 February 1942 \| term_end4 = 23 May 1945 \| predecessor4 = Fritz Todt \| successor4 = Position abolished \| office5 = Head of Organization Todt \| term_start5 = 8 February 1942 \| term_end5 = 14 April 1944 \| predecessor5 = Fritz Todt \| successor5 = Franz Xaver Dorsch \| office6 = General Building Inspector<br /> for the Reich Capital \| term_start6 = 30 January 1937 \| term_end6 = 23 May 1945 \| predecessor6 = Position created \| successor6 = Position abolished \| birth_name = Berthold Konrad Hermann Albert Speer \| birth_date {{birth date\|dfyes\|1905\|3\|19}} \| birth_place = Mannheim, Grand Duchy of Baden, German Empire \| death_date {{death date and age\|dfyes\|1981\|9\|1\|1905\|3\|19}} \| death_place = London, England \| party = Nazi Party (1931–1945) \| residence \| profession Architect, government official, author \| cabinet = Hitler cabinet<br />Schwerin von Krosigk cabinet \| signature = Albert Speer Signature.svg \| footnotes \| module Criminal conviction{{Infobox criminal \|child = yes \|conviction = War crimes <br />Crimes against humanity \| trial = Nuremberg trials \| conviction_penalty = 20 years imprisonment \| targets = Millions of slave laborers; Soviet prisoners of war and others \| imprisoned = Spandau Prison }} \| education = Technische Universität Berlin<br />Technical University of Munich<br />University of Karlsruhe }} Berthold Konrad Hermann Albert Speer ({{IPAc-en\|ʃ\|p\|ɛər}}; {{IPA\|de\|ˈʃpeːɐ̯\|lang\|De-Albert Speer.ogg\|lang}}; 19 March 1905&nbsp;– 1 September 1981) was a German architect who served as the Minister of Armaments and War Production in Nazi Germany during most of World War II. A close ally of Adolf Hitler, he was convicted at the Nuremberg trials and sentenced to 20 years in prison. An architect by training, Speer joined the Nazi Party in 1931. His architectural skills made him increasingly prominent within the Party, and he became a member of Hitler's inner circle. Hitler commissioned him to design and construct structures, including the Reich Chancellery and the Nazi Party rally grounds in Nuremberg. In 1937, Hitler appointed Speer as General Building Inspector for Berlin. In this capacity he was responsible for the Central Department for Resettlement that evicted Jewish tenants from their homes in Berlin. In February 1942, Speer was appointed as Reich Minister of Armaments and War Production. Using misleading statistics, he promoted himself as having performed an armaments miracle that was widely credited with keeping Germany in the war.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp=174–175}} In 1944, Speer established a task force to increase production of fighter aircraft. It became instrumental in exploiting slave labor for the benefit of the German war effort. After the war, Albert Speer was among the 24 "major war criminals" charged by the International Military Tribunal for Nazi atrocities. He was found guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity, principally for the use of slave labor, narrowly avoiding a death sentence. Having served his full term, Speer was released in 1966. He used his writings from the time of imprisonment as the basis for two autobiographical books, Inside the Third Reich and Spandau: The Secret Diaries. Speer's books were a success; the public was fascinated by the inside view of the Third Reich he provided. He died of a stroke in 1981. Through his autobiographies and interviews, Speer carefully constructed an image of himself as a man who deeply regretted having failed to discover the crimes of the Third Reich. He continued to deny explicit knowledge of, and responsibility for, the Holocaust. This image dominated his historiography in the decades following the war, giving rise to the "Speer myth": the perception of him as an apolitical technocrat responsible for revolutionizing the German war machine. The myth began to fall apart in the 1980s, when the armaments miracle was attributed to Nazi propaganda. Twenty-five years after Speer's death, Adam Tooze wrote in The Wages of Destruction that the idea that Speer was an apolitical technocrat was "absurd". Martin Kitchen, writing in ''Speer: Hitler's Architect'', stated that much of the increase in Germany's arms production was actually due to systems instituted by Speer's predecessor (Fritz Todt) and that Speer was intimately aware of and involved in the "Final Solution"; evidence of which has been conclusively shown in the decades following the Nuremberg trials. {{TOC limit}} Early years and personal life Speer was born in Mannheim, into an upper-middle-class family. He was the second of three sons of Luise Máthilde Wilhelmine (Hommel) and Albert Friedrich Speer.{{sfn\|Schubert\|2006\|p5}} In 1918, the family leased their Mannheim residence and moved to a home they had in Heidelberg.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p15}} Henry T. King, deputy prosecutor at the Nuremberg trials who later wrote a book about Speer said, "Love and warmth were lacking in the household of Speer's youth."{{sfn\|King\|1997\|p27}} His brothers, Ernst and Hermann, bullied him throughout his childhood.{{sfn\|Taylor\|2010\|p124}} Speer was active in sports, taking up skiing and mountaineering.{{sfn\|van der Vat\|1997\|p23}} He followed in the footsteps of his father and grandfather and studied architecture.{{sfn\|Fest\|1999\|pp11–13}} Speer began his architectural studies at the University of Karlsruhe instead of a more highly acclaimed institution because the hyperinflation crisis of 1923 limited his parents' income.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp17–18}} In 1924, when the crisis had abated, he transferred to the "much more reputable" Technische Hochschule München (now Technical University of Munich).{{sfn\|Sereny\|1995\|p63}} In 1925, he transferred again, this time to the Technische Hochschule Berlin-Chalottenburg (now Technische Universität Berlin) where he studied under Heinrich Tessenow, whom Speer greatly admired.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp18–19}} After passing his exams in 1927, Speer became Tessenow's assistant, a high honor for a man of 22.{{sfn\|van der Vat\|1997\|pp34–36}} As such, Speer taught some of his classes while continuing his own postgraduate studies.{{sfn\|Sereny\|1995\|pp71–73}} In Munich Speer began a close friendship, ultimately spanning over 50 years, with Rudolf Wolters, who also studied under Tessenow.{{sfn\|van der Vat\|1997\|pp33–34}} In mid-1922, Speer began courting Margarete (Margret) Weber (1905–1987), the daughter of a successful craftsman who employed 50 workers. The relationship was frowned upon by Speer's class-conscious mother, who felt the Webers were socially inferior. Despite this opposition, the two married in Berlin on 28 August 1928; seven years elapsed before Margarete was invited to stay at her in-laws' home.{{sfn\|Sereny\|1995\|pp47–49}} The couple would have six children together, but Albert Speer grew increasingly distant from his family after 1933. He remained so even after his release from imprisonment in 1966, despite their efforts to forge closer bonds.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp327–328}} Party architect and government functionary Joining the Nazis (1931–1934) .]] In January 1931, Speer applied for Nazi Party membership, and on 1 March 1931, he became member number 474,481.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p24}}{{efn\|On 31 January 1931, he also joined the Motor Unit of the SA being a member until autumn 1932. On 20 July 1942, Speer was enrolled by order of Heinrich Himmler as a SS Man/member of Personal Staff Reichsführer-SS [SS Number 46104]. However his application was never completed, becoming nolle prosequi.{{sfn\|Nazi conspiracy and aggression\|1946\|pp256–257}}}} The same year, with stipends shrinking amid the Depression, Speer surrendered his position as Tessenow's assistant and moved to Mannheim, hoping to make a living as an architect. After he failed to do so, his father gave him a part-time job as manager of his properties. In July&nbsp;1932, the Speers visited Berlin to help out the Party before the Reichstag elections. While they were there his friend, Nazi Party official Karl Hanke recommended the young architect to Joseph Goebbels to help renovate the Party's Berlin headquarters. When the commission was completed, Speer returned to Mannheim and remained there as Hitler took office in January&nbsp;1933.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp=25–26}} The organizers of the 1933 Nuremberg Rally asked Speer to submit designs for the rally, bringing him into contact with Hitler for the first time. Neither the organizers nor Rudolf Hess were willing to decide whether to approve the plans, and Hess sent Speer to Hitler's Munich apartment to seek his approval.{{sfn\|Sereny\|1995\|pp100–101}} This work won Speer his first national post, as Nazi Party "Commissioner for the Artistic and Technical Presentation of Party Rallies and Demonstrations".{{sfn\|van der Vat\|1997\|p49}} Shortly after Hitler came into power, he began to make plans to rebuild the chancellery. At the end of 1933, he contracted Paul Troost to renovate the entire building. Hitler appointed Speer, whose work for Goebbels had impressed him, to manage the building site for Troost.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p41}} As Chancellor, Hitler had a residence in the building and came by every day to be briefed by Speer and the building supervisor on the progress of the renovations. After one of these briefings, Hitler invited Speer to lunch, to the architect's great excitement.{{sfn\|Sereny\|1995\|pp101–103}} Speer quickly became part of Hitler's inner circle; he was expected to call on him in the morning for a walk or chat, to provide consultation on architectural matters, and to discuss Hitler's ideas. Most days he was invited to dinner.{{sfn\|Sereny\|1995\|p106}}{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp41–42}} In the English version of his memoirs, Speer says that his political commitment merely consisted of paying his "monthly dues". He assumed his German readers would not be so gullible and told them the Nazi Party offered a "new mission". He was more forthright in an interview with William Hamsher in which he said he joined the party in order to save "Germany from Communism".{{sfn\|Hamsher\|1970}} After the war, he claimed to have had little interest in politics at all and had joined almost by chance. Like many of those in power in the Third Reich, he was not an ideologue, "nor was he anything more than an instinctive anti-Semite."{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p24}} Historian Magnus Brechtken, discussing Speer, said he did not give anti-Jewish public speeches and that his anti-Semitism can best be understood through his actions—which were anti-Semitic.{{sfn\|Reinecke\|2017}} Brechtken added that, throughout Speer's life, his central motives were to gain power, rule, and acquire wealth.{{sfn\|Brechtken\|2017\|p45}} Nazi architect (1934–1937) {{Main\|Nazi architecture}} above the Zeppelintribune]] When Troost died on 21 January 1934, Speer effectively replaced him as the Party's chief architect. Hitler appointed Speer as head of the Chief Office for Construction, which placed him nominally on Hess' staff.{{sfn\|van der Vat\|1997\|p=60}} One of Speer's first commissions after Troost's death was the Zeppelinfeld stadium in Nuremberg. It was used for Nazi propaganda rallies and can be seen in Leni Riefenstahl's propaganda film Triumph of the Will. The building was able to hold 340,000 people.{{sfn\|van der Vat\|1997\|p59}} Speer insisted that as many events as possible be held at night, both to give greater prominence to his lighting effects and to hide the overweight Nazis.{{sfn\|Sereny\|1995\|p131}} Nuremberg was the site of many official Nazi buildings. Many more buildings were planned. If built, the German Stadium in Nuremberg would have accommodated 400,000 spectators.{{sfn\|van der Vat\|1997\|p59}} Speer modified Werner March's design for the Olympic Stadium being built for the 1936 Summer Olympics. He added a stone exterior that pleased Hitler.{{sfn\|van der Vat\|1997\|p65}} Speer designed the German Pavilion for the 1937 international exposition in Paris.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p=60}} {{clear}} Berlin's General Building Inspector (1937–1942) and the Brandenburg Gate]] On 30 January 1937, Hitler appointed Speer as General Building Inspector for the Reich Capital. This carried with it the rank of State Secretary in the Reich government and gave him extraordinary powers over the Berlin city government.{{sfn\|Fest\|1999\|p64}} He was to report directly to Hitler, and was independent of both the mayor and the Gauleiter of Berlin.{{sfn\|Speer\|1970\|p118}} Hitler ordered Speer to develop plans to rebuild Berlin. These centered on a three-mile-long grand boulevard running from north to south, which Speer called the Prachtstrasse, or Street of Magnificence;{{sfn\|Sereny\|1995\|p140}} he also referred to it as the "North–South Axis".{{sfn\|Sereny\|1995\|p141}} At the northern end of the boulevard, Speer planned to build the Volkshalle, a huge domed assembly hall over {{convert\|700\|ft\|m\|-1\|orderflip}} high, with floor space for 180,000 people. At the southern end of the avenue, a great triumphal arch, almost {{convert\|400\|ft\|m\|-1\|orderflip}} high and able to fit the Arc de Triomphe inside its opening, was planned. The existing Berlin railroad termini were to be dismantled, and two large new stations built.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp65–70}} Speer hired Wolters as part of his design team, with special responsibility for the Prachtstrasse.{{sfn\|Sereny\|1995\|p27}} The outbreak of World War II in 1939 led to the postponement, and later the abandonment, of these plans,{{sfn\|Fest\|1999\|p71}} which, after Nazi capitulation, Speer himself considered as “awful”.{{sfn\|Sereny\|1995\|p550}} Plans to build a new Reich Chancellery had been underway since 1934. Land had been purchased by the end of 1934 and starting in March 1936 the first buildings were demolished to create space at Voßstraße.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp46–47}} Speer was involved virtually from the beginning. In the aftermath of the Night of the Long Knives, he had been commissioned to renovate the Borsig Palace on the corner of Voßstraße and Wilhelmstraße as headquarters of the Sturmabteilung (SA).{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p45}} He completed the preliminary work for the new chancellery by May 1936. In June 1936 he charged a personal honorarium of 30,000 Reichsmark and estimated the chancellery would be completed within three to four years. Detailed plans were completed in July 1937 and the first shell of the new chancellery was complete on 1 January 1938. On 27 January 1938, Speer received plenipotentiary powers from Hitler to finish the new chancellery by 1 January 1939. For propaganda Hitler claimed during the topping-out ceremony on 2 August 1938, that he had ordered Speer to complete the new chancellery that year.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp46–49}} Shortages of labor meant the construction workers had to work in ten-to-twelve-hour shifts.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp53–56}} The SS built two concentration camps in 1938 and used the inmates to quarry stone for its construction. A brick factory was built near the Oranienburg concentration camp at Speer's behest; when someone commented on the poor conditions there, Speer stated, "The Yids got used to making bricks while in Egyptian captivity".{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p72}} The chancellery was completed in early January 1939.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp53–56}} The building itself was hailed by Hitler as the "crowning glory of the greater German political empire".{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp=53–56}} ]] During the Chancellery project, the pogrom of Kristallnacht took place. Speer made no mention of it in the first draft of Inside the Third Reich. It was only on the urgent advice of his publisher that he added a mention of seeing the ruins of the Central Synagogue in Berlin from his car.{{sfn\|Sereny\|1995\|p164}} Kristallnacht accelerated Speer's ongoing efforts to dispossess Berlin's Jews from their homes. From 1939 on, Speer's Department used the Nuremberg Laws to evict Jewish tenants of non-Jewish landlords in Berlin, to make way for non-Jewish tenants displaced by redevelopment or bombing.{{sfn\|Fest\|1999\|p116}} Eventually, 75,000 Jews were displaced by these measures.{{sfn\|Fest\|1999\|p120}} Speer denied he knew they were being put on Holocaust trains and claimed that those displaced were, "Completely free and their families were still in their apartments".{{sfn\|Schmidt\|1984\|p189}} He also said: "&nbsp;... en route to my ministry on the city highway, I could see&nbsp;... crowds of people on the platform of nearby Nikolassee Railroad Station. I knew that these must be Berlin Jews who were being evacuated. I am sure that an oppressive feeling struck me as I drove past. I presumably had a sense of somber events."{{sfn\|Schmidt\|1984\|p189}} Matthias Schmidt said Speer had personally inspected concentration camps and described his comments as an "outright farce".{{sfn\|Schmidt\|1984\|p190}} Martin Kitchen described Speer's often repeated line that he knew nothing of the "dreadful things" as hollow—not only was he fully aware of the fate of the Jews, he actively participated in their persecution.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p=322}} As Germany started World War II in Europe, Speer instituted quick-reaction squads to construct roads or clear away debris; before long, these units would be used to clear bomb sites.{{sfn\|Fest\|1999\|p115}} Speer used forced Jewish labor on these projects, in addition to regular German workers.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p78}} Construction stopped on the Berlin and Nüremberg plans at the outbreak of war. Though stockpiling of materials and other work continued, this slowed to a halt as more resources were needed for the armament industry.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp39–40}} Speer's offices undertook building work for each branch of the military, and for the SS, using slave labor.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p78}} Speer's building work made him among the wealthiest of the Nazi elite.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp75–76}}Minister of ArmamentsAppointment and increasing power in 1942 with Speer and the President of Portugal]] As one of the younger and more ambitious men in Hitler's inner circle, Speer was approaching the height of his power. In 1938, Prussian Minister President Hermann Göring had appointed him to the Prussian State Council.{{sfn\|Lilla\|2005\|pp239, 298}} In 1941, he was elected to the Reichstag from electoral constituency 2 (Berlin–West).{{sfn\|Wistrich\|1982\|p291}} On 8 February 1942, Reich Minister of Armaments and Munitions Fritz Todt died in a plane crash shortly after taking off from Hitler's eastern headquarters at Rastenburg. Speer arrived there the previous evening and accepted Todt's offer to fly with him to Berlin. Speer cancelled some hours before take-off because the previous night he had been up late in a meeting with Hitler.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp117–118}} Hitler appointed Speer in Todt's place. Martin Kitchen, a British historian, says that the choice was not surprising. Speer was loyal to Hitler, and his experience building prisoner of war camps and other structures for the military qualified him for the job.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp120–121}} Speer succeeded Todt not only as Reich Minister but in all his other powerful positions, including Inspector General of German Roadways, Inspector General for Water and Energy and Head of the Nazi Party's Office of Technology.{{sfn\|Wistrich\|1982\|p291}} At the same time, Hitler also appointed Speer as head of the Organisation Todt, a massive, government-controlled construction company.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p6}} Characteristically Hitler did not give Speer any clear remit; he was left to fight his contemporaries in the regime for power and control. As an example, he wanted to be given power over all armaments issues under Göring's Four Year Plan. Göring was reluctant to grant this. However, Speer secured Hitler's support, and on 1 March 1942, Göring signed a decree naming Speer "General Plenipotentiary for Armament Tasks" in the Four Year Plan.{{sfn\|Carroll\|2018\|p234}} Speer proved to be ambitious, unrelenting and ruthless.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p122}} Speer set out to gain control not just of armaments production in the army, but in the whole armed forces.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p122}} It did not immediately dawn on his political rivals that his calls for rationalization and reorganization were hiding his desire to sideline them and take control.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp148–149}} By April 1942, Speer had persuaded Göring to create a three-member Central Planning Board within the Four Year Plan, which he used to obtain supreme authority over procurement and allocation of raw materials and scheduling of production in order to consolidate German war production in a single agency.{{sfn\|U.S. Government\|1950\|p=374}} Speer was fêted at the time, and in the post-war era, for performing an "armaments miracle" in which German war production dramatically increased. This miracle was brought to a halt in the summer of 1943 by, among other factors, the first sustained Allied bombing.{{sfn\|Tooze\|2006\|pp597–598}} Other factors probably contributed to the increase more than Speer himself. Germany's armaments production had already begun to result in increases under his predecessor, Todt. Naval armaments were not under Speer's supervision until October 1943, nor the Luftwaffe's armaments until June of the following year. Yet each showed comparable increases in production despite not being under Speer's control.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp368–370}} Another factor that produced the boom in ammunition was the policy of allocating more coal to the steel industry.{{sfn\|Tooze\|2006\|pp575–576}} Production of every type of weapon peaked in June and July 1944, but there was now a severe shortage of fuel. After August 1944, oil from the Romanian fields was no longer available. Oil production became so low that any possibility of offensive action became impossible and weaponry lay idle.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp232–233}} As Minister of Armaments, Speer was responsible for supplying weapons to the army.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p127}} With Hitler's full agreement, he decided to prioritize tank production, and he was given unrivaled power to ensure success.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp145–147}} Hitler was closely involved with the design of the tanks, but kept changing his mind about the specifications. This delayed the program, and Speer was unable to remedy the situation. In consequence, despite tank production having the highest priority, relatively little of the armaments budget was spent on it. This led to a significant German Army failure at the Battle of Prokhorovka, a major turning point on the Eastern Front against the Soviet Red Army.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp=147–148}} armband) and Heer general Eduard Dietl at Rovaniemi Airport in Finland, December 1943]] As head of Organisation Todt, Speer was directly involved in the construction and alteration of concentration camps. He agreed to expand Auschwitz and some other camps, allocating 13.7 million Reichsmarks for the work to be carried out. This allowed an extra 300 huts to be built at Auschwitz, increasing the total human capacity to 132,000. Included in the building works was material to build gas chambers, crematoria and morgues. The SS called this "Professor Speer's Special Programme".{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p=156}} Speer realized that with six million workers drafted into the armed forces, there was a labor shortage in the war economy, and not enough workers for his factories. In response, Hitler appointed Fritz Sauckel as a "manpower dictator" to obtain new workers.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p150}} Speer and Sauckel cooperated closely to meet Speer's labor demands.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp151–152}} Hitler gave Sauckel a free hand to obtain labor, something that delighted Speer, who had requested 1,000,000 "voluntary" laborers to meet the need for armament workers. Sauckel had whole villages in France, Holland and Belgium forcibly rounded up and shipped to Speer's factories.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p159}} Sauckel obtained new workers often using the most brutal methods.{{sfn\|Fest\|1999\|pp146–150}} In occupied areas of the Soviet Union, that had been subject to partisan action, civilian men and women were rounded up en masse and sent to work forcibly in Germany.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp165–166}} By April 1943, Sauckel had supplied 1,568,801 "voluntary" laborers, forced laborers, prisoners of war and concentration camp prisoners to Speer for use in his armaments factories. It was for the maltreatment of these people that Speer was principally convicted at the Nuremberg trials.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p160}} Consolidation of arms production and aircraft designer Willy Messerschmitt, May 1944]] Following his appointment as Minister of Armaments, Speer was in control of armaments production solely for the Army. He coveted control of the production of armaments for the Luftwaffe and Kriegsmarine as well. He set about extending his power and influence with unexpected ambition.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp7–8}} His close relationship with Hitler provided him with political protection, and he was able to outwit and outmaneuver his rivals in the regime. Hitler's cabinet was dismayed at his tactics, but, regardless, he was able to accumulate new responsibilities and more power.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp7–8}} By July 1943, he had gained control of armaments production for the Luftwaffe and Kriegsmarine.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp167–169}} In August 1943, he took control of most of the Ministry of Economics, to become, in Admiral Dönitz's words, "Europe's economic dictator". His formal title was changed on 2 September 1943, to "Reich Minister for Armaments and War Production". He had become one of the most powerful people in Nazi Germany.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp7–8}} Speer and his hand-picked director of submarine construction {{interlanguage link\|Otto Merker\|de\|Otto Merker (Generaldirektor)}} believed that the shipbuilding industry was being held back by outdated methods, and revolutionary new approaches imposed by outsiders would dramatically improve output.{{sfn\|Tooze\|2006\|p614}} This belief proved incorrect, and Speer and Merker's attempt to build the Kriegsmarine{{'}}s new generation of submarines, the Type XXI and Type XXIII, as prefabricated sections at different facilities rather than at single dockyards contributed to the failure of this strategically important program. The designs were rushed into production, but the completed submarines were crippled by construction flaws. While dozens of submarines were built, few ever entered service.{{sfn\|Tooze\|2006\|pp616–618}} In December 1943, Speer visited Organisation Todt workers in Lapland, where he seriously damaged his knee and was incapacitated for several months.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp8–9}} He was under the dubious care of Professor Karl Gebhardt at a medical clinic called Hohenlychen where patients "mysteriously failed to survive".{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p188}} In mid-January 1944, Speer had a lung embolism and fell seriously ill. Concerned about retaining power, he did not appoint a deputy and continued to direct work of the Armaments Ministry from his bedside. Speer's illness coincided with the Allied "Big Week", a series of bombing raids on the German aircraft factories that were a devastating blow to aircraft production.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp188–189}} His political rivals used the opportunity to undermine his authority and damage his reputation with Hitler. He lost Hitler's unconditional support and began to lose power.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp8–9}} In response to the Allied Big Week, Adolf Hitler authorized the creation of a Fighter Staff committee. Its aim was to ensure the preservation and growth of fighter aircraft production. The task force was established by 1 March 1944, orders of Speer, with support from Erhard Milch of the Reich Aviation Ministry.{{sfn\|Boog\|Krebs\|Vogel\|2006\|p347}} Production of German fighter aircraft more than doubled between 1943 and 1944.{{sfn\|Overy\|2002\|p343}} The growth, however, consisted in large part of models that were becoming obsolescent and proved easy prey for Allied aircraft.{{sfn\|Tooze\|2006\|pp582–584}} On 1 August 1944, Speer merged the Fighter Staff into a newly formed Armament Staff committee.{{sfn\|Uziel\|2012\|p82}} The Fighter Staff committee was instrumental in bringing about the increased exploitation of slave labor in the war economy.{{sfn\|Buggeln\|p45\|2014}} The SS provided 64,000 prisoners for 20 separate projects from various concentration camps including Mittelbau-Dora. Prisoners worked for Junkers, Messerschmitt, Henschel and BMW, among others.{{sfn\|Buggeln\|pp46–48\|2014}} To increase production, Speer introduced a system of punishments for his workforce. Those who feigned illness, slacked off, sabotaged production or tried to escape were denied food or sent to concentration camps. In 1944, this became endemic; over half a million workers were arrested.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p215}} By this time, 140,000 people were working in Speer's underground factories. These factories were death-traps; discipline was brutal, with regular executions. There were so many corpses at the Dora underground factory, for example, that the crematorium was overwhelmed. Speer's own staff described the conditions there as "hell".{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p221}} The largest technological advance under Speer's command came through the rocket program. It began in 1932 but had not supplied any weaponry. Speer enthusiastically supported the program and in March 1942 made an order for A4 rockets, the predecessor of the world's first ballistic missile, the V-2 rocket. The rockets were researched at a facility in Peenemünde along with the V-1 flying bomb. The V-2's first target was Paris on 8 September 1944. The program, while advanced, proved to be an impediment to the war economy. The large capital investment was not repaid in military effectiveness.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p216}} The rockets were built at an underground factory at Mittelwerk. Labor to build the A4 rockets came from the Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp. Of the 60,000 people who ended up at the camp, 20,000 died due to the appalling conditions.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p221}} On 14 April 1944, Speer lost control of Organisation Todt to his deputy, Franz Xaver Dorsch.{{sfn\| Speer\| 1970\| pp432–433}} He opposed the assassination attempt against Hitler on 20 July 1944. He was not involved in the plot, and played a minor role in the regime's efforts to regain control over Berlin after Hitler survived.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp204–205}} After the plot Speer's rivals attacked some of his closest allies and his management system fell out of favor with radicals in the party. He lost yet more authority.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p8}}Defeat of Nazi Germany and Alfred Jodl (right) after their arrest by the British Army in Flensburg in Northern Germany in May 1945]] Losses of territory and a dramatic expansion of the Allied strategic bombing campaign caused the collapse of the German economy from late 1944. Air attacks on the transport network were particularly effective, as they cut the main centres of production off from essential coal supplies.{{sfn\|Tooze\|2006\|pp648–651}} In January 1945, Speer told Goebbels that armaments production could be sustained for at least a year.{{sfn\|Tooze\|2006\|p652}} However, he concluded that the war was lost after Soviet forces captured the important Silesian industrial region later that month.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p259}} Nevertheless, Speer believed that Germany should continue the war for as long as possible with the goal of winning better conditions from the Allies than the unconditional surrender they insisted upon.{{sfn\|Kershaw\|2012\|p289}} During January and February, Speer claimed that his ministry would deliver "decisive weapons" and a large increase in armaments production which would "bring about a dramatic change on the battlefield".{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p254}} Speer gained control over the railways in February, and asked Heinrich Himmler to supply concentration camp prisoners to work on their repair.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp261–262}} upon liberation in 1945. Mühldorf supplied slave workers for the Weingut I project.]] By mid-March, Speer had accepted that Germany's economy would collapse within the next eight weeks. While he sought to frustrate directives to destroy industrial facilities in areas at risk of capture, so that they could be used after the war, he still supported the war's continuation. Speer provided Hitler with a memorandum on 15 March, which detailed Germany's dire economic situation and sought approval to cease demolitions of infrastructure. Three days later, he also proposed to Hitler that Germany's remaining military resources be concentrated along the Rhine and Vistula rivers in an attempt to prolong the fighting. This ignored military realities, as the German armed forces were unable to match the Allies' firepower and were facing total defeat.{{sfn\|Tooze\|2006\|pp652–653}}{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp262–263}} Hitler rejected Speer's proposal to cease demolitions. Instead, he issued the "Nero Decree" on 19 March, which called for the destruction of all infrastructure as the army retreated. Speer was appalled by this order, and persuaded several key military and political leaders to ignore it.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp265–267}} During a meeting with Speer on 28/29 March, Hitler rescinded the decree and gave him authority over demolitions.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp269–270}} Speer ended them, though the army continued to blow up bridges.{{sfn\|Kershaw\|2012\|p=291}}{{efn\|For a treatise on this aspect of the war including Speer's involvement see: Randall, Hansen, Disobeying Hitler: German Resistance in the Last Year of WWII, Faber & Faber, 2014, 1st edition, {{ISBN\|978-0-571-28451-1}}.}} By April, little was left of the armaments industry, and Speer had few official duties.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p275}} Speer visited the Führerbunker on 22 April for the last time. He met Hitler and toured the damaged Chancellery before leaving Berlin to return to Hamburg.{{sfn\|Fest\|1999\|pp263–270}} Speer would later claim in his memoirs that during this visit he "confessed to Hitler [...] that he was disobeying his 'scorched-earth' policy",{{sfn\|Evans\|1997\|p202}} an assertion which has been described as "pure invention"{{sfn\|Evans\|1997\|p202}} by historian Richard J. Evans. On 29 April, the day before committing suicide, Hitler dictated a final political testament which dropped Speer from the successor government. Speer was to be replaced by his subordinate, Karl-Otto Saur.{{sfn\|van der Vat\|1997\|p234}} Speer was disappointed that Hitler had not selected him as his successor.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p277}} After Hitler's death, Speer offered his services to Hitler's successor, Karl Dönitz.{{sfn\|Fest\|1999\|pp273–281}} On 2 May, Dönitz asked Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk to form a new government, and discussions went on about the formation of the administration for the next few days. On May 5, Schwerin von Krosigk presented his cabinet (known as the Flensburg government) and Speer was named as Minister of Industry and Production.{{sfn\|Jaskot\|2002\|pp140–141}} Speer provided information to the Allies, regarding the effects of the air war, and on a broad range of subjects, beginning on 10 May. On 23 May, two weeks after the surrender of German forces, British troops arrested the members of the Flensburg Government and brought Nazi Germany to a formal end.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p288}}Post-warNuremberg trial {{Main\|Nuremberg trials}} Speer was taken to several internment centres for Nazi officials and interrogated. In September 1945, he was told that he would be tried for war crimes, and several days later, he was moved to Nuremberg and incarcerated there.{{sfn\|Sereny\|1995\|p561}} Speer was indicted on four counts: participating in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of crime against peace; planning, initiating and waging wars of aggression and other crimes against peace; war crimes; and crimes against humanity.{{sfn\|Fest\|1999\|p285}} The chief United States prosecutor, Robert H. Jackson, of the U.S. Supreme Court said, "Speer joined in planning and executing the program to dragoon prisoners of war and foreign workers into German war industries, which waxed in output while the workers waned in starvation."{{sfn\|Conot\|1983\|p471}} Speer's attorney, Hans Flächsner, successfully contrasted Speer from other defendants{{sfn\|Priemel\|2016\|pp139–140}} and portrayed him as an artist thrust into political life who had always remained a non-ideologue.{{sfn\|Fest\|1999\|pp=287–288}} Speer was found guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity, principally for the use of slave labor and forced labor. He was acquitted on the other two counts. He had claimed that he was unaware of Nazi extermination plans, and the Allies had no proof that he was aware. His claim was revealed to be false in a private correspondence written in 1971 and publicly disclosed in 2007.{{sfn\|Connolly\|2007}} On 1 October 1946, he was sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment.{{sfn\|van der Vat\|1997\|pp281–282}} While three of the eight judges (two Soviet and American Francis Biddle) advocated the death penalty for Speer, the other judges did not, and a compromise sentence was reached after two days of discussions.{{sfn\|Sereny\|1995\|p29}} Imprisonment On 18 July 1947, Speer was transferred to Spandau Prison in Berlin to serve his prison term.{{sfn\|van der Vat\|1997\|p288}} There he was known as Prisoner Number Five.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp314–315}} Speer's parents died while he was incarcerated. His father, who died in 1947, despised the Nazis and was silent upon meeting Hitler. His mother died in 1952. As a Nazi Party member, she had greatly enjoyed dining with Hitler.{{sfn\|Taylor\|2010\|p124}} Wolters and longtime Speer secretary Annemarie Kempf, while not permitted direct communication with Speer in Spandau, did what they could to help his family and carry out the requests Speer put in letters to his wife—the only written communication he was officially allowed. Beginning in 1948, Speer had the services of Toni Proost, a sympathetic Dutch orderly, to smuggle mail and his writings.{{sfn\|van der Vat\|1997\|pp292–297}} .]] In 1949, Wolters opened a bank account for Speer and began fundraising among those architects and industrialists who had benefited from Speer's activities during the war. Initially, the funds were used only to support Speer's family, but increasingly the money was used for other purposes. They paid for Toni Proost to go on holiday, and for bribes to those who might be able to secure Speer's release. Once Speer became aware of the existence of the fund, he sent detailed instructions about what to do with the money.{{sfn\|van der Vat\|1997\|pp292–297}} Wolters raised a total of DM158,000 for Speer over the final seventeen years of his sentence.{{sfn\|van der Vat\|1997\|p298}} The prisoners were forbidden to write memoirs. Speer was able to have his writings sent to Wolters, however, and they eventually amounted to 20,000 pages.{{sfn\|Fest\|1999\|p316}} He had completed his memoirs by November 1953, and they became the basis of Inside the Third Reich.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p325}} In Spandau Diaries, Speer aimed to present himself as a tragic hero who had made a Faustian bargain for which he endured a harsh prison sentence.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp=321–322}} Much of Speer's energy was dedicated to keeping fit, both physically and mentally, during his long confinement.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p323}} Spandau had a large enclosed yard where inmates were allocated plots of land for gardening. Speer created an elaborate garden complete with lawns, flower beds, shrubbery, and fruit trees.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p316}} To make his daily walks around the garden more engaging, Speer embarked on an imaginary trip around the globe. Speer started his “walk” from Berlin and went eastward across the entirety of Eurasia, crossed the Bering Strait into Alaska and then traveled south down the west coast of North America. Carefully measuring distance travelled each day, he mapped distances to real-world geography. He had walked more than {{convert\|30,000\|km}}, ending his sentence near Guadalajara, Mexico.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp316, 325}} Speer also read, studied architectural journals, and brushed up on English and French. In his writings, Speer claimed to have finished five thousand books while in prison. His sentence of twenty years amounted to 7,305 days, which only allotted one and a half days per book.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp316–317}} Speer's supporters maintained calls for his release. Among those who pledged support for his sentence to be commuted were Charles de Gaulle and US diplomat George Wildman Ball.{{sfn\|Fest\|1999\|p319}} Willy Brandt was an advocate of his release,{{sfn\|van der Vat\|1997\|p319}} putting an end to the de-Nazification proceedings against him,{{sfn\|van der Vat\|1997\|p324}} which could have caused his property to be confiscated.{{sfn\|van der Vat\|1997\|pp299–300}} Speer's efforts for an early release came to naught. The Soviet Union, having demanded a death sentence at trial, was unwilling to entertain a reduced sentence.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp320–321}} Speer served a full term and was released at midnight on 1 October 1966.{{sfn\|van der Vat\|1997\|pp324–325}} Release and later life Speer's release from prison was a worldwide media event. Reporters and photographers crowded both the street outside Spandau and the lobby of the Hotel Berlin where Speer spent the night.{{sfn\|Fest\|1999\|pp320–321}} He said little, reserving most comments for a major interview published in Der Spiegel in November 1966.{{sfn\|van der Vat\|1997\|pp333–334}} Although he stated he hoped to resume an architectural career, his sole project, a collaboration for a brewery, was unsuccessful.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp327–328}} Instead, he revised his Spandau writings into two autobiographical books, Inside the Third Reich (in German, Erinnerungen, or Reminiscences{{sfn\|Sereny\|1995\|p5}}) and Spandau: The Secret Diaries. He later published a work about Himmler and the SS, which has been published in English as ''The Slave State: Heinrich Himmler's Masterplan for SS Supremacy or Infiltration: How Heinrich Himmler Schemed to Build an SS Industrial Empire (in German, Der Sklavenstaat - Meine Auseinandersetzung mit der SS''). Speer was aided in shaping the works by Joachim Fest and Wolf Jobst Siedler from the publishing house Ullstein.{{sfn\|van der Vat\|1997\|pp329–330}} He found himself unable to re-establish a relationship with his children, even with his son Albert, who had also become an architect. According to Speer's daughter Hilde Schramm, "One by one, my sister and brothers gave up. There was no communication."{{sfn\|Sereny\|1995\|pp664–665}} He provided financial support for his brother Hermann after the war. However, his other brother Ernst died at the Battle of Stalingrad, despite repeated requests from his parents for Speer to repatriate him.{{sfn\|Taylor\|2010\|p=124}} Following his release from Spandau, Speer donated the Chronicle, his personal diary, to the German Federal Archives. It had been edited by Wolters and made no mention of the Jews.{{sfn\|van der Vat\|1997\|pp339–343}} David Irving discovered discrepancies between the deceptively edited Chronicle and independent documents. Speer asked Wolters to destroy the material he had omitted from his donation but Wolters refused and retained an original copy.{{sfn\|Sereny\|1995\|pp226–227}} Wolters' friendship with Speer deteriorated, and one year before Speer's death, Wolters gave Matthias Schmidt access to the unedited Chronicle. Schmidt authored the first book highly critical of Speer.{{sfn\|van der Vat\|1997\|pp=359–361}} Speer's memoirs were a phenomenal success. The public was fascinated by an inside view of the Third Reich and a major war criminal became a popular figure almost overnight. Importantly, he provided an alibi to older Germans who had been Nazis. If Speer, who had been so close to Hitler, had not known the full extent of the crimes of the Nazi regime and had just been "following orders", then they could tell themselves and others they too had done the same.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p335}} So great was the need to believe this "Speer myth" that Fest and Siedler were able to strengthen it—even in the face of mounting historical evidence to the contrary.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p366}} Death ]] Speer made himself widely available to historians and other enquirers.{{sfn\|van der Vat\|1997\|p354}} In October 1973, he made his first trip to Britain, flying to London to be interviewed on the BBC Midweek programme.{{sfn\|Asher\|2003}} In the same year, he appeared on the television programme The World at War. Speer returned to London in 1981 to participate in the BBC Newsnight programme. He suffered a stroke and died in London on 1 September.{{sfn\|Fest\|1999\|p337}} He had remained married to his wife, but he had formed a relationship with a German woman living in London and was with her at the time of his death.{{sfn\|van der Vat\|1997\|pp362–363}} His daughter, Margret Nissen, wrote in her 2005 memoirs that after his release from Spandau he spent all of his time constructing the "Speer Myth".{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p343}} The Speer myth The Good Nazi After his release from Spandau, Speer portrayed himself as the "good Nazi".{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp327–360}} He was well-educated, middle class, and bourgeois, and could contrast himself with those who, in the popular mind, typified "Bad Nazis".{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p362}} In his memoirs and interviews, he had distorted the truth and made so many major omissions that his lies became known as "myths".{{sfn\|Seelow\|2018}} Speer even invented his own birth's circumstances, stating falsely that he was born at midday amid crashes of thunder and bells of the nearby Christ Church, whereas it was between three and five o'clock, and the church was built only some years after.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p14}} Speer took his myth-making to a mass media level and his "cunning apologies" were reproduced frequently in post-war Germany.{{sfn\|Seelow\|2018}} Isabell Trommer writes in her biography of Speer that Fest and Siedler were co-authors of Speer's memoirs and co-creators of his myths.{{sfn\|Trommer\|2016\|p80}} In return they were paid handsomely in royalties and other financial inducements.{{sfn\|Schwendemann\|2016}} Speer, Siedler and Fest had constructed a masterpiece; the image of the "good Nazi" remained in place for decades, despite historical evidence indicating that it was false.{{sfn\|Trommer\|2016\|p=330}} Speer had carefully constructed an image of himself as an apolitical technocrat who deeply regretted having failed to discover the monstrous crimes of the Third Reich.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp345–346}} This construction was accepted almost at face value by historian Hugh Trevor-Roper when investigating the death of Adolf Hitler for British Intelligence and in writing The Last Days of Hitler. Trevor-Roper frequently refers to Speer as "a technocrat [who] nourished a technocrat's philosophy", one who cared only for his building projects or his ministerial duties, and who thought that politics was irrelevant, at least until Hitler's Nero Decree which Speer, according to his own telling, worked assiduously to counter. Trevor-Roper &ndash; who calls Speer an administrative genius whose basic instincts were peaceful and constructive &ndash; does take Speer to task, however, for his failure to recognize the immorality of Hitler and Nazism, calling him "the real criminal of Nazi Germany":{{sfn\|Trevor-Roper\|1995\|pp68–70, 214–215}} <blockquote>For ten years he sat at the very centre of political power; his keen intelligence diagnosed the nature and observed the mutations of Nazi government and policy; he saw and despised the personalities around him; he heard their outrageous orders and understood their fantastic ambitions; but he did nothing. Supposing politics to be irrelevant, he turned aside and built roads and bridges and factories, while the logical consequences of government by madmen emerged. Ultimately, when their emergence involved the ruin of all his work, Speer accepted the consequences and acted. Then it was too late; Germany had been destroyed.{{sfn\|Trevor-Roper\|1995\|pp=214–215}}</blockquote> After Speer's death, Matthias Schmidt published a book that demonstrated that Speer had ordered the eviction of Jews from their Berlin homes.{{sfn\|Schmidt\|1984\|p186}} By 1999, historians had amply demonstrated that Speer had lied extensively.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp360–362}} Even so, public perceptions of Speer did not change substantially until Heinrich Breloer aired the biographical film Speer und Er on television in 2004. The film began a process of demystification and critical reappraisal of Speer.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p335}} Adam Tooze in his book The Wages of Destruction said Speer had manoeuvred himself through the ranks of the regime skillfully and ruthlessly and that the idea he was a technocrat blindly carrying out orders was "absurd".{{sfn\|Tooze\|2006\|p553}} Trommer said Speer was not an apolitical technocrat; instead, he was, in reality, one of the most powerful and unscrupulous leaders in the entire Nazi regime.{{sfn\|Schwendemann\|2016}} Kitchen said Speer had deceived the Nuremberg Tribunal and post-war Germany.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp=360–362}} Brechtken said that if Speer's extensive involvement in the Holocaust had been known at the time of his trial he would have been sentenced to death.{{sfn\|Reinecke\|2017}} The image of the "good Nazi" was supported by numerous Speer myths.{{sfn\|Seelow\|2018}} In addition to the myth that he was an apolitical technocrat, he claimed he did not have full knowledge of the Holocaust or the persecution of the Jews. Another myth posits that Speer revolutionized the German war machine after his appointment as Minister of Armaments. He was credited with a dramatic increase in the shipment of arms that was widely reported as keeping Germany in the war.{{sfn\|Tooze\|2006\|p552}} Another myth centered around a nonexistent plan to assassinate Hitler with poisonous gas. The idea for this myth came to him after he recalled the panic when car fumes came through an air ventilation system. He fabricated the additional details.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp296–297}} Brechtken wrote that Speer's most brazen lie was fabricated during an interview with a French journalist in 1952. The journalist described an invented scenario in which Speer had refused Hitler's orders and Hitler had left with tears in his eyes. Speer liked the scenario so much that he included it in his memoirs. The journalist had unwittingly collaborated in creating one of his myths.{{sfn\|Reinecke\|2017}} Speer also sought to portray himself as an opponent of Hitler's leadership. Despite his opposition to the 20 July plot, he falsely claimed in his memoirs to have been sympathetic to the plotters. He maintained Hitler was cool towards him for the remainder of his life after learning they had included him on a list of potential ministers. This formed a key element of the myths Speer encouraged.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p205}} Speer also falsely claimed that he had realised the war was lost at an early stage, and thereafter worked to preserve the resources needed for the civilian population's survival.{{sfn\|Kershaw\|2012\|p289}} In reality, Speer had sought to prolong the war until further resistance was impossible, thus contributing to the large number of deaths and the extensive destruction Germany suffered during the final months of the war.{{sfn\|Kershaw\|2012\|p289}}{{sfn\|Tooze\|2006\|p653}} Denial of responsibility ]] Speer maintained at the Nuremberg trials and in his memoirs that he had no direct knowledge of the Holocaust. He admitted only to being uncomfortable around Jews in the published version of the Spandau Diaries.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p322}} In his final statement at Nuremberg, Speer gave the impression of apologizing, although he did not directly admit any personal guilt and the only victim he mentioned was the German people.{{sfn\|Priemel\|2016\|p141}} Historian Martin Kitchen states that Speer was actually "fully aware of what had happened to the Jews" and was "intimately involved in the 'Final Solution{{'"}}.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|pp100, 322}} Brechtken said Speer only admitted to a generalized responsibility for the Holocaust to hide his direct and actual responsibility.{{sfn\|Seelow\|2018}} Speer was photographed with slave laborers at Mauthausen concentration camp during a visit on 31 March 1943; he also visited Gusen concentration camp. Although survivor Francisco Boix testified at the Nuremberg trials about Speer's visit,{{sfn\|Pike\|2003\|page[https://books.google.com/books?idW_6CAgAAQBAJ&pgPA340 340, fn 40]}} Taylor writes that, had the photo been available, he would have been hanged.{{sfn\|Taylor\|2010\|pp=204–205}} In 2005, The Daily Telegraph reported that documents had surfaced indicating that Speer had approved the allocation of materials for the expansion of Auschwitz concentration camp after two of his assistants inspected the facility on a day when almost a thousand Jews were massacred.{{sfn\|Connolly\|2005}} Heinrich Breloer, discussing the construction of Auschwitz, said Speer was not just a cog in the work—he was the "terror itself".{{sfn\|Connolly\|2005}} Speer did not deny being present at the Posen speeches to Nazi leaders at a conference in Posen (Poznań) on 6 October 1943, but claimed to have left the auditorium before Himmler said during his speech: "The grave decision had to be taken to cause this people to vanish from the earth",{{sfn\|van der Vat\|1997\|pp167–168}} and later, "The Jews must be exterminated".{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p345}} Speer is mentioned several times in the speech, and Himmler addresses him directly.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p345}} In 2007, The Guardian reported that a letter from Speer dated 23 December 1971, had been found in a collection of his correspondence with Hélène Jeanty, the widow of a Belgian resistance fighter. In the letter, Speer says, "There is no doubt—I was present as Himmler announced on October 6, 1943, that all Jews would be killed."{{sfn\|Connolly\|2007}}Armaments miracle in ruins at the end of the war]] Speer was credited with an "armaments miracle". During the winter of 1941–42, in the light of Germany's disastrous defeat in the Battle of Moscow, the German leadership including Friedrich Fromm, Georg Thomas and Fritz Todt had come to the conclusion that the war could not be won.{{sfn\|Tooze\|2006\|p554}} The rational position to adopt was to seek a political solution that would end the war without defeat. Speer in response used his propaganda expertise to display a new dynamism of the war economy.{{sfn\|Tooze\|2006\|p554}} He produced spectacular statistics, claiming a sixfold increase in munitions production, a fourfold increase in artillery production, and he sent further propaganda to the newsreels of the country. He was able to curtail the discussion that the war should be ended.{{sfn\|Tooze\|2006\|p=554}} The armaments "miracle" was a myth; Speer had used statistical manipulation to support his claims.{{sfn\|Tooze\|2006\|p555}} The production of armaments did rise; however, this was due to the normal causes of reorganization before Speer came to office, the relentless mobilization of slave labor and a deliberate reduction in the quality of output to favor quantity. By July 1943 Speer's armaments propaganda became irrelevant because a catalogue of dramatic defeats on the battlefield meant the prospect of losing the war could no longer be hidden from the German public.{{sfn\|Tooze\|2006\|pp552–557}} Architectural legacy '' in 2011]] Little remains of Speer's personal architectural works, other than the plans and photographs. No buildings designed by Speer during the Nazi era are extant in Berlin, other than the four entrance pavilions and underpasses leading to the Victory Column, or Siegessäule,{{efn\|See the official website of Berlin at: https://www.berlin.de/en/attractions-and-sights/3560160-3104052-victory-column.en.html}} and the Schwerbelastungskörper, a heavy load-bearing body built around 1941. The concrete cylinder, {{convert\|46\|ft\|m\|adjoff\|orderflip\|abbr}} high, was used to measure ground subsidence as part of feasibility studies for a massive triumphal arch and other large structures planned within Hitler's post-war renewal project for the city of Berlin as the world capital Germania. The cylinder is now a protected landmark and is open to the public.{{sfn\|van der Vat\|1997\|p75}} The tribune of the Zeppelinfeld stadium in Nuremberg, though partly demolished, can also be seen.{{sfn\|Museen der Stadt Nürnberg}} During the war, the Speer-designed New Reich Chancellery was largely destroyed by air raids and in the Battle of Berlin. The exterior walls survived, but they were eventually dismantled by the Soviets. Unsubstantiated rumors have claimed that the remains were used for other building projects such as the Humboldt University, Mohrenstraße metro station and Soviet war memorials in Berlin.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|2015\|p56}}See also Speer Goes to Hollywood Downfall, 2004 German film where he was portrayed by actor Heino Ferch * Legion Speer * Transportflotte Speer * Transportkorps Speer * Hermann Giesler References Informational notes {{Notelist}} Citations {{reflist\|20em}} Bibliography :Printed sources {{refbegin\|30em}} * {{citation \|last1Boog \|first1Horst \|last2Krebs \|first2Gerhard \|last3Vogel \|first3Detlef \|author-link1Horst Boog \|author-link3Detlef Vogel \| year2006 \| titleGermany and the Second World War: Volume VII: The Strategic Air War in Europe and the War in the West and East Asia, 1943–1944/5\|locationLondon\| publisherClarendon Press\| isbn978-0198228899 \| title-linkGermany and the Second World War }} * {{citation \| last = Brechtken \| first = Magnus \| year = 2017 \| title = Albert Speer: Eine deutsche Karriere \| author-link = Magnus Brechtken \| place = Germany \| publisher = Siedler Verlag \| isbn = 978-3827500403 }} * {{citation\|lastBuggeln\|firstMarc\|titleSlave Labor in Nazi Concentration Camps\|year2014\|publisherOxford University Press\|isbn978-0198707974}} * {{citation \| last= Carroll \| first= Berenice Anita \| year= 2018 \| title= Design for Total War: Arms and Economics in the Third Reich \| publisher= Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. \| isbn= 978-3111359588}} * {{citation \| last = Conot \| first = Robert \| year = 1983 \| title = Justice at Nuremberg \| place = New York \| publisher = Harper & Row \| isbn = 978-0-88184-032-2 \| url = https://archive.org/details/justiceatnurembe00cono }} * {{cite book \|lastEvans \|firstRichard J. \|author-linkRichard J. Evans \|date1997 \|titleRereading German History: From Unification to Reunification 1800-1996 \|locationLondon \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn978-0-41-515899-2}} * {{citation \| last = Fest \| first = Joachim \| author-link = Joachim Fest \| others = translated by Ewald Osers and Alexandra Dring \| year = 1999 \| title = Speer: The Final Verdict \| publisher = Harcourt \| isbn = 978-0-15-100556-7 \| url = https://archive.org/details/speerfinalverdic00fest }} * {{citation \| lastHamsher \| firstWilliam \|titleAlbert Speer-Victim of Nuremberg? \|date1970 \|publisherLeslie Frewin Publishers Ltd \|isbn978-0091015107}} * {{cite book \|lastJaskot \| firstPaul B. \| titleThe Architecture of Oppression: The SS, Forced Labor and the Nazi Monumental Building Economy \|publisherTaylor & Francis \|locationLondon and New York \|year2002 \|isbn=978-1-13459-462-7}} * {{citation \|last1Kershaw \|first1Ian \|author-link1Ian Kershaw \|titleThe End: Hitler's Germany, 1944–45 \|date2012 \|publisherPenguin Books \|locationLondon \|isbn978-0-141-01421-0}} * {{citation \| first = Henry T. \| last = King \| author-link = Henry T. King \| year = 1997 \| title = The Two Worlds of Albert Speer: Reflections of a Nuremberg Prosecutor \| publisher = University Press of America \| isbn = 978-0-7618-0872-5 }} * {{citation \| last = Kitchen \| first =Martin \| author-link = Martin Kitchen \| year = 2015 \| title = Speer: Hitler's Architect \| publisher = Yale University Press \| isbn = 978-0-300-19044-1 \| title-link =Speer: Hitler's Architect }} {{cite book \|lastLilla \|firstJoachim \|titleDer Preußische Staatsrat 1921–1933: Ein biographisches Handbuch \|publisherDroste Verlag \|locationDüsseldorf \|year2005 \|isbn=978-3-770-05271-4}} {{citation \|author1Office of United States Chief of Counsel For Prosecution of Axis Criminality \|titleDocument 3568-PS \|journalNazi Conspiracy and Aggression \|date1946 \|volumeVI \|publisherUnited States Government Printing Office \|locationWashington \|ref{{harvid\|Nazi conspiracy and aggression\|1946}}}} * {{citation \| last1=Overy \| first1=Richard \| author-link = Richard Overy \| title = War and Economy in the Third Reich \| year = 2002 \| orig-year = 1995 \| publisher = Clarendon Press \| location = Oxford \| isbn = 978-0-19-820599-9 }} * {{citation \|last1Pike \|first1David Wingeate \|titleSpaniards in the Holocaust: Mauthausen, Horror on the Danube \|date2003 \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn978-1-134-58713-1 \|language=en}} {{citation \|last1Priemel \|first1Kim Christian \|author1-linkKim Christian Priemel \|titleThe Betrayal: The Nuremberg Trials and German Divergence \|date2016 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-19-256374-3 \|languageen}} {{citation \| last = Schmidt \| first = Matthias \| year = 1984 \| title = Albert Speer: The End of a Myth \| publisher = St. Martin's Press \| isbn = 978-0-312-01709-5 \| url = https://archive.org/details/albertspeerendof00schm }} * {{citation \| last = Schubert \| first = Philipp \| title = Albert Speer: Architekt – Günstling Hitlers – Rüstungsminister – Hauptkriegsverbrecher \| year = 2006 \| publisher = GRIN Verlag \| location = Munich \| isbn = 978-3-638-59047-1 }} * {{citation \| last = Sereny \| first = Gitta \| author-link = Gitta Sereny \| year = 1995 \| title = Albert Speer: His Battle with Truth \| publisher = Knopf \| isbn = 978-0-394-52915-8 }} * {{citation \|last= Speer \|first= Albert \|title= Inside the Third Reich \|publisher= Avon Books \|year= 1970 \|location= New York \|isbn= 978-0380000715 }} * {{citation \| last = Taylor \| first = Blaine \| year = 2010 \| title = Hitler's Engineers: Fritz Todt and Albert Speer – Master Builders of the Third Reich \| others = Translated by Richard and Clara Winston \| publisher = Casemate Publishers \| location = Havertown, PA and Newbury, England \| isbn = 978-1-932033-68-7 }} * {{citation \| last = Tooze \| first = Adam \| year = 2006 \| title = The Wages of Destruction \| author-link = Adam Tooze \| location = London \| publisher = Allen Lane \| isbn = 978-0-7139-9566-4 \| title-link = The Wages of Destruction }} {{ citation \| author-link = Hugh Trevor-Roper \| last = Trevor-Roper \| first = Hugh \| year = 1995 \| orig-year = 1947 \| title = The Last Days of Hitler \| edition = seventh \| location = London \| publisher = Pan Books \| isbn = 978-1-4472-1861-6 }} {{citation \| last = Trommer \| first = Isabell \| year = 2016 \| title = Rechtfertigung und Entlastung: Albert Speer in der Bundesrepublik \| publisher = Campus Verlag GmbH \| isbn = 978-3593505299 }} * {{citation\|lastUziel\|firstDaniel \| author-link Daniel Uziel \| titleArming the Luftwaffe: The German Aviation Industry in World War II\|year2012\|publisherMcFarland\|isbn=978-0-7864-6521-7}} * {{citation \| first = Dan \| last = van der Vat \| author-link = Dan van der Vat \| year = 1997 \| title = The Good Nazi: The Life and Lies of Albert Speer \| publisher = George Weidenfeld & Nicolson \| isbn = 978-0-297-81721-5 }} * {{citation \| last= Wistrich \| first= Robert \| author-link = Robert Wistrich \| title= Who's Who in Nazi Germany \| publisher= Macmillan Publishing Co. \| year= 1982 \| isbn= 0-02-630600-X }} {{refend}} :Online sources {{refbegin\|40em}} * {{citation \| last = Asher \| first = Edgar \| title = The day I met Hitler's Architect \| work = Chicago Jewish Star \| date = 21 November 2003 \| pages = 7, 9 }} * {{citation \| last = Connolly \| first = Kate \| date = 11 May 2005 \| title = Wartime reports debunk Speer as the good Nazi \| work = The Daily Telegraph \| location = UK \| url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/1489793/Wartime-reports-debunk-Speer-as-the-Good-Nazi.html \| access-date = 11 January 2014 }} * {{citation \| last = Connolly \| first = Kate \| date = 13 March 2007 \| title = Letter proves Speer knew of Holocaust plan \| work = The Guardian \| url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/mar/13/secondworldwar.kateconnolly \| access-date = 7 May 2017 }} * {{citation \| last = Reinecke \| first = Stefan \| date = 22 June 2017 \| title = Historiker über Albert Speer: "Er tat alles für den Endsieg" \| newspaper = Die Tageszeitung: Taz \| location = Germany \| url = https://www.taz.de/!5418482/ \| access-date = 22 June 2017 }} * {{citation \| last = Schwendemann \| first = Heinrich \| date = 30 November 2016 \| title = Rechtfertigung und Entlastung. Albert Speer in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland \| work = Rezensiert für H-Soz-Kult von \| location = Germany \| isbn = 9783593505299 \| url = https://www.hsozkult.de/publicationreview/id/rezbuecher-25978 \| access-date = 12 April 2019 }} * {{citation \| last = Seelow \| first = A. \| date = 2018 \| title = Demystifying Hitler's Favorite Architect. Review of: Magnus Brechtken, Albert Speer. Eine deutsche Karriere \| journal = Architectural Histories \| volume = 6 \| number = 1 \| pages = 1–11 \| doi = 10.5334/ah.334 \| doi-access = free }} * {{citation \| title = Official website of the Memorium Nuremberg Trials \| publisher = Museen der Stadt Nürnberg \| url = http://www.memorium-nuremberg.de \| access-date = 5 November 2014 \| ref = {{sfnRef\|Museen der Stadt Nürnberg}} }} * {{cite book \| authorU.S. Government \| year1950 \| titleTrials of the War Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals \| volumeII: The Milch Case \| publisherUnited States Printing Office \| urlhttps://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/pdf/NT_war-criminals_Vol-II.pdf\| access-date 27 June 2021 \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210610120426/https://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/pdf/NT_war-criminals_Vol-II.pdf \| archive-date = 10 June 2021}} {{refend}} Further reading * {{citation\|lastCausey\|firstCharles M.\|year2016\|titleThe Lion and the Lamb: The True Holocaust Story of a Powerful Nazi Leader and a Dutch Resistance Worker\|publisherWestbow Press \|isbn978-1-51276-109-2}} * {{citation \| last = Krier \| first = Léon \| author-link = Léon Krier \| year = 1985 \| title = Albert Speer's life: Architecture, 1932–1942 \| publisher = Archives D'Architecture Moderne \| isbn = 978-2-87143-006-3 }} {{citation \|last1Schroeter \|first1Wolfgang \|titleAlbert Speer: Aufstieg und Fall eines Mythos \|date2018 \|publisherVerlag Ferdinand Schöningh \|isbn978-3-657-78913-9 \|languagede}}External links {{Commons category}} {{Wikiquote}} {{PM20\|FID=pe/016838}} * {{citation \| title Speer cross-examination \| publisher University of Missouri–Kansas City \| work law2.umkc.edu \| url http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/nuremberg/Speer.html \| access-date = 8 January 2012}} * [https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/film/trial-testimony-against-albert-speer Francisco Boix identifies Speer at Nuremberg] * [https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/2018/12/18/albert-speer-chief-architect-of-the-third-reich/ Albert Speer: Chief Architect of the Third Reich - warfarehistorynetwork.com] {{Navboxes \|title=Articles and topics related to Albert Speer \|state=collapsed \|list1= {{Albert Speer}} {{Hitler's Cabinet}} {{NSDAP}} {{Nazism}} {{Final occupants of the Führerbunker}} {{Cabinet Schwerin von Krosigk}} {{Main Nuremberg defendants}} }} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Speer, Albert}} Category:1905 births Category:1981 deaths Category:20th-century German architects Category:20th-century German male writers Category:Architects from Mannheim Category:Architects in the Nazi Party Category:Articles containing video clips Category:German memoirists Category:German neoclassical architects Category:German people convicted of crimes against humanity Category:Government ministers of Nazi Germany Category:Holocaust perpetrators Category:Karlsruhe Institute of Technology alumni Category:Members of the Prussian State Council (Nazi Germany) Category:Members of the Reichstag 1938–1945 Category:Military logistics of Nazi Germany Category:Neurological disease deaths in England Category:People convicted by the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg Category:Politicians from Mannheim Category:People from the Grand Duchy of Baden Category:Recipients of the Knights Cross of the War Merit Cross Albert Category:Technical University of Munich alumni Category:Technische Universität Berlin alumni	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Speer	2025-04-05T18:25:26.986510
956	Asteraceae	{{Hatnote\|Not to be confused with Astraeaceae, a family of fungi.}} {{Short description\|Large family of flowering plants}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=August 2020}} {{Use list-defined references\|date=November 2022}} {{Automatic taxobox \|fossil_range {{fossil range\|76\|0}}Campanian<ref namePNAS2015/>–recent \|image = Asteracea poster 3.jpg \|image_upright = 1.3 \|image_alt = refer to caption \|image_caption = Twelve species of Asteraceae from the subfamilies Asteroideae, Carduoideae, and Cichorioideae \|taxon = Asteraceae \|authority Bercht. & J.Presl<ref nametropicos/> \|diversity = 1,911 genera \|diversity_link = List of Asteraceae genera \|diversity_ref <ref namePlantList/> \|type_genus = Aster \|type_genus_authority = L. \|subdivision_ranks = Subfamilies \|subdivision = * Asteroideae <small>Lindl. (1829)</small> * Barnadesioideae <small>Bremer & Jansen (1992)</small> * Carduoideae <small>Sweet (1826)</small> * Cichorioideae <small>Chevall. (1828)</small> * Corymbioideae <small>Panero & V.A.Funk (2002)</small> * Dicomoideae {{small\|S.Ortiz (2002)}} * Famatinanthoideae <small>S.E.Freire, Ariza & Panero (2014)</small> * Gochnatioideae <small>Panero & V.A.Funk (2002)</small> * Gymnarrhenoideae <small>Panero & V.A.Funk (2002)</small> * Hecastocleidoideae <small>Panero & V.A.Funk (2002)</small> * Mutisioideae <small>Lindl. (1829)</small> * Pertyoideae <small>Panero & V.A.Funk (2002)</small> * Stifftioideae <small>Panero (2007)</small> * Tarchonanthoideae {{small\|S.Ortiz (2020)}} * Vernonioideae {{small\|Lindl. (1829)}} * Wunderlichioideae <small>Panero & V.A.Funk (2007)</small> \|subdivision_ref <ref>{{Cite journal \| last1 Susanna \| first1A. \| last2 Baldwin \| first2 B.G. \| last3 Bayer \| first3 R.J. \| last4 Bonifacino \| first4 J.M. \| last5 Garcia-Jacas \| first5 N. \| last6 Keeley \| first6 S.C. \| last7 Mandel \| first7 J.R. \| last8 Ortiz \| first8 S. \| last9 Robinson \| first9 H. \| last10 Stuessy \| first10 T.F. \| date 2020 \| title The classification of the Compositae: A tribute to Vicki Ann Funk (1947–2019) \| journal Taxon \| volume 69 \| issue 4 \| pages 807–814 \| doi 10.1002/tax.12235 }} </ref> \|synonyms {{Collapsible list \| title List \| bullets = on \| Compositae <small>Giseke</small> \| Acarnaceae <small>Link</small> \| Ambrosiaceae <small>Bercht. & J.Presl</small> \| Anthemidaceae <small>Bercht. & J.Presl</small> \| Aposeridaceae <small>Raf.</small> \| Arctotidaceae <small>Bercht. & J.Presl</small> \| Artemisiaceae <small>Martinov</small> \| Athanasiaceae <small>Martinov</small> \| Calendulaceae <small>Bercht. & J.Presl</small> \| Carduaceae <small>Bercht. & J.Presl</small> \| Cassiniaceae <small>Sch.Bip.</small> \| Cichoriaceae <small>Juss.</small> \| Coreopsidaceae <small>Link</small> \| Cynaraceae <small>Spenn.</small> \| Echinopaceae <small>Bercht. & J.Presl</small> \| Eupatoriaceae <small>Bercht. & J.Presl</small> \| Helichrysaceae <small>Link</small> \| Inulaceae <small>Bercht. & J.Presl</small> \| Lactucaceae <small>Drude</small> \| Mutisiaceae <small>Burnett</small> \| Partheniaceae <small>Link</small> \| Perdiciaceae <small>Link</small> \| Senecionaceae <small>Bercht. & J.Presl</small> \| Vernoniaceae <small>Burmeist.</small> }} \|synonyms_ref <ref nameGRIN/> }} Asteraceae ({{IPAc-en\|ˌ\|æ\|s\|t\|ə\|'\|r\|eɪ\|s\|i\|.\|iː\|,_\|-\|ˌ\|aɪ}}) is a large family of flowering plants that consists of over 32,000 known species in over 1,900 genera within the order Asterales. The number of species in Asteraceae is rivaled only by the Orchidaceae, and which is the larger family is unclear as the quantity of extant species in each family is unknown. The Asteraceae were first described in the year 1740 and given the original name Compositae.<ref name=BarkleyEtAl/> The family is commonly known as the aster, daisy, composite, or sunflower family. Most species of Asteraceae are herbaceous plants, and may be annual, biennial, or perennial, but there are also shrubs, vines, and trees. The family has a widespread distribution, from subpolar to tropical regions, in a wide variety of habitats. Most occur in hot desert and cold or hot semi-desert climates, and they are found on every continent but Antarctica. Their common primary characteristic is compound flower heads, technically known as capitula, consisting of sometimes hundreds of tiny individual florets enclosed by a whorl of protective involucral bracts. The oldest known fossils are pollen grains from the Late Cretaceous (Campanian to Maastrichtian) of Antarctica, dated to {{Circa\|76–66}} million years ago (mya). It is estimated that the crown group of Asteraceae evolved at least 85.9 mya (Late Cretaceous, Santonian) with a stem node age of 88–89 mya (Late Cretaceous, Coniacian). Asteraceae is an economically important family, providing food staples, garden plants, and herbal medicines. Species outside of their native ranges can become weedy or invasive. Description<span class"anchor" id"Characteristics"></span> Members of the Asteraceae are mostly herbaceous plants, but some shrubs, vines, and trees (such as Lachanodes arborea) do exist. Asteraceae species are generally easy to distinguish from other plants because of their unique inflorescence and other shared characteristics, such as the joined anthers of the stamens.<ref nameJudd/> Nonetheless, determining genera and species of some groups such as Hieracium is notoriously difficult (see "damned yellow composite" for example).<ref nameMandelEtAl2019 /> Roots Members of the family Asteraceae generally produce taproots, but sometimes they possess fibrous root systems. Some species have underground stems in the form of caudices or rhizomes. These can be fleshy or woody depending on the species.<ref nameBarkleyEtAl/>StemsThe stems are herbaceous, aerial, branched, and cylindrical with glandular hairs, usually erect, but can be prostrate to ascending. The stems can contain secretory canals with resin,<ref nameBarkleyEtAl/> or latex, which is particularly common among the Cichorioideae.<ref nameKGL/>LeavesLeaves can be alternate, opposite, or whorled. They may be simple, but are often deeply lobed or otherwise incised, often conduplicate or revolute. The margins also can be entire or toothed. Resin<ref nameBarkleyEtAl/> or latex<ref nameKGL/> can also be present in the leaves.Inflorescences<span class"anchor" id"Flowers"></span>{{More citations needed section\|dateFebruary 2021}} Nearly all Asteraceae bear their flowers in dense flower heads called capitula. They are surrounded by involucral bracts, and when viewed from a distance, each capitulum may appear to be a single flower. Enlarged outer (peripheral) flowers in the capitulum may resemble petals, and the involucral bracts may look like a calyx.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Elomaa \|first1Paula \|last2Zhao \|first2Yafei \|last3Zhang \|first3Teng \|date2018-07-01 \|titleFlower heads in Asteraceae—recruitment of conserved developmental regulators to control the flower-like inflorescence architecture \|journalHorticulture Research \|languageen \|volume5 \|issue1 \|page36 \|doi10.1038/s41438-018-0056-8 \|pmid29977572 \|issn2052-7276\|pmc6026493 \|bibcode2018HorR....5...36E }}</ref> Notable exceptions include Hecastocleis shockleyi (the only species in the subfamily Hecastocleidoideae)<ref nameEoL>{{cite web\|website Encyclopedia of Life\|titleHecastocleis shockleyi A. Gray\|url http://eol.org/pages/467045/details\|access-date2016-01-02}} and {{cite book\|first1 Vicki A.\|last1Funk\|first2 D.J. Nicholas\|last2Hind\|chapter Chapter 16. Hecastocleideae (Hecastocleidoideae)\|titleSystematics, Evolution, and Biogeography of Compositae\|publisher International Association for Plant Taxonomy\|locationVienna\|editor1 V.A. Funk\|editor2A. Susanna \|editor3T. Stuessy \|editor4R. Bayer\|url http://botany.si.edu/BDG/pdf/funkyarchive/funkypdf/2009_pr_Funk_Hind_Hecastocleideae.pdf\|access-date2016-01-02}}</ref> and the species of the genus Corymbium (the only genus in the subfamily Corymbioideae),<ref name Weitz>{{cite journal\|firstF.M.\|last Weitz\|year1989\|title A revision of the genus Corymbium (Asteraceae)\|journalSouth African Journal of Botany\|volume 55\|issue6\|pages 598–629\|doi10.1016/S0254-6299(16)31133-4\|url https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/82290441.pdf}}</ref> which have one-flowered bisexual capitulas, Gundelia with one-flowered unisexual capitulas,<ref>{{cite book\|lastFeinbrun-Dothan\|first N.\|year1978\|title Flora Palaestina\|volume3\|location Jerusalem}} cited on {{cite web\|websitecichorieae portal\|title Gundelia\|urlhttp://cichorieae.e-taxonomy.net/portal/cdm_dataportal/taxon/fb808979-f281-4e66-90d7-54496a59871f\|accessdate 2016-12-15}}</ref> and Gymnarrhena micrantha with one-flowered female capitulas and few flowered male capitulas.<ref nameFFS>{{cite book\|first1 Vicki A.\|last1Funk\|first2 Ori\|last2Fragman-Sapir\|year 2009\|chapter22. Gymnarrheneae (Gymnarrhenoideae)\|title Systematics, Evolution, and Biogeography of Compositae\|publisherInternational Association for Plant Taxonomy\|location Vienna\|editor1V.A. Funk \|editor2A. Susanna \|editor3T. Stuessy \|editor4R. Bayer\|pages327–332\|chapter-url https://botany.si.edu/bdg/pdf/funkyarchive/funkypdf/2009_pr_Funk_Fragman-Sapir_Gymnarrheneae.pdf\|access-date2016-12-27}}</ref> Floral heads )]] In plants of the Asteraceae, what appears to be a single "daisy"-type flower is actually a composite of several much smaller flowers, known as the capitulum or head. By visually presenting as a single flower, the capitulum functions in attracting pollinators, in the same manner that other "showy" flowering plants in numerous other, older, plant families have evolved to attract pollinators. The previous name for the family, Compositae, reflects the fact that what appears to be a single floral entity is in fact a composite of much smaller flowers.<ref name=CDF/> The "petals" or "sunrays" in an "asteraceous" head are in fact individual strap-shaped<ref name=MDW/> flowers called ray flowers or ray florets, and the "sun disk" is made up of smaller, radially symmetric, individual flowers called disc flowers or disc florets. The word aster means "star" in Greek, referring to the appearance of most family members as a "celestial body with rays". The capitulum, which often appears to be a single flower, is often referred to as a head.<ref nameSpellenberg2001 /> In some species, the entire head is able to pivot its floral stem in the course of the day to track the sun (like a "smart" solar panel), thus maximizing the reflectivity of the entire floral unit and further attracting flying pollinators.<ref nameCDF/> Nearest to the flower stem lie a series of small, usually green, scale-like bracts. These are known as phyllaries; collectively, they form the involucre, which serves to protect the immature head of florets during its development.{{r\|CDF\|p=29}} The individual florets are arranged atop a dome-like structure called the receptacle.{{r\|CDF}} The individual florets in a head consist, developmentally, of five fused petals (rarely four); instead of sepals, they have threadlike, hairy, or bristly structures,<ref nameSpellenberg2001 /> known collectively as a pappus, (plural pappi). The pappus surrounds the ovary and can, when mature and attached to a seed, adhere to animal fur or be carried by air currents, aiding in seed dispersal. The whitish, fluffy head of a dandelion, commonly blown on by children, consists of numerous seeds resting on the receptacle, each seed attached to its pappus. The pappi provide a parachute-like structure to help the seed travel from its point of origin to a more hospitable site.<ref nameCDF/> : a disc flower; b ray flower.<br> 1 – style with stigmas<br> 2 – anthers <br>3 – corolla (petals); typically, in the ray flower, three petals are joined to form a strap (in other species, five petals can fuse to form a ligule)<br> 4 – reduced calyx<br> 4’ – Carduus acanthoides (left shaded circle): pappus: in many Asteraceae species, the calyx develops as a fibrous or bristly pappus<br> 5 – inferior ovary: fused ovary consisting of two carpels, containing one abaxial ovule (basal placentation).]] A ray flower is a two- or three-lobed, strap-shaped, individual flower, found in the head of most members of the Asteraceae.<ref nameCDF/><ref nameMDW/> The corolla of the ray flower may have two tiny, vestigial teeth, opposite to the three-lobed strap, or tongue, indicating its evolution by fusion from an ancestral, five-part corolla. In some species, the 3:2 arrangement is reversed, with two lobes, and zero or three tiny teeth visible opposite the tongue. A ligulate flower is a five-lobed, strap-shaped, individual flower found in the heads of certain other asteraceous species.<ref nameCDF/> A ligule is the strap-shaped tongue of the corolla of either a ray flower or of a ligulate flower.{{clarify\|dateApril 2023}}{{example needed\|dateApril 2023}}<ref nameMDW/> A disk flower (or disc flower) is a radially symmetric individual flower in the head, which is ringed by the ray flowers when both are present.<ref nameCDF/><ref nameMDW/> In some species, ray flowers may be arranged around the disc in irregular symmetry, or with a weakly bilaterally symmetric arrangement.<ref nameCDF/> Variations A radiate head has disc flowers surrounded by ray flowers. A ligulate head has all ligulate flowers and no disc flowers. When an Asteraceae flower head has only disc flowers that are either sterile, male, or bisexual (but not female and fertile), it is a discoid head. Disciform heads possess only disc flowers in their heads, but may produce two different sex types (male or female) within their disciform head. Some other species produce two different head types: staminate (all-male), or pistillate (all-female). In a few unusual species, the "head" will consist of one single disc flower; alternatively, a few species will produce both single-flowered female heads, along with multi-flowered male heads, in their "pollination strategy".<ref nameCDF/> Floral structures<span class"anchor" id"Floral structures"></span> (Carduoideae) shows (outermost to innermost): subtending bract and stem axis; calyx forming a pappus; fused corolla; stamens fused to corolla; gynoecium with two carpels and one locule]] .]] The distinguishing characteristic of Asteraceae is their inflorescence, a type of specialised, composite flower head or pseudanthium, technically called a calathium or capitulum,<ref nameBeentje/><ref nameUsher/> that may look superficially like a single flower. The capitulum is a contracted raceme composed of numerous individual sessile flowers, called florets, all sharing the same receptacle. A set of bracts forms an involucre surrounding the base of the capitulum. These are called "phyllaries", or "involucral bracts". They may simulate the sepals of the pseudanthium. These are mostly herbaceous but can also be brightly coloured (e.g. Helichrysum) or have a scarious (dry and membranous) texture. The phyllaries can be free or fused, and arranged in one to many rows, overlapping like the tiles of a roof (imbricate) or not (this variation is important in identification of tribes and genera). Each floret may be subtended by a bract, called a "palea" or "receptacular bract". These bracts are often called "chaff". The presence or absence of these bracts, their distribution on the receptacle, and their size and shape are all important diagnostic characteristics for genera and tribes. The florets have five petals fused at the base to form a corolla tube and they may be either actinomorphic or zygomorphic. Disc florets are usually actinomorphic, with five petal lips on the rim of the corolla tube. The petal lips may be either very short, or long, in which case they form deeply lobed petals. The latter is the only kind of floret in the Carduoideae, while the first kind is more widespread. Ray florets are always highly zygomorphic and are characterised by the presence of a ligule, a strap-shaped structure on the edge of the corolla tube consisting of fused petals. In the Asteroideae and other minor subfamilies these are usually borne only on florets at the circumference of the capitulum and have a 3+2 scheme – above the fused corolla tube, three very long fused petals form the ligule, with the other two petals being inconspicuously small. The Cichorioideae has only ray florets, with a 5+0 scheme – all five petals form the ligule. A 4+1 scheme is found in the Barnadesioideae. The tip of the ligule is often divided into teeth, each one representing a petal. Some marginal florets may have no petals at all (filiform floret). The calyx of the florets may be absent, but when present is always modified into a pappus of two or more teeth, scales or bristles and this is often involved in the dispersion of the seeds. As with the bracts, the nature of the pappus is an important diagnostic feature. There are usually four or five stamens.<ref name=Spellenberg2001 /> The filaments are fused to the corolla, while the anthers are generally connate (syngenesious anthers), thus forming a sort of tube around the style (theca). They commonly have basal and/or apical appendages. Pollen is released inside the tube and is collected around the growing style, and then, as the style elongates, is pushed out of the tube (nüdelspritze). The pistil consists of two connate carpels. The style has two lobes. Stigmatic tissue may be located in the interior surface or form two lateral lines. The ovary is inferior and has only one ovule, with basal placentation. Fruits and seeds In members of the Asteraceae the fruit is achene-like, and is called a cypsela (plural cypselae). Although there are two fused carpels, there is only one locule, and only one seed per fruit is formed.<ref nameSpellenberg2001 /> It may sometimes be winged or spiny because the pappus, which is derived from calyx tissue often remains on the fruit (for example in dandelion). In some species, however, the pappus falls off (for example in Helianthus). Cypsela morphology is often used to help determine plant relationships at the genus and species level.<ref nameMcKenzieEtAl/> The mature seeds usually have little endosperm or none.<ref nameJudd/> Pollen The pollen of composites is typically echinolophate, a morphological term meaning "with elaborate systems of ridges and spines dispersed around and between the apertures."<ref nameTomb1974/> Metabolites In Asteraceae, the energy store is generally in the form of inulin rather than starch. They produce iso/chlorogenic acid, sesquiterpene lactones, pentacyclic triterpene alcohols, various alkaloids, acetylenes (cyclic, aromatic, with vinyl end groups), tannins. They have terpenoid essential oils that never contain iridoids.<ref name=Stevens/> Asteraceae produce secondary metabolites, such as flavonoids and terpenoids. Some of these molecules can inhibit protozoan parasites such as Plasmodium, Trypanosoma, Leishmania and parasitic intestinal worms, and thus have potential in medicine.<ref namePandaLuyten2018/> Taxonomy HistoryCompositae, the original name for Asteraceae, were first described in 1740 by Dutch botanist Adriaan van Royen.{{r\|vanRoyen1740\|p117–118}} Traditionally, two subfamilies were recognised: Asteroideae (or Tubuliflorae) and Cichorioideae (or Liguliflorae).{{r\|BayerStarr1998\|p242}} The latter has been shown to be extensively paraphyletic, and has now been divided into 12 subfamilies, but the former still stands.<ref namePaneroFunk/>{{Update inline\|reasonPossibly changed since 2002; see Mandel, et al (2019)\|dateFebruary 2021}} The study of this family is known as synantherology. Phylogeny {{See also\|List of Asteraceae genera}} The phylogenetic tree of subfamilies presented below is based on Panero & Funk (2002)<ref namePaneroFunk/> updated in 2014,<ref nameDeep/> and now also includes the monotypic Famatinanthoideae.<ref nameDeep/><ref nameFJNG/><ref nameFunkFragman-Sapir/>{{Update inline\|reasonPossibly changed since 2014\|date=February 2021}} The diamond (♦) denotes a very poorly supported node (<50% bootstrap support), the dot (•) a poorly supported node (<80%).<ref name=Stevens/> {{clade\|style=font-size:90%;line-height:90% \|1{{clade\|1Barnadesioideae: 9 genera, 93 species. South America, mainly the Andes. \|2{{clade\|1Famatinanthoideae: South America, 1 genus, 1 species Famatinanthus decussatus. \|2{{clade\|1Mutisioideae: 58 genera, 750 species. Absent from Europe, mostly in South America. \|2=Stifftioideae: 10 genera. South America. \|label3♦\|3{{clade\|1=Wunderlichioideae: 8 genera, 24 species. Mostly in Venezuela and Guyana. \|2{{clade\|1Gochnatioideae: 4 or 5 genera, 90 species. Latin America and southern United States. \|2={{clade \|1=Hecastocleidoideae: Only Hecastocleis shockleyi. Southwestern United States. \|2={{clade \|1=Carduoideae: 83 genera, 2,500 species. Worldwide. \|2={{clade \|1=Pertyoideae: 5 or 6 genera, 70 species. Asia. \|2{{clade\|1Gymnarrhenoideae: Two genera/species, Gymnarrhena micrantha (Northern Africa, Middle East) and Cavea tanguensis (Eastern Himalayas). \|label2•\|2{{clade\|1=Cichorioideae: 224 genera, 3,200 species. Worldwide. \|2={{clade \|1=Corymbioideae: Only the genus Corymbium, with 9 species. Cape provinces, South Africa. \|label2•\|2Asteroideae: 1,130 genera and 16,200 species. Worldwide.}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}} The family includes over 32,000 currently accepted species, in over 1,900 genera (list) in 13 subfamilies.<ref namePlantList/>{{Update inline\|reasonPossibly changed since 2016\|dateFebruary 2021}} The number of species in the family Asteraceae is rivaled only by Orchidaceae.<ref nameStevens/><ref namePaneroCrozier/> Which is the larger family is unclear, because of the uncertainty about how many extant species each family includes.{{Citation needed\|dateFebruary 2021}} The four subfamilies Asteroideae, Cichorioideae, Carduoideae and Mutisioideae contain 99% of the species diversity of the whole family (approximately 70%, 14%, 11% and 3% respectively).{{Citation needed\|date=February 2021}} Because of the morphological complexity exhibited by this family, agreeing on generic circumscriptions has often been difficult for taxonomists. As a result, several of these genera have required multiple revisions.<ref nameJudd/> Paleontology and evolutionary processes The oldest known fossils of members of Asteraceae are pollen grains from the Late Cretaceous of Antarctica, dated to ~76–66 mya (Campanian to Maastrichtian) and assigned to the extant genus Dasyphyllum. Barreda, et al. (2015) estimated that the crown group of Asteraceae evolved at least 85.9 mya (Late Cretaceous, Santonian) with a stem node age of 88–89 mya (Late Cretaceous, Coniacian).<ref namePNAS2015/> It is not known whether the precise cause of their great success was the development of the highly specialised capitulum, their ability to store energy as fructans (mainly inulin), which is an advantage in relatively dry zones, or some combination of these and possibly other factors.<ref nameStevens/> Heterocarpy, or the ability to produce different fruit morphs, has evolved and is common in Asteraceae. It allows seeds to be dispersed over varying distances and each is adapted to different environments, increasing chances of survival.<ref nameGardocki/> Etymology and pronunciation The original name Compositae is still valid under the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants.<ref nameICN185/> It refers to the "composite" nature of the capitula, which consist of a few or many individual flowers.{{Citation needed\|dateFebruary 2021}} The alternative (as it came later) name Asteraceae ({{IPAc-en\|lang\|ˌ\|æ\|s\|t\|ə\|ˈ\|r\|eɪ\|s\|i\|,_\|-\|s\|i\|ˌ\|aɪ\|,_\|-\|s\|i\|ˌ\|eɪ\|,_\|-\|s\|i\|ˌ\|iː}}) comes to international scientific vocabulary from Neo-Latin, from Aster, the type genus, + -aceae,<ref nameMWU/> a standardized suffix for plant family names in modern taxonomy. This genus name comes from the Classical Latin word {{wikt-lang\|la\|aster}}, "star", which came from Ancient Greek {{lang\|grc\|ἀστήρ}} ({{transl\|grc\|astḗr}}), "star".<ref nameMWU/> It refers to the star-like form of the inflorescence.{{Citation needed\|date=February 2021}} The vernacular name daisy, widely applied to members of this family, is derived from the Old English name of the daisy (Bellis perennis): {{wikt-lang\|ang\|dæġes ēaġe}}, meaning "day's eye". This is because the petals open at dawn and close at dusk.<ref namedaisy /> Distribution and habitat Asteraceae species have a widespread distribution, from subpolar to tropical regions in a wide variety of habitats. Most occur in hot desert and cold or hot semi-desert climates, and they are found on every continent but Antarctica. They are especially numerous in tropical and subtropical regions (notably Central America, eastern Brazil, the Mediterranean, the Levant, southern Africa, central Asia, and southwestern China).<ref namePaneroCrozier/> The largest proportion of the species occur in the arid and semi-arid regions of subtropical and lower temperate latitudes.<ref nameBarkleyEtAl/> The Asteraceae family comprises 10% of all flowering plant species.<ref nameMandelEtAl2019/> Ecology {{More citations needed section\|date=February 2021}} {{multiple image \| align = right \| direction = horizontal \| image1 = Kih-silberdistel.jpg \| width1 = {{#expr: trunc (150 * 800 / 532)}} \| caption1 = Anemochory in Carlina \| image2 = Epizoochoria NRM.jpg \| width2 = {{#expr: trunc (150 * 800 / 600)}} \| caption2 = Epizoochory in Bidens tripartita }} Asteraceae are especially common in open and dry environments.<ref name=Judd/> Many members of Asteraceae are pollinated by insects, which explains their value in attracting beneficial insects, but anemophily is also present (e.g. Ambrosia, Artemisia). There are many apomictic species in the family. Seeds are ordinarily dispersed intact with the fruiting body, the cypsela. Anemochory (wind dispersal) is common, assisted by a hairy pappus. Epizoochory is another common method, in which the dispersal unit, a single cypsela (e.g. Bidens) or entire capitulum (e.g. Arctium) has hooks, spines or some structure to attach to the fur or plumage (or even clothes, as in the photo) of an animal just to fall off later far from its mother plant. Some members of Asteraceae are economically important as weeds. Notable in the United States are Senecio jacobaea (ragwort),<ref nameWSNWCB/> Senecio vulgaris (groundsel),<ref nameWSNWCB2/> and Taraxacum (dandelion).<ref nameGonzalez/> Some are invasive species in particular regions, often having been introduced by human agency. Examples include various tumbleweeds, Bidens, ragweeds, thistles, and dandelion.<ref nameMartinFores2018 /> Dandelion was introduced into North America by European settlers who used the young leaves as a salad green.<ref namedandelion/> A number of species are toxic to grazing animals.<ref nameSpellenberg2001 /> Uses succulent, Senecio angulatus, is used for its cut flowers,<ref namesenecioang/> despite being an invasive weed in some places, such as Victoria, Australia and New Zealand.<ref namesenecioang2/>]] Asteraceae is an economically important family, providing products such as cooking oils, leaf vegetables like lettuce, sunflower seeds, artichokes, sweetening agents, coffee substitutes and herbal teas. Several genera are of horticultural importance, including pot marigold (Calendula officinalis), Echinacea (coneflowers), various daisies, fleabane, chrysanthemums, dahlias, zinnias, and heleniums. Asteraceae are important in herbal medicine, including Grindelia, yarrow, and many others.<ref name=Michel2020 /> Commercially important plants in Asteraceae include the food crops Lactuca sativa (lettuce), Cichorium (chicory), Cynara scolymus (globe artichoke), Helianthus annuus (sunflower), Smallanthus sonchifolius (yacón), Carthamus tinctorius (safflower) and Helianthus tuberosus (Jerusalem artichoke).<ref name=ezcurra /> Plants are used as herbs and in herbal teas and other beverages. Chamomile, for example, comes from two different species: the annual Matricaria chamomilla (German chamomile) and the perennial Chamaemelum nobile (Roman chamomile). Calendula (known as pot marigold) is grown commercially for herbal teas and potpourri. Echinacea is used as a medicinal tea. The wormwood genus Artemisia includes absinthe (A. absinthium) and tarragon (A. dracunculus). Winter tarragon (Tagetes lucida), is commonly grown and used as a tarragon substitute in climates where tarragon will not survive.<ref name=jekkas /> Many members of the family are grown as ornamental plants for their flowers, and some are important ornamental crops for the cut flower industry. Some examples are Chrysanthemum, Gerbera, Calendula, Dendranthema, Argyranthemum, Dahlia, Tagetes, Zinnia, and many others.<ref name=Aphididae/> is used as an ornamental plant for its bright orange flowers.<ref>[https://plantpono.org/high-risk-plants/pseudogynoxys-chenopodioides/ Pseudogynoxys chenopodioides (Mexican flamevine)] CGAPS</ref>]] Many species of this family possess medicinal properties and are used as traditional antiparasitic medicine.<ref name=PandaLuyten2018/> Members of the family are also commonly featured in medical and phytochemical journals because the sesquiterpene lactone compounds contained within them are an important cause of allergic contact dermatitis. Allergy to these compounds is the leading cause of allergic contact dermatitis in florists in the US.<ref nameOdomJamesBerger2000/> Pollen from ragweed Ambrosia is among the main causes of so-called hay fever in the United States.<ref nameAsthmaAllergy/> Asteraceae are also used for some industrial purposes. French Marigold (Tagetes patula) is common in commercial poultry feeds and its oil is extracted for uses in cola and the cigarette industry. The genera Chrysanthemum, Pulicaria, Tagetes, and Tanacetum contain species with useful insecticidal properties. Parthenium argentatum (guayule) is a source of hypoallergenic latex.<ref name=Aphididae/> Several members of the family are copious nectar producers<ref nameAphididae/> and are useful for evaluating pollinator populations during their bloom.{{Citation needed\|dateJanuary 2017}} Centaurea (knapweed), Helianthus annuus (domestic sunflower), and some species of Solidago (goldenrod) are major "honey plants" for beekeepers. Solidago produces relatively high protein pollen, which helps honey bees over winter.<ref name=SolidagoWinter/> {{clear}} References {{Reflist\|refs<ref nameBayerStarr1998> {{Cite journal \| last1 Bayer \| first1 Randall J. \| author-link1 = Randall James Bayer \| last2 Starr \| first2 Julian R. \| date = 1998 \| title = Tribal phylogeny of the Asteraceae based on two non-coding chloroplast sequences, the trnL Intron and trnL/trnF Intergenic Spacer \| journal = Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden \| publisher = Missouri Botanical Garden Press \| volume = 85 \| issue = 2 \| pages = 242–256 \| doi = 10.2307/2992008 \| jstor 2992008 \| bibcode 1998AnMBG..85..242B \| url https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/2226 \| language en }} </ref> <ref name=jekkas> {{Cite web \|title = Winter Tarragon, Sweet Mace Tagetes lucida'' \|url = https://www.jekkas.com/products/winter-tarragon \|website = Jekka's \|location = Avon, Bristol, U.K. \|archive-date = 12 December 2021 \|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211212041936/https://www.jekkas.com/products/winter-tarragon \|url-status = live \|language = en \|access-date = 2022-05-02 }} </ref> <ref name=Michel2020> {{Cite journal \| last1 Michel \| first1 Jennifer \| last2 Abd Rani \| first2 Nur Zahirah \| last3 Husain \| first3 Khairana \| date = 2020 \| title = A review on the potential use of medicinal plants from Asteraceae and Lamiaceae plant family in cardiovascular diseases \| journal = Frontiers in Pharmacology \| volume = 11 \| page = 852 \| issn = 1663-9812 \| pmc = 7291392 \| pmid = 32581807 \| doi = 10.3389/fphar.2020.00852 \| doi-access = free \| language = en }} </ref> <ref name=ezcurra> {{Cite book \| last1 Ezcurra \| first1 Exequiel \| author-link1 = Exequiel Ezcurra \| date = May 2020 \| chapter = 12. Asteraceae: The sunflower family \| chapter-url = https://ezcurralab.ucr.edu/sites/g/files/rcwecm3506/files/2020-05/12_asteraceae.pdf \| title = Spring Wildflowers: An Introduction to the Native Flora of Southern California (Lecture notes by Exequiel Ezcurra) \| url = https://ezcurralab.ucr.edu/spring-wildflowers-riverside-county \| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230115234319/https://ezcurralab.ucr.edu/sites/default/files/2020-05/12_asteraceae.pdf \| archive-date = 15 January 2023 \| url-status = live \| language = en \| access-date = 15 January 2022 }} </ref> <ref name = KGL> {{Cite book \|last1 Kilian \|first1 Norbert \|last2 Gemeinholzer \|first2 Birgit \|last3 Lack \|first3 Hans Walter \|chapter = 24. Cichorieae \|chapter-url = https://www.bgbm.org/sites/default/files/documents/Cichorieae_Chapter24.pdf \|title = Systematics, evolution and biogeography of Compositae \|editor1-last Funk \|editor1-first V.A. \|editor-link1 = Vicki Ann Funk \|editor2-last Susanna \|editor2-first A. \|editor3-last Stuessy \|editor3-first T.E. \|editor4-last Bayer \|editor4-first R.J. \|editor-link4 = Randall James Bayer \|publisher = International Association for Plant Taxonomy \|location = Vienna \|archive-date = 22 June 2021 \|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210622223855/https://www.bgbm.org/sites/default/files/documents/Cichorieae_Chapter24.pdf \|url-status = live \|language = en \|access-date = 20 February 2021 }}</ref> <ref name = MandelEtAl2019> {{Cite journal \|last1 Mandel \|first1 Jennifer R. \|last2 Dikow \|first2 Rebecca B. \|last3 Siniscalchi \|first3 Carolina M. \|last4 Thapa \|first4 Ramhari \|last5 Watson \|first5 Linda E. \|last6 Funk \|first6 Vicki A. \|author-link6 = Vicki Ann Funk \|date = 9 July 2019 \|title = A fully resolved backbone phylogeny reveals numerous dispersals and explosive diversifications throughout the history of Asteraceae \|journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \|publisher = National Academy of Sciences \|volume = 116 \|issue = 28 \|pages = 14083–14088 \|issn = 1091-6490 \|doi = 10.1073/pnas.1903871116 \|pmid = 31209018 \|pmc = 6628808 \|bibcode = 2019PNAS..11614083M \|doi-access = free \|language = en }} </ref> <ref name=Spellenberg2001> {{Cite book \| last Spellenberg \| first Richard \| date = 2001 \| orig-date = 1979 \| title = National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Wildflowers: Western Region \| url = https://archive.org/details/nationalaudubons00spel/page/351 \| publisher = Knopf \| edition = rev \| page = 351 \| isbn = 978-0-375-40233-3 \| language = en \| via = Internet Archive }} </ref> <ref name=vanRoyen1740> {{Cite book \|last1 von Royen \|first1 Adriani \|author-link1 = Adriaan van Royen \|year = 1740 \|title = Florae leydensis prodromus : exhibens plantas quae in Horto academico Lugduno-Batavo aluntur \|url = http://www.botanicus.org/page/405470 \|publisher = Apud Samuelen Luchtmans academiae typographum \|location = Lugduni Batavorum [Leiden] \|archive-date = 19 July 2021 \|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210719021137/http://www.botanicus.org/page/405470 \|url-status = live \|language = la \|access-date = 18 February 2021 \|via = Botanicus }} </ref> <ref name = senecioang2> {{Cite web \| title = Senecio angulatus – climbing groundsel \| url = https://weeds.brisbane.qld.gov.au/weeds/climbing-groundsel \| website = Brisbane City Council weed identification tool (weeds.brisbane.qld.gov.au) \| publisher = Brisbane City Council \| location = Brisbane, Queensland, Australia \| archive-date = 2 March 2021 \| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210302043546/https://weeds.brisbane.qld.gov.au/weeds/climbing-groundsel \| url-status = dead \| language = en \| access-date = 16 February 2021 }} </ref> <ref name = senecioang> {{Cite web \| last1 Talhouk \| first1 S.N. \| last2 Fabian \| first2 M. \| last3 Dagher \| first3 R. \| date = 2015 \| title = Senecio angulatus (Cape ivy, Climbing groundsel, Creeping groundsel) \| url = https://landscapeplants.aub.edu.lb/Plants/PlantProfile/%20%20%20%20dcc77b26-1656-4f5f-bbc3-a32e75aaa030 \| website = AUB Landscape Plant Database (landscapeplants.aub.edu.lb) \| publisher = Department of Landscape Design & Ecosystem Management, American University of Beirut \| location = Beirut, Lebanon \| archive-date = 15 May 2021 \| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210515170413/https://landscapeplants.aub.edu.lb/Plants/PlantProfile/%20%20%20%20dcc77b26-1656-4f5f-bbc3-a32e75aaa030 \| url-status = live \| language = en \| access-date = 16 February 2021 }} </ref> <!-- <ref name = Jeffrey> {{Cite book \| last1 Jeffrey \| first1 Charles \| year = 2007 \| chapter = Compositae: Introduction with key to tribes \| pages = 61–87 \| title = Families and Genera of Vascular Plants, Vol. VIII, Flowering Plants, Eudicots, Asterales \| editor1 = J.W. Kadereit \| editor2 = C. Jeffrey \| publisher = Springer-Verlag \| location = Berlin, Germany \| isbn = 978-3642068225 \| language = en }} </ref> --> <ref name = MDW> {{Cite book \| last1 MacKay \| first1 Pam \| title = Mojave Desert Wildflowers: A Field Guide To Wildflowers, Trees, And Shrubs Of The Mojave Desert, Including The Mojave National Preserve, Death Valley National Park, and Joshua Tree National Park (Wildflower Series) \| year = 2013 \| publisher = FalconGuides \| location = Guilford, Connecticut \| page = 35 (figure 5) \| isbn = 978-0762780334 \| language = en }} </ref> <!-- <ref name = Solbrig> {{Cite journal \| last1 Solbrig \| first1 Otto T. \| author-link1 = Otto Thomas Solbrig \| year = 1963 \| title = Subfamilial nomenclature of Compositae \| journal = Taxon \| volume = 12 \| pages = 229–235 \| jstor = 1216917 \| doi = 10.2307/1216917 \| language = en }} </ref> --> <ref name=MartinFores2018> {{Cite journal \| last1 Martín-Forés \| first1 Irene \| last2 Acosta-Gallo \| first2 Belén \| last3 Castro \| first3 Isabel \| last4 de Miguel \| first4 José M. \| last5 del Pozo \| first5 Alejandro \| last6 Casado \| first6 Miguel A. \| date = 2018-06-14 \| title = The invasiveness of Hypochaeris glabra (Asteraceae): Responses in morphological and reproductive traits for exotic populations \| journal = PLOS ONE \| volume = 13 \| issue = 6 \| pages = e0198849 \| doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0198849 \| issn = 1932-6203 \| pmc = 6002075 \| pmid = 29902275 \| bibcode = 2018PLoSO..1398849M \| doi-access = free \| language = en }} </ref> <ref name=daisy> {{Cite dictionary \| entry = daisy, n. \| dictionary = OED Online \| publisher = Oxford University Press \| date = March 2021 \| entry-url = http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/46951 \| entry-url-access = subscription \| archive-date = 15 January 2023 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20230115175954/https://www.oed.com/start;jsessionid1DEDB41D3EEC8F5065FD7259AF8E310F?authRejectiontrue&url%2Fview%2FEntry%2F46951 \| url-status = live \| language = en \| access-date = 23 April 2021 \| title = Home : Oxford English Dictionary }} </ref> <ref name = Gonzalez> {{Cite journal \| last1 = González-Castejón \| first1 = Marta \| last2 = Visioli \| first2 = Francesco \| last3 = Rodriguez-Casado \| first3 = Arantxa \| date = 17 August 2012 \| title = Diverse biological activities of dandelion \| journal = Nutrition Reviews \| volume = 70 \| issue = 9 \| pages = 534–547 \| doi = 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2012.00509.x \| pmid = 22946853 \| issn = 0029-6643 \| language = en \| doi-access= free }} </ref> <ref name = WSNWCB> {{Cite web \| title = Tansy ragwort Jacobaea vulgaris \| url = https://www.nwcb.wa.gov/weeds/tansy-ragwort \| website = Washington State Noxious Weed Control Board (www.nwcb.wa.gov) \| archive-date = 4 December 2020 \| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201204225748/https://www.nwcb.wa.gov/weeds/tansy-ragwort \| url-status = live \| language = en \| access-date = 21 January 2021 }} </ref> <ref name = WSNWCB2> {{Cite web \| title = Common groundsel Senecio vulgaris \| url = https://www.nwcb.wa.gov/weeds/common-groundsel \| website = Washington State Noxious Weed Control Board (www.nwcb.wa.gov) \| archive-date = 30 January 2021 \| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210130175706/https://www.nwcb.wa.gov/weeds/common-groundsel \| url-status = live \| language = en \| access-date = 21 January 2021 }} </ref> <ref name = SolidagoWinter> {{Cite web \|author = <!--Not stated--> \|date = 2016 \|title = Five Plants to Help Pollinators \|url = https://www.storey.com/article/five-plants-to-help-pollinators/ \|website = www.storey.com \|publisher = The Xerces Society \|archive-date = 22 September 2020 \|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200922162058/https://www.storey.com/article/five-plants-to-help-pollinators/ \|url-status = live \|language = en \|access-date = 2 June 2020 \|quote = Goldenrods are among the most important late-season pollinator plants. }} </ref> <ref name = AsthmaAllergy> {{Cite web \| author = Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America \| title = Ragweed Allergy \| url http://www.aafa.org/display.cfm?id9&sub19&cont267 \| website = www.aafa.org \| url-status = dead \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20071007191742/http://www.aafa.org/display.cfm?id9&sub19&cont267 \| archive-date = 7 October 2007 \| language = en \| access-date = 10 November 2007 }} </ref> <ref name = OdomJamesBerger2000> {{Cite book \| last1 Odom \| first1 R.B. \| last2 James \| first2 W.D. \| last3 Berger \| first3 T.G. \| year = 2000 \| title = Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: Clinical Dermatology \| publisher = W.B. Saunders Company \| location = Philadelphia, Pennsylvania \| isbn = 978-0721658322 \| pages = 1135 \| language = en }} </ref> <ref name = Aphididae> {{Cite journal \| last1 Singh \| first1 Rajendra \| last2 Singh \| first2 Garima \| last3 Tiwari \| first3 Ajeet \| last4 Patel \| first4 Shveta \| last5 Agrawal \| first5 Ruhi \| last6 Sharma \| first6 Akhilesh \| last7 Singh \| first7 B. \| year = 2015 \| title = Diversity of host plants of aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) infesting Asteraceae in India \| url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308200408 \| journal = International Journal of Zoological Investigations \| volume = 1 \| issue = 2 \| pages = 137–167 \| issn = 2454-3055 \| language = en \| access-date = 16 February 2021 \| via = ResearchGate }} </ref> <ref name = Gardocki> {{Cite journal \| last1 Gardocki \| first1 Mary E. \| last2 Zablocki \| first2 Heather \| last3 El-Keblawy \| first3 Ali \| last4 Freeman \| first4 D. Carl \| year = 2000 \| title = Heterocarpy in Calendula micrantha (Asteraceae): the effects of competition and availability of water on the performance of offspring from different fruit morphs \| url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258919316 \| journal = Evolutionary Ecology Research \| volume = 2 \| issue = 6 \| pages = 701–718 \| language = en \| access-date = 16 February 2021 \| via = ResearchGate }} </ref> <ref name = PandaLuyten2018> {{Cite journal \| last1 Panda \| first1 Sujogya Kumar \| last2 Luyten \| first2 Walter \| year = 2018 \| title = Antiparasitic activity in Asteraceae with special attention to ethnobotanical use by the tribes of Odisha, India \| journal = Parasite \| volume = 25 \| pages = 10 \| issn = 1776-1042 \| doi = 10.1051/parasite/2018008 \| doi-access = free \| pmid = 29528842 \| pmc = 5847338 \| language = en }} </ref> <ref name = Tomb1974> {{Cite journal \| last1 Tomb \| first1 A. Spencer \| last2 Larson \| first2 Donald A. \| last3 Skvarla \| first3 John J. \| date = 1 May 1974 \| title = Pollen morphology and detailed structure of family Compositae, tribe Cichorieae. I. Subtribe Stephanomeriinae \| journal = American Journal of Botany \| publisher = Wiley \| volume = 61 \| issue = 5 \| pages = 486–498 \| doi = 10.1002/j.1537-2197.1974.tb10788.x \| jstor = 2442020 \| language = en }} </ref> <ref name = McKenzieEtAl> {{Cite journal \| last1 McKenzie \| first1 R.J. \| last2 Samuel \| first2 J. \| last3 Muller \| first3 E.M. \| last4 Skinner \| first4 A.K.W. \| last5 Barker \| first5 N.P. \| year = 2005 \| title = Morphology of cypselae in subtribe Arctotidinae (Compositae–Arctotideae) and its taxonomic implications \| journal = Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden \| publisher = Missouri Botanical Garden Press \| pages = 569–594 \| url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235418218 \| volume = 92 \| issue = 4 \| jstor = 40035740 \| language = en \| access-date = 18 February 2021 \| via = ResearchGate }} </ref> <ref name = Usher> {{Cite book \| last1 Usher \| first1 G. \| year = 1966 \| title = A Dictionary of Botany, including terms used in biochemistry, soil science, and statistics \| publisher = Constable and Company, Ltd. \| location = London \| isbn = 0094504903 \| oclc = 959412625 \| language = en }} </ref> <ref name = Beentje> {{Cite book \| last1 Beentje \| first1 Henk \| author-link1 = Henk Jaap Beentje \| year = 2010 \| title = The Kew Plant Glossary, an illustrated dictionary of plant terms \| publisher = Kew Publishing \| location = Richmond, U.K. \| isbn = 978-1842464229 \| language = en }} </ref> <ref name = GRIN> {{Cite web \| title = Family: Asteraceae Bercht. & J. Presl, nom. cons. \| url = http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/family.pl?110 \| website = Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) (www.ars-grin.gov) \| publisher = USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program, National Germplasm Resources Laboratory \| location = Beltsville, Maryland \| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080917105707/http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/family.pl?110 \| archive-date = 17 September 2008 \| url-status = dead <!-- may not be dead, but when I (Eewilson) tried to access it February 2021, it timed out more than once --> \| language = en \| access-date = 12 June 2008 }} </ref> <!-- <ref name = GBW> {{Cite book \| last1 Blackwell \| first1 Laird R. \| year = 2006 \| title = Great Basin Wildflowers: A Guide to Common Wildflowers of the High Deserts of Nevada, Utah, and Oregon \| page = 275 \| isbn = 978-0762738052 \| publisher = FalconGuides \| location = Guilford, Connecticut \| language = en }} </ref> --> <ref name = PNAS2015> {{Cite journal \| last1 Barreda \| first1 Viviana D. \| last2 Palazzesi \| first2 Luis \| last3 Tellería \| first3 Maria C. \| last4 Olivero \| first4 Eduardo B. \| last5 Raine \| first5 J. Ian \| last6 Forest \| first6 Félix \| year = 2015 \| title = Early evolution of the angiosperm clade Asteraceae in the Cretaceous of Antarctica \| journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \| volume = 112 \| issue = 35 \| pages = 10989–10994 \| pmid = 26261324 \| pmc = 4568267 \| bibcode = 2015PNAS..11210989B \| doi = 10.1073/pnas.1423653112 \| doi-access = free \| language = en }} </ref> <ref name = tropicos> {{Tropicos \| 50307371 \| Asteraceae \| Bercht. & J.Presl \| language = en \| access-date = 14 July 2017 }} </ref> <ref name = Stevens> {{Cite web \|last1 Stevens \|first1 Peter F. \|author-link1 = Peter F. Stevens \|year = 2022 \|orig-year = 2001 \|title = Angiosperm Phylogeny Website: Asterales \|url = http://www.mobot.org/mobot/research/apweb/welcome.html#Asterales \|website = Angiosperm Phylogeny Website \|archive-date = 29 November 2022 \|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221129174143fw_/https://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/orders/Asteralesweb.htm#Asterales \|url-status = dead \|language = en \|access-date = 15 January 2023 }} </ref> <ref name = PlantList> {{Cite web \|author = <!--Not stated--> \|year = 2013 \|title = Compositae \|url = http://www.theplantlist.org/1.1/browse/A/Compositae/ \|website = The Plant List (www.theplantlist.org) \|publisher = Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew & Missouri Botanical Garden \|archive-date = 11 February 2012 \|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120211132122/http://www.theplantlist.org/browse/A/Compositae/ \|url-status = live \|language = en \|access-date = 18 November 2016 }} </ref> <ref name = PaneroCrozier> {{Cite web \|last1 = Panero \|first1 Jose L. <!--\| author-link1 José L. Panero--> \|last2 = Crozier \|first2 Bonnie S. <!--\| author-link2 Bonnie S. Crozier--> \|date = 27 January 2012 \|title = Asteraceae. Sunflowers, daisies \|url = http://tolweb.org/Asteraceae/20780/2012.01.27 \|website = The Tree of Life Web Project (tolweb.org) \|archive-date = 21 January 2022 \|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220121040917/http://tolweb.org/Asteraceae/20780/2012.01.27 \|url-status = live \|language = en \|access-date = 16 February 2021 }} </ref> <ref name = ICN185> {{Cite web \| url http://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php?pageart18 \| title = International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants – Article 18.5 \| website = iapt-taxon.org \| archive-date = 27 September 2013 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20130927152429/http://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php?pageart18 \| url-status = live \| language = en \| access-date = 2 June 2015 }} </ref> <ref name = BarkleyEtAl> {{Cite eFloras \| 1 \| 10074 \| Asteraceae \| volume = 19 \| date = 2006 \| last1 Barkley \| first1 T.M. \| last2 Brouillet \| first2 L. \| author-link2 = Luc Brouillet \| last3 Strother \| first3 J.L. \| language = en \| access-date = 20 March 2022 }} </ref> <ref name = dandelion> {{Cite web \| title = Taraxacum officinale: dandelion \| url http://www.invasiveplantatlas.org/subject.html?sub3887 \| website = Invasive Plant Atlas of the United States (www.invasiveplantatlas.org) \| archive-date = 23 October 2012 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20121023040754/http://www.invasiveplantatlas.org/subject.html?sub3887 \| url-status = live \| language = en \| access-date = 10 September 2012 }} </ref> <ref name = MWU> {{Cite book \| author = Merriam-Webster \| author-link = Merriam-Webster \| title = Merriam-Webster's Unabridged Dictionary \| publisher = Merriam-Webster \| url = http://unabridged.merriam-webster.com/unabridged/ \| archive-date = 25 May 2020 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20200525084504/https://unabridged.merriam-webster.com/subscriber/login?redirect_to%2Funabridged%2F \| url-status = dead \| language = en \| access-date = 27 July 2016 }} </ref> <ref name = PaneroFunk> {{Cite journal \|last1 = Panero \|first1 J.L. <!--\| author-link1 José L. Panero--> \|last2 = Funk \|first2 = V.A. \|author-link2 = Vicki Ann Funk \|year = 2002 \|title = Toward a phylogenetic subfamilial classification for the Compositae (Asteraceae) \|url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/35519280/ \|journal = Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington \|volume = 115 \|pages = 909–922 \|archive-date = 7 May 2021 \|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210507141607/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/35519280/ \|url-status = live \|language = en \|access-date = 16 February 2021 \|via = Biodiversity Heritage Library }} </ref> <ref name = Deep> {{Cite journal \| last1 Panéro \| first1 José L. <!--\| author-link1 = José L. Panero--> \| last2 Freire \| first2 Susana E. \| last3 Ariza Espinar \| first3 Luis \| last4 Crozier \| first4 Bonnie S. \| last5 Barboza \| first5 Gloria E. \| last6 Cantero \| first6 Juan J. \| year = 2014 \| title = Resolution of deep nodes yields an improved backbone phylogeny and a new basal lineage to study early evolution of Asteraceae \| url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264432229 \| journal = Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution \| volume = 80 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 43–53 \| doi = 10.1016/j.ympev.2014.07.012 \| pmid = 25083940 \| bibcode = 2014MolPE..80...43P \| hdl = 11336/36507 \| s2cid = 6745704 \| language = en \| via = ResearchGate (abstract and introduction) \| hdl-access= free }} </ref> <ref name = FJNG> {{Cite journal \| last1 Fu \| first1 Zhi-Xi \| last2 Jiao \| first2 Bo-Han \| last3 Nie \| first3 Bao \| last4 Zhang \| first4 Guo-Jin \| last5 Gao \| first5 Tian-Gang \| date = 22 July 2016 \| title = A comprehensive generic-level phylogeny of the sunflower family: Implications for the systematics of Chinese Asteraceae \| url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304357265 \| journal = Journal of Systematics and Evolution \| volume = 54 \| issue = 4 \| pages = 416–437 \| doi = 10.1111/jse.12216 \| s2cid = 89115861 \| language = en \| via = ResearchGate \| doi-access= free \| bibcode = 2016JSyEv..54..416F }} </ref> <ref name = FunkFragman-Sapir> {{Cite book \|last1 = Funk \|first1 = Vicki A. \|author-link1 = Vicki Ann Funk \|last2 = Fragman-Sapir \|first2 = Ori \|year = 2009 \|chapter = 22. Gymnarrheneae (Gymnarrhenoideae) \|title = Systematics, Evolution, and Biogeography of Compositae \|publisher = International Association for Plant Taxonomy \|location = Vienna \|editor1 = V.A. Funk \|editor2 = A. Susanna \|editor3 = T. Stuessy \|editor4 = R. Bayer \|pages = 327–332 \|isbn = 978-3950175431 \|chapter-url = https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/11411/bot_2009_pr_Funk_Fragman-Sapir_Fymnarrheneae.pdf \|archive-date = 6 May 2021 \|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210506171048/https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/11411/bot_2009_pr_Funk_Fragman-Sapir_Fymnarrheneae.pdf \|url-status = live \|language = en \|access-date = 16 February 2021 }} </ref> <ref name = Judd> {{Cite book \| last1 Judd \| first1 W.S. \| last2 Campbell \| first2 C.S. \| last3 Kellogg \| first3 E.A. \| last4 Stevens \| first4 P.F. \| author-link4 = Peter F. Stevens \| last5 Donaghue \| first5 M.J. \| date = 2007 \| title = Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach \| edition = 3rd \| publisher = Sinauer Associates \| location = Sunderland, Massachusetts \| isbn = 978-0878934072 \| language = en }} </ref> <ref name = CDF> {{Cite book \| last1 Morhardt \| first1 Sia \| last2 Morhardt \| first2 Emil \| year = 2004 \| title = California desert flowers: an introductions to families, genera, and species \| publisher = University of California Press \| location = Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London \| isbn = 978-0520240032 \| pages = 29–32 \| language = en }} </ref> }} Bibliography {{refbegin}} * {{cite book \| editor-last1 Funk \| editor-first1 Vicki A. \| editor-last2 Susanna \| editor-first2 A. \| editor-last3 Stuessy \| editor-first3 T.F. \| editor-last4 Bayer \| editor-first4 R.J. \| date = 2009 \| title = Systematics, Evolution, and Biogeography of Compositae \| publisher = International Association for Plant Taxonomy \| location = Vienna \| isbn = 978-3-9501754-3-1 \| url https://books.google.com/books?idoj4lAQAAMAAJ \| archive-date = 15 January 2023 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20230115175957/https://books.google.com/books?idoj4lAQAAMAAJ \| url-status = live \| access-date = 12 November 2021 \| via = Google Books }} {{link note\|note=Also available [https://archive.org/details/systematicsevolu0000unse here] at Internet Archive}} {{refend}} External links {{Portal\|Plants}} * {{Commons category-inline}} * {{Wikispecies-inline}} * [http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/orders/asteralesweb.htm#Asteraceae Asteraceae] at the [http://www.mobot.org/mobot/research/apweb/ Angiosperm Phylogeny Website] * [http://compositae.org/ Compositae.org] – Compositae Working Group (CWG) and Global Compositae Database (GCD) {{Angiosperm families}} {{Taxonbar\|from1Q25400\|from2Q14847254}} {{Authority control}} Category:Asterales families Category:Extant Campanian first appearances	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteraceae	2025-04-05T18:25:27.044392
957	Apiaceae	{{short description\|Family of flowering plants}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=July 2020}} {{Automatic taxobox \| image = Umbelliferae-apium-daucus-foeniculum-eryngium-petroselinum.jpg \| image_caption = Apiaceae: Apium leaves and tiny inflorescences, Daucus habit, Foeniculum inflorescences, Eryngium inflorescences, Petroselinum root. \| taxon = Apiaceae \| authority = Lindl. \| type_genus = Apium \| type_genus_authority = L. \| subdivision_ranks = Subfamilies \| subdivision = Mackinlayoideae <small>Plunkett & Lowry</small> Azorelloideae <small>Plunkett & Lowry</small> Saniculoideae <small>Burnett</small> Apioideae <small>Seem.</small> \| synonyms = Umbelliferae }} Apiaceae ({{IPAc-en\|eɪ\|p\|iː\|'\|eɪ\|s\|i\|ˌ\|aɪ\|,_\|-\|s\|iː\|ˌ\|iː}}) or Umbelliferae is a family of mostly aromatic flowering plants named after the type genus Apium, and commonly known as the celery, carrot, or parsley family, or simply as umbellifers. It is the 16th-largest family of flowering plants, with more than 3,800 species in about 446 genera,<ref nameStevens>Stevens, P.F. (2001 onwards). "[http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/orders/apialesweb.htm#Apiaceae APIACEAE Lindley, nom. cons.]" Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Retrieved 16 December 2022.</ref> including such well-known, and economically important plants as ajwain, angelica, anise, asafoetida, caraway, carrot, celery, chervil, coriander, cumin, dill, fennel, lovage, cow parsley, parsley, parsnip and sea holly, as well as silphium, a plant whose exact identity is unclear and which may be extinct.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastGorvett \|firstZaria \|date7 September 2017 \|titleThe mystery of the lost Roman herb \|urlhttp://www.bbc.com/future/story/20170907-the-mystery-of-the-lost-roman-herb \|access-date4 June 2018 \|websiteBBC \|language=en}}</ref> The family Apiaceae includes a significant number of phototoxic species, such as giant hogweed, and a smaller number of highly poisonous species, such as poison hemlock, water hemlock, spotted cowbane, fool's parsley, and various species of water dropwort. Description Most Apiaceae are annual, biennial or perennial herbs (frequently with the leaves aggregated toward the base), though a minority are woody shrubs or small trees such as Bupleurum fruticosum.<ref nameHeywood>{{cite book \|first1V.H. \|last1Heywood \|first2R.K. \|last2Brummitt \|first3A. \|last3Culham \|first4O. \|last4Seberg \|titleFlowering plant families of the world \|date2007 \|publisherFirefly books \|locationNew York, U.S \|isbn978-1-55407-206-4 }}</ref>{{rp\|35}} Their leaves are of variable size, and alternately arranged, or with the upper leaves becoming nearly opposite. The leaves may be petiolate or sessile. There are no stipules but the petioles are frequently sheathing, and the leaves may be perfoliate. The leaf blade is usually dissected, ternate, or pinnatifid, but simple, and entire in some genera, e.g. Bupleurum.<ref name=Stace/> Commonly, their leaves emit a marked smell when crushed, aromatic to fetid, but absent in some species. The defining characteristic of this family is the inflorescence, the flowers nearly always aggregated in terminal umbels, that may be simple or more commonly compound, often umbelliform cymes. The flowers are usually perfect (hermaphroditic), and actinomorphic, but there may be zygomorphic flowers at the edge of the umbel, as in carrot (Daucus carota) and coriander, with petals of unequal size, the ones pointing outward from the umbel larger than the ones pointing inward. Some are andromonoecious, polygamomonoecious, or even dioecious (as in Acronema), with a distinct calyx, and corolla, but the calyx is often highly reduced, to the point of being undetectable in many species, while the corolla can be white, yellow, pink or purple. The flowers are nearly perfectly pentamerous, with five petals and five stamens.<ref name"Taylor-1994">{{Cite book\|lastTaylor\|firstRonald J.\|titleSagebrush Country: A Wildflower Sanctuary\|publisherMountain Press Pub. Co\|year1994\|isbn0-87842-280-3\|editionrev.\|locationMissoula, MT\|pages94\|languageen\|oclc25708726\|orig-date=1992}}</ref> There is often variation in the functionality of the stamens even within a single inflorescence. Some flowers are functionally staminate (where a pistil may be present but has no ovules capable of being fertilized) while others are functionally pistillate (where stamens are present but their anthers do not produce viable pollen). Pollination of one flower by the pollen of a different flower of the same plant (geitonogamy) is common. The gynoecium consists of two carpels fused into a single, bicarpellate pistil with an inferior ovary.<ref name"Taylor-1994" /> Stylopodia support two styles, and secrete nectar, attracting pollinators like flies, mosquitoes, gnats, beetles, moths, and bees. The fruit is a schizocarp consisting of two fused carpels that separate at maturity into two mericarps, each containing a single seed. The fruits of many species are dispersed by wind but others such as those of Daucus spp., are covered in bristles, which may be hooked in sanicle Sanicula europaea<ref name"Heywood" /> and thus catch in the fur of animals. The seeds have an oily endosperm<ref name"Watson">Watson, L., Dallwitz, M.J. (1992 onwards) [http://delta-intkey.com/angio/ The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101213041459/http://delta-intkey.com/angio/ \|date13 December 2010 }}. Version: 4 March 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|authorShe, M. \|author2Pu, F. \|author3Pan, Z. \|author4Watson, M. \|author5Cannon, J.F.M. \|author6Holmes-Smith, I. \|author7Kljuykov, E.V. \|author8Phillippe, L.R. \|author9Pimenov, M.G. \|year2005\|title Apiaceae\|journalFlora of China\|volume14\|pages1–205\|url http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id2&taxon_id10052}}</ref> and often contain essential oils, containing aromatic compounds that are responsible for the flavour of commercially important umbelliferous seed such as anise, cumin and coriander. The shape and details of the ornamentation of the ripe fruits are important for identification to species level.<ref nameStace>{{cite book\|lastStace\|firstC. A.\|author-link Stace, C. A.\|year2010\|titleNew Flora of the British Isles\|editionThird\|publisherCambridge University Press\|location Cambridge, U.K.\| page88\|isbn978-0-521-70772-5}}</ref>{{rp\|802}} Taxonomy Apiaceae was first described by John Lindley in 1836.<ref>Lindley, J. (1836) An Introduction to the Natural System of Botany, 2nd Edition. Longman, London.</ref> The name is derived from the type genus Apium, which was originally used by Pliny the Elder circa 50 AD for a celery-like plant.<ref>{{cite book\|authorMichael G. Simpson\|titlePlant Systematics\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iddj8KRImgyf4C\|year2010\|publisherAcademic Press\|isbn978-0-12-374380-0}}</ref> The alternative name for the family, Umbelliferae, derives from the inflorescence being generally in the form of a compound umbel. The family was one of the first to be recognized as a distinct group in Jacques Daleschamps' 1586 Historia generalis plantarum. With Robert Morison's 1672 Plantarum umbelliferarum distribution nova it became the first group of plants for which a systematic study was published. The family is solidly placed within the Apiales order in the APG III system. It is closely related to Araliaceae and the boundaries between these families remain unclear. Traditionally groups within the family have been delimited largely based on fruit morphology, and the results from this have not been congruent with the more recent molecular phylogenetic analyses. The subfamilial and tribal classification for the family is currently in a state of flux, with many of the groups being found to be grossly paraphyletic or polyphyletic.<ref nameStevens/>Classification and phylogenyPrior to molecular phylogenetic studies, the family was subdivided primarily based on fruit characteristics. Molecular phylogenetic analyses from the mid-1990s onwards have shown that fruit characters evolved in parallel many times, so that using them in classification resulted in units that were not monophyletic.<ref nameClarZuntMaurDown21/> In 2004, it was proposed that Apiaceae should be divided into four subfamilies:<ref name=PlunChanLowrPinn04/> Apioideae <small>Seem.</small> Azorelloideae <small>G.M.Plunkett & Lowry</small> Mackinlayoideae <small>G.M.Plunkett & Lowry</small> Saniculoideae <small>Burnett</small> Apioideae is by far the largest subfamily with about 90% of the genera. Most subsequent studies have supported this division, although leaving some genera unplaced. A 2021 study suggested the relationships shown in the following cladogram.<ref name=ClarZuntMaurDown21/> {{clade \|label1=Apiaceae \|1={{clade \|1=Platysace \|2={{clade \|1=Mackinlayoideae \|2={{clade \|1=Klotzschia \|2={{clade \|1=Azorelloideae \|2={{clade \|1=Hermas \|2={{clade \|1=Phlyctidocarpa + Saniculoideae \|2=Apioideae }} }} }} }} }} }} }} The Platysace clade and the genera Klotzschia and Hermas fell outside the four subfamilies. It was suggested that they could be accommodated in subfamilies of their own. Phlyctidocarpa was formerly placed in the subfamily Apioideae, but if kept there makes Apioideae paraphyletic. It could be placed in an enlarged Saniculoideae, or restored to Apioideae if the latter were expanded to include Saniculoideae.<ref name=ClarZuntMaurDown21/> The subfamilies can be further divided into tribes and clades, with many clades falling outside formally recognized tribes.<ref nameClarZuntMaurDown21/> Genera {{Main\|List of Apiaceae genera}} The number of genera accepted by sources varies. {{As of\|2022\|December}}, Plants of the World Online (PoWO) accepted 444 genera, while GRIN Taxonomy accepted 462. The PoWO genera are not a subset of those in GRIN; for example, Haloselinum is accepted by PoWO but not by GRIN, while Halosciastrum is accepted by GRIN but not by PoWO, which treats it as a synonym of Angelica. The Angiosperm Phylogeny Website had an "approximate list" of 446 genera.<ref name=Stevens/> <gallery> File:Chaerophyllum_bulbosum_-_Köhler–s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-177.jpg\|Chaerophyllum bulbosum File:Apiaceae Pimpinella anisum.jpg\|Anise (Pimpinella anisum) <br /> from Woodville (1793)<ref>Woodville, W. (1793) Medical Botany. James Phillips, London.</ref> File:Angelica archangelica (1118596627).jpg\|Angelica archangelica File:Coriandrum sativum 003.JPG\|Umbel of Coriandrum sativum showing strong zygomorphy (asymmetry) in the outer flowers. </gallery> Ecology The black swallowtail butterfly, Papilio polyxenes, uses the family Apiaceae for food and host plants for oviposition.<ref>Hall, Donald W. 2011 "Featured Creatures - Eastern Black Swallowtail." Entomology and Nematology Department, University of Florida. http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/bfly/bfly2/eastern_black_swallowtail.htm#life</ref> The 22-spot ladybird is also commonly found eating mildew on these plants.<ref name"mne">{{cite web \|last1Drugmand \|first1Didier \|titlePsyllobora vigintiduopunctata \|urlhttps://www.monaconatureencyclopedia.com/psyllobora-vigintiduopunctata/?langen \|websiteMonaco Nature Encyclopedia \|date7 August 2008 \|access-date16 May 2022}}</ref> Uses Many members of this family are cultivated for various purposes. Parsnip (Pastinaca sativa), carrot (Daucus carota) and Hamburg parsley (Petroselinum crispum) produce tap roots that are large enough to be useful as food. Many species produce essential oils in their leaves or fruits and as a result are flavourful aromatic herbs. Examples are parsley (Petroselinum crispum), coriander (Coriandrum sativum), culantro, and dill (Anethum graveolens). The seeds may be used in cuisine, as with coriander (Coriandrum sativum), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), cumin (Cuminum cyminum), and caraway (Carum carvi). Other notable cultivated Apiaceae include chervil (Anthriscus cerefolium), angelica (Angelica spp.), celery (Apium graveolens), arracacha (Arracacia xanthorrhiza), sea holly (Eryngium spp.), asafoetida (Ferula asafoetida), galbanum (Ferula gummosa), cicely (Myrrhis odorata), anise (Pimpinella anisum), lovage (Levisticum officinale), and hacquetia (Sanicula epipactis).<ref nameWatson/> Cultivation Generally, all members of this family are best cultivated in the cool-season garden; they may not grow at all if the soils are too warm. Almost every widely cultivated plant of this group is a considered useful as a companion plant. One reason is that the tiny flowers, clustered into umbels, are well suited for ladybugs, parasitic wasps, and predatory flies, which drink nectar when not reproducing.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastPeffley \|firstEllen \|titlePeffley: Companion planting with herbs \|urlhttps://www.lubbockonline.com/story/lifestyle/home-garden/2021/06/01/peffley-companion-planting-herbs/5255768001/ \|access-date2024-10-25 \|websiteLubbock Avalanche-Journal \|languageen-US}}</ref> They then prey upon insect pests on nearby plants. Some of the members of this family considered "herbs" produce scents that are believed to mask the odours of nearby plants, thus making them harder for insect pests to find. Other uses The poisonous members of the Apiaceae have been used for a variety of purposes globally. The poisonous Oenanthe crocata has been used as an aid in suicides, and arrow poisons have been made from various other family species. Daucus carota has been used as coloring for butter.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleDaucus carota: Beauty or Beast? (Michele Warmund) \|urlhttps://ipm.missouri.edu/MEG/2010/8/Daucus-carota-Beauty-or-Beast/ \|access-date2024-03-01 \|websiteipm.missouri.edu \|language=en}}</ref> Dorema ammoniacum, Ferula galbaniflua, and Ferula moschata (sumbul) are sources of incense. The woody Azorella compacta Phil. has been used in South America for fuel. Toxicity Many species in the family Apiaceae produce phototoxic substances (called furanocoumarins) that sensitize human skin to sunlight. Contact with plant parts that contain furanocoumarins, followed by exposure to sunlight, may cause phytophotodermatitis,<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/319001.php \|titlePhytophotodermatitis: When plants and light affect the skin \|last1Leonard \|first1Jayne \|date19 August 2017 \|websiteMedical News Today \|access-date8 August 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://newsnetwork.mayoclinic.org/discussion/sun-related-skin-condition-triggered-by-chemicals-in-certain-plants-fruits/ \|titleSun-related Skin Condition Triggered by Chemicals in Certain Plants, Fruits \|last1Davis \|first1Dawn \|date12 August 2011 \|websiteDermatology, Mayo Clinic \|access-date8 August 2018}}</ref> a serious skin inflammation. Phototoxic species include Ammi majus, Notobubon galbanum, the parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) and numerous species of the genus Heracleum, especially the giant hogweed (Heracleum mantegazzianum). Of all the plant species that have been reported to induce phytophotodermatitis, approximately half belong to the family Apiaceae.<ref name"Pathak et al. 1962">{{cite journal \|last1Pathak \|first1M. A. \|last2Daniels \|first2Farrington Jr. \|last3Fitzpatrick \|first3T. B. \|titleThe Presently Known Distribution of Furocoumarins (Psoralens) in Plants \|journalJournal of Investigative Dermatology \|dateSeptember 1962 \|volume39 \|issue3 \|pages225–239 \|doi10.1038/jid.1962.106\|pmid13941836 \|doi-accessfree }}</ref> The family Apiaceae also includes a smaller number of poisonous species, including poison hemlock, water hemlock, spotted cowbane, fool's parsley, and various species of water dropwort. Some members of the family Apiaceae, including carrot, celery, fennel, parsley and parsnip, contain polyynes, an unusual class of organic compounds that exhibit cytotoxic effects.<ref>{{cite journal \|titlePolyacetylenes from the Apiaceae vegetables carrot, celery, fennel, parsley, and parsnip and their cytotoxic activities \|authorC. Zidorn \|author2K. Jöhrer \|author3M. Ganzera \|author4B. Schubert \|author5E.M. Sigmund \|author6J. Mader \|author7R. Greil \|author8E.P. Ellmerer \|author9H. Stuppner \|journalJournal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry \|date2005 \|volume53 \|issue7 \|pages2518–2523 \|doi10.1021/jf048041s \|pmid15796588}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| last1 Minto \| first1 Robert E. \| last2 Blacklock \| first2 Brenda J \| year 2008 \| title Biosynthesis and function of polyacetylenes and allied natural products \| journal From Progress in Lipid Research \| volume 47 \| issue 4\| pages 233–306 \| doi 10.1016/j.plipres.2008.02.002 \| pmid 18387369 \| pmc 2515280 }}</ref> References {{Reflist\|refs<ref nameClarZuntMaurDown21>{{Citation \|last1Clarkson \|first1James J. \|last2Zuntini \|first2Alexandre R. \|last3Maurin \|first3Olivier \|last4Downie \|first4Stephen R. \|last5Plunkett \|first5Gregory M. \|last6Nicolas \|first6Antoine N. \|last7Smith \|first7James F. \|last8Feist \|first8Mary Ann E. \|last9Gutierrez \|first9Karime \|last10Malakasi \|first10Panagiota \|last11Bailey \|first11Paul \|last12Brewer \|first12Grace E. \|last13Epitawalage \|first13Niroshini \|last14Zmarzty \|first14Sue \|last15Forest \|first15Félix \|last16Baker \|first16William J. \|date2021 \|titleA higher-level nuclear phylogenomic study of the carrot family (Apiaceae) \|journalAmerican Journal of Botany \|volume108 \|issue7 \|pages1252–1269 \|doi10.1002/ajb2.1701 \|pmid34287829 \|s2cid236159639 \|modecs1 \|name-list-styleamp \|doi-accessfree }}</ref> <ref namePlunChanLowrPinn04>{{Citation \|last1Plunkett \|first1G.M. \|last2Chandler \|first2G.T. \|last3Lowry \|first3P.P. \|last4Pinney \|first4S.M. \|last5Sprenkle \|first5T.S. \|last6van Wyk \|first6B.-E. \|last7Tilney \|first7P. M. \|date2004 \|titleRecent advances in understanding Apiales and a revised classification \|journalSouth African Journal of Botany \|volume70 \|issue3 \|pages371–381 \|doi10.1016/S0254-6299(15)30220-9 \|modecs1 \|name-list-styleamp \|doi-access=free }}</ref> }} Further reading * Constance, L. (1971). "History of the classification of Umbelliferae (Apiaceae)." in Heywood, V. H. [ed.], The biology and chemistry of the Umbelliferae, 1–11. Academic Press, London. * Cronquist, A. (1968). The Evolution and Classification of Flowering Plants. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. * {{cite web \|urlhttps://medium.com/@USFWS/dont-touch-these-plants-six-lookalikes-you-want-to-avoid-edbe291b69e4 \|titleDon't touch these plants! Six lookalikes you want to avoid \|publisherU.S. Fish & Wildlife Service \|date19 July 2017 \|websiteMedium \|access-date11 August 2018}} * French, D. H. (1971). "Ethnobotany of the Umbelliferae." in Heywood, V. H. [ed.], The biology and chemistry of the Umbelliferae, 385–412. Academic Press, London. * Hegnauer, R. (1971) "Chemical Patterns and Relationships of Umbelliferae." in Heywood, V. H. [ed.], The biology and chemistry of the Umbelliferae, 267–277. Academic Press, London. * Heywood, V. H. (1971). "Systematic survey of Old World Umbelliferae." in Heywood, V. H. [ed.], The biology and chemistry of the Umbelliferae, 31–41. Academic Press, London. * Judd, W. S. et al. (1999). Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc. * {{cite journal \| last1 Plunkett \| first1 G. M. \| last2 Downie \| first2 S. R. \| s2cid 38655452 \| year 1999 \| title Major lineages within Apiaceae subfamily Apioideae: a comparison of chloroplast restriction site and DNA sequence data \| journal American Journal of Botany \| volume 86 \| issue 7\| pages 1014–1026 \| doi10.2307/2656619\| jstor 2656619 \| pmid 10406725 \| doi-access = free }} * {{cite journal \| last1 Plunkett \| first1 G. M. \| last2 Soltis \| first2 D. E. \|author-link2Douglas E. Soltis \| last3 Soltis \| first3 P. S. \| author-link3 Pamela S. Soltis\| year 1996 \| title Higher Level Relationships of Apiales (Apiaceae and Araliaceae) Based on Phylogenetic Analysis of rbcL Sequences \| journal American Journal of Botany\| volume 83 \| issue 4\| pages 499–515 \| doi10.2307/2446219\| jstor 2446219 }} * {{cite journal \| last1 Plunkett \| first1 G. M. \| last2 Soltis \| first2 D. E. \|author-link2Douglas E. Soltis \| last3 Soltis \| first3 P. S. \| author-link3 Pamela S. Soltis\| year 1996 \| title Evolutionary Patterns in Apiaceae: Inferences Based on matK Sequence Data \| journal Systematic Botany\| volume 21 \| issue 4\| pages 477–495 \| doi10.2307/2419610\| jstor 2419610 }} * Nieto Feliner, Gonzalo; Jury, Stephen Leonard & Herrero Nieto, Alberto (eds.) Flora iberica. Plantas vasculares de la Península Ibérica e Islas Baleares. [http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/ing/Libro.php?Libro484 Vol. X. "Araliaceae-Umbelliferae"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141030175423/http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/ing/Libro.php?Libro484 \|date30 October 2014 }} (2003) Madrid: Real Jardín Botánico, CSIC (in Spanish). * {{cite web \|urlhttps://www.greenmountainclub.org/wild-parsnip-and-friends-in-vermont/ \|titleWild Parsnip and Friends in Vermont \|last1Scavo \|first1Tom \|date11 August 2011 \|websiteGreen Mountain Club \|access-date11 August 2018}} External links {{Commons category-inline\|Apiaceae}} [http://delta-intkey.com/angio/www/umbellif.htm Umbelliferae] at The Families of Flowering Plants (DELTA) * [http://www.discoverlife.org/mp/20q?search=Apiaceae Apiaceae] at Discover Life * [http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/URC/frames.html?http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/URC/urchomepage.html Umbellifer Resource Centre] at the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050504120603/http://umbelliferae.cs.msu.su/en_index.php?menu_item_id=4 Umbellifer Information Server] at Moscow State University {{Angiosperm families}} {{Taxonbar\|from1Q145794\|from2Q10387485}} {{Authority control}} Category:Asterid families	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apiaceae	2025-04-05T18:25:27.061983
958	Axon	An axon (from Greek ἄξων áxōn, axis) or nerve fiber (or nerve fibre: see spelling differences) is a long, slender projection of a nerve cell, or neuron, in vertebrates, that typically conducts electrical impulses known as action potentials away from the nerve cell body. The function of the axon is to transmit information to different neurons, muscles, and glands. In certain sensory neurons (pseudounipolar neurons), such as those for touch and warmth, the axons are called afferent nerve fibers and the electrical impulse travels along these from the periphery to the cell body and from the cell body to the spinal cord along another branch of the same axon. Axon dysfunction can be the cause of many inherited and acquired neurological disorders that affect both the peripheral and central neurons. Nerve fibers are classed into three typesgroup A nerve fibers, group B nerve fibers, and group C nerve fibers. Groups A and B are myelinated, and group C are unmyelinated. These groups include both sensory fibers and motor fibers. Another classification groups only the sensory fibers as Type I, Type II, Type III, and Type IV. An axon is one of two types of cytoplasmic protrusions from the cell body of a neuron; the other type is a dendrite. Axons are distinguished from dendrites by several features, including shape (dendrites often taper while axons usually maintain a constant radius), length (dendrites are restricted to a small region around the cell body while axons can be much longer), and function (dendrites receive signals whereas axons transmit them). Some types of neurons have no axon and transmit signals from their dendrites. In some species, axons can emanate from dendrites known as axon-carrying dendrites. No neuron ever has more than one axon; however in invertebrates such as insects or leeches the axon sometimes consists of several regions that function more or less independently of each other. Axons are covered by a membrane known as an axolemma; the cytoplasm within an axon is called axoplasm. Most axons branch, in some cases very profusely. The end branches of an axon are called telodendria. The swollen end of a telodendron is known as the axon terminal or end-foot which joins the dendrite or cell body of another neuron forming a synaptic connection. Axons usually make contact with other neurons at junctions called synapses but can also make contact with muscle or gland cells. In some circumstances, the axon of one neuron may form a synapse with the dendrites of the same neuron, resulting in an autapse. At a synapse, the membrane of the axon closely adjoins the membrane of the target cell, and special molecular structures serve to transmit electrical or electrochemical signals across the gap. Some synaptic junctions appear along the length of an axon as it extends; these are called en passant boutons ("in passing boutons") and can be in the hundreds or even the thousands along one axon. Other synapses appear as terminals at the ends of axonal branches. A single axon, with all its branches taken together, can target multiple parts of the brain and generate thousands of synaptic terminals. A bundle of axons make a nerve tract in the central nervous system, and a fascicle in the peripheral nervous system. In placental mammals the largest white matter tract in the brain is the corpus callosum, formed of some 200 million axons in the human brain. Myelin is a layer of a fatty insulating substance, which is formed by two types of glial cells: Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes. In the peripheral nervous system Schwann cells form the myelin sheath of a myelinated axon. Oligodendrocytes form the insulating myelin in the CNS. Along myelinated nerve fibers, gaps in the myelin sheath known as nodes of Ranvier occur at evenly spaced intervals. The myelination enables an especially rapid mode of electrical impulse propagation called saltatory conduction. The myelinated axons from the cortical neurons form the bulk of the neural tissue called white matter in the brain. The myelin gives the white appearance to the tissue in contrast to the grey matter of the cerebral cortex which contains the neuronal cell bodies. A similar arrangement is seen in the cerebellum. Bundles of myelinated axons make up the nerve tracts in the CNS, and where they cross the midline of the brain to connect opposite regions they are called commissures. The largest of these is the corpus callosum that connects the two cerebral hemispheres, and this has around 20 million axons. One function of the initial segment is to separate the main part of an axon from the rest of the neuron; another function is to help initiate action potentials. Both of these functions support neuron cell polarity, in which dendrites (and, in some cases the soma) of a neuron receive input signals at the basal region, and at the apical region the neuron's axon provides output signals. The axon initial segment is unmyelinated and contains a specialized complex of proteins. It is between approximately 20 and 60 μm in length and functions as the site of action potential initiation. Both the position on the axon and the length of the AIS can change showing a degree of plasticity that can fine-tune the neuronal output. A longer AIS is associated with a greater excitability. The ion channels are accompanied by a high number of cell adhesion molecules and scaffold proteins that anchor them to the cytoskeleton. Axonal transport The axoplasm is the equivalent of cytoplasm in the cell. Microtubules form in the axoplasm at the axon hillock. They are arranged along the length of the axon, in overlapping sections, and all point in the same directiontowards the axon terminals. This is noted by the positive endings of the microtubules. This overlapping arrangement provides the routes for the transport of different materials from the cell body. Outgoing and ingoing tracks use different sets of motor proteins. In the peripheral nervous system axons are myelinated by glial cells known as Schwann cells. In the central nervous system the myelin sheath is provided by another type of glial cell, the oligodendrocyte. Schwann cells myelinate a single axon. An oligodendrocyte can myelinate up to 50 axons. The composition of myelin is different in the two types. In the CNS the major myelin protein is proteolipid protein, and in the PNS it is myelin basic protein. Nodes of Ranvier Nodes of Ranvier (also known as myelin sheath gaps) are short unmyelinated segments of a myelinated axon, which are found periodically interspersed between segments of the myelin sheath. Therefore, at the point of the node of Ranvier, the axon is reduced in diameter. These nodes are areas where action potentials can be generated. In saltatory conduction, electrical currents produced at each node of Ranvier are conducted with little attenuation to the next node in line, where they remain strong enough to generate another action potential. Thus in a myelinated axon, action potentials effectively "jump" from node to node, bypassing the myelinated stretches in between, resulting in a propagation speed much faster than even the fastest unmyelinated axon can sustain. Axon terminals An axon can divide into many branches called telodendria (Greek for 'end of tree'). At the end of each telodendron is an axon terminal (also called a terminal bouton or synaptic bouton, or end-foot). Axon terminals contain synaptic vesicles that store the neurotransmitter for release at the synapse. This makes multiple synaptic connections with other neurons possible. Sometimes the axon of a neuron may synapse onto dendrites of the same neuron, when it is known as an autapse. Some synaptic junctions appear along the length of an axon as it extends; these are called en passant boutons ("in passing boutons") and can be in the hundreds or even the thousands along one axon. Axonal varicosities In the normally developed brain, along the shaft of some axons are located pre-synaptic boutons also known as axonal varicosities and these have been found in regions of the hippocampus that function in the release of neurotransmitters. However, axonal varicosities are also present in neurodegenerative diseases where they interfere with the conduction of an action potential. Axonal varicosities are also the hallmark of traumatic brain injuries. Axonal damage is usually to the axon cytoskeleton disrupting transport. As a consequence protein accumulations such as amyloid-beta precursor protein can build up in a swelling resulting in a number of varicosities along the axon. In fact, the generation of action potentials in vivo is sequential in nature, and these sequential spikes constitute the digital codes in the neurons. Although previous studies indicate an axonal origin of a single spike evoked by short-term pulses, physiological signals in vivo trigger the initiation of sequential spikes at the cell bodies of the neurons. In addition to propagating action potentials to axonal terminals, the axon is able to amplify the action potentials, which makes sure a secure propagation of sequential action potentials toward the axonal terminal. In terms of molecular mechanisms, voltage-gated sodium channels in the axons possess lower threshold and shorter refractory period in response to short-term pulses. Development and growth Development The development of the axon to its target, is one of the six major stages in the overall development of the nervous system. Studies done on cultured hippocampal neurons suggest that neurons initially produce multiple neurites that are equivalent, yet only one of these neurites is destined to become the axon. It is unclear whether axon specification precedes axon elongation or vice versa, although recent evidence points to the latter. If an axon that is not fully developed is cut, the polarity can change and other neurites can potentially become the axon. This alteration of polarity only occurs when the axon is cut at least 10 μm shorter than the other neurites. After the incision is made, the longest neurite will become the future axon and all the other neurites, including the original axon, will turn into dendrites. Imposing an external force on a neurite, causing it to elongate, will make it become an axon. Nonetheless, axonal development is achieved through a complex interplay between extracellular signaling, intracellular signaling and cytoskeletal dynamics. Extracellular signaling The extracellular signals that propagate through the extracellular matrix surrounding neurons play a prominent role in axonal development. These signaling molecules include proteins, neurotrophic factors, and extracellular matrix and adhesion molecules. Netrin (also known as UNC-6) a secreted protein, functions in axon formation. When the UNC-5 netrin receptor is mutated, several neurites are irregularly projected out of neurons and finally a single axon is extended anteriorly. The neurotrophic factorsnerve growth factor (NGF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and neurotrophin-3 (NTF3) are also involved in axon development and bind to Trk receptors. The ganglioside-converting enzyme plasma membrane ganglioside sialidase (PMGS), which is involved in the activation of TrkA at the tip of neutrites, is required for the elongation of axons. PMGS asymmetrically distributes to the tip of the neurite that is destined to become the future axon. Intracellular signaling During axonal development, the activity of PI3K is increased at the tip of destined axon. Disrupting the activity of PI3K inhibits axonal development. Activation of PI3K results in the production of phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate (PtdIns) which can cause significant elongation of a neurite, converting it into an axon. As such, the overexpression of phosphatases that dephosphorylate PtdIns leads into the failure of polarization. Growth thumb\|right\|upright\|Axon of nine-day-old mouse with growth cone visible Growing axons move through their environment via the growth cone, which is at the tip of the axon. The growth cone has a broad sheet-like extension called a lamellipodium which contain protrusions called filopodia. The filopodia are the mechanism by which the entire process adheres to surfaces and explores the surrounding environment. Actin plays a major role in the mobility of this system. Environments with high levels of cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) create an ideal environment for axonal growth. This seems to provide a "sticky" surface for axons to grow along. Examples of CAMs specific to neural systems include N-CAM, TAG-1an axonal glycoproteinand MAG, all of which are part of the immunoglobulin superfamily. Another set of molecules called extracellular matrix-adhesion molecules also provide a sticky substrate for axons to grow along. Examples of these molecules include laminin, fibronectin, tenascin, and perlecan. Some of these are surface bound to cells and thus act as short range attractants or repellents. Others are difusible ligands and thus can have long range effects. Cells called guidepost cells assist in the guidance of neuronal axon growth. These cells that help axon guidance, are typically other neurons that are sometimes immature. When the axon has completed its growth at its connection to the target, the diameter of the axon can increase by up to five times, depending on the speed of conduction required. It has also been discovered through research that if the axons of a neuron were damaged, as long as the soma (the cell body of a neuron) is not damaged, the axons would regenerate and remake the synaptic connections with neurons with the help of guidepost cells. This is also referred to as neuroregeneration. Nogo-A is a type of neurite outgrowth inhibitory component that is present in the central nervous system myelin membranes (found in an axon). It has a crucial role in restricting axonal regeneration in adult mammalian central nervous system. In recent studies, if Nogo-A is blocked and neutralized, it is possible to induce long-distance axonal regeneration which leads to enhancement of functional recovery in rats and mouse spinal cord. This has yet to be done on humans. A recent study has also found that macrophages activated through a specific inflammatory pathway activated by the Dectin-1 receptor are capable of promoting axon recovery, also however causing neurotoxicity in the neuron. Length regulation Axons vary largely in length from a few micrometers up to meters in some animals. This emphasizes that there must be a cellular length regulation mechanism allowing the neurons both to sense the length of their axons and to control their growth accordingly. It was discovered that motor proteins play an important role in regulating the length of axons. Based on this observation, researchers developed an explicit model for axonal growth describing how motor proteins could affect the axon length on the molecular level. These studies suggest that motor proteins carry signaling molecules from the soma to the growth cone and vice versa whose concentration oscillates in time with a length-dependent frequency. Classification The axons of neurons in the human peripheral nervous system can be classified based on their physical features and signal conduction properties. Axons were known to have different thicknesses (from 0.1 to 20 μm) Intrafusal muscle fibers Different sensory receptors are innervated by different types of nerve fibers. Proprioceptors are innervated by type Ia, Ib and II sensory fibers, mechanoreceptors by type II and III sensory fibers and nociceptors and thermoreceptors by type III and IV sensory fibers. +Sensory fiber types Type Erlanger-GasserClassification Diameter(μm) Myelin Conductionvelocity (m/s) Associated sensory receptors Proprioceptors Mechanoceptors Nociceptors andthermoreceptors Ia Aα 13–20 Yes 80–120 Primary receptors of muscle spindle (annulospiral ending) ✔ Ib Aα 13–20 Yes 80–120 Golgi tendon organ II Aβ 6–12 Yes 33–75 Secondary receptors of muscle spindle (flower-spray ending).All cutaneous mechanoreceptors ✔ III Aδ 1–5 Thin 3–30 Free nerve endings of touch and pressureNociceptors of lateral spinothalamic tractCold thermoreceptors ✔ IV C 0.2–1.5 No 0.5–2.0 Nociceptors of anterior spinothalamic tractWarmth receptors Autonomic The autonomic nervous system has two kinds of peripheral fibers: +Fiber types Type Erlanger-GasserClassification Diameter(μm) Myelin Conductionvelocity (m/s) preganglionic fibers B 1–5 Yes 3–15 postganglionic fibers C 0.2–1.5 No 0.5–2.0 Clinical significance In order of degree of severity, injury to a nerve in the peripheral nervous system can be described as neurapraxia, axonotmesis, or neurotmesis. Concussion is considered a mild form of diffuse axonal injury. Axonal injury can also cause central chromatolysis. The dysfunction of axons in the nervous system is one of the major causes of many inherited and acquired neurological disorders that affect both peripheral and central neurons. Dying back of an axon can also take place in many neurodegenerative diseases, particularly when axonal transport is impaired, this is known as Wallerian-like degeneration. Studies suggest that the degeneration happens as a result of the axonal protein NMNAT2, being prevented from reaching all of the axon. Demyelination of axons causes the multitude of neurological symptoms found in the disease multiple sclerosis. Dysmyelination is the abnormal formation of the myelin sheath. This is implicated in several leukodystrophies, and also in schizophrenia. A severe traumatic brain injury can result in widespread lesions to nerve tracts damaging the axons in a condition known as diffuse axonal injury. This can lead to a persistent vegetative state. It has been shown in studies on the rat that axonal damage from a single mild traumatic brain injury, can leave a susceptibility to further damage, after repeated mild traumatic brain injuries. A nerve guidance conduit is an artificial means of guiding axon growth to enable neuroregeneration, and is one of the many treatments used for different kinds of nerve injury. Terminology Some general dictionaries define "nerve fiber" as any neuronal process, including both axons and dendrites. However, medical sources generally use "nerve fiber" to refer to the axon only. History German anatomist Otto Friedrich Karl Deiters is generally credited with the discovery of the axon by distinguishing it from the dendrites. Louis-Antoine Ranvier was the first to describe the gaps or nodes found on axons and for this contribution these axonal features are now commonly referred to as the nodes of Ranvier. Santiago Ramón y Cajal, a Spanish anatomist, proposed that axons were the output components of neurons, describing their functionality. based on axonal conduction velocity, myelination, fiber size etc. Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley also employed the squid giant axon (1939) and by 1952 they had obtained a full quantitative description of the ionic basis of the action potential, leading to the formulation of the Hodgkin–Huxley model. Hodgkin and Huxley were awarded jointly the Nobel Prize for this work in 1963. The formulae detailing axonal conductance were extended to vertebrates in the Frankenhaeuser–Huxley equations. The understanding of the biochemical basis for action potential propagation has advanced further, and includes many details about individual ion channels. Other animals The axons in invertebrates have been extensively studied. The longfin inshore squid, often used as a model organism has the longest known axon. The giant squid has the largest axon known. Its size ranges from 0.5 (typically) to 1 mm in diameter and is used in the control of its jet propulsion system. The fastest recorded conduction speed of 210 m/s, is found in the ensheathed axons of some pelagic Penaeid shrimps and the usual range is between 90 and 200 meters/s (cf 100–120 m/s for the fastest myelinated vertebrate axon.) Additional images File:Example of Waveforms from Extracellular Tetrode Recordings in the Hippocampus from Different Cell Types and Axons.tif\|Recordings in the hippocampus from different cell types and axons See also Electrophysiology Ganglionic eminence Giant axonal neuropathy Neuronal tracing Pioneer axon Single-unit recording References External links "Slide 3 Spinal cord" Category:Neurohistology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon	2025-04-05T18:25:27.137016
960	Aramaic alphabet	{{Short description\|Script used to write the Aramaic language}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=September 2020}} {{Infobox writing system \| sample = Stele Salm Louvre AO5009.jpg \| caption = Aramaic inscription from Tayma, containing a dedicatory inscription to the god Salm \| name = Aramaic alphabet \| type = Abjad \| languages Aramaic (Syriac<ref name"WWS"/> and Mandaic), Hebrew, Edomite \| time = 800 BC to AD 600 \| direction = right-to-left \| fam1 = Egyptian hieroglyphs \| fam2 = Proto-Sinaitic \| fam3 = Phoenician \| children Hebrew<ref name"WWS">{{cite book \| titleThe World's Writing Systems \| year1996 \| editor1-firstPeter T. \| editor1-lastDaniels \| editor1-linkPeter T. Daniels \| editor2-lastBright \| editor2-firstWilliam \| editor2-linkWilliam Bright \| publisherOxford University Press, Inc \| isbn978-0195079937 \| pages[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/89 89] \| urlhttps://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/89 }}</ref> Nabataean<ref name="WWS"/> *Arabic Syriac Palmyrene<ref name="WWS"/> Hatran<ref name="WWS"/> Mandaic<ref name="WWS"/> Elymaic<ref name="WWS"/> Pahlavi Kharosthi Brahmi \| unicode = [https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U10840.pdf U+10840–U+1085F] \| iso15924 = Armi \| footnotes = {{notelist}} \| ipa-note = no }} {{Special characters \|imageShlama.svg \|alt \|linkhttp://www.bethmardutho.org/index.php/resources/fonts.html \|specialSyriac text, written from right to left in a cursive style with some letters joined \|charactersSyriac script \|fixHelp:Multilingual_support#Syriac/Aramaic script \|error=unjoined Syriac letters or other symbols}}{{alphabet}} {{Aramaeans}} The ancient Aramaic alphabet was used to write the Aramaic languages spoken by ancient Aramean pre-Christian peoples throughout the Fertile Crescent. It was also adopted by other peoples as their own alphabet when empires and their subjects underwent linguistic Aramaization during a language shift for governing purposes — a precursor to Arabization centuries later — including among the Assyrians and Babylonians who permanently replaced their Akkadian language and its cuneiform script with Aramaic and its script, and among Jews, but not Samaritans, who adopted the Aramaic language as their vernacular and started using the Aramaic alphabet, which they call "Square Script", even for writing Hebrew, displacing the former Paleo-Hebrew alphabet. The modern Hebrew alphabet derives from the Aramaic alphabet, in contrast to the modern Samaritan alphabet, which derives from Paleo-Hebrew. The letters in the Aramaic alphabet all represent consonants, some of which are also used as matres lectionis to indicate long vowels. Writing systems, like the Aramaic, that indicate consonants but do not indicate most vowels other than by means of matres lectionis or added diacritical signs, have been called abjads by Peter T. Daniels to distinguish them from alphabets such as the Greek alphabet, that represent vowels more systematically. The term was coined to avoid the notion that a writing system that represents sounds must be either a syllabary or an alphabet, which would imply that a system like Aramaic must be either a syllabary, as argued by Ignace Gelb, or an incomplete or deficient alphabet, as most other writers had said before Daniels. Daniels put forward, this is a different type of writing system, intermediate between syllabaries and 'full' alphabets. The Aramaic alphabet is historically significant since virtually all modern Middle Eastern writing systems can be traced back to it. That is primarily due to the widespread usage of the Aramaic language after it was adopted as both a lingua franca and the official language of the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian Empires, and their successor, the Achaemenid Empire. Among the descendant scripts in modern use, the Jewish Hebrew alphabet bears the closest relation to the Imperial Aramaic script of the 5th century BC, with an identical letter inventory and, for the most part, nearly identical letter shapes. By contrast the Samaritan Hebrew script is directly descended from Proto-Hebrew/Phoenician script, which was the ancestor of the Aramaic alphabet. The Aramaic alphabet was also an ancestor to the Syriac alphabet and Mongolian script and Kharosthi<ref>{{Cite web \|titleKharoshti {{!}} Indo-Parthian, Brahmi Script, Prakrit {{!}} Britannica \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/Kharoshti \|access-date2024-09-26 \|websitewww.britannica.com \|languageen}}</ref> and Brahmi,<ref>{{Cite web \|date2024-09-06 \|titleBrahmi {{!}} Ancient Script, India, Devanagari, & Dravidian Languages {{!}} Britannica \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahmi \|access-date2024-09-26 \|websitewww.britannica.com \|languageen}}</ref> and Nabataean alphabet, which had the Arabic alphabet as a descendant. History , a Greek and Aramaic inscription by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka at Kandahar, Afghanistan, 3rd century BC]] The earliest inscriptions in the Aramaic language use the Phoenician alphabet.<ref>Inland Syria and the East-of-Jordan Region in the First Millennium BCE before the Assyrian Intrusions, Mark W. Chavalas, The Age of Solomon: Scholarship at the Turn of the Millennium, ed. Lowell K. Handy, (Brill, 1997), 169.</ref> Over time, the alphabet developed into the Aramaic alphabet by the 8th century BC. It was used to write the Aramaic languages spoken by ancient Aramean pre-Christian tribes throughout the Fertile Crescent. It was also adopted by other peoples as their own alphabet when empires and their subjects underwent linguistic Aramaization during a language shift for governing purposes — a precursor to Arabization centuries later. These include the Assyrians and Babylonians, who permanently replaced their Akkadian language and its cuneiform script with Aramaic and its script, and among Jews, but not Samaritans, who adopted the Aramaic language as their vernacular and started using the Aramaic alphabet even for writing Hebrew, displacing the former Paleo-Hebrew alphabet. The modern Hebrew alphabet derives from the Aramaic alphabet, in contrast to the modern Samaritan alphabet, which derives from Paleo-Hebrew. Achaemenid Empire (The First Persian Empire) {{further information\|Imperial Aramaic}} , Pakistan probably by the emperor Ashoka around 260 BCE]] Around 500 BC, following the Achaemenid conquest of Mesopotamia under Darius I, Old Aramaic was adopted by the Persians as the "vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast Persian empire with its different peoples and languages. The use of a single official language, which modern scholarship has dubbed as Official Aramaic, Imperial Aramaic or Achaemenid Aramaic, can be assumed to have greatly contributed to the astonishing success of the Achaemenid Persians in holding their far-flung empire together for as long as they did."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia\|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Iranica\|volume2\|year1987\|titleAramaic<!-- pp 250–261 --><!-- section:Aramaic in the Achaemenid Empire pp 251–252-->\|lastShaked\|firstSaul\|publisherRoutledge & Kegan Paul\|locationNew York\|pages=250–261}} p. 251</ref> Imperial Aramaic was highly standardised. Its orthography was based more on historical roots than any spoken dialect and was influenced by Old Persian. The Aramaic glyph forms of the period are often divided into two main styles, the "lapidary" form, usually inscribed on hard surfaces like stone monuments, and a cursive form whose lapidary form tended to be more conservative by remaining more visually similar to Phoenician and early Aramaic. Both were in use through the Achaemenid Persian period, but the cursive form steadily gained ground over the lapidary, which had largely disappeared by the 3rd century BC.<ref>{{cite book\|last1Greenfield\|first1J.C.\|editor1-lastGershevitch\|editor1-firstI.\|titleThe Cambridge History of Iran: Volume 2\|date1985\|publisherCambridge University Press\|pages709–710\|chapter=Aramaic in the Achaemenid Empire}}</ref> For centuries after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire in 331 BC, Imperial Aramaic, or something near enough to it to be recognisable, remained an influence on the various native Iranian languages. The Aramaic script survived as the essential characteristics of the Iranian Pahlavi writing system.<ref>{{Cite book \|author1-linkWilhelm Geiger \|first1Wilhelm \|last1Geiger \|first2Ernst \|last2Kuhn \|year2002 \|titleGrundriss der iranischen Philologie: Band I. Abteilung 1 \|locationBoston \|publisherAdamant \|pages249ff}}</ref> 30 Aramaic documents from Bactria have been recently discovered, an analysis of which was published in November 2006. The texts, which were rendered on leather, reflect the use of Aramaic in the 4th century BC, in the Persian Achaemenid administration of Bactria and Sogdiana.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleAncient Aramaic Documents from Bactria \|seriesStudies in the Khalili Collection \|last1Naveh \|first1Joseph \|last2Shaked \|first2Shaul \|isbn978-1-874780-74-8 \|publisherKhalili Collections \|locationOxford \|year2006}}</ref> The widespread usage of Achaemenid Aramaic in the Middle East led to the gradual adoption of the Aramaic alphabet for writing Hebrew. Formerly, Hebrew had been written using an alphabet closer in form to that of Phoenician, the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastThamis \|titleThe Phoenician Alphabet & Language \|urlhttps://www.worldhistory.org/article/17/the-phoenician-alphabet--language/ \|access-date2023-06-25 \|websiteWorld History Encyclopedia \|languageen}}</ref> Aramaic-derived scripts Since the evolution of the Aramaic alphabet out of the Phoenician one was a gradual process, the division of the world's alphabets into the ones derived from the Phoenician one directly, and the ones derived from Phoenician via Aramaic, is somewhat artificial. In general, the alphabets of the Mediterranean region (Anatolia, Greece, Italy) are classified as Phoenician-derived, adapted from around the 8th century BC. Those of the East (the Levant, Persia, Central Asia, and India) are considered Aramaic-derived, adapted from around the 6th century BC from the Imperial Aramaic script of the Achaemenid Empire.{{Citation needed\|reasonReliable source needed for the whole sentence\|dateMay 2020}} After the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, the unity of the Imperial Aramaic script was lost, diversifying into a number of descendant cursives. The Hebrew and Nabataean alphabets, as they stood by the Roman era, were little changed in style from the Imperial Aramaic alphabet. Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) alleges that not only the old Nabataean writing was influenced by the "Syrian script" (i.e. Aramaic), but also the old Chaldean script.<ref>{{cite book \|lastIbn Khaldun \|author-linkIbn Khaldun \|titleThe Muqaddimah (K. Ta'rikh – "History") \|editorF. Rosenthal \|volume3 \|date1958 \|publisherRoutledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.\|locationLondon \|page283 \|languageen \|oclc=643885643}}</ref> A cursive Hebrew variant developed from the early centuries AD. It remained restricted to the status of a variant used alongside the noncursive. By contrast, the cursive developed out of the Nabataean alphabet in the same period soon became the standard for writing Arabic, evolving into the Arabic alphabet as it stood by the time of the early spread of Islam. The development of cursive versions of Aramaic led to the creation of the Syriac, Palmyrene and Mandaic alphabets, which formed the basis of the historical scripts of Central Asia, such as the Sogdian and Mongolian alphabets.<ref name"Kara1996">{{cite book\|firstGyörgy\|lastKara\|chapterAramaic Scripts for Altaic Languages\|editorDaniels, Peter T. \|editor2Bright, William\|titleThe World's Writing Systems\|publisherOxford University Press\|pages[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/535 535–558]\|year1996\|isbn978-0-19-507993-7\|title-linkThe World's Writing Systems}}</ref> The Old Turkic script is generally considered to have its ultimate origins in Aramaic,<ref>Babylonian beginnings: The origin of the cuneiform writing system in comparative perspective, Jerold S. Cooper, The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process, ed. Stephen D. Houston, (Cambridge University Press, 2004), 58–59.</ref><ref>Tristan James Mabry, Nationalism, Language, and Muslim Exceptionalism, (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015), 109.</ref><ref name="Kara1996"/> in particular via the Pahlavi or Sogdian alphabets,<ref>Turks, A. Samoylovitch, First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913–1936, Vol. VI, (Brill, 1993), 911.</ref><ref>George L. Campbell and Christopher Moseley, The Routledge Handbook of Scripts and Alphabets, (Routledge, 2012), 40.</ref> as suggested by V. Thomsen, or possibly via Kharosthi (cf., Issyk inscription). Brahmi script was also possibly derived or inspired by Aramaic. Brahmic family of scripts includes Devanagari.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleBrāhmī {{!}} writing system \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahmi \|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica\|languageen\|access-date2020-05-29}}</ref>Languages using the alphabetToday, Biblical Aramaic, Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialects and the Aramaic language of the Talmud are written in the modern-Hebrew alphabet, distinguished from the Old Hebrew script. In classical Jewish literature, the name given to the modern-Hebrew script was "Ashurit", the ancient Assyrian script,<ref>{{cite book \|contributionTractate Megillah 1:8\|titleMishnah \|editor-last1Danby\|editor-first1H. \|editor-link1Herbert Danby \|publisherOxford University Press\|placeLondon\|page202 (note 20) \|year1964\|oclc977686730 }} ([https://archive.org/details/DanbyMishnah/page/n231/mode/1up The Mishnah, p. 202 (note 20)]).</ref> a script now known widely as the Aramaic script.<ref name"SteinerRC1993">{{cite journal \|lastSteiner\|firstR.C.\|author-linkRichard C. Steiner \|titleWhy the Aramaic Script Was Called "Assyrian" in Hebrew, Greek, and Demotic \|journalOrientalia \|volume62 \|issue2 \|pages80–82\|date1993\|jstor43076090 \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|lastCook\|firstStanley A.\|titleThe Significance of the Elephantine Papyri for the History of Hebrew Religion \|journalThe American Journal of Theology\|publisherThe University of Chicago Press \|volume19 \|issue3 \|pages348 \|date1915 \|doi10.1086/479556 \|jstor3155577 \|languageen}}</ref> It is believed that, during the period of Assyrian dominion, Aramaic script and language received official status.<ref name"SteinerRC1993" /> Syriac and Christian Neo-Aramaic dialects are today written in the Syriac alphabet, which script has superseded the more ancient Assyrian script and now bears its name. Mandaic is written in the Mandaic alphabet. The near-identical nature of the Aramaic and the classical Hebrew alphabets caused Aramaic text to be typeset mostly in the standard Hebrew script in scholarly literature. Maaloula {{further\|Western Neo-Aramaic}} In Maaloula, one of few surviving communities in which a Western Aramaic dialect is still spoken, an Aramaic Language Institute was established in 2006 by Damascus University that teaches courses to keep the language alive. Unlike Classical Syriac, which has a rich literary tradition in Syriac-Aramaic script, Western Neo-Aramaic was solely passed down orally for generations until 2006 and was not utilized in a written form.<ref name"Oriens Christianus">{{cite book \|titleOriens Christianus \|date2003 \|page77 \|languageGerman \|quote"As the villages are very small, located close to each other, and the three dialects are mutually intelligible, there has never been the creation of a script or a standard language. Aramaic is the unwritten village dialect..."}}</ref> Therefore, the Language Institute's chairman, George Rizkalla (Rezkallah), undertook the writing of a textbook in Western Neo-Aramaic. Being previously unwritten, Rizkalla opted for the Hebrew alphabet. In 2010, the institute's activities were halted due to concerns that the square Maalouli-Aramaic alphabet used in the program bore a resemblance to the square script of the Hebrew alphabet. As a result, all signs featuring the square Maalouli script were subsequently removed.<ref>{{cite web \|author1Maissun Melhem \|titleSchriftenstreit in Syrien \|urlhttps://www.dw.com/de/schriftenstreit-in-syrien/a-5166405 \|publisherDeutsche Welle \|access-date15 November 2023 \|languageGerman \|quoteBefore the Islamic conquest, Aramaic was spoken throughout Syria and was a global language. There were many variants, but Aramaic did not exist as a written language everywhere, including the Ma’alula region, notes Professor Jastrow. The decision to use the Hebrew script, in his opinion, was made arbitrarily.”}}</ref> The program stated that they would instead use the more distinct Syriac-Aramaic alphabet, although use of the Maalouli alphabet has continued to some degree.<ref name"institute">{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2010/0402/Easter-Sunday-A-Syrian-bid-to-resurrect-Aramaic-the-language-of-Jesus-Christ \|titleEaster Sunday: A Syrian bid to resurrect Aramaic, the language of Jesus Christ \|lastBeach \|firstAlastair \|newspaperThe Christian Science Monitor \|date2010-04-02 \|access-date2010-04-02}}</ref> Al Jazeera Arabic also broadcast a program about Western Neo-Aramaic and the villages in which it is spoken with the square script still in use.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v0rbrZ1W2nAs\| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211117/0rbrZ1W2nAs\| archive-date2021-11-17 \| url-statuslive\|titleأرض تحكي لغة المسيح\|lastAl Jazeera Documentary الجزيرة الوثائقية\|date11 February 2016\|access-date27 March 2018\|viaYouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref>Letters{\| class"wikitable" style="text-align: center;" ! rowspan"3" stylemax-width:0em \| Letter name ! colspan="4" \| Aramaic written using ! rowspan="3" \| IPA ! rowspan="3" \| Phoneme ! colspan="15" \| Equivalent letter in \|- ! colspan"2" style"font-size: smaller;"\| Imperial Aramaic ! colspan"2" style"font-size: smaller;"\| Syriac script ! rowspan"2" style"font-size: smaller;"\| Hebrew ! rowspan"2" style"font-size: smaller;"\| Maalouli ! rowspan"2" style"font-size: smaller;"\| Nabataean ! rowspan"2" style"font-size: smaller;"\| Parthian ! rowspan"2" style"font-size: smaller;"\| Arabic ! rowspan"2" style"font-size: smaller;"\| South Arabian ! rowspan"2" style"font-size: smaller;"\| Ethiopic (Geez) ! rowspan"2" style"font-size: smaller;"\| Proto-Sinaitic ! rowspan"2" style"font-size: smaller;"\| Phoenician ! rowspan"2" style"font-size: smaller;"\| Greek ! rowspan"2" style"font-size: smaller;"\| Latin ! rowspan"2" style"font-size: smaller;"\| Cyrillic ! rowspan"2" style"font-size: smaller;"\| Brahmi ! rowspan"2" style"font-size: smaller;"\| Kharosthi ! rowspan"2" style"font-size: smaller;"\| Turkic \|- ! style"font-size: smaller;"\| Image !! style"font-size: smaller;"\| Text !! style"font-size: smaller;"\| Image !! style"font-size: smaller;"\| Text \|- \| Ālaph \| \| style="font-size: 26px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Armi\|𐡀}} \| \| style="font-size: 24px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Syrc\|ܐ}} \| {{IPA\|/ʔ/}}; {{IPA\|/aː/}}, {{IPA\|/eː/}} \| ʾ \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Hebr\|א}} \| \| \| 𐭀 \| style="font-size: 20px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Arab\|ا}} \| 𐩱 \| አ \| \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Phnx\|𐤀}} \| Αα \| Aa \| Аа \| 𑀅, 𑀆 \| 𐨀 \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| 𐰁 \|- \| Bēth \| \| style="font-size: 26px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Armi\|𐡁}} \| \| style="font-size: 24px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Syrc\|ܒ}} \| {{IPA\|/b/}}, {{IPA\|/v/}} \| b \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Hebr\|ב}} \| \| \| 𐭁 \| style="font-size: 20px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Arab\|ب}} \| 𐩨 \| በ \| \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Phnx\|𐤁}} \| Ββ \| Bb \| Бб, Вв \| 𑀩, 𑀪 \| 𐨦 \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| 𐰉 𐰋 \|- \| Gāmal \| \| style="font-size: 26px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Armi\|𐡂}} \| \| style="font-size: 24px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Syrc\|ܓ}} \| {{IPA\|/ɡ/}}, {{IPA\|/ɣ/}} \| g \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Hebr\|ג}} \| \| \| 𐭂 \| style="font-size: 20px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Arab\|ج}} \| 𐩴 \| ገ \| \| style="font-size: 24px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Phnx\|𐤂}} \| Γγ \| Cc, Gg \| Гг, Ґґ \| 𑀕 \| 𐨒 \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| 𐰲 𐰱 \|- \| Dālath \| \| style="font-size: 26px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Armi\|𐡃}} \| \| style="font-size: 24px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Syrc\|ܕ}} \| {{IPA\|/d/}}, {{IPA\|/ð/}} \| d \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Hebr\|ד}} \| \| \| 𐭃 \| style="font-size: 20px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Arab\|د ذ}} \| 𐩵 \| ደ \| \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Phnx\|𐤃}} \| Δδ \| Dd \| Дд \| 𑀤, 𑀥, 𑀟, 𑀠 \| 𐨢 \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| 𐰓 \|- \| Hē \| \| style="font-size: 26px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Armi\|𐡄}} \| \| style="font-size: 24px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Syrc\|ܗ}} \| {{IPA\|/h/}} \| h \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Hebr\|ה}} \| \| \| 𐭄 \| style="font-size: 20px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Arab\|ه}} \| 𐩠 \| ሀ \| \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Phnx\|𐤄}} \| Εε \| Ee \| Ее, Ёё, Єє, Ээ \| 𑀳 \| 𐨱 \| \|- \| Waw \| \| style="font-size: 26px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Armi\|𐡅}} \| \| style="font-size: 24px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Syrc\|ܘ}} \| {{IPA\|/w/}}; {{IPA\|/oː/}}, {{IPA\|/uː/}} \| w \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Hebr\|ו}} \| \| \| 𐭅 \| style="font-size: 20px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Arab\|و}} \| 𐩥 \| ወ \| \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Phnx\|𐤅}} \| ({{lang\|grc\|Ϝϝ}}), Υυ \| Ff, Uu, Vv, Ww, Yy \| Ѵѵ, Уу, Ўў \| 𑀯, 𑀉, 𑀊, 𑀒, 𑀑 \| 𐨬 \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| 𐰈 𐰆 \|- \| Zayn \| \| style="font-size: 26px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Armi\|𐡆}} \| \| style="font-size: 24px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Syrc\|ܙ}} \| {{IPA\|/z/}} \| z \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Hebr\|ז}} \| \| \| 𐭆 \| style="font-size: 20px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Arab\|ز}} \| 𐩸 \| \| \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Phnx\|𐤆}} \| Ζζ \| Zz \| Зз \| 𑀚 \| 𐨗 \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| 𐰕 \|- \| Ḥēth \| \| style="font-size: 26px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Armi\|𐡇}} \| \| style="font-size: 24px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Syrc\|ܚ}} \| {{IPA\|/ħ/}} \| ḥ \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Hebr\|ח}} \| \| \| 𐭇 \| style="font-size: 20px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Arab\|ح خ}} \| 𐩢 \| ሐ \| \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Phnx\|𐤇}} \| Ηη \| Hh \| Ии, Йй \| 𑀖 \| 𐨓 \| \|- \| Ṭēth \| \| style="font-size: 26px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Armi\|𐡈}} \| \| style="font-size: 24px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Syrc\|ܛ}} \| {{IPA\|/tˤ/}} \| ṭ \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Hebr\|ט}} \| \| \| 𐭈 \| style="font-size: 20px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Arab\|ط ظ}} \| 𐩷 \| ጠ \| \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Phnx\|𐤈}} \| Θθ \| \| Ѳѳ \| 𑀣, 𑀝, 𑀞 \| 𐨠 \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| 𐱃 \|- \| Yodh \| \| style="font-size: 26px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Armi\|𐡉}} \| \| style="font-size: 24px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Syrc\|ܝ}} \| {{IPA\|/j/}}; {{IPA\|/iː/}}, {{IPA\|/eː/}} \| y \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Hebr\|י}} \| \| \| 𐭉 \| style="font-size: 20px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Arab\|ي}} \| 𐩺 \| የ \| \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Phnx\|𐤉}} \| Ιι \| Ιi, Jj \| Іі, Її, Јј \| 𑀬 \| 𐨩 \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| 𐰘 𐰃 𐰖 \|- \| Kāph \| \| style="font-size: 26px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Armi\|𐡊}} \| \| style="font-size: 24px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Syrc\|ܟ}} \| {{IPA\|/k/}}, {{IPA\|/x/}} \| k \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Hebr\|כ ך}} \| \| \| 𐭊 \| style="font-size: 20px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Arab\|ك}} \| 𐩫 \| ከ \| \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Phnx\|𐤊}} \| Κκ \| Kk \| Кк \| 𑀓 \| 𐨐 \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| 𐰚 𐰜 \|- \| Lāmadh \| \| style="font-size: 26px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Armi\|𐡋}} \| \| style="font-size: 24px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Syrc\|ܠ}} \| {{IPA\|/l/}} \| l \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif; line-height:1em;" \| {{script\|Hebr\|ל}} \| \| \| 𐭋 \| style="font-size: 20px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Arab\|ل}} \| 𐩡 \| ለ \| \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Phnx\|𐤋}} \| Λλ \| Ll \| Лл \| 𑀮 \| 𐨫 \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif; line-height:1em;" \| 𐰞 𐰠 \|- \| Mim \| \| style="font-size: 26px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Armi\|𐡌}} \| \| style="font-size: 24px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Syrc\|ܡ}} \| {{IPA\|/m/}} \| m \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Hebr\|מ ם}} \| \| \| 𐭌 \| style="font-size: 20px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Arab\|م}} \| 𐩣 \| መ \| \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Phnx\|𐤌}} \| Μμ \| Mm \| Мм \| 𑀫 \| 𐨨 \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| 𐰢 \|- \| Nun \| \| style="font-size: 26px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Armi\|𐡍}} \| \| style="font-size: 24px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Syrc\|ܢ}} \| {{IPA\|/n/}} \| n \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Hebr\|נ ן}} \| \| \| 𐭍 \| style="font-size: 20px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Arab\|ن}} \| 𐩬 \| ነ \| \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Phnx\|𐤍}} \| Νν \| Nn \| Нн \| 𑀦 \| 𐨣 \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| 𐰤 𐰣 \|- \| Semkath \| \| style="font-size: 26px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Armi\|𐡎}} \| \| style="font-size: 24px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Syrc\|ܣ}} \| {{IPA\|/s/}} \| s \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Hebr\|ס}} \| \| \| 𐭎 \| style="font-size: 20px; font-family: serif;" \| \| 𐩯 \| \| \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Phnx\|𐤎}} \| Ξξ \| \| Ѯѯ \| 𑀱 \| 𐨭 \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| 𐰾 \|- \| ʿAyn \| \| style="font-size: 26px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Armi\|𐡏}} \| \| style="font-size: 24px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Syrc\|ܥ}} \| {{IPA\|/ʕ/}} \| ʿ \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Hebr\|ע}} \| \| \| 𐭏 \| style="font-size: 20px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Arab\|ع غ}} \| 𐩲 \| ዐ \| \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Phnx\|𐤏}} \| Οο, Ωω \| Oo \| Оо, Ѡѡ \| 𑀏, 𑀐, 𑀇, 𑀈 \| 𐨀𐨅 \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| 𐰏 𐰍 \|- \| Pē \| \| style="font-size: 26px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Armi\|𐡐}} \| \| style="font-size: 24px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Syrc\|ܦ}} \| {{IPA\|/p/}}, {{IPA\|/f/}} \| p \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Hebr\|פ ף}} \| \| \| 𐭐 \| style="font-size: 20px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Arab\|ف}} \| 𐩰 \| ፈ \| \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Phnx\|𐤐}} \| Ππ \| Pp \| Пп \| 𑀧, 𑀨 \| 𐨤 \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| 𐰯 \|- \| Ṣādhē \| , \| style="font-size: 26px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Armi\|𐡑}} \| \| style="font-size: 24px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Syrc\|ܨ}} \| {{IPA\|/sˤ/}} \| ṣ \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Hebr\|צ ץ}} \| \| \| 𐭑 \| style="font-size: 20px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Arab\|ص ض}} \| 𐩮 \| ጸ \| \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Phnx\|𐤑}} \| ({{lang\|grc\|Ϻϻ}}) \| \| Цц, Чч, Џџ \| 𑀲 \| 𐨯 \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| 𐰽 \|- \| Qoph \| \| style="font-size: 26px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Armi\|𐡒}} \| \| style="font-size: 24px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Syrc\|ܩ}} \| {{IPA\|/q/}} \| q \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Hebr\|ק}} \| \| \| 𐭒 \| style="font-size: 20px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Arab\|ق}} \| 𐩤 \| ቀ \| \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Phnx\|𐤒}} \| ({{lang\|grc\|Ϙϙ), Φφ}} \| Qq \| Ҁҁ, Фф \| 𑀔 \| 𐨑 \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| 𐰴 𐰸 \|- \| Rēš \| \| style="font-size: 26px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Armi\|𐡓}} \| \| style="font-size: 24px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Syrc\|ܪ}} \| {{IPA\|/r/}} \| r \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Hebr\|ר}} \| \| \| 𐭓 \| style="font-size: 20px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Arab\|ر}} \| 𐩧 \| ረ \| \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Phnx\|𐤓}} \| Ρρ \| Rr \| Рр \| 𑀭 \| 𐨪 \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| 𐰺 𐰼 \|- \| Šin \| \| style="font-size: 26px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Armi\|𐡔}} \| \| style="font-size: 24px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Syrc\|ܫ}} \| {{IPA\|/ʃ/}} \| š \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Hebr\|ש}} \| \| \| 𐭔 \| style="font-size: 20px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Arab\|س ش}} \| 𐩦 \| ሠ \| \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Phnx\|𐤔}} \| Σσς \| Ss \|Сс, Шш, Щщ \| 𑀰 \| 𐨮 \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| 𐱂 𐱁 \|- \| Taw \| \| style="font-size: 26px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Armi\|𐡕}} \| \| style="font-size: 24px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Syrc\|ܬ}} \| {{IPA\|/t/}}, {{IPA\|/θ/}} \| t \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Hebr\|ת}} \| \| \| 𐭕 \| style="font-size: 20px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Arab\|ت ث}} \| 𐩩 \| ተ \| \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| {{script\|Phnx\|𐤕}} \| Ττ \| Tt \| Тт \| 𑀢 \| 𐨟 \| style="font-size: 22px; font-family: serif;" \| 𐱅 \|} Unicode {{Main\|Imperial Aramaic (Unicode block)\|Syriac (Unicode block)\|}} The Imperial Aramaic alphabet was added to the Unicode Standard in October 2009, with the release of version 5.2. The Unicode block for Imperial Aramaic is U+10840–U+1085F: {{Unicode chart Imperial Aramaic}} The Syriac Aramaic alphabet was added to the Unicode Standard in September 1999, with the release of version 3.0. The Syriac Abbreviation (a type of overline) can be represented with a special control character called the Syriac Abbreviation Mark (U+070F). The Unicode block for Syriac Aramaic is U+0700–U+074F: {{Unicode chart Syriac}} See also Syriac alphabet Mandaic alphabet References {{Reflist}} Sources Byrne, Ryan. "Middle Aramaic Scripts". Encyclopaedia of Language and Linguistics. Elsevier. (2006) * Daniels, Peter T., et al. eds. ''The World's Writing Systems. Oxford. (1996) * Coulmas, Florian. The Writing Systems of the World. Blackwell Publishers Ltd, Oxford. (1989) * Rudder, Joshua. Learn to Write Aramaic: A Step-by-Step Approach to the Historical & Modern Scripts''. n.p.: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2011. 220 pp. {{ISBN\|978-1461021421}}. Includes a wide variety of Aramaic scripts. * Ancient Hebrew and Aramaic on Coins, reading and transliterating Proto-Hebrew, [https://web.archive.org/web/20110511124600/http://judaea.chimehost.net/main/text.pdf online edition] (Judaea Coin Archive). External links {{Commons category\|Aramaic alphabet}} * [http://www.sakkal.com/Arab_Calligraphy_Art3.html Comparison of Aramaic to related alphabets] * [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/aramaic.htm Omniglot entry] {{Northwest Semitic abjad}} {{list of writing systems}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Aramaic Alphabet}} Category:8th-century BC establishments Category:Obsolete writing systems Category:Persian scripts Category:Right-to-left writing systems Category:Abjad writing systems	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet	2025-04-05T18:25:27.189723
966	American shot	{{Short description\|Cinematic technique}} {{Expand language\|topic\|langcodefr\|date=January 2025}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=February 2023}} {{More citations needed\|date=June 2007}} ]] An American shot or cowboy shot is a medium-long ("knee") film shot of a group of characters, who are arranged so that all are visible to the camera. It is a translation of a phrase from French film criticism, {{Lang\|fr\|plan américain}}.'' The usual arrangement is for the actors to stand in an irregular line from one side of the screen to the other, with the actors at the end coming forward a little and standing more in profile than the others. The purpose of the composition is to allow complex dialogue scenes to be played out without changes in camera position. In some literature, this is simply referred to as a 3/4 shot.<ref>{{cite web\|titleElements of Cinematography: Camera\|urlhttp://www.utdallas.edu/atec/midori/Handouts/camera.htm#ms\|websiteutdallas.edu\|publisherUniversity of Texas at Dallas\|access-date=1 December 2015}}</ref> One of the other main reasons why French critics called it "American shot" was its frequent use in the western genre. This was because a shot that started at knee level would reveal the weapon of a cowboy, usually holstered at their waist. It is the closest the camera can get to an actor while keeping both their face and their holstered gun in frame.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Hurtrez \|first1Lionel \|titleFilm analysis in English \|date2013 \|publisherEditions OPHRYS \|isbn978-2-7080-1391-9 \|pages7–8 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idURLQCgAAQBAJ&pgPA7 \|access-date5 March 2020 \|viaGoogle Books}}</ref> The French critics thought it was characteristic of American films of the 1930s or 1940s; however, it was mostly characteristic of cheaper American movies, such as Charlie Chan mysteries where people collected in front of a fireplace or at the foot of the stairs in order to explain what happened a few minutes ago.{{cn\|date=June 2023}} Howard Hawks legitimized this style in his films, allowing characters to act, even when not talking, when most of the audience would not be paying attention. It became his trademark style.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHoward Hawks {{!}} Biography, Movies, Scarface, & Facts {{!}} Britannica \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Howard-Hawks \|access-date2025-03-05 \|websitewww.britannica.com \|languageen}}</ref> References {{reflist}} {{Cinematic techniques}} Category:Cinematography	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_shot	2025-04-05T18:25:27.196753
967	Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis	{{short description\|Autoimmune disease}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=September 2020}} {{confuse\|Acute necrotizing encephalopathy}} {{Infobox medical condition (new) \| synonyms = Acute demyelinating encephalomyelitis \|name\|imageFile:Fulminating ADEM showing many lesions.png \|alt\|captionFulminating ADEM showing many lesions. The patient survived, but remained in a persistent vegetative state }} Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM), or acute demyelinating encephalomyelitis, is a rare autoimmune disease marked by a sudden, widespread attack of inflammation in the brain and spinal cord. As well as causing the brain and spinal cord to become inflamed, ADEM also attacks the nerves of the central nervous system and damages their myelin insulation, which, as a result, destroys the white matter. The cause is often a trigger such as from viral infection or, in extraordinarily rare cases, vaccinations.<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthorsDale RC \|titleAcute disseminated encephalomyelitis \|journalSeminars in Pediatric Infectious Diseases \|volume14 \|issue2 \|pages90–95 \|dateApril 2003 \|pmid12881796 \|doi10.1053/spid.2003.127225}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Garg RK \| title Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis \| journal Postgraduate Medical Journal \| volume 79 \| issue 927 \| pages 11–17 \| date January 2003 \| pmid 12566545 \| pmc 1742586 \| doi 10.1136/pmj.79.927.11 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Jones CT \| title Childhood autoimmune neurologic diseases of the central nervous system \| journal Neurologic Clinics \| volume 21 \| issue 4 \| pages 745–64 \| date November 2003 \| pmid 14743647 \| doi 10.1016/S0733-8619(03)00007-0 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Huynh W, Cordato DJ, Kehdi E, Masters LT, Dedousis C \| title Post-vaccination encephalomyelitis: literature review and illustrative case \| journal Journal of Clinical Neuroscience \| volume 15 \| issue 12 \| pages 1315–22 \| date December 2008 \| pmid 18976924 \| pmc 7125578 \| doi 10.1016/j.jocn.2008.05.002 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|vauthorsRust RS \|titleMultiple sclerosis, acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, and related conditions \|journalSeminars in Pediatric Neurology \|volume7 \|issue2 \|pages66–90 \|dateJune 2000 \|pmid10914409 \|doi10.1053/pb.2000.6693}}</ref><ref name"Poser_2007">{{cite journal \|vauthorsPoser CM, Brinar VV \|titleDisseminated encephalomyelitis and multiple sclerosis: two different diseases – a critical review \|journalActa Neurologica Scandinavica \|volume116 \|issue4 \|pages201–06 \|dateOctober 2007 \|pmid17824894 \|doi10.1111/j.1600-0404.2007.00902.x \|s2cid44411472\|doi-access=free }}</ref> ADEM's symptoms resemble the symptoms of multiple sclerosis (MS), so the disease itself is sorted into the classification of the multiple sclerosis borderline diseases. However, ADEM has several features that distinguish it from MS.<ref name"Krupp_2007">{{cite journal \| vauthors Krupp LB, Banwell B, Tenembaum S \| title Consensus definitions proposed for pediatric multiple sclerosis and related disorders \| journal Neurology \| volume 68 \| issue 16 Suppl 2 \| pages S7–12 \| date April 2007 \| pmid 17438241\| doi 10.1212/01.wnl.0000259422.44235.a8 \| s2cid 26001350 \| url http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/documents/neurology/files/Consensus%20definitions%20proposed%20for%20pediatric%20multiple%20sclerosis%20and%20related%20disorders%20(International%20Pediatric%20MS%20Study%20Group,%20Neurology,%202007)(1).pdf \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20150209235537/http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/documents/neurology/files/Consensus%20definitions%20proposed%20for%20pediatric%20multiple%20sclerosis%20and%20related%20disorders%20%28International%20Pediatric%20MS%20Study%20Group%2C%20Neurology%2C%202007%29%281%29.pdf \| archive-date 9 February 2015 }}</ref> Unlike MS, ADEM occurs usually in children and is marked with rapid fever, although adolescents and adults can get the disease too. ADEM consists of a single flare-up whereas MS is marked with several flare-ups (or relapses), over a long period of time. Relapses following ADEM are reported in up to a quarter of patients, but the majority of these 'multiphasic' presentations following ADEM likely represent MS.<ref name"Koelman_2016">{{cite journal \| vauthors Koelman DL, Chahin S, Mar SS, Venkatesan A, Hoganson GM, Yeshokumar AK, Barreras P, Majmudar B, Klein JP, Chitnis T, Benkeser DC, Carone M, Mateen FJ \| display-authors 6 \| title Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis in 228 patients: A retrospective, multicenter US study \| journal Neurology \| volume 86 \| issue 22 \| pages 2085–93 \| date May 2016 \| pmid 27164698 \| doi 10.1212/WNL.0000000000002723 \| s2cid 20818721 }}</ref> ADEM is also distinguished by a loss of consciousness, coma and death, which is very rare in MS, except in severe cases. It affects about 8 per 1,000,000 people per year.<ref name"Leake_2004">{{cite journal \| vauthors Leake JA, Albani S, Kao AS, Senac MO, Billman GF, Nespeca MP, Paulino AD, Quintela ER, Sawyer MH, Bradley JS \| display-authors 6 \| title Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis in childhood: epidemiologic, clinical and laboratory features \| journal The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal \| volume 23 \| issue 8 \| pages 756–64 \| date August 2004 \| pmid 15295226 \| doi 10.1097/01.inf.0000133048.75452.dd \| s2cid 31668039 }}</ref> Although it occurs in all ages, most reported cases are in children and adolescents, with the average age around 5 to 8 years old.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Hynson JL, Kornberg AJ, Coleman LT, Shield L, Harvey AS, Kean MJ \| title Clinical and neuroradiologic features of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis in children \| journal Neurology \| volume 56 \| issue 10 \| pages 1308–12 \| date May 2001 \| pmid 11376179 \| doi 10.1212/WNL.56.10.1308 \| s2cid 23898511 }}</ref><ref name"Anlar_2003">{{cite journal \| vauthors Anlar B, Basaran C, Kose G, Guven A, Haspolat S, Yakut A, Serdaroglu A, Senbil N, Tan H, Karaagaoglu E, Karli Oguz K \| display-authors 6 \| title Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis in children: outcome and prognosis \| journal Neuropediatrics \| volume 34 \| issue 4 \| pages 194–99 \| date August 2003 \| pmid 12973660 \| doi 10.1055/s-2003-42208 \| s2cid 260242587 }}</ref><ref name"Schwarz_2001">{{cite journal \| vauthors Schwarz S, Mohr A, Knauth M, Wildemann B, Storch-Hagenlocher B \| title Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis: a follow-up study of 40 adult patients \| journal Neurology \| volume 56 \| issue 10 \| pages 1313–18 \| date May 2001 \| pmid 11376180 \| doi 10.1212/WNL.56.10.1313 \| s2cid 25391094 }}</ref><ref name"Bhatt_2018">{{cite journal \| vauthors Bhatt P, Bray L, Raju S, Dapaah-Siakwan F, Patel A, Chaudhari R, Donda K, Bhatt NS, Dave M, Linga VG, Lekshminarayanan A, Patel SV, Billimoria ZC, Zuckerman S, Yagnik P, Singh D \| display-authors 6 \| title Temporal Trends of Pediatric Hospitalizations with Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis in the United States: An Analysis from 2006 to 2014 using National Inpatient Sample \| journal The Journal of Pediatrics \| volume 206 \| pages 26–32.e1 \| date March 2019 \| pmid 30528761 \| doi 10.1016/j.jpeds.2018.10.044 \| s2cid 54478510 }}</ref> The disease affects males and females almost equally.<ref name"Koelman_2015">{{cite journal \| vauthors Koelman DL, Mateen FJ \| title Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis: current controversies in diagnosis and outcome \| journal Journal of Neurology \| volume 262 \| issue 9 \| pages 2013–24 \| date September 2015 \| pmid 25761377 \| doi 10.1007/s00415-015-7694-7 \| s2cid 26642207 \| doi-access free }}</ref> ADEM shows seasonal variation with higher incidence in winter and spring months which may coincide with higher viral infections during these months.<ref name"Bhatt_2018" /> The mortality rate may be as high as 5%; however, full recovery is seen in 50 to 75% of cases with increase in survival rates up to 70 to 90% with figures including minor residual disability as well.<ref name"Menge_2007">{{cite journal \| vauthors Menge T, Kieseier BC, Nessler S, Hemmer B, Hartung HP, Stüve O \| title Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis: an acute hit against the brain \| journal Current Opinion in Neurology \| volume 20 \| issue 3 \| pages 247–54 \| date June 2007 \| pmid 17495616 \| doi 10.1097/WCO.0b013e3280f31b45 \| s2cid 14049476 }}</ref> The average time to recover from ADEM flare-ups is one to six months. ADEM produces multiple inflammatory lesions in the brain and spinal cord, particularly in the white matter. Usually these are found in the subcortical and central white matter and cortical gray-white junction of both cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum, brainstem, and spinal cord,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Wingerchuk DM \| title Postinfectious encephalomyelitis \| journal Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports \| volume 3 \| issue 3 \| pages 256–64 \| date May 2003 \| pmid 12691631 \| doi 10.1007/s11910-003-0086-x \| s2cid 453016 }}</ref> but periventricular white matter and gray matter of the cortex, thalami and basal ganglia may also be involved. When a person has more than one demyelinating episode of ADEM, the disease is then called recurrent disseminated encephalomyelitis<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Poser CM \| title Multiple sclerosis and recurrent disseminated encephalomyelitis are different diseases \| journal Archives of Neurology \| volume 65 \| issue 5 \| pages 674; author reply 674–75 \| date May 2008 \| pmid 18474749 \| doi 10.1001/archneur.65.5.674-a }}</ref> or multiphasic disseminated encephalomyelitis<ref name"Dale_2000">{{cite journal \| vauthors Dale RC, de Sousa C, Chong WK, Cox TC, Harding B, Neville BG \| title Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, multiphasic disseminated encephalomyelitis and multiple sclerosis in children \| journal Brain \| volume 123 \| issue 12 \| pages 2407–22 \| date December 2000 \| pmid 11099444 \| doi 10.1093/brain/123.12.2407 \| doi-access free }}</ref> (MDEM). Also, a fulminant course in adults has been described.<ref name"DiPauli_2015">{{cite journal \| vauthors Di Pauli F, Höftberger R, Reindl M, Beer R, Rhomberg P, Schanda K, Sato D, Fujihara K, Lassmann H, Schmutzhard E, Berger T \| display-authors 6 \| title Fulminant demyelinating encephalomyelitis: Insights from antibody studies and neuropathology \| journal Neurology \| volume 2 \| issue 6 \| pages e175 \| date December 2015 \| pmid 26587556 \| pmc 4635550 \| doi 10.1212/NXI.0000000000000175 \| doi-access free }}</ref>Signs and symptomsADEM has an abrupt onset and a monophasic course. Symptoms usually begin 1–3 weeks after infection. Major symptoms include fever, headache, nausea and vomiting, confusion, vision impairment, drowsiness, seizures and coma. Although initially the symptoms are usually mild, they worsen rapidly over the course of hours to days, with the average time to maximum severity being about four and a half days.<ref name"Tenembaum_2002" /> Additional symptoms include hemiparesis, paraparesis, and cranial nerve palsies.<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthors Allmendinger A, Krauthamer A, Spektor V \| year 2009 \| title Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis \| series Case of the month \| url http://www.diagnosticimaging.com/case-studies/content/article/113619/1493546 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110224145009/http://www.diagnosticimaging.com/case-studies/content/article/113619/1493546 \| archive-date 24 February 2011 \| journal Diagnostic Imaging \| volume 31 \| issue 12\| page 10 }}</ref> ADEM in COVID-19 Neurological symptoms were the main presentation of COVID-19, which did not correlate with the severity of respiratory symptoms. The high incidence of ADEM with hemorrhage is striking. Brain inflammation is likely caused by an immune response to the disease rather than neurotropism. CSF analysis was not indicative of an infectious process, neurological impairment was not present in the acute phase of the infection, and neuroimaging findings were not typical of classical toxic and metabolic disorders. The finding of bilateral periventricular relatively asymmetrical lesions allied with deep white matter involvement, that may also be present in cortical gray-white matter junction, thalami, basal ganglia, cerebellum, and brainstem suggests an acute demyelination process.<ref name"Manikanta_2021">{{Cite journal \| vauthors Manikanta AK, Pradeep GV, Pydi R, Chanumolu AR, Joy LA, Kancherla N \|date2021-06-14\|titleAcute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis in COVID 19- Systematic Review\|urlhttps://www.annalsofrscb.ro/index.php/journal/article/view/7656\|journalAnnals of the Romanian Society for Cell Biology\|languageen\|volume25\|issue6\|pages11443–50}}</ref> Additionally, hemorrhagic white matter lesions, clusters of macrophages related to axonal injury and ADEM-like appearance were also found in subcortical white matter.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Novi G, Rossi T, Pedemonte E, Saitta L, Rolla C, Roccatagliata L, Inglese M, Farinini D \| display-authors 6 \| title Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis after SARS-CoV-2 infection \| journal Neurology \| volume 7 \| issue 5 \| date September 2020 \| pages e797 \| pmid 32482781 \| pmc 7286650 \| doi 10.1212/NXI.0000000000000797 }}</ref> Causes Since the discovery of the anti-MOG specificity against multiple sclerosis diagnosis<ref name"Reind_2013l">{{cite journal \| vauthors Reindl M, Di Pauli F, Rostásy K, Berger T \| title The spectrum of MOG autoantibody-associated demyelinating diseases \| journal Nature Reviews. Neurology \| volume 9 \| issue 8 \| pages 455–61 \| date August 2013 \| pmid 23797245 \| doi 10.1038/nrneurol.2013.118 \| s2cid 7219279 }}</ref> it is considered that ADEM is one of the possible clinical causes of anti-MOG associated encephalomyelitis.<ref name"Weber_2018">{{cite journal \| vauthors Weber MS, Derfuss T, Brück W \| title Anti-Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibody-Associated Central Nervous System Demyelination-A Novel Disease Entity? \| journal JAMA Neurology \| volume 75 \| issue 8 \| pages 909–10 \| date August 2018 \| pmid 29913011 \| doi 10.1001/jamaneurol.2018.1055 \| s2cid 49303770 }}</ref> About how the anti-MOG antibodies appear in the patients serum there are several theories: * A preceding antigenic challenge can be identified in approximately two-thirds of people.<ref name"Koelman_2015" /> Some viral infections thought to induce ADEM include influenza virus, dengue,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Kamel MG, Nam NT, Han NH, El-Shabouny AE, Makram AM, Abd-Elhay FA, Dang TN, Hieu NL, Huong VT, Tung TH, Hirayama K, Huy NT \| display-authors 6 \| title Post-dengue acute disseminated encephalomyelitis: A case report and meta-analysis \| journal PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases \| volume 11 \| issue 6 \| pages e0005715 \| date June 2017 \| pmid 28665957 \| pmc 5509372 \| doi 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005715 \| doi-access free }}</ref> enterovirus, measles,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Fisher DL, Defres S, Solomon T \| title Measles-induced encephalitis \| journal QJM \| volume 108 \| issue 3 \| pages 177–82 \| date March 2015 \| pmid 24865261 \| doi 10.1093/qjmed/hcu113 \| doi-access free }}</ref> mumps, rubella, varicella zoster, Epstein–Barr virus, cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex virus, hepatitis A, coxsackievirus and COVID-19.<ref name"Manikanta_2021" /><ref>{{cite news\| vauthors Sample I \|date2020-07-08\|titleWarning of serious brain disorders in people with mild coronavirus symptoms\|languageen-GB\|workThe Guardian\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jul/08/warning-of-serious-brain-disorders-in-people-with-mild-covid-symptoms\|access-date2020-07-08\|issn0261-3077}}</ref> Bacterial infections include Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Borrelia burgdorferi, Leptospira, and beta-hemolytic Streptococci.<ref name"Tenembaum_2007">{{cite journal \| vauthors Tenembaum S, Chitnis T, Ness J, Hahn JS \| title Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis \| journal Neurology \| volume 68 \| issue 16 Suppl 2 \| pages S23–36 \| date April 2007 \| pmid 17438235 \| doi 10.1212/01.wnl.0000259404.51352.7f \| s2cid 19893165 \| others International Pediatric MS Study Group }}</ref> * Exposure to vaccines: The only vaccine proven related to ADEM is the Semple form of the rabies vaccine,<ref name"Immunologic studies"/> but hepatitis B,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Karaali-Savrun F, Altintaş A, Saip S, Siva A \| title Hepatitis B vaccine related-myelitis? \| journal European Journal of Neurology \| volume 8 \| issue 6 \| pages 711–15 \| date November 2001 \| pmid 11784358 \| doi 10.1046/j.1468-1331.2001.00290.x \| s2cid 30784630 }}</ref> pertussis, diphtheria, measles, mumps, rubella,<ref name"m626">{{cite journal \| last1Kania \| first1Karolina \| last2Ambrosius \| first2Wojciech \| last3Tokarz Kupczyk \| first3Elzbieta \| last4Kozubski \| first4Wojciech \| titleAcute disseminated encephalomyelitis in a patient vaccinated against SARS-CoV-2 \| journalAnnals of Clinical and Translational Neurology \| volume8 \| issue10 \| date2021 \| issn2328-9503 \| pmid34480527 \| pmc8528462 \| doi10.1002/acn3.51447 \| pages2000–2003}}</ref> pneumococcus, varicella, influenza, Japanese encephalitis, and polio vaccines have all been associated with the condition. <ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Huynh W, Cordato DJ, Kehdi E, Masters LT, Dedousis C \| title Post-vaccination encephalomyelitis: literature review and illustrative case \| journal Journal of Clinical Neuroscience \| volume 15 \| issue 12 \| pages 1315–22 \| date December 2008 \| pmid 18976924 \| pmc 7125578 \| doi 10.1016/j.jocn.2008.05.002 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|vauthorsRust RS \|titleMultiple sclerosis, acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, and related conditions \|journalSeminars in Pediatric Neurology \|volume7 \|issue2 \|pages66–90 \|dateJune 2000 \|pmid10914409 \|doi10.1053/pb.2000.6693}}</ref> The majority of the studies that correlate vaccination with ADEM onset use only small samples or are case studies.<ref name"x663">{{cite journal \| lastTenembaum \| firstSilvia N. \| titleDisseminated encephalomyelitis in children \| journalClinical Neurology and Neurosurgery \| publisherElsevier BV \| volume110 \| issue9 \| year2008 \| issn0303-8467 \| doi10.1016/j.clineuro.2007.12.018 \| pages928–938\| pmid18272282 \| pmc7116932 }}</ref> Large-scale epidemiological studies (e.g., of MMR vaccine or smallpox vaccine) do not show increased risk of ADEM following vaccination.<ref name"Leake_2004" /><ref name"Hemachudha_1987">{{cite journal \| vauthors Hemachudha T, Griffin DE, Giffels JJ, Johnson RT, Moser AB, Phanuphak P \| title Myelin basic protein as an encephalitogen in encephalomyelitis and polyneuritis following rabies vaccination \| journal The New England Journal of Medicine \| volume 316 \| issue 7 \| pages 369–74 \| date February 1987 \| pmid 2433582 \| doi 10.1056/NEJM198702123160703 }}</ref><ref name"Immunologic studies">{{cite journal \| vauthors Hemachudha T, Griffin DE, Johnson RT, Giffels JJ \| title Immunologic studies of patients with chronic encephalitis induced by post-exposure Semple rabies vaccine \| journal Neurology \| volume 38 \| issue 1 \| pages 42–44 \| date January 1988 \| pmid 2447520 \| doi 10.1212/WNL.38.1.42 \| s2cid 21992894 }}</ref><ref name"Murthy_2002">{{cite journal \| vauthors Murthy JM \| title Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis \| journal Neurology India \| volume 50 \| issue 3 \| pages 238–43 \| date September 2002 \| pmid 12391446 \| url http://www.neurologyindia.com/article.asp?issn0028-3886;year2002;volume50;issue3;spage238;epage43;aulastMurthy }}</ref><ref name"Tenembaum_2002">{{cite journal \| vauthors Tenembaum S, Chamoles N, Fejerman N \| title Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis: a long-term follow-up study of 84 pediatric patients \| journal Neurology \| volume 59 \| issue 8 \| pages 1224–31 \| date October 2002 \| pmid 12391351 \| doi 10.1212/WNL.59.8.1224 \| s2cid 37405227 }}</ref><ref name"Fenichel_1982">{{cite journal \| vauthors Fenichel GM \| title Neurological complications of immunization \| journal Annals of Neurology \| volume 12 \| issue 2 \| pages 119–28 \| date August 1982 \| pmid 6751212 \| doi 10.1002/ana.410120202 \| s2cid 2352985 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Takahashi H, Pool V, Tsai TF, Chen RT \| title Adverse events after Japanese encephalitis vaccination: review of post-marketing surveillance data from Japan and the United States. The VAERS Working Group \| journal Vaccine \| volume 18 \| issue 26 \| pages 2963–69 \| date July 2000 \| pmid 10825597 \| doi 10.1016/S0264-410X(00)00111-0 \| url https://zenodo.org/record/1259957 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Tourbah A, Gout O, Liblau R, Lyon-Caen O, Bougniot C, Iba-Zizen MT, Cabanis EA \| title Encephalitis after hepatitis B vaccination: recurrent disseminated encephalitis or MS? \| journal Neurology \| volume 53 \| issue 2 \| pages 396–401 \| date July 1999 \| pmid 10430433 \| doi 10.1212/WNL.53.2.396 \| s2cid 25061061 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Sejvar JJ, Labutta RJ, Chapman LE, Grabenstein JD, Iskander J, Lane JM \| title Neurologic adverse events associated with smallpox vaccination in the United States, 2002–2004 \| journal JAMA \| volume 294 \| issue 21 \| pages 2744–50 \| date December 2005 \| pmid 16333010 \| doi 10.1001/jama.294.21.2744 \| doi-access }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Ozawa H, Noma S, Yoshida Y, Sekine H, Hashimoto T \| title Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis associated with poliomyelitis vaccine \| journal Pediatric Neurology \| volume 23 \| issue 2 \| pages 177–79 \| date August 2000 \| pmid 11020647 \| doi 10.1016/S0887-8994(00)00167-3 }}</ref> An upper bound for the risk of ADEM from measles vaccination, if it exists, can be estimated to be 10 per million,<ref nameNAP_vaccination>{{cite book\|titleAdverse Events Associated with Childhood Vaccines: Evidence Bearing on Causality\| vauthors Stratton KR, Howe CJ, Johnston Jr RB \|date1994\|publisherThe National Academies Press\|isbn978-0-309-07496-4\|pages125–26\| doi 10.17226/2138 \| pmid 25144097 \|urlhttp://www.nap.edu/read/2138/chapter/7#124\|access-date6 December 2015\| collaboration Institute of Medicine (US) Vaccine Safety Committee }}</ref> which is far lower than the risk of developing ADEM from an actual measles infection, which is about 1 per 1,000 cases. For a rubella infection, the risk is 1 per 5,000 cases.<ref name"Fenichel_1982" /><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Gibbons JL, Miller HG, Stanton JB \| title Para-infectious encephalomyelitis and related syndromes; a critical review of the neurological complications of certain specific fevers \| journal The Quarterly Journal of Medicine \| volume 25 \| issue 100 \| pages 427–505 \| date October 1956 \| pmid 13379602 }}</ref> Some early vaccines, later shown to have been contaminated with host animal CNS tissue, had ADEM incidence rates as high as 1 in 600.<ref name="Hemachudha_1987"/> * In rare cases, ADEM seems to follow from organ transplantation.<ref name"Tenembaum_2002" />DiagnosisThe term ADEM has been inconsistently used at different times.<ref name"Cole_2019">{{cite journal \| vauthors Cole J, Evans E, Mwangi M, Mar S \| title Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis in Children: An Updated Review Based on Current Diagnostic Criteria \| journal Pediatric Neurology \| volume 100 \| issue \| pages 26–34 \| date November 2019 \| pmid 31371120 \| doi 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2019.06.017 \| s2cid 198267007 }}</ref> Currently, the commonly accepted international standard for the clinical case definition is the one published by the International Pediatric MS Study Group, revision 2007.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Tenembaum S, Chitnis T, Ness J, Hahn JS \| title Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis \| journal Neurology \| volume 68 \| issue 16 Suppl 2 \| pages S23–36 \| date April 2007 \| pmid 17438235 \| doi 10.1212/01.wnl.0000259404.51352.7f \| s2cid 19893165 }}</ref> Given that the definition is clinical, it is currently unknown if all the cases of ADEM are positive for anti-MOG autoantibody; in any case, it appears to be strongly related to ADEM diagnosis.<ref name"Weber_2018"/>Differential diagnosisMultiple sclerosisWhile ADEM and MS both involve autoimmune demyelination, they differ in many clinical, genetic, imaging, and histopathological aspects.<ref name"Koelman_2015" /><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Wingerchuk DM, Lucchinetti CF \| title Comparative immunopathogenesis of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, neuromyelitis optica, and multiple sclerosis \| journal Current Opinion in Neurology \| volume 20 \| issue 3 \| pages 343–50 \| date June 2007 \| pmid 17495631 \| doi 10.1097/WCO.0b013e3280be58d8 \| s2cid 17386506 }}</ref> Some authors consider MS and its borderline forms to constitute a spectrum, differing only in chronicity, severity, and clinical course,<ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Weinshenker B, Miller D \| date 1999 \| chapter Multiple sclerosis: one disease or many? \| veditors Siva A, Kesselring J, Thompson A \| title Frontiers in multiple sclerosis \| location London \| publisher Dunitz \| pages 37–46 \| isbn 978-1-85317-506-0 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Hartung HP, Grossman RI \| title ADEM: distinct disease or part of the MS spectrum? \| journal Neurology \| volume 56 \| issue 10 \| pages 1257–60 \| date May 2001 \| pmid 11376169 \| doi 10.1212/WNL.56.10.1257 \| s2cid 219199163 }}</ref> while others consider them discretely different diseases.<ref name"Poser_2007" /> Typically, ADEM appears in children following an antigenic challenge and remains monophasic. Nevertheless, ADEM does occur in adults,<ref name"Koelman_2016" /><ref name"Schwarz_2001" /> and can also be clinically multiphasic.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Krupp LB, Banwell B, Tenembaum S \| collaboration International Pediatric MS Study Group \| title Consensus definitions proposed for pediatric multiple sclerosis and related disorders \| journal Neurology \| volume 68 \| issue 16 Suppl 2 \| pages S7–12 \| date April 2007 \| pmid 17438241 \| doi 10.1212/01.wnl.0000259422.44235.a8 \| s2cid = 26001350 }}</ref> Problems for differential diagnosis increase due to the lack of agreement for a definition of multiple sclerosis.<ref name"Lassmann_2010">{{cite journal \| vauthors Lassmann H \| title Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis and multiple sclerosis \| journal Brain \| volume 133 \| issue Pt 2 \| pages 317–19 \| date February 2010 \| pmid 20129937 \| doi 10.1093/brain/awp342 \| doi-access free }}</ref> If MS were defined only by the separation in time and space of the demyelinating lesions as McDonald did,<ref name"pmid11456302">{{cite journal \| vauthors McDonald WI, Compston A, Edan G, Goodkin D, Hartung HP, Lublin FD, McFarland HF, Paty DW, Polman CH, Reingold SC, Sandberg-Wollheim M, Sibley W, Thompson A, van den Noort S, Weinshenker BY, Wolinsky JS \| display-authors 6 \| title Recommended diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis: guidelines from the International Panel on the diagnosis of multiple sclerosis \| journal Annals of Neurology \| volume 50 \| issue 1 \| pages 121–27 \| date July 2001 \| pmid 11456302 \| doi 10.1002/ana.1032 \| author2-link Alastair Compston \| s2cid 13870943 \| citeseerx 10.1.1.466.5368 \| author1-link W. Ian McDonald }}</ref> it would not be enough to make a difference, as some cases of ADEM satisfy these conditions. Therefore, some authors propose to establish the dividing line as the shape of the lesions around the veins, being therefore "perivenous vs. confluent demyelination".<ref name"Lassmann_2010" /><ref name"Young_2010">{{cite journal \| vauthors Young NP, Weinshenker BG, Parisi JE, Scheithauer B, Giannini C, Roemer SF, Thomsen KM, Mandrekar JN, Erickson BJ, Lucchinetti CF \| display-authors 6 \| title Perivenous demyelination: association with clinically defined acute disseminated encephalomyelitis and comparison with pathologically confirmed multiple sclerosis \| journal Brain \| volume 133 \| issue Pt 2 \| pages 333–48 \| date February 2010 \| pmid 20129932 \| pmc 2822631 \| doi 10.1093/brain/awp321 \| doi-access free }}</ref> The pathology of ADEM is very similar to that of MS with some differences. The pathological hallmark of ADEM is perivenous inflammation with limited "sleeves of demyelination".<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Young NP, Weinshenker BG, Lucchinetti CF \| title Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis: Current Understanding and Controversies \| journal Seminars in Neurology \| volume 28 \| issue 1 \| pages 84–94 \| date February 2008 \| pmid 18256989 \| doi 10.1055/s-2007-1019130 \| doi-access free }}</ref><ref name"Koelman_2015" /> Nevertheless, MS-like plaques (confluent demyelination) can appear<ref name"auto">{{cite journal \| vauthors Guenther AD, Munoz DG \| title Plaque-like demyelination in acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) – an autopsy case report \| journal Clinical Neuropathology \| volume 32 \| issue 6 \| pages 486–91 \| year 2013 \| pmid 23863345 \| doi = 10.5414/NP300634 }}</ref> Plaques in the white matter in MS are sharply delineated, while the glial scar in ADEM is smooth. Axons are better preserved in ADEM lesions. Inflammation in ADEM is widely disseminated and ill-defined, and finally, lesions are strictly perivenous, while in MS they are disposed around veins, but not so sharply.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Lu Z, Zhang B, Qiu W, Kang Z, Shen L, Long Y, Huang J, Hu X \| display-authors 6 \| title Comparative brain stem lesions on MRI of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, neuromyelitis optica, and multiple sclerosis \| journal PLOS ONE \| volume 6 \| issue 8 \| pages e22766 \| year 2011 \| pmid 21853047 \| pmc 3154259 \| doi 10.1371/journal.pone.0022766 \| doi-access free \| bibcode = 2011PLoSO...622766L }}</ref> Nevertheless, the co-occurrence of perivenous and confluent demyelination in some individuals suggests pathogenic overlap between acute disseminated encephalomyelitis and multiple sclerosis and misclassification even with biopsy<ref name"Young_2010" /> or even postmortem<ref name"auto"/> <!-- Treatment of ADEM and Neuromyelitis optica with long-term immunomodulatory or immunosuppressive drugs --> ADEM in adults can progress to MS<ref name"Schwarz_2001"/>Multiphasic disseminated encephalomyelitisWhen the person has more than one demyelinating episode of ADEM, the disease is then called recurrent disseminated encephalomyelitis or multiphasic disseminated encephalomyelitis<ref name"Dale_2000" /> (MDEM). It has been found that anti-MOG auto-antibodies are related to this kind of ADEM<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Baumann M, Hennes EM, Schanda K, Karenfort M, Bajer-Kornek B, Diepold K, Fiedler B, Marquardt I, Strautmanis J, Vieker S, Reindl M \| display-authors 6 \| title OP65–3006: Clinical characteristics and neuroradiological findings in children with multiphasic demyelinating encephalomyelitis and MOG antibodies. \| journal European Journal of Paediatric Neurology \| date May 2015 \| volume 19 \| issue supplement 1 \| pages S21 \| doi 10.1016/S1090-3798(15)30066-0 \| series Abstracts of the 11th EPNS Congress }}</ref> Another variant of ADEM in adults has been described, also related to anti-MOG auto-antibodies, has been named fulminant disseminated encephalomyelitis, and it has been reported to be clinically ADEM, but showing MS-like lesions on autopsy.<ref name"DiPauli_2015"/> It has been classified inside the anti-MOG associated inflammatory demyelinating diseases.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Baumann M, Hennes EM, Schanda K, Karenfort M, Kornek B, Seidl R, Diepold K, Lauffer H, Marquardt I, Strautmanis J, Syrbe S, Vieker S, Höftberger R, Reindl M, Rostásy K \| display-authors 6 \| title Children with multiphasic disseminated encephalomyelitis and antibodies to the myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG): Extending the spectrum of MOG antibody positive diseases \| journal Multiple Sclerosis \| volume 22 \| issue 14 \| pages 1821–29 \| date December 2016 \| pmid 26869530 \| doi 10.1177/1352458516631038 \| s2cid 30428892 }}</ref> Acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis Acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis (AHL, or AHLE), acute hemorrhagic encephalomyelitis (AHEM), acute necrotizing hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis (ANHLE), Weston-Hurst syndrome, or Hurst's disease, is a hyperacute and frequently fatal form of ADEM. AHL is relatively rare (less than 100 cases have been reported in the medical literature {{as of\|2006\|lcy}}),<ref name"Davies_2006">{{cite journal \| vauthors Davies NW, Sharief MK, Howard RS \| title Infection-associated encephalopathies: their investigation, diagnosis, and treatment \| journal Journal of Neurology \| volume 253 \| issue 7 \| pages 833–45 \| date July 2006 \| pmid 16715200 \| doi 10.1007/s00415-006-0092-4 \| s2cid 26350300 \| doi-access free }}</ref> it is seen in about 2% of ADEM cases,<ref name"Tenembaum_2002" /> and is characterized by necrotizing vasculitis of venules and hemorrhage, and edema.<ref name"Stone_2007">{{cite journal \| vauthors Stone MJ, Hawkins CP \| title A medical overview of encephalitis \| journal Neuropsychological Rehabilitation \| volume 17 \| issue 4–5 \| pages 429–49 \| year 2007 \| pmid 17676529 \| doi 10.1080/09602010601069430 \| s2cid 24249705 }}</ref> Death is common in the first week<ref name"Archer_2003">{{cite journal \| vauthors Archer H, Wall R \| title Acute haemorrhagic leukoencephalopathy: two case reports and review of the literature \| journal The Journal of Infection \| volume 46 \| issue 2 \| pages 133–37 \| date February 2003 \| pmid 12634076 \| doi 10.1053/jinf.2002.1096 }}</ref> and overall mortality is about 70%,<ref name"Davies_2006" /> but increasing evidence points to favorable outcomes after aggressive treatment with corticosteroids, immunoglobulins, cyclophosphamide, and plasma exchange.<ref name"Tenembaum_2007" /> About 70% of survivors show residual neurological deficits,<ref name"Stone_2007" /> but some survivors have shown surprisingly little deficit considering the extent of the white matter affected.<ref name="Archer_2003" /> This disease has been occasionally associated with ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease, malaria,<ref name"Venugopal_2013">{{cite journal \| vauthors Venugopal V, Haider M \| title First case report of acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis following Plasmodium vivax infection \| journal Indian Journal of Medical Microbiology \| volume 31 \| issue 1 \| pages 79–81 \| year 2013 \| pmid 23508437 \| doi 10.4103/0255-0857.108736 \| doi-access free }}</ref> sepsis associated with immune complex deposition, methanol poisoning, and other underlying conditions. Also anecdotal association with MS has been reported<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Yildiz Ö, Pul R, Raab P, Hartmann C, Skripuletz T, Stangel M \| title Acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis (Weston-Hurst syndrome) in a patient with relapse-remitting multiple sclerosis \| journal Journal of Neuroinflammation \| volume 12 \| issue 1 \| pages 175 \| date September 2015 \| pmid 26376717 \| pmc 4574135 \| doi 10.1186/s12974-015-0398-1 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Laboratory studies that support diagnosis of AHL are: peripheral leukocytosis, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pleocytosis associated with normal glucose and increased protein. On magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), lesions of AHL typically show extensive T2-weighted and fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) white matter hyperintensities with areas of hemorrhages, significant edema, and mass effect.<ref name"Mondia_2019">{{cite journal \| vauthors Mondia MW, Reyes NG, Espiritu AI, Pascual V JL \| title Acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis of Weston Hurst secondary to herpes encephalitis presenting as status epilepticus: A case report and review of literature \| journal Journal of Clinical Neuroscience \| volume 67 \| issue \| pages 265–70 \| date September 2019 \| pmid 31239199 \| doi 10.1016/j.jocn.2019.06.020 \| s2cid 195261409 }}</ref>TreatmentNo controlled clinical trials have been conducted on ADEM treatment, but aggressive treatment aimed at rapidly reducing inflammation of the CNS is standard. The widely accepted first-line treatment is high doses of intravenous corticosteroids,<ref name"Shahar_2002" /> such as methylprednisolone or dexamethasone, followed by 3–6 weeks of gradually lower oral doses of prednisolone. Patients treated with methylprednisolone have shown better outcomes than those treated with dexamethasone.<ref name"Tenembaum_2002" /> Oral tapers of less than three weeks duration show a higher chance of relapsing,<ref name"Anlar_2003" /><ref name"Dale_2000" /> and tend to show poorer outcomes.{{citation needed\|dateMarch 2008}} Other anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive therapies have been reported to show beneficial effect, such as plasmapheresis, high doses of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg),<ref name"Shahar_2002">{{cite journal \| vauthors Shahar E, Andraus J, Savitzki D, Pilar G, Zelnik N \| title Outcome of severe encephalomyelitis in children: effect of high-dose methylprednisolone and immunoglobulins \| journal Journal of Child Neurology \| volume 17 \| issue 11 \| pages 810–14 \| date November 2002 \| pmid 12585719 \| doi 10.1177/08830738020170111001 \| s2cid 25519230 }}</ref><ref name"Ravaglia_2007">{{cite journal \| vauthors Ravaglia S, Piccolo G, Ceroni M, Franciotta D, Pichiecchio A, Bastianello S, Tavazzi E, Minoli L, Marchioni E \| display-authors 6 \| title Severe steroid-resistant post-infectious encephalomyelitis: general features and effects of IVIg \| journal Journal of Neurology \| volume 254 \| issue 11 \| pages 1518–23 \| date November 2007 \| pmid 17965959 \| doi 10.1007/s00415-007-0561-4 \| s2cid 21922460 }}</ref> mitoxantrone and cyclophosphamide. These are considered alternative therapies, used when corticosteroids cannot be used or fail to show an effect.{{citation needed\|dateAugust 2020}} There is some evidence to suggest that patients may respond to a combination of methylprednisolone and immunoglobulins if they fail to respond to either separately<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Straussberg R, Schonfeld T, Weitz R, Karmazyn B, Harel L \| title Improvement of atypical acute disseminated encephalomyelitis with steroids and intravenous immunoglobulins \| journal Pediatric Neurology \| volume 24 \| issue 2 \| pages 139–43 \| date February 2001 \| pmid 11275464 \| doi = 10.1016/S0887-8994(00)00229-0 }}</ref> In a study of 16 children with ADEM, 10 recovered completely after high-dose methylprednisolone, one severe case that failed to respond to steroids recovered completely after IV Ig; the five most severe cases – with ADAM and severe peripheral neuropathy – were treated with combined high-dose methylprednisolone and immunoglobulin, two remained paraplegic, one had motor and cognitive handicaps, and two recovered.<ref name"Shahar_2002" /> A recent review of IVIg treatment of ADEM (of which the previous study formed the bulk of the cases) found that 70% of children showed complete recovery after treatment with IVIg, or IVIg plus corticosteroids.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Feasby T, Banwell B, Benstead T, Bril V, Brouwers M, Freedman M, Hahn A, Hume H, Freedman J, Pi D, Wadsworth L \| display-authors 6 \| title Guidelines on the use of intravenous immune globulin for neurologic conditions \| journal Transfusion Medicine Reviews \| volume 21 \| issue 2 Suppl 1 \| pages S57–107 \| date April 2007 \| pmid 17397768 \| doi 10.1016/j.tmrv.2007.01.002 }}</ref> A study of IVIg treatment in adults with ADEM showed that IVIg seems more effective in treating sensory and motor disturbances, while steroids seem more effective in treating impairments of cognition, consciousness and rigor.<ref name"Ravaglia_2007" /> This same study found one subject, a 71-year-old man who had not responded to steroids, that responded to an IVIg treatment 58 days after disease onset.{{citation needed\|dateAugust 2020}}PrognosisFull recovery is seen in 50 to 70% of cases, ranging to 70 to 90% recovery with some minor residual disability (typically assessed using measures such as mRS or EDSS), average time to recover is one to six months.<ref name"Menge_2007" /> The mortality rate may be as high as 5–10%.<ref name"Menge_2007" /><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Kamel MG, Nam NT, Han NH, El-Shabouny AE, Makram AM, Abd-Elhay FA, Dang TN, Hieu NL, Huong VT, Tung TH, Hirayama K, Huy NT \| display-authors 6 \| title Post-dengue acute disseminated encephalomyelitis: A case report and meta-analysis \| journal PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases \| volume 11 \| issue 6 \| pages e0005715 \| date June 2017 \| pmid 28665957 \| pmc 5509372 \| doi 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005715 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Poorer outcomes are associated with unresponsiveness to steroid therapy, unusually severe neurological symptoms, or sudden onset. Children tend to have more favorable outcomes than adults, and cases presenting without fevers tend to have poorer outcomes. The latter effect may be due to either protective effects of fever, or that diagnosis and treatment is sought more rapidly when fever is present. <ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Lin CH, Jeng JS, Hsieh ST, Yip PK, Wu RM \| title Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis: a follow-up study in Taiwan \| journal Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry \| volume 78 \| issue 2 \| pages 162–67 \| date February 2007 \| pmid 17028121 \| pmc 2077670 \| doi = 10.1136/jnnp.2005.084194 }}</ref> ADEM can progress to MS. It will be considered MS if some lesions appear in different times and brain areas<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Malo-Pion C, Lambert R, Décarie JC, Turpin S \| title Imaging of Acquired Demyelinating Syndrome With 18F-FDG PET/CT \| journal Clinical Nuclear Medicine \| volume 43 \| issue 2 \| pages 103–05 \| date February 2018 \| pmid 29215409 \| doi 10.1097/RLU.0000000000001916 }}</ref>Motor deficitsResidual motor deficits are estimated to remain in about 8 to 30% of cases, the range in severity from mild clumsiness to ataxia and hemiparesis.<ref name"Tenembaum_2007" /> Neurocognitive Patients with demyelinating illnesses, such as MS, have shown cognitive deficits even when there is minimal physical disability.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Foong J, Rozewicz L, Quaghebeur G, Davie CA, Kartsounis LD, Thompson AJ, Miller DH, Ron MA \| display-authors 6 \| title Executive function in multiple sclerosis. The role of frontal lobe pathology \| journal Brain \| volume 120 \| issue 1 \| pages 15–26 \| date January 1997 \| pmid 9055794 \| doi 10.1093/brain/120.1.15 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Research suggests that similar effects are seen after ADEM, but that the deficits are less severe than those seen in MS. A study of six children with ADEM (mean age at presentation 7.7 years) were tested for a range of neurocognitive tests after an average of 3.5 years of recovery.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Hahn CD, Miles BS, MacGregor DL, Blaser SI, Banwell BL, Hetherington CR \| title Neurocognitive outcome after acute disseminated encephalomyelitis \| journal Pediatric Neurology \| volume 29 \| issue 2 \| pages 117–23 \| date August 2003 \| pmid 14580654 \| doi 10.1016/S0887-8994(03)00143-7 }}</ref> All six children performed in the normal range on most tests, including verbal IQ and performance IQ, but performed at least one standard deviation below age norms in at least one cognitive domain, such as complex attention (one child), short-term memory (one child) and internalizing behaviour/affect (two children). Group means for each cognitive domain were all within one standard deviation of age norms, demonstrating that, as a group, they were normal. These deficits were less severe than those seen in similar aged children with a diagnosis of MS.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Banwell BL, Anderson PE \| title The cognitive burden of multiple sclerosis in children \| journal Neurology \| volume 64 \| issue 5 \| pages 891–94 \| date March 2005 \| pmid 15753431 \| doi 10.1212/01.WNL.0000152896.35341.51 \| s2cid 6532050 }}</ref> Another study compared nineteen children with a history of ADEM, of which 10 were five years of age or younger at the time (average age 3.8 years old, tested an average of 3.9 years later) and nine were older (mean age 7.7y at time of ADEM, tested an average of 2.2 years later) to nineteen matched controls.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Jacobs RK, Anderson VA, Neale JL, Shield LK, Kornberg AJ \| title Neuropsychological outcome after acute disseminated encephalomyelitis: impact of age at illness onset \| journal Pediatric Neurology \| volume 31 \| issue 3 \| pages 191–97 \| date September 2004 \| pmid 15351018 \| doi 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2004.03.008 }}</ref> Scores on IQ tests and educational achievement were lower for the young onset ADEM group (average IQ 90) compared to the late onset (average IQ 100) and control groups (average IQ 106), while the late onset ADEM children scored lower on verbal processing speed. Again, all groups means were within one standard deviation of the controls, meaning that while effects were statistically reliable, the children were as a whole, still within the normal range. There were also more behavioural problems in the early onset group, although there is some suggestion that this may be due, at least in part, to the stress of hospitalization at a young age.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Douglas JW \| title Early hospital admissions and later disturbances of behaviour and learning \| journal Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology \| volume 17 \| issue 4 \| pages 456–80 \| date August 1975 \| pmid 1158052 \| doi 10.1111/j.1469-8749.1975.tb03497.x \| s2cid 19270009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Daviss WB, Racusin R, Fleischer A, Mooney D, Ford JD, McHugo GJ \| title Acute stress disorder symptomatology during hospitalization for pediatric injury \| journal Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry \| volume 39 \| issue 5 \| pages 569–75 \| date May 2000 \| pmid 10802974 \| doi 10.1097/00004583-200005000-00010 }}</ref> Research The relationship between ADEM and anti-MOG associated encephalomyelitis is currently under research. A new entity called MOGDEM has been proposed.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Misu T, Fujihara K \| title Neuromyelitis optica spectrum and myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-related disseminated encephalomyelitis. \| journal Clinical and Experimental Neuroimmunology \| date February 2019 \| volume 10 \| issue 1 \| pages 9–17 \| doi 10.1111/cen3.12491 \| s2cid = 59566930 }}</ref> About animal models, the main animal model for MS, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is also an animal model for ADEM.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Rivers TM, Schwentker FF \| title Encephalomyelitis accompanied by myelin destruction experimentally produced in monkeys \| journal The Journal of Experimental Medicine \| volume 61 \| issue 5 \| pages 689–702 \| date April 1935 \| pmid 19870385 \| pmc 2133246 \| doi 10.1084/jem.61.5.689 }}</ref> Being an acute monophasic illness, EAE is far more similar to ADEM than MS.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Sriram S, Steiner I \| title Experimental allergic encephalomyelitis: a misleading model of multiple sclerosis \| journal Annals of Neurology \| volume 58 \| issue 6 \| pages 939–45 \| date December 2005 \| pmid 16315280 \| doi 10.1002/ana.20743 \| s2cid 12141651 \| doi-access free }}</ref> See also * Optic neuritis * Transverse myelitis * meningitis-retention syndrome * Victoria Arlen References {{Reflist}} External links * {{Office of Rare Diseases\|8639\|Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis}} * {{NINDS\|acute-disseminated-encephalomyelitis\|Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis}} * [https://wearesrna.org/living-with-myelitis/disease-information/acute-disseminated-encephalomyelitis Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis], Siegel Rare Neuroimmune Association * [https://archive.today/20140609132223/http://www.gosh.nhs.uk/medical-conditions/search-for-medical-conditions/acute-disseminated-encephalomyelitis/acute-disseminated-encephalomyelitis-information/ Information for parents about Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis], Great Ormond Street Hospital {{Medical resources \| DiseasesDB = 158 \| ICD10 = {{ICD10\|G\|04\|0\|g\|00}} \| ICD9 = {{ICD9\|323.61}}, {{ICD9\|323.81}} \| ICDO \| OMIM \| MedlinePlus \| eMedicineSubj neuro \| eMedicineTopic = 500 \| MeshID = D004673 \|Orphanet83597\|ICD11{{ICD11\|8A42}}\|NORDacute-disseminated-encephalomyelitis\|GARDNum8639\|GARDNameacute-disseminated-encephalomyelitis\|RPacute-disseminated-encephalomyelitis-adem}} {{Multiple sclerosis}} {{Diseases of the nervous system}} Category:Multiple sclerosis Category:Autoimmune diseases Category:Central nervous system disorders Category:Enterovirus-associated diseases Category:Measles Category:Rare diseases	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_disseminated_encephalomyelitis	2025-04-05T18:25:27.262935
969	Ataxia	{{Short description\|Neurological impairment of voluntary muscle movement}} {{Other uses}} {{cs1 config\|name-list-stylevanc\|display-authors6}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=September 2020}} {{Infobox medical condition (new) \| name = Ataxia \| synonyms \| image \| alt \| caption \| pronounce \| field Neurology, Psychiatry \| symptoms = * Lack of coordination * Slurred speech * Trouble eating and swallowing * Deterioration of fine motor skills * Difficulty walking * Gait abnormalities * Eye movement abnormalities * Tremors * Heart problems \| complications \| onset \| duration \| types \| causes \| risks \| diagnosis \| differential \| prevention \| treatment \| medication \| prognosis \| frequency \| deaths }} Ataxia (from Greek α- [a negative prefix] + -τάξις [order] = "lack of order") is a neurological sign consisting of lack of voluntary coordination of muscle movements that can include gait abnormality, speech changes, and abnormalities in eye movements, that indicates dysfunction of parts of the nervous system that coordinate movement, such as the cerebellum. These nervous system dysfunctions occur in several different patterns, with different results and different possible causes. Ataxia can be limited to one side of the body, which is referred to as hemiataxia. Friedreich's ataxia has gait abnormality as the most commonly presented symptom. Dystaxia is a mild degree of ataxia.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleDystaxia Definition & Meaning \|urlhttps://www.dictionary.com/browse/dystaxia \|access-date2023-09-13 \|websiteDictionary.com \|languageen}}</ref> Types Cerebellar {{See also\|Cerebellar ataxia}} The term cerebellar ataxia is used to indicate ataxia due to dysfunction of the cerebellum.<ref>{{cite web \| title Ataxia - Symptoms & Causes \| publisher Mayo Clinic \| date 3 June 2020 \| url https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/ataxia/symptoms-causes/syc-20355652 \| access-date 10 August 2020}}</ref> The cerebellum is responsible for integrating a significant amount of neural information that is used to coordinate smoothly ongoing movements and to participate in motor planning. Although ataxia is not present with all cerebellar lesions, many conditions affecting the cerebellum do produce ataxia.<ref name"Schmahmann">{{cite journal \| vauthors Schmahmann JD \| title Disorders of the cerebellum: ataxia, dysmetria of thought, and the cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome \| journal The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences \| volume 16 \| issue 3 \| pages 367–378 \| year 2004 \| pmid 15377747 \| doi 10.1176/jnp.16.3.367 \| doi-access }}</ref> People with cerebellar ataxia may have trouble regulating the force, range, direction, velocity, and rhythm of muscle contractions.<ref name"isbn0-8036-0093-3">{{cite book \| vauthors Fredericks CM \| chapter Disorders of the Cerebellum and Its Connections \| veditors Saladin LK, Fredericks CM \| title Pathophysiology of the motor systems: principles and clinical presentations \| publisher F.A. Davis \| location Philadelphia \| year 1996 \| isbn 0-8036-0093-3 \| chapter-url http://www.hy-q.com/cooper/pdf/NCS%20Exam/208%20Disorders%20of%20the%20Cerebellum%20and%20its%20Connections.pdf \| access-date 6 May 2012 \| url-access registration \| url https://archive.org/details/pathophysiologyo0000unse_a1k6 }}</ref> This results in a characteristic type of irregular, uncoordinated movement that can manifest itself in many possible ways, such as asthenia, asynergy, delayed reaction time, and dyschronometria.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Tada M, Nishizawa M, Onodera O \| title Redefining cerebellar ataxia in degenerative ataxias: lessons from recent research on cerebellar systems \| journal Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry \| volume 86 \| issue 8 \| pages 922–928 \| date August 2015 \| pmid 25637456 \| doi 10.1136/jnnp-2013-307225 \| s2cid 20887739 }}</ref> Individuals with cerebellar ataxia could also display instability of gait, difficulty with eye movements, dysarthria, dysphagia, hypotonia, dysmetria, and dysdiadochokinesia.<ref name"Schmahmann" /> These deficits can vary depending on which cerebellar structures have been damaged, and whether the lesion is bi- or unilateral.{{citation needed\|date=August 2021}} People with cerebellar ataxia may initially present with poor balance, which could be demonstrated as an inability to stand on one leg or perform tandem gait. As the condition progresses, walking is characterized by a widened base and high stepping, as well as staggering and lurching from side to side.<ref name "Schmahmann" /> Turning is also problematic and could result in falls. As cerebellar ataxia becomes severe, great assistance and effort are needed to stand and walk.<ref name"Schmahmann" /> Dysarthria, an impairment with articulation, may also be present and is characterized by "scanning" speech that consists of slower rate, irregular rhythm, and variable volume.<ref name "Schmahmann" /> Also, slurring of speech, tremor of the voice, and ataxic respiration may occur. Cerebellar ataxia could result with incoordination of movement, particularly in the extremities. Overshooting (or hypermetria) occurs with finger-to-nose testing and heel to shin testing; thus, dysmetria is evident.<ref name"Schmahmann" /><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Manto M, Godaux E, Jacquy J \| title Cerebellar hypermetria is larger when the inertial load is artificially increased \| journal Annals of Neurology \| volume 35 \| issue 1 \| pages 45–52 \| date January 1994 \| pmid 8285591 \| doi 10.1002/ana.410350108 \| s2cid 19328973 }}</ref> Impairments with alternating movements (dysdiadochokinesia), as well as dysrhythmia, may also be displayed. Tremor of the head and trunk (titubation) may be seen in individuals with cerebellar ataxia.<ref name ="Schmahmann" /> Dysmetria is thought to be caused by a deficit in the control of interaction torques in multijoint motion.<ref name"pmid10805697">{{cite journal \| vauthors Bastian AJ, Zackowski KM, Thach WT \| title Cerebellar ataxia: torque deficiency or torque mismatch between joints? \| journal Journal of Neurophysiology \| volume 83 \| issue 5 \| pages 3019–3030 \| date May 2000 \| pmid 10805697 \| doi 10.1152/jn.2000.83.5.3019 \| s2cid = 10244619 }}</ref> Interaction torques are created at an associated joint when the primary joint is moved. For example, if a movement required reaching to touch a target in front of the body, flexion at the shoulder would create a torque at the elbow, while extension of the elbow would create a torque at the wrist. These torques increase as the speed of movement increases and must be compensated and adjusted for to create coordinated movement. This may, therefore, explain decreased coordination at higher movement velocities and accelerations. * Dysfunction of the vestibulocerebellum (flocculonodular lobe) impairs balance and the control of eye movements. This presents itself with postural instability, in which the person tends to separate his/her feet upon standing, to gain a wider base and to avoid titubation (bodily oscillations tending to be forward-backward ones). The instability is, therefore, worsened when standing with the feet together, regardless of whether the eyes are open or closed. This is a negative Romberg's test, or more accurately, it denotes the individual's inability to carry out the test, because the individual feels unstable even with open eyes. {{Citation needed\|date=May 2012}} * Dysfunction of the spinocerebellum (vermis and associated areas near the midline) presents itself with a wide-based "drunken sailor" gait (called truncal ataxia),<ref name"Blumenfeld">{{cite book \| vauthors Blumenfeld H \| title Neuroanatomy through clinical cases \| url https://archive.org/details/neuroanatomythro00blum \| url-access limited \| publisher Sinauer \| location Sunderland, Mass \| year 2002 \| pages [https://archive.org/details/neuroanatomythro00blum/page/n342 670]–671 \| isbn 0-87893-060-4 }}</ref> characterised by uncertain starts and stops, lateral deviations, and unequal steps. As a result of this gait impairment, falling is a concern in patients with ataxia. Studies examining falls in this population show that 74–93% of patients have fallen at least once in the past year and up to 60% admit to fear of falling.<ref name"pmid20157791">{{cite journal \| vauthors Fonteyn EM, Schmitz-Hübsch T, Verstappen CC, Baliko L, Bloem BR, Boesch S, Bunn L, Charles P, Dürr A, Filla A, Giunti P, Globas C, Klockgether T, Melegh B, Pandolfo M, De Rosa A, Schöls L, Timmann D, Munneke M, Kremer BP, van de Warrenburg BP \| title Falls in spinocerebellar ataxias: Results of the EuroSCA Fall Study \| journal Cerebellum \| volume 9 \| issue 2 \| pages 232–239 \| date June 2010 \| pmid 20157791 \| doi 10.1007/s12311-010-0155-z \| s2cid 23247877 }}</ref><ref name"pmid15645525">{{cite journal \| vauthors van de Warrenburg BP, Steijns JA, Munneke M, Kremer BP, Bloem BR \| title Falls in degenerative cerebellar ataxias \| journal Movement Disorders \| volume 20 \| issue 4 \| pages 497–500 \| date April 2005 \| pmid 15645525 \| doi 10.1002/mds.20375 \| s2cid 35160189 }}</ref> * Dysfunction of the cerebrocerebellum (lateral hemispheres) presents as disturbances in carrying out voluntary, planned movements by the extremities (called appendicular ataxia).<ref name="Blumenfeld" /> These include: Intention tremor (coarse trembling, accentuated over the execution of voluntary movements, possibly involving the head and eyes, as well as the limbs and torso) Peculiar writing abnormalities (large, unequal letters, irregular underlining) A peculiar pattern of dysarthria (slurred speech, sometimes characterised by explosive variations in voice intensity despite a regular rhythm) Inability to perform rapidly alternating movements, known as dysdiadochokinesia, occurs, and could involve rapidly switching from pronation to supination of the forearm. Movements become more irregular with increases of speed.<ref name"Schmitz">{{cite book \| chapter Examination of Coordination \|vauthorsSchmitz TJ, O'Sullivan SB \| title Physical rehabilitation \| url https://archive.org/details/physicalrehabili00osul \| url-access limited \| publisher F.A. Davis \| location Philadelphia \| year 2007 \| pages [https://archive.org/details/physicalrehabili00osul/page/n199 193]–225 \| isbn = 978-0-8036-1247-1 }}</ref> Inability to judge distances or ranges of movement happens. This dysmetria is often seen as undershooting, hypometria, or overshooting, hypermetria, the required distance or range to reach a target. This is sometimes seen when a patient is asked to reach out and touch someone's finger or touch his or her own nose.<ref name="Schmitz" /> The rebound phenomenon, also known as the loss of the check reflex, is also sometimes seen in patients with cerebellar ataxia, for example, when patients are flexing their elbows isometrically against a resistance. When the resistance is suddenly removed without warning, the patients' arms may swing up and even strike themselves. With an intact check reflex, the patients check and activate the opposing triceps to slow and stop the movement.<ref name="Schmitz" /> ** Patients may exhibit a constellation of subtle to overt cognitive symptoms, which are gathered under the terminology of Schmahmann's syndrome.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Manto M, Mariën P \| title Schmahmann's syndrome - identification of the third cornerstone of clinical ataxiology \| journal Cerebellum & Ataxias \| volume 2 \| pages 2 \| date 2015 \| pmid 26331045 \| pmc 4552302 \| doi 10.1186/s40673-015-0023-1 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Sensory The term sensory ataxia is used to indicate ataxia due to loss of proprioception, the loss of sensitivity to the positions of joint and body parts. This is generally caused by dysfunction of the dorsal columns of the spinal cord, because they carry proprioceptive information up to the brain. In some cases, the cause of sensory ataxia may instead be dysfunction of the various parts of the brain that receive positional information, including the cerebellum, thalamus, and parietal lobes.<ref name="pmid9184691"/> Sensory ataxia presents itself with an unsteady "stomping" gait with heavy heel strikes, as well as a postural instability that is usually worsened when the lack of proprioceptive input cannot be compensated for by visual input, such as in poorly lit environments.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleSensory Ataxia \|urlhttps://www.physio-pedia.com/Sensory_Ataxia \|access-date2022-10-19 \|websitePhysiopedia \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \| vauthors Ruppert L, Kendig T \|titleA Pt Intervention for a Patient with Sensory Ataxia in the Acute Care Oncology Setting \|date2012 \|urlhttps://journals.lww.com/rehabonc/Citation/2012/30010/A_PT_INTERVENTION_FOR_A_PATIENT_WITH_SENSORY.10.aspx \|journalRehabilitation Oncology \|languageen-US \|volume30 \|issue1 \|pages24–25 \|doi10.1097/01893697-201230010-00010 \|issn2168-3808\|doi-access=free }}</ref> Physicians can find evidence of sensory ataxia during physical examination by having patients stand with their feet together and eyes shut. In affected patients, this will cause the instability to worsen markedly, producing wide oscillations and possibly a fall; this is called a positive Romberg's test. Worsening of the finger-pointing test with the eyes closed is another feature of sensory ataxia. Also, when patients are standing with arms and hands extended toward the physician, if the eyes are closed, the patients' fingers tend to "fall down" and then be restored to the horizontal extended position by sudden muscular contractions (the "ataxic hand").<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Halmágyi GM, Curthoys IS \| title Vestibular contributions to the Romberg test: Testing semicircular canal and otolith function \| journal European Journal of Neurology \| volume 28 \| issue 9 \| pages 3211–3219 \| date September 2021 \| pmid 34160115 \| doi 10.1111/ene.14942 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Forbes J, Munakomi S, Cronovich H \| chapter Romberg Test \|date2024 \| title StatPearls \| chapter-urlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563187/ \|access-date2024-04-16 \|placeTreasure Island (FL) \|publisherStatPearls Publishing \|pmid33085334 }}</ref> Vestibular The term vestibular ataxia is used to indicate ataxia due to dysfunction of the vestibular system, which in acute and unilateral cases is associated with prominent vertigo, nausea, and vomiting. In slow-onset, chronic bilateral cases of vestibular dysfunction, these characteristic manifestations may be absent, and dysequilibrium may be the sole presentation.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Ashizawa T, Xia G \| title Ataxia \| journal Continuum \| volume 22 \| issue 4 Movement Disorders \| pages 1208–1226 \| date August 2016 \| pmid 27495205 \| pmc 5567218 \| doi 10.1212/CON.0000000000000362 }}</ref> Causes The three types of ataxia have overlapping causes, so can either coexist or occur in isolation. Cerebellar ataxia can have many causes despite normal neuroimaging.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAtaxia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Types \|urlhttps://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/17748-ataxia \|access-date2024-02-08 \|websiteCleveland Clinic \|languageen}}</ref> Focal lesions Any type of focal lesion of the central nervous system (such as stroke, brain tumor, multiple sclerosis, inflammatory [such as sarcoidosis], and "chronic lymphocytyc inflammation with pontine perivascular enhancement responsive to steroids syndrome" [CLIPPERS<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Maenhoudt W, Ramboer K, Maqueda V \| title A Rare Cause of Dizziness and Gait Ataxia: CLIPPERS Syndrome \| journal Journal of the Belgian Society of Radiology \| volume 100 \| issue 1 \| pages 20 \| date February 2016 \| pmid 30151443 \| pmc 6102946 \| doi 10.5334/jbr-btr.997 \| doi-access free }}</ref>]) will cause the type of ataxia corresponding to the site of the lesion: cerebellar if in the cerebellum; sensory if in the dorsal spinal cord...to include cord compression by thickened ligamentum flavum or stenosis of the boney spinal canal...(and rarely in the thalamus or parietal lobe); or vestibular if in the vestibular system (including the vestibular areas of the cerebral cortex).{{citation needed\|dateAugust 2021}} Exogenous substances (metabolic ataxia) Exogenous substances that cause ataxia mainly do so because they have a depressant effect on central nervous system function. The most common example is ethanol (alcohol), which is capable of causing reversible cerebellar and vestibular ataxia. Chronic intake of ethanol causes atrophy of the cerebellum by oxidative and endoplasmic reticulum stresses induced by thiamine deficiency.<ref name"pmid34444449">{{cite journal \| vauthors Mitoma H, Manto M, Shaikh AG \| title Mechanisms of Ethanol-Induced Cerebellar Ataxia: Underpinnings of Neuronal Death in the Cerebellum \| journal International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health \| volume 18 \| issue 16 \| pages 8678 \| date August 2021 \| pmid 34444449 \| pmc 8391842 \| doi 10.3390/ijerph18168678 \| doi-access = free }}</ref> Other examples include various prescription drugs (e.g. most antiepileptic drugs have cerebellar ataxia as a possible adverse effect), Lithium level over 1.5mEq/L, synthetic cannabinoid HU-211 ingestion<ref name"Inadvertent Ingestion of Marijuana --- Los Angeles, California, 2009">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5834a2.htm?s_cidmm5834a2 \|titleInadvertent Ingestion of Marijuana --- Los Angeles, California, 2009 \|access-date3 September 2009 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110511211253/http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5834a2.htm?s_cidmm5834a2 \|archive-date11 May 2011}}</ref> and various other medical and recreational drugs (e.g. ketamine, PCP or dextromethorphan, all of which are NMDA receptor antagonists that produce a dissociative state at high doses). A further class of pharmaceuticals which can cause short term ataxia, especially in high doses, are benzodiazepines.<ref name"pmid817697">{{cite journal \| vauthors Browne TR \| title Clonazepam. A review of a new anticonvulsant drug \| journal Archives of Neurology \| volume 33 \| issue 5 \| pages 326–332 \| date May 1976 \| pmid 817697 \| doi 10.1001/archneur.1976.00500050012003 }}</ref><ref name"pmid1888441">{{cite journal \| vauthors Gaudreault P, Guay J, Thivierge RL, Verdy I \| title Benzodiazepine poisoning. Clinical and pharmacological considerations and treatment \| journal Drug Safety \| volume 6 \| issue 4 \| pages 247–265 \| year 1991 \| pmid 1888441 \| doi 10.2165/00002018-199106040-00003 \| s2cid 27619795 }}</ref> Exposure to high levels of methylmercury, through consumption of fish with high mercury concentrations, is also a known cause of ataxia and other neurological disorders.<ref name"pmid19253038">{{cite book \| vauthors Díez S \| chapter Human Health Effects of Methylmercury Exposure \| title Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology Volume 198 \| volume 198 \| pages 111–32 \| year 2009 \| pmid 19253038 \| doi 10.1007/978-0-387-09647-6_3 \| isbn 978-0-387-09646-9 }}</ref> Radiation poisoning Ataxia can be induced as a result of severe acute radiation poisoning with an absorbed dose of more than 30 grays.<ref>{{cite web \|titleRadiation Exposure and Contamination - Injuries; Poisoning \|urlhttps://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/injuries-poisoning/radiation-exposure-and-contamination/radiation-exposure-and-contamination \|websiteMerck Manuals Professional Edition \|access-date26 December 2022}}</ref> Furthermore, those with ataxia telangiectasia may have a high sensitivity towards gamma rays and x-rays.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Rothblum-Oviatt C, Wright J, Lefton-Greif MA, McGrath-Morrow SA, Crawford TO, Lederman HM \| title Ataxia telangiectasia: a review \| journal Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases \| volume 11 \| issue 1 \| pages 159 \| date November 2016 \| pmid 27884168 \| pmc 5123280 \| doi 10.1186/s13023-016-0543-7 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Vitamin B<sub>12</sub> deficiency Vitamin B<sub>12</sub> deficiency may cause, among several neurological abnormalities, overlapping cerebellar and sensory ataxia.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Crawford JR, Say D \| title Vitamin B12 deficiency presenting as acute ataxia \| journal BMJ Case Reports \| volume 2013 \| pages bcr2013008840 \| date March 2013 \| pmid 23536622 \| pmc 3618829 \| doi 10.1136/bcr-2013-008840 }}</ref> Neuropsychological symptoms may include sense loss, difficulty in proprioception, poor balance, loss of sensation in the feet, changes in reflexes, dementia, and psychosis, which can be reversible with treatment.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Osimani A, Berger A, Friedman J, Porat-Katz BS, Abarbanel JM \| title Neuropsychology of vitamin B12 deficiency in elderly dementia patients and control subjects \| journal Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology \| volume 18 \| issue 1 \| pages 33–38 \| date March 2005 \| pmid 15681626 \| doi 10.1177/0891988704272308 \| s2cid 29983253 }}</ref> Complications may include a neurological complex known as subacute combined degeneration of spinal cord, and other neurological disorders.<ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Qudsiya Z, De Jesus O \| chapter Subacute Combined Degeneration of the Spinal Cord \|date2022 \| chapter-urlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559316/ \| title StatPearls \|placeTreasure Island (FL) \|publisherStatPearls Publishing \|pmid32644742 \|access-date2022-07-17 }}</ref> Hypothyroidism Symptoms of neurological dysfunction may be the presenting feature in some patients with hypothyroidism. These include reversible cerebellar ataxia, dementia, peripheral neuropathy, psychosis and coma. Most of the neurological complications improve completely after thyroid hormone replacement therapy.<ref name"isbn0-07-149992-X">{{cite book \|vauthorsVictor M, Ropper AH, Adams RD, Samuels M \| title Adams and Victor's Principles of Neurology \| edition Ninth \| publisher McGraw-Hill Medical \| year 2009 \| pages 78–88 \| isbn 978-0-07-149992-7 }}</ref><ref name"Pavan_2012">{{cite journal\| vauthors Pavan MR, Deepak M, Basavaprabhu A, Gupta A\| year2012\| title Doctor i am swaying – An interesting case of ataxia\| journalJournal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research\| url http://www.jcdr.net/article_fulltext.asp?issn0973-709x&year2012&volume6&issue4&page702&issn0973-709x&id2120\| access-date 2 May 2013\| url-statuslive\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20140508025330/http://www.jcdr.net/article_fulltext.asp?issn0973-709x&year2012&volume6&issue4&page702&issn0973-709x&id2120\| archive-date 8 May 2014}}</ref> Causes of isolated sensory ataxia Peripheral neuropathies may cause generalised or localised sensory ataxia (e.g. a limb only) depending on the extent of the neuropathic involvement. Spinal disorders of various types may cause sensory ataxia from the lesioned level below, when they involve the dorsal columns.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Spinazzi M, Angelini C, Patrini C \| title Subacute sensory ataxia and optic neuropathy with thiamine deficiency \| journal Nature Reviews. Neurology \| volume 6 \| issue 5 \| pages 288–293 \| date May 2010 \| pmid 20308997 \| doi 10.1038/nrneurol.2010.16 \| s2cid 12333200 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Sghirlanzoni A, Pareyson D, Lauria G \| title Sensory neuron diseases \| journal The Lancet. Neurology \| volume 4 \| issue 6 \| pages 349–361 \| date June 2005 \| pmid 15907739 \| doi 10.1016/S1474-4422(05)70096-X \| s2cid 35053543 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Moeller JJ, Macaulay RJ, Valdmanis PN, Weston LE, Rouleau GA, Dupré N \| title Autosomal dominant sensory ataxia: a neuroaxonal dystrophy \| journal Acta Neuropathologica \| volume 116 \| issue 3 \| pages 331–336 \| date September 2008 \| pmid 18347805 \| doi 10.1007/s00401-008-0362-6 \| s2cid 22881684 }}</ref> Non-hereditary cerebellar degeneration Non-hereditary causes of cerebellar degeneration include chronic alcohol use disorder, head injury, paraneoplastic and non-paraneoplastic autoimmune ataxia,<ref name"Medusa head ataxia - Part 1">{{cite journal \| vauthors Jarius S, Wildemann B \| title 'Medusa-head ataxia': the expanding spectrum of Purkinje cell antibodies in autoimmune cerebellar ataxia. Part 1: Anti-mGluR1, anti-Homer-3, anti-Sj/ITPR1 and anti-CARP VIII \| journal Journal of Neuroinflammation \| volume 12 \| issue 1 \| pages 166 \| date September 2015 \| pmid 26377085 \| pmc 4574226 \| doi 10.1186/s12974-015-0356-y \| doi-access free }}</ref><ref name"Medusa head ataxia - Part 2">{{cite journal \| vauthors Jarius S, Wildemann B \| title 'Medusa head ataxia': the expanding spectrum of Purkinje cell antibodies in autoimmune cerebellar ataxia. Part 2: Anti-PKC-gamma, anti-GluR-delta2, anti-Ca/ARHGAP26 and anti-VGCC \| journal Journal of Neuroinflammation \| volume 12 \| issue 1 \| pages 167 \| date September 2015 \| pmid 26377184 \| pmc 4574118 \| doi 10.1186/s12974-015-0357-x \| doi-access free }}</ref><ref name"Medusa head ataxia - Part 3">{{cite journal \| vauthors Jarius S, Wildemann B \| title 'Medusa head ataxia': the expanding spectrum of Purkinje cell antibodies in autoimmune cerebellar ataxia. Part 3: Anti-Yo/CDR2, anti-Nb/AP3B2, PCA-2, anti-Tr/DNER, other antibodies, diagnostic pitfalls, summary and outlook \| journal Journal of Neuroinflammation \| volume 12 \| issue 1 \| pages 168 \| date September 2015 \| pmid 26377319 \| pmc 4573944 \| doi 10.1186/s12974-015-0358-9 \| doi-access free }}</ref> high-altitude cerebral edema,<ref name"Sharma_2019">{{cite journal \| vauthors Sharma R, Cramer NP, Perry B, Adahman Z, Murphy EK, Xu X, Dardzinski BJ, Galdzicki Z, Perl DP, Dickstein DL, Iacono D \| title Chronic Exposure to High Altitude: Synaptic, Astroglial and Memory Changes \| journal Scientific Reports \| volume 9 \| issue 1 \| pages 16406 \| date November 2019 \| pmid 31712561 \| pmc 6848138 \| doi 10.1038/s41598-019-52563-1 \| bibcode 2019NatSR...916406S }}</ref> celiac disease,<ref name"Hermaszewski_1991">{{cite journal \| vauthors Hermaszewski RA, Rigby S, Dalgleish AG \| title Coeliac disease presenting with cerebellar degeneration \| journal Postgraduate Medical Journal \| volume 67 \| issue 793 \| pages 1023–1024 \| date November 1991 \| pmid 1775412 \| pmc 2399130 \| doi 10.1136/pgmj.67.793.1023 }}</ref> normal-pressure hydrocephalus,<ref name"Lv_2022">{{cite journal \| vauthors Lv M, Yang X, Zhou X, Chen J, Wei H, Du D, Lin H, Xia J \| title Gray matter volume of cerebellum associated with idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus: A cross-sectional analysis \| journal Frontiers in Neurology \| volume 13 \| pages 922199 \| date 2022-09-07 \| pmid 36158963 \| pmc 9489844 \| doi 10.3389/fneur.2022.922199 \| doi-access free }}</ref> and infectious or post-infectious cerebellitis.<ref name"Parvez_2022">{{cite journal \| vauthors Parvez MS, Ohtsuki G \| title Acute Cerebellar Inflammation and Related Ataxia: Mechanisms and Pathophysiology \| journal Brain Sciences \| volume 12 \| issue 3 \| page 367 \| date March 2022 \| pmid 35326323 \| pmc 8946185 \| doi 10.3390/brainsci12030367 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Hereditary ataxias Ataxia may depend on hereditary disorders consisting of degeneration of the cerebellum or of the spine; most cases feature both to some extent, and therefore present with overlapping cerebellar and sensory ataxia, even though one is often more evident than the other. Hereditary disorders causing ataxia include autosomal dominant ones such as spinocerebellar ataxia, episodic ataxia, and dentatorubropallidoluysian atrophy, as well as autosomal recessive disorders such as Friedreich's ataxia (sensory and cerebellar, with the former predominating) and Niemann–Pick disease, ataxia–telangiectasia (sensory and cerebellar, with the latter predominating), autosomal recessive spinocerebellar ataxia-14<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Sait H, Moirangthem A, Agrawal V, Phadke SR \| title Autosomal recessive spinocerebellar ataxia-20 due to a novel SNX14 variant in an Indian girl \| journal American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part A \| volume 188 \| issue 6 \| pages 1909–1914 \| date June 2022 \| pmid 35195341 \| doi 10.1002/ajmg.a.62701 \| s2cid 247058153 }}</ref> and abetalipoproteinaemia. An example of X-linked ataxic condition is the rare fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome or FXTAS. Arnold–Chiari malformation (congenital ataxia) Arnold–Chiari malformation is a malformation of the brain. It consists of a downward displacement of the cerebellar tonsils and the medulla through the foramen magnum, sometimes causing hydrocephalus as a result of obstruction of cerebrospinal fluid outflow.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Langridge B, Phillips E, Choi D \| title Chiari Malformation Type 1: A Systematic Review of Natural History and Conservative Management \| journal World Neurosurgery \| volume 104 \| pages 213–219 \| date August 2017 \| pmid 28435116 \| doi 10.1016/j.wneu.2017.04.082 \| url https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1555498/ }}</ref> Succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase deficiency Succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase deficiency is an autosomal-recessive gene disorder where mutations in the ALDH5A1 gene results in the accumulation of gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) in the body. GHB accumulates in the nervous system and can cause ataxia as well as other neurological dysfunction.<ref name"urlSSADH ">{{cite journal \| vauthors Parviz M, Vogel K, Gibson KM, Pearl PL \| title Disorders of GABA metabolism: SSADH and GABA-transaminase deficiencies \| journal Journal of Pediatric Epilepsy \| volume 3 \| issue 4 \| pages 217–227 \| date November 2014 \| pmid 25485164 \| pmc 4256671 \| doi 10.3233/PEP-14097 }}</ref> Wilson's disease Wilson's disease is an autosomal-recessive gene disorder whereby an alteration of the ATP7B gene results in an inability to properly excrete copper from the body.<ref name"urlwww.birminghammodis.com">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.birminghammodis.com/handbook/Chapter12.pdf \|titleWilson's Disease \| vauthors Walshe JM \| veditors Clarke CE, Nicholl DJ \|workBirmingham Movement Disorders Coursebook \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110910171019/http://www.birminghammodis.com/handbook/Chapter12.pdf \|archive-date10 September 2011}}</ref> Copper accumulates in the liver and raises the toxicity levels in the nervous system causing demyelination of the nerves.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Ortiz JF, Morillo Cox Á, Tambo W, Eskander N, Wirth M, Valdez M, Niño M \| title Neurological Manifestations of Wilson's Disease: Pathophysiology and Localization of Each Component \| journal Cureus \| volume 12 \| issue 11 \| pages e11509 \| date November 2020 \| pmid 33354453 \| pmc 7744205 \| doi 10.7759/cureus.11509 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> This can cause ataxia as well as other neurological and organ impairments.<ref name"urlWilsons disease2">{{cite web \|titleWilson's disease – PubMed Health \|urlhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001789/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140727172514/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001789/ \|archive-date27 July 2014 \|workPubMed Health \|vauthorsHaldeman-Englert C}}</ref> Gluten ataxia Gluten ataxia is an autoimmune disease derived from celiac disease,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Giuffrè M, Gazzin S, Zoratti C, Llido JP, Lanza G, Tiribelli C, Moretti R \| title Celiac Disease and Neurological Manifestations: From Gluten to Neuroinflammation \| journal International Journal of Molecular Sciences \| volume 23 \| issue 24 \| pages 15564 \| date December 2022 \| pmid 36555205 \| pmc 9779232 \| doi 10.3390/ijms232415564 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> which is triggered by the ingestion of gluten.<ref name"MitomaAdhikari2016">{{cite journal \| vauthors Mitoma H, Adhikari K, Aeschlimann D, Chattopadhyay P, Hadjivassiliou M, Hampe CS, Honnorat J, Joubert B, Kakei S, Lee J, Manto M, Matsunaga A, Mizusawa H, Nanri K, Shanmugarajah P, Yoneda M, Yuki N \| title Consensus Paper: Neuroimmune Mechanisms of Cerebellar Ataxias \| journal Cerebellum \| volume 15 \| issue 2 \| pages 213–232 \| date April 2016 \| pmid 25823827 \| pmc 4591117 \| doi 10.1007/s12311-015-0664-x \| type Review }}</ref><ref name"sapone-etal-2010-b">{{cite journal \| vauthors Sapone A, Bai JC, Ciacci C, Dolinsek J, Green PH, Hadjivassiliou M, Kaukinen K, Rostami K, Sanders DS, Schumann M, Ullrich R, Villalta D, Volta U, Catassi C, Fasano A \| title Spectrum of gluten-related disorders: consensus on new nomenclature and classification \| journal BMC Medicine \| volume 10 \| pages 13 \| date February 2012 \| pmid 22313950 \| pmc 3292448 \| doi 10.1186/1741-7015-10-13 \| doi-access free \| type Review }}</ref> Early diagnosis and treatment with a gluten-free diet can improve ataxia and prevent its progression. The effectiveness of the treatment depends on the elapsed time from the onset of the ataxia until diagnosis, because the death of neurons in the cerebellum as a result of gluten exposure is irreversible.<ref name"MitomaAdhikari2016" /><ref name"HadjivassiliouSanders2015" /> It accounts for 40% of ataxias of unknown origin and 15% of all ataxias.<ref name"HadjivassiliouSanders2015">{{cite journal \| vauthors Hadjivassiliou M, Sanders DD, Aeschlimann DP \| title Gluten-related disorders: gluten ataxia \| journal Digestive Diseases \| volume 33 \| issue 2 \| pages 264–268 \| year 2015 \| pmid 25925933 \| doi 10.1159/000369509 \| type Review \| s2cid 207673823 }}</ref> Less than 10% of people with gluten ataxia present any gastrointestinal symptom and only about 40% have intestinal damage.<ref name"MitomaAdhikari2016" /><ref name"HadjivassiliouSanders2015" /> This entity is classified into primary auto-immune cerebellar ataxias (PACA).<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Hadjivassiliou M, Graus F, Honnorat J, Jarius S, Titulaer M, Manto M, Hoggard N, Sarrigiannis P, Mitoma H \| title Diagnostic Criteria for Primary Autoimmune Cerebellar Ataxia-Guidelines from an International Task Force on Immune-Mediated Cerebellar Ataxias \| journal Cerebellum \| volume 19 \| issue 4 \| pages 605–610 \| date August 2020 \| pmid 32328884 \| pmc 7351847 \| doi 10.1007/s12311-020-01132-8 }}</ref> There is a continuum between presymptomatic ataxia and immune ataxias with clinical deficits.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Manto M, Mitoma H \| title Immune Ataxias: The Continuum of Latent Ataxia, Primary Ataxia and Clinical Ataxia \| journal Journal of Integrative Neuroscience \| volume 23 \| issue 79 \| date April 2024 \| page 79 \| doi 10.31083/j.jin2304079 \| doi-access free \| pmid 38682229 }}</ref> Potassium pump Malfunction of the sodium-potassium pump may be a factor in some ataxias. The {{chem\|Na\|+}}-{{chem\|K\|+}} pump has been shown to control and set the intrinsic activity mode of cerebellar Purkinje neurons.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Forrest MD, Wall MJ, Press DA, Feng J \| title The sodium-potassium pump controls the intrinsic firing of the cerebellar Purkinje neuron \| journal PLOS ONE \| volume 7 \| issue 12 \| pages e51169 \| date December 2012 \| pmid 23284664 \| pmc 3527461 \| doi 10.1371/journal.pone.0051169 \| doi-access free \| bibcode 2012PLoSO...751169F }}</ref> This suggests that the pump might not simply be a homeostatic, "housekeeping" molecule for ionic gradients; but could be a computational element in the cerebellum and the brain.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Forrest MD \| title The sodium-potassium pump is an information processing element in brain computation \| journal Frontiers in Physiology \| volume 5 \| issue 472 \| pages 472 \| date December 2014 \| pmid 25566080 \| pmc 4274886 \| doi 10.3389/fphys.2014.00472 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Indeed, a ouabain block of {{chem\|Na\|+}}-{{chem\|K\|+}} pumps in the cerebellum of a live mouse results in it displaying ataxia and dystonia.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Calderon DP, Fremont R, Kraenzlin F, Khodakhah K \| title The neural substrates of rapid-onset Dystonia-Parkinsonism \| journal Nature Neuroscience \| volume 14 \| issue 3 \| pages 357–365 \| date March 2011 \| pmid 21297628 \| pmc 3430603 \| doi 10.1038/nn.2753 }}</ref> Ataxia is observed for lower ouabain concentrations, dystonia is observed at higher ouabain concentrations. Cerebellar ataxia associated with anti-GAD antibodies Antibodies against the enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD: enzyme changing glutamate into GABA) cause cerebellar deficits.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Mitoma H, Manto M, Hampe CS \| title Pathogenic Roles of Glutamic Acid Decarboxylase 65 Autoantibodies in Cerebellar Ataxias \| journal Journal of Immunology Research \| volume 2017 \| pages 2913297 \| date 2017 \| pmid 28386570 \| pmc 5366212 \| doi 10.1155/2017/2913297 \| doi-access free }}</ref> The antibodies impair motor learning and cause behavioral deficits.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Manto M, Honnorat J, Hampe CS, Guerra-Narbona R, López-Ramos JC, Delgado-García JM, Saitow F, Suzuki H, Yanagawa Y, Mizusawa H, Mitoma H \| title Disease-specific monoclonal antibodies targeting glutamate decarboxylase impair GABAergic neurotransmission and affect motor learning and behavioral functions \| journal Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience \| volume 9 \| pages 78 \| date 2015 \| pmid 25870548 \| pmc 4375997 \| doi 10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00078 \| doi-access = free }}</ref> GAD antibodies related ataxia is part of the group called immune-mediated cerebellar ataxias.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Mitoma H, Manto M, Hampe CS \| title Immune-mediated Cerebellar Ataxias: Practical Guidelines and Therapeutic Challenges \| journal Current Neuropharmacology \| volume 17 \| issue 1 \| pages 33–58 \| date 2019 \| pmid 30221603 \| pmc 6341499 \| doi 10.2174/1570159X16666180917105033 }}</ref> The antibodies induce a synaptopathy.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Mitoma H, Honnorat J, Yamaguchi K, Manto M \| title Fundamental Mechanisms of Autoantibody-Induced Impairments on Ion Channels and Synapses in Immune-Mediated Cerebellar Ataxias \| journal International Journal of Molecular Sciences \| volume 21 \| issue 14 \| pages E4936 \| date July 2020 \| pmid 32668612 \| pmc 6341499 \| doi 10.3390/ijms21144936 \| doi-access free }}</ref> The cerebellum is particularly vulnerable to autoimmune disorders.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Mitoma H, Manto M, Hadjivassiliou M \| title Immune-Mediated Cerebellar Ataxias: Clinical Diagnosis and Treatment Based on Immunological and Physiological Mechanisms \| journal Journal of Movement Disorders \| volume 14 \| issue 1 \| pages 10–28 \| date January 2021 \| pmid 33423437 \| pmc 7840241 \| doi 10.14802/jmd.20040 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Cerebellar circuitry has capacities to compensate and restore function thanks to cerebellar reserve, gathering multiple forms of plasticity. LTDpathies gather immune disorders targeting long-term depression (LTD), a form of plasticity.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Hirano T \| title Long-term depression and other synaptic plasticity in the cerebellum \| journal Proceedings of the Japan Academy. Series B, Physical and Biological Sciences \| volume 89 \| issue 5 \| pages 183–195 \| date 2013 \| pmid 23666089 \| pmc 3722574 \| doi 10.2183/pjab.89.183 }}</ref> Diagnosis * Imaging studies – A <abbr>CT</abbr> scan or <abbr>MRI</abbr> of the brain might help determine potential causes. An <abbr>MRI</abbr> can sometimes show shrinkage of the cerebellum and other brain structures in people with ataxia. It may also show other treatable findings, such as a blood clot or benign tumour, that could be pressing on the cerebellum. * Lumbar puncture (spinal tap) – A needle is inserted into the lower back (lumbar region) between two lumbar vertebrae to obtain a sample of cerebrospinal fluid for testing. * Genetic testing – Determines whether the mutation that causes one of the hereditary ataxic conditions is present. Tests are available for many but not all of the hereditary ataxias. Treatment The treatment of ataxia and its effectiveness depend on the underlying cause. Treatment may limit or reduce the effects of ataxia, but it is unlikely to eliminate them entirely. Recovery tends to be better in individuals with a single focal injury (such as stroke or a benign tumour), compared to those who have a neurological degenerative condition.<ref name"can rehabilitation help">{{cite journal \| vauthors Morton SM, Bastian AJ \| title Can rehabilitation help ataxia? \| journal Neurology \| volume 73 \| issue 22 \| pages 1818–1819 \| date December 2009 \| pmid 19864635 \| doi 10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181c33b21 \| s2cid 5481310 }}</ref> A review of the management of degenerative ataxia was published in 2009.<ref name"systematic review">{{cite journal \| vauthors Trujillo-Martín MM, Serrano-Aguilar P, Monton-Alvarez F, Carrillo-Fumero R \| title Effectiveness and safety of treatments for degenerative ataxias: a systematic review \| journal Movement Disorders \| volume 24 \| issue 8 \| pages 1111–1124 \| date June 2009 \| pmid 19412936 \| doi 10.1002/mds.22564 \| s2cid 11008654 }}</ref> A small number of rare conditions presenting with prominent cerebellar ataxia are amenable to specific treatment and recognition of these disorders is critical. Diseases include vitamin E deficiency, abetalipoproteinemia, cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis, Niemann–Pick type C disease, Refsum's disease, glucose transporter type 1 deficiency, episodic ataxia type 2, gluten ataxia, glutamic acid decarboxylase ataxia.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Ramirez-Zamora A, Zeigler W, Desai N, Biller J \| title Treatable causes of cerebellar ataxia \| journal Movement Disorders \| volume 30 \| issue 5 \| pages 614–623 \| date April 2015 \| pmid 25757427 \| doi 10.1002/mds.26158 \| s2cid 9560460 }}</ref> Novel therapies target the RNA defects associated with cerebellar disorders, using in particular anti-sense oligonucleotides.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Manto M, Gandini J, Feil K, Strupp M \| title Cerebellar ataxias: an update \| journal Current Opinion in Neurology \| volume 33 \| issue 1 \| pages 150–160 \| date February 2020 \| pmid 31789706 \| doi 10.1097/WCO.0000000000000774 \| s2cid 208538266 }}</ref> The movement disorders associated with ataxia can be managed by pharmacological treatments and through physical therapy and occupational therapy to reduce disability.<ref name"pmid17000340">{{cite journal \| vauthors Perlman SL \| title Ataxias \| journal Clinics in Geriatric Medicine \| volume 22 \| issue 4 \| pages 859–77, vii \| date November 2006 \| pmid 17000340 \| doi 10.1016/j.cger.2006.06.011 }}</ref> Some drug treatments that have been used to control ataxia include: 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP), idebenone, amantadine, physostigmine, L-carnitine or derivatives, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, vigabatrin, phosphatidylcholine, acetazolamide, 4-aminopyridine, buspirone, and a combination of coenzyme Q<sub>10</sub> and vitamin E.<ref name="systematic review"/> Physical therapy requires a focus on adapting activity and facilitating motor learning for retraining specific functional motor patterns.<ref name"Intensive coordinative training improves motor performance in degenerative cerebellar disease">{{cite journal \| vauthors Ilg W, Synofzik M, Brötz D, Burkard S, Giese MA, Schöls L \| title Intensive coordinative training improves motor performance in degenerative cerebellar disease \| journal Neurology \| volume 73 \| issue 22 \| pages 1823–1830 \| date December 2009 \| pmid 19864636 \| doi 10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181c33adf \| s2cid 2087750 }}</ref> A recent systematic review suggested that physical therapy is effective, but there is only moderate evidence to support this conclusion.<ref name"pmid19114434">{{cite journal \| vauthors Martin CL, Tan D, Bragge P, Bialocerkowski A \| title Effectiveness of physiotherapy for adults with cerebellar dysfunction: a systematic review \| journal Clinical Rehabilitation \| volume 23 \| issue 1 \| pages 15–26 \| date January 2009 \| pmid 19114434 \| doi 10.1177/0269215508097853 \| s2cid 25458915 }}</ref> The most commonly used physical therapy interventions for cerebellar ataxia are vestibular habituation, Frenkel exercises, proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF), and balance training; however, therapy is often highly individualized and gait and coordination training are large components of therapy.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Schatton C, Synofzik M, Fleszar Z, Giese MA, Schöls L, Ilg W \| title Individualized exergame training improves postural control in advanced degenerative spinocerebellar ataxia: A rater-blinded, intra-individually controlled trial \| language English \| journal Parkinsonism & Related Disorders \| volume 39 \| pages 80–84 \| date June 2017 \| pmid 28365204 \| doi = 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2017.03.016 }}</ref> Current research suggests that, if a person is able to walk with or without a mobility aid, physical therapy should include an exercise program addressing five components: static balance, dynamic balance, trunk-limb coordination, stairs, and contracture prevention. Once the physical therapist determines that the individual is able to safely perform parts of the program independently, it is important that the individual be prescribed and regularly engage in a supplementary home exercise program that incorporates these components to further improve long term outcomes. These outcomes include balance tasks, gait, and individual activities of daily living. While the improvements are attributed primarily to changes in the brain and not just the hip or ankle joints, it is still unknown whether the improvements are due to adaptations in the cerebellum or compensation by other areas of the brain.<ref name="Intensive coordinative training improves motor performance in degenerative cerebellar disease"/> Decomposition, simplification, or slowing of multijoint movement may also be an effective strategy that therapists may use to improve function in patients with ataxia.<ref name"pmid9184691">{{cite journal \| vauthors Bastian AJ \| title Mechanisms of ataxia \| journal Physical Therapy \| volume 77 \| issue 6 \| pages 672–675 \| date June 1997 \| pmid 9184691 \| doi 10.1093/ptj/77.6.672 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Training likely needs to be intense and focused—as indicated by one study performed with stroke patients experiencing limb ataxia who underwent intensive upper limb retraining.<ref name"stroke ataxia">{{cite journal \| vauthors Richards L, Senesac C, McGuirk T, Woodbury M, Howland D, Davis S, Patterson T \| title Response to intensive upper extremity therapy by individuals with ataxia from stroke \| journal Topics in Stroke Rehabilitation \| volume 15 \| issue 3 \| pages 262–271 \| year 2008 \| pmid 18647730 \| doi 10.1310/tsr1503-262 \| s2cid 207260777 }}</ref> Their therapy consisted of constraint-induced movement therapy which resulted in improvements of their arm function.<ref name"stroke ataxia" /> Treatment should likely include strategies to manage difficulties with everyday activities such as walking. Gait aids (such as a cane or walker) can be provided to decrease the risk of falls associated with impairment of balance or poor coordination. Severe ataxia may eventually lead to the need for a wheelchair. To obtain better results, possible coexisting motor deficits need to be addressed in addition to those induced by ataxia. For example, muscle weakness and decreased endurance could lead to increasing fatigue and poorer movement patterns.{{citation needed\|dateAugust 2021}} There are several assessment tools available to therapists and health care professionals working with patients with ataxia. The International Cooperative Ataxia Rating Scale (ICARS) is one of the most widely used and has been proven to have very high reliability and validity.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Schmitz-Hübsch T, Tezenas du Montcel S, Baliko L, Boesch S, Bonato S, Fancellu R, Giunti P, Globas C, Kang JS, Kremer B, Mariotti C, Melegh B, Rakowicz M, Rola R, Romano S, Schöls L, Szymanski S, van de Warrenburg BP, Zdzienicka E, Dürr A, Klockgether T \| title Reliability and validity of the International Cooperative Ataxia Rating Scale: a study in 156 spinocerebellar ataxia patients \| journal Movement Disorders \| volume 21 \| issue 5 \| pages 699–704 \| date May 2006 \| pmid 16450347 \| doi 10.1002/mds.20781 \| s2cid 28633679 }}</ref> Other tools that assess motor function, balance and coordination are also highly valuable to help the therapist track the progress of their patient, as well as to quantify the patient's functionality. These tests include, but are not limited to: * The Berg Balance Scale * Tandem Walking (to test for Tandem gaitability) * Scale for the Assessment and Rating of Ataxia (SARA)<ref name"pmid16769946">{{cite journal \| vauthors Schmitz-Hübsch T, du Montcel ST, Baliko L, Berciano J, Boesch S, Depondt C, Giunti P, Globas C, Infante J, Kang JS, Kremer B, Mariotti C, Melegh B, Pandolfo M, Rakowicz M, Ribai P, Rola R, Schöls L, Szymanski S, van de Warrenburg BP, Dürr A, Klockgether T, Fancellu R \| title Scale for the assessment and rating of ataxia: development of a new clinical scale \| journal Neurology \| volume 66 \| issue 11 \| pages 1717–1720 \| date June 2006 \| pmid 16769946 \| doi 10.1212/01.wnl.0000219042.60538.92 \| s2cid = 24069559 }}</ref> * tapping tests – The person must quickly and repeatedly tap their arm or leg while the therapist monitors the amount of dysdiadochokinesia.<ref name"Notermans_1994">{{cite journal \| vauthors Notermans NC, van Dijk GW, van der Graaf Y, van Gijn J, Wokke JH \| title Measuring ataxia: quantification based on the standard neurological examination \| journal Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry \| volume 57 \| issue 1 \| pages 22–26 \| date January 1994 \| pmid 8301300 \| pmc 485035 \| doi = 10.1136/jnnp.57.1.22 }}</ref> * finger-nose testing<ref name"Notermans_1994"/> – This test has several variations including finger-to-therapist's finger, finger-to-finger, and alternate nose-to-finger.<ref name"urlOPETA: Neurologic Examination">{{cite web\|urlhttp://medinfo.ufl.edu/other/opeta/neuro/NE_ch3.html \|titleOPETA: Neurologic Examination \|workOnline physical exam teaching assistant \|publisherThe UF College of Medicine Harrell Center \|access-date7 May 2012 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120318005424/http://medinfo.ufl.edu/other/opeta/neuro/NE_ch3.html \|archive-date18 March 2012}}</ref> Other uses The term "ataxia" is sometimes used in a broader sense to indicate lack of coordination in some physiological process. Examples include optic ataxia (lack of coordination between visual inputs and hand movements, resulting in inability to reach and grab objects) and ataxic respiration (lack of coordination in respiratory movements, usually due to dysfunction of the respiratory centres in the medulla oblongata). Optic ataxia may be caused by lesions to the posterior parietal cortex, which is responsible for combining and expressing positional information and relating it to movement. Outputs of the posterior parietal cortex include the spinal cord, brain stem motor pathways, pre-motor and pre-frontal cortex, basal ganglia and the cerebellum. Some neurons in the posterior parietal cortex are modulated by intention. Optic ataxia is usually part of Balint's syndrome, but can be seen in isolation with injuries to the superior parietal lobule, as it represents a disconnection between visual-association cortex and the frontal premotor and motor cortex.<ref name"pmid17603404">{{cite journal \| vauthors Vallar G \| title Spatial neglect, Balint-Homes' and Gerstmann's syndrome, and other spatial disorders \| journal CNS Spectrums \| volume 12 \| issue 7 \| pages 527–536 \| date July 2007 \| pmid 17603404 \| doi 10.1017/S1092852900021271 \| s2cid 45201083 }}</ref> See also * Ataxic cerebral palsy * Locomotor ataxia * Bruns apraxia References {{Reflist}} Further reading {{refbegin}} * {{cite book \| vauthors Perlman S \| veditors Pagon RA, Bird TD, Dolan CR, Stephens K, Adam MP, Bird TD \| chapter Hereditary Ataxia Overview (last revision 2012)\| title All GeneReview \|year1998 \|pmid20301317 \|chapter-urlhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1138/\|publisherUniversity of Washington, Seattle}} * {{cite book \|vauthorsManto M, Gruol D, Schmahmann J, Koibuchi N, Rossi F \|titleHandbook of the Cerebellum and Cerebellar Disorders\|year2013 \|urlhttps://www.springer.com/biomed/neuroscience/book/978-94-007-1332-1 \|isbn978-94-007-1332-1\|publisherSpringer}} * {{cite journal \|vauthorsEsmail S\|titleCerebellar ataxia but normal neuroimaging: now what?\|year2018 \|journalScivision\|url=http://www.scivisionpub.com/journals/articleinpress-journal-of-medical-clinical-research-reviews}} {{refend}} External links * [https://www.ataxia.org National Ataxia Foundation (USA)] {{Medical resources \| DiseasesDB = 15409 \| ICD11 = {{ICD11\|MB45.0}}, {{ICD11\|8A03}} \| ICD10 = {{ICD10\|R27.0}} \| ICD9 = <!-- {{ICD9\|xxx}} --> \| ICDO \| OMIM \| MedlinePlus \| MeshID D001259 \| GeneReviewsNBK \| GeneReviewsName }} {{Nervous and musculoskeletal system symptoms and signs}} {{Alcohol and health}} {{Authority control}} Category:Complications of stroke Category:Symptoms and signs: Nervous system	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ataxia	2025-04-05T18:25:27.322911
974	Ada Lovelace	{{Short description\|English mathematician (1815–1852)}} {{For\|the computer microarchitecture\|Ada Lovelace (microarchitecture)}} {{Use British English\|date=November 2019}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=May 2024}} {{Infobox scientist \| name = The Countess of Lovelace \| honorific_prefix = The Right Honourable \| image = Ada Lovelace (cropped).jpg \| caption = 1836 portrait of Lovelace \| birth_name = Hon. Augusta Ada Byron \| birth_date {{birth date\|dfy\|1815\|12\|10}} \| birth_place = London, England \| death_date {{death date and age\|dfy\|1852\|11\|27\|1815\|12\|10}} \| death_place = Marylebone, London, England \| nationality = British \| resting place = Church of St. Mary Magdalene, Hucknall, Nottingham, England \| spouse = {{marriage\|William King-Noel, 1st Earl of Lovelace\|1835}} \| children = {{plainlist\| * Byron King-Noel, Viscount Ockham * Anne Blunt, 15th Baroness Wentworth * Ralph King-Milbanke, 2nd Earl of Lovelace}} \| parents = {{Plainlist \| * George Byron, 6th Baron Byron (father) * Anne Isabella Milbanke (mother) }} \| known_for = Mathematics, computing \| signature = Augusta Ava Lovelace autograph.svg \| alt = Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace, daguerrotype portrait circa 1843 }} Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace (née Byron; 10 December 1815 – 27 November 1852), also known as Ada Lovelace, was an English mathematician and writer chiefly known for her work on Charles Babbage's proposed mechanical general-purpose computer, the Analytical Engine. She was the first to recognise that the machine had applications beyond pure calculation. Lovelace was the only legitimate child of poet Lord Byron and reformer Anne Isabella Milbanke.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.biography.com/people/ada-lovelace-20825323\|titleAda Lovelace Biography\|websitebiography.com\|date6 May 2021 }}</ref> All her half-siblings, Lord Byron's other children, were born out of wedlock to other women.<ref name= ABCL/> Lord Byron separated from his wife a month after Ada was born and left England forever. He died in Greece when she was eight. Lady Byron was anxious about her daughter's upbringing and promoted Lovelace's interest in mathematics and logic in an effort to prevent her from developing her father's perceived insanity. Despite this, Lovelace remained interested in her father, naming her two sons Byron and Gordon. Upon her death, she was buried next to her father at her request. Although often ill in her childhood, Lovelace pursued her studies assiduously. She married William King in 1835. King was made Earl of Lovelace in 1838, Ada thereby becoming Countess of Lovelace. Lovelace's educational and social exploits brought her into contact with scientists such as Andrew Crosse, Charles Babbage, Sir David Brewster, Charles Wheatstone and Michael Faraday, and the author Charles Dickens, contacts which she used to further her education. Lovelace described her approach as "poetical science"{{Sfn\|Toole\|1998\|pp234–235}} and herself as an "Analyst (& Metaphysician)".{{Sfn\|Toole\|1998\|pp156–157}} When she was eighteen, Lovelace's mathematical talents led her to a long working relationship and friendship with fellow British mathematician Charles Babbage, who is known as "the father of computers". She was in particular interested in Babbage's work on the Analytical Engine. Lovelace first met him on 5 June 1833, when she and her mother attended one of Charles Babbage's Saturday night soirées<ref>{{Cite book \|lastToole \|firstBetty Alexandra \|titleAda, the Enchantress of Numbers:Poetical Science \|date2010 \|publisherCritical Connection \|editionKindle \|pages=Location 641}}</ref> with their mutual friend, and Lovelace's private tutor, Mary Somerville. Between 1842 and 1843, Lovelace translated an article by the military engineer Luigi Menabrea (later Prime Minister of Italy) about the Analytical Engine, supplementing it with an elaborate set of seven notes, simply called "Notes".<!--this is an inappropriate way of linking this material -- maybe a marginal box or something, but that can't be in the lead--> Lovelace's notes are important in the early history of computers, especially since the seventh one contained what many consider to be the first computer program—that is, an algorithm designed to be carried out by a machine. Other historians reject this perspective and point out that Babbage's personal notes from 1837 to 1840 contain the first programs for the engine.{{sfn\|Bromley\|1982\|p215}}{{sfn\|Bromley\|1990\|p89}}<ref>{{cite web\|authorVentana al Conocimiento \|urlhttps://www.bbvaopenmind.com/en/ada-lovelace-original-and-visionary-but-no-programmer/ \|titleAda Lovelace: Original and Visionary, but No Programmer \|date9 December 2015\|archive-dateMarch 25, 2016 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160325214741/https://www.bbvaopenmind.com/en/ada-lovelace-original-and-visionary-but-no-programmer/}}</ref> She also developed a vision of the capability of computers to go beyond mere calculating or number-crunching, while many others, including Babbage himself, focused only on those capabilities.{{Sfn\|Fuegi\|Francis\|2003\|pp19, 25}} Her mindset of "poetical science" led her to ask questions about the Analytical Engine (as shown in her notes), examining how individuals and society relate to technology as a collaborative tool.<ref name"ABCL">{{Citation\|lastToole\|firstBetty Alexandra\|titlePoetical Science\|journalThe Byron Journal\|volume15\|year1987\|pages55–65\|doi10.3828/bj.1987.6}}.</ref> The programming language Ada is named after her. Biography Childhood Lord Byron expected his child to be a "glorious boy" and was disappointed when Lady Byron gave birth to a girl.{{Sfn\|Turney\|1972\|p35}} The child was named after Byron's half-sister, Augusta Leigh, and was called "Ada" by Byron himself.{{Sfn\|Stein\|1985\|p17}} On 16 January 1816, at Lord Byron's command, Lady Byron left for her parents' home at Kirkby Mallory, taking their five-week-old daughter with her.{{Sfn\|Turney\|1972\|p35}} Although English law at the time granted full custody of children to the father in cases of separation, Lord Byron made no attempt to claim his parental rights,{{Sfn\|Stein\|1985\|p16}} but did request that his sister keep him informed of Ada's welfare.{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|p=80}} On 21 April, Lord Byron signed the deed of separation, although very reluctantly, and left England for good a few days later.{{Sfn\|Turney\|1972\|pp36–38}} Aside from an acrimonious separation, Lady Byron continued throughout her life to make allegations about her husband's immoral behaviour.{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|pp74–77}} This set of events made Lovelace infamous in Victorian society. Ada did not have a relationship with her father. He died in 1824 when she was eight years old. Her mother was the only significant parental figure in her life.<ref name"Turney p. 138">{{Harvnb\|Turney\|1972\|p138}}.</ref> Lovelace was not shown the family portrait of her father until her 20th birthday.{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|p=10}} , 1822, Somerville College, Oxford\|alt=Ada Byron, portrait at age 7]] Lovelace did not have a close relationship with her mother. She was often left in the care of her maternal grandmother Judith, Hon. Lady Milbanke, who doted on her. However, because of societal attitudes of the time—which favoured the husband in any separation, with the welfare of any child acting as mitigation—Lady Byron had to present herself as a loving mother to the rest of society. This included writing anxious letters to Lady Milbanke about her daughter's welfare, with a cover note saying to retain the letters in case she had to use them to show maternal concern.{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|pp85–87}} In one letter to Lady Milbanke, she referred to her daughter as "it": "I talk to it for your satisfaction, not my own, and shall be very glad when you have it under your own."{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|p86}} Lady Byron had her teenage daughter watched by close friends for any sign of moral deviation. Lovelace dubbed these observers the "Furies" and later complained they exaggerated and invented stories about her.{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|p=119}} Lovelace was often ill, beginning in early childhood. At the age of eight, she experienced headaches that obscured her vision.{{Sfn \| Stein\|1985\|p=17}} In June 1829, she was paralyzed after a bout of measles. She was subjected to continuous bed rest for nearly a year, something which may have extended her period of disability. By 1831, she was able to walk with crutches. Despite the illnesses, she developed her mathematical and technological skills. {{Blockquote\|textWhen Ada was twelve years old, this future "Lady Fairy", as Charles Babbage affectionately called her, decided she wanted to fly. Ada Byron went about the project methodically, thoughtfully, with imagination and passion. Her first step, in February 1828, was to construct wings. She investigated different material and sizes. She considered various materials for the wings: paper, oilsilk, wires, and feathers. She examined the anatomy of birds to determine the right proportion between the wings and the body. She decided to write a book, Flyology, illustrating, with plates, some of her findings. She decided what equipment she would need; for example, a compass, to "cut across the country by the most direct road", so that she could surmount mountains, rivers, and valleys. Her final step was to integrate steam with the "art of flying".<ref nameABCL/>}} Ada Byron had an affair with a tutor in early 1833. She tried to elope with him after she was caught, but the tutor's relatives recognised her and contacted her mother. Lady Byron and her friends covered the incident up to prevent a public scandal.{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|pp120–21}} Lovelace never met her younger half-sister, Allegra, the daughter of Lord Byron and Claire Clairmont. Allegra died in 1822 at the age of five. Lovelace did have some contact with Elizabeth Medora Leigh, the daughter of Byron's half-sister Augusta Leigh, who purposely avoided Lovelace as much as possible when introduced at court.{{Sfn\|Turney\|1972\|p155}} Adult years \|alt=Ada King, Countess of Lovelace. Watercolour portrait circa 1840]] Lovelace became close friends with her tutor Mary Somerville, who introduced her to Charles Babbage in 1833. She had a strong respect and affection for Somerville,{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|pp138–40}} and they corresponded for many years. Other acquaintances included the scientists Andrew Crosse, Sir David Brewster, Charles Wheatstone, Michael Faraday and the author Charles Dickens. She was presented at Court at the age of seventeen "and became a popular belle of the season" in part because of her "brilliant mind".{{Sfn\|Turney\|1972\|p138}} By 1834 Ada was a regular at Court and started attending various events. She danced often and was able to charm many people, and was described by most people as being dainty, although John Hobhouse, Byron's friend, described her as "a large, coarse-skinned young woman but with something of my friend's features, particularly the mouth".{{Sfn\|Turney\|1972\|pp138–39}} This description followed their meeting on 24 February 1834 in which Ada made it clear to Hobhouse that she did not like him, probably due to her mother's influence, which led her to dislike all of her father's friends. This first impression was not to last, and they later became friends.{{Sfn\|Turney\|1972\|p139}} On 8 July 1835, she married William, 8th Baron King, becoming Lady King. They had three homes: Ockham Park, Surrey; a Scottish estate on Loch Torridon in Ross-shire; and a house in London. They spent their honeymoon at Ashley Combe near Porlock Weir, Somerset, which had been built as a hunting lodge in 1799 and was improved by King in preparation for their honeymoon. It later became their summer retreat and was further improved during this time. From 1845, the family's main house was Horsley Towers, built in the Tudorbethan fashion by the architect of the Houses of Parliament, Charles Barry,<ref>{{cite book \|urlhttp://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/surrey/vol3/pp349-352 \|titleA History of the County of Surrey: Volume 3. Parishes: East Horsley\|access-date26 February 2017 \|quoteHorsley Towers is a large house standing in a park of 300 acres, the seat of the Earl of Lovelace. The old house was rebuilt about 1745. The present house was built by Sir Charles Barry for Mr. Currie on a new site, between 1820 and 1829, in Elizabethan style. Mr. Currie, who owned the combined manors, 1784–1829, rebuilt most of the houses in the village and restored the church.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|titleAndrew Crosse and the mite that shocked the world: The life and work of an electrical pioneer \|lastWright \|firstBrian \|isbn978-1-78462-438-5 \|page262 \|year2015 \|publisher=Matador }}</ref> and later greatly enlarged to Lovelace's own designs. of Lovelace by Antoine Claudet ({{circa}} 1843)<ref name=blogbutfromboldian> {{Cite web\|urlhttps://blogs.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/adalovelace/2015/10/14/only-known-photographs-of-ada-lovelace-in-bodleian-display/\|titleOnly known photographs of Ada Lovelace in Bodleian Display\|year2015\|websiteBodleian\|access-date=10 October 2017}}</ref>]] They had three children: Byron (born 1836); Anne Isabella (called Annabella, born 1837); and Ralph Gordon (born 1839). Immediately after the birth of Annabella, Lady King experienced "a tedious and suffering illness, which took months to cure".{{Sfn\|Turney\|1972\|p139}} Ada was a descendant of the extinct Barons Lovelace and in 1838, her husband was made Earl of Lovelace and Viscount Ockham, meaning Ada became the Countess of Lovelace.<ref>{{cite news \|viaNewspaperArchive.com \|urlhttps://newspaperarchive.com/entertainment-clipping-apr-09-1841-1422479/ \|workMacon Georgia Telegraph \|locationMacon, Georgia \|date9 April 1841 \|page3 \|titleNew York Fifty Years Ago }}</ref> In 1843–44, Ada's mother assigned William Benjamin Carpenter to teach Ada's children and to act as a "moral" instructor for Ada.{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|pp285–86}} He quickly fell for her and encouraged her to express any frustrated affections, claiming that his marriage meant he would never act in an "unbecoming" manner. When it became clear that Carpenter was trying to start an affair, Ada cut it off.{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|pp289–96}} In 1841, Lovelace and Medora Leigh (the daughter of Lord Byron's half-sister Augusta Leigh) were told by Ada's mother that Ada's father was also Medora's father.{{Sfn\|Turney\|1972\|p159}} On 27 February 1841, Ada wrote to her mother: "I am not in the least astonished. In fact, you merely confirm what I have for years and years felt scarcely a doubt about, but should have considered it most improper in me to hint to you that I in any way suspected."{{Sfn\|Turney\|1972\|p160}} She did not blame the incestuous relationship on Byron, but instead blamed Augusta Leigh: "I fear she is more inherently wicked than he ever was."{{Sfn\|Moore\|1961\|p431}} In the 1840s, Ada flirted with scandals: firstly, from a relaxed approach to extra-marital relationships with men, leading to rumours of affairs;{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|p302}} and secondly, from her love of gambling. She apparently lost more than £3,000 on the horses during the later 1840s.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.hrc.wmin.ac.uk/theory-babbagesdancer-print.html\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20030628211849/http://www.hrc.wmin.ac.uk/theory-babbagesdancer-print.html\|url-statusdead\|archive-date28 June 2003\|titleBabbage's Dancer\|firstSimon\|lastSchaffer\|publisherthe hypermedia research centre\|access-date4 August 2017}}</ref> The gambling led to her forming a syndicate with male friends, and an ambitious attempt in 1851 to create a mathematical model for successful large bets. This went disastrously wrong, leaving her thousands of pounds in debt to the syndicate, forcing her to admit it all to her husband.{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|pp340–42}} She had a shadowy relationship with Andrew Crosse's son John from 1844 onwards. John Crosse destroyed most of their correspondence after her death as part of a legal agreement. She bequeathed him the only heirlooms her father had personally left to her.{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|pp336–37}} During her final illness, she would panic at the idea of the younger Crosse being kept from visiting her.{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|p361}} Education )]] From 1832, when she was seventeen, her mathematical abilities began to emerge,{{Sfn\|Turney\|1972\|p138}} and her interest in mathematics dominated the majority of her adult life.{{Sfn\|Stein\|1985\|pp28–30}} Her mother's obsession with rooting out any of the insanity of which she accused Byron was one of the reasons that Ada was taught mathematics from an early age. She was privately educated in mathematics and science by William Frend, William King,<ref namewilliamkings grouplower-alpha>William King, her tutor, and William King, her future husband, were not related.</ref> and Mary Somerville, the noted 19th-century researcher and scientific author. In the 1840s, the mathematician Augustus De Morgan extended her "much help in her mathematical studies" including study of advanced calculus topics including the "numbers of Bernoulli" (that formed her celebrated algorithm for Babbage's Analytical Engine).<ref>Thomas J. Misa, "Charles Babbage, Ada Lovelace, and the Bernoulli Numbers" in ''Ada's Legacy: Cultures of Computing from the Victorian to the Digital Age'', edited by Robin Hammerman and Andrew L. Russell (ACM Books, 2015), pp. 18–20, {{doi\|10.1145/2809523}}.</ref> In a letter to Lady Byron, De Morgan suggested that Ada's skill in mathematics might lead her to become "an original mathematical investigator, perhaps of first-rate eminence".{{Sfn\|Stein\|1985\|p=82}} Lovelace often questioned basic assumptions through integrating poetry and science. Whilst studying differential calculus, she wrote to De Morgan: <blockquote>I may remark that the curious transformations many formulae can undergo, the unsuspected and to a beginner apparently impossible identity of forms exceedingly dissimilar at first sight, is I think one of the chief difficulties in the early part of mathematical studies. I am often reminded of certain sprites and fairies one reads of, who are at one's elbows in one shape now, and the next minute in a form most dissimilar.{{Sfn\|Toole\|1998\|p=99}}</blockquote> Lovelace believed that intuition and imagination were critical to effectively applying mathematical and scientific concepts. She valued metaphysics as much as mathematics, viewing both as tools for exploring "the unseen worlds around us".{{Sfn\|Toole\|1998\|pp91–100}}Death(1852). Although in great pain at the time, she agreed to sit for the painting as her father, Lord Byron, had been painted by Phillips' father, Thomas Phillips.\|altAda Lovelace, painted portrait circa 1852]] Lovelace died at the age of 36 on 27 November 1852<ref>{{Citation \|publisherGRO \|titleRegister of Deaths \|contributionDecember 1852 1a * MARYLEBONE&nbsp;– Augusta Ada Lovelace}}.</ref> from cervical cancer (which contemporary accounts called uterine cancer, since a distinction between the two was not made at time).{{Sfn\|Baum\|1986\|pp99–100}}<ref>{{Cite book \|lastLowy \|firstIlana \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idb0vgZtfspJMC&dqada+lovelace+cervical+cancer&pgPP1 \|titleA Woman's Disease: The History of Cervical Cancer \|date2011-11-10 \|publisherOUP Oxford \|isbn978-0-19-954881-1 \|languageen}}</ref> The illness lasted several months, in which time Annabella took command over whom Ada saw, and excluded all of her friends and confidants. Under her mother's influence, Ada had a religious transformation and was coaxed into repenting of her previous conduct and making Annabella her executor.{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|p370}} She lost contact with her husband after confessing something to him on 30 August which caused him to abandon her bedside. It is not known what she told him.{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|p369}} She was buried, at her request, next to her father at the Church of St. Mary Magdalene in Hucknall, Nottinghamshire.<ref name"Nast Wolfram 2015 d713">{{cite magazine \|lastWolfram \| firstStephen \| titleUntangling the Tale of Ada Lovelace \| magazineWIRED \| date22 December 2015 \| urlhttps://www.wired.com/2015/12/untangling-the-tale-of-ada-lovelace/ \| access-date6 April 2024}}</ref>WorkThroughout her life, Lovelace was strongly interested in scientific developments and fads of the day, including phrenology{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|p198}} and mesmerism.{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|pp232–33}} After her work with Babbage, Lovelace continued to work on other projects. In 1844, she commented to a friend Woronzow Greig about her desire to create a mathematical model for how the brain gives rise to thoughts and nerves to feelings ("a calculus of the nervous system").{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|p305}} She never achieved this, however. In part, her interest in the brain came from a long-running preoccupation, inherited from her mother, about her "potential" madness. As part of her research into this project, she visited the electrical engineer Andrew Crosse in 1844 to learn how to carry out electrical experiments.{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|pp310–14}} In the same year, she wrote a review of a paper by Baron Karl von Reichenbach, Researches on Magnetism, but this was not published and does not appear to have progressed past the first draft.{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|pp315–17}} In 1851, the year before her cancer struck, she wrote to her mother mentioning "certain productions" she was working on regarding the relation of maths and music.{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|p=335}} '' by the British painter Margaret Sarah Carpenter (1836)\|alt=Ada Lovelace, painted portrait circa 1836]] Lovelace first met Charles Babbage in June 1833, through their mutual friend Mary Somerville. Later that month, Babbage invited Lovelace to see the prototype for his difference engine.{{Sfn\|Toole\|1998\|pp36–38}} She became fascinated with the machine and used her relationship with Somerville to visit Babbage as often as she could. Babbage was impressed by Lovelace's intellect and analytic skills. He called her "The Enchantress of Number".<ref name"Number">{{cite web \|urlhttp://blog.stephenwolfram.com/2015/12/untangling-the-tale-of-ada-lovelace/ \|firstStephen \|lastWolfram \|author-linkStephen Wolfram \|titleUntangling the Tale of Ada Lovelace \|date10 December 2015 \|quoteThen, on Sept. 9, Babbage wrote to Ada, expressing his admiration for her and (famously) describing her as 'Enchantress of Number' and 'my dear and much admired Interpreter'. (Yes, despite what's often quoted, he wrote 'Number' not 'Numbers'.)}}</ref><ref nameenchantress group=lower-alpha>Some writers give it as "Enchantress of Numbers".</ref> In 1843, he wrote to her: {{Blockquote\|Forget this world and all its troubles and if possible its multitudinous Charlatans—every thing in short but the Enchantress of Number.<ref name="Number"/><!--part of quote in Wolfram's text, full quote in picture below, of Ada's letter-->}} {{anchor\|Ada Byron's notes on the analytical engine}} During a nine-month period in 1842–43, Lovelace translated the Italian mathematician Luigi Menabrea's article on Babbage's newest proposed machine, the Analytical Engine.<ref>{{cite journal \|first1Velma R. \|last1Huskey \|author-link1Velma Huskey \|first2Harry D. \|last2Huskey \|author-link2Harry Huskey \|titleLady Lovelace and Charles Babbage \|journalAnnals of the History of Computing \|volume2 \|number4 \|pages299–329 \|date1980 \|doi10.1109/MAHC.1980.10042\|s2cid2640048 }}</ref> With the article, she appended a set of notes.{{Sfn\|Menabrea\|1843}} Explaining the Analytical Engine's function was a difficult task; many other scientists did not grasp the concept and the British establishment had shown little interest in it.{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|p265}} Lovelace's notes even had to explain how the Analytical Engine differed from the original Difference Engine.{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|p267}} Her work was well received at the time; the scientist Michael Faraday described himself as a supporter of her writing.{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|p=307}} The notes are around three times longer than the article itself and include (in Note G),<ref name"fourmilab.ch">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.fourmilab.ch/babbage/sketch.html\|titleSketch of The Analytical Engine, with notes upon the Memoir by the Translator\|publisherfourmilab.ch\|placeSwitzerland\|dateOctober 1842\|access-date28 March 2014}}</ref> in complete detail, a method for calculating a sequence of Bernoulli numbers using the Analytical Engine, which might have run correctly had it ever been built<ref name"adaslegacy" /> (only Babbage's Difference Engine has been built, completed in London in 2002).<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.computerhistory.org/babbage\|titleThe Babbage Engine\|publisherComputer History Museum\|year2008}}</ref> Based on this work, Lovelace is now considered by many to be the first computer programmer<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Füegi \|first1John \|last2Francis \|first2Jo \|date2015-08-14 \|titleLovelace & Babbage and the creation of the 1843 'notes' \|urlhttps://doi.org/10.1145/2810201 \|journalACM Inroads \|volume6 \|issue3 \|pages78–86 \|doi10.1145/2810201 \|s2cid7666218 \|issn2153-2184 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200215003909/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/81bb/f32d2642a7a8c6b0a867379a4e9e99d872bc.pdf \|archive-date2020-02-15 \|quote"She became the first person known to have crossed the intellectual threshold between conceptualizing computing as only for calculation on the one hand, and on the other hand, computing as we know it today: with wider applications made possible by symbolic substitution."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Haugtvedt \|first1Erica \|last2Abata \|first2Duane \|date2021 \|titleAda Lovelace: First Computer Programmer and Hacker? \|urlhttp://peer.asee.org/36646 \|journalASEE Virtual Annual Conference Content Access \|publisherASEE Conferences \|doi10.18260/1-2--36646}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|lastAdams \|firstBeverley \|titleAda Lovelace: The World's First Computer Programmer \|publisherPen & Sword History \|year2023 \|isbn9781399082532 \|locationPhiladelphia, USA}}</ref> and her method has been called the world's first computer program.<ref>{{cite book \|lastGleick \|firstJames \|author-linkJames Gleick \|year2011 \|titleThe Information: A History, a Theory, a Flood \|locationLondon \|publisherFourth Estate \|pages116–118}}</ref> Note G also contains Lovelace's dismissal of artificial intelligence. She wrote that "The Analytical Engine has no pretensions whatever to originate anything. It can do whatever we know how to order it to perform. It can follow analysis; but it has no power of anticipating any analytical relations or truths." This objection has been the subject of much debate and rebuttal, for example by Alan Turing in his paper "Computing Machinery and Intelligence".<ref>{{cite journal \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCEMYUU_HFMAC&pgPA67 \|journalThe Turing Test: Verbal Behavior as the Hallmark of Intelligence \|editorStuart Shieber \|titleComputing Machinery and Intelligence \|authorTuring, Alan \|pages67–104 \|publisherMIT Press \|year2004\|isbn978-0-262-26542-3 }}</ref> Most modern computer scientists argue that this view is outdated and that computer software can develop in ways that cannot necessarily be anticipated by programmers.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Natale \|first1Simone \|last2Henrickson \|first2Leah \|date2022-03-04 \|titleThe Lovelace effect: Perceptions of creativity in machines \|urlhttps://doi.org/10.1177/14614448221077278 \|journalNew Media & Society \|volume26 \|issue4 \|pages1909–1926 \|doi10.1177/14614448221077278 \|s2cid247267997 \|issn1461-4448 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220127000000/https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448221077278 \|archive-date27 January 2022 \|access-date9 March 2022 \|url-status=live }} [https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/182906/ Alt URL]</ref> Lovelace and Babbage had a minor falling out when the papers were published, when he tried to leave his own statement (criticising the government's treatment of his Engine) as an unsigned preface, which could have been mistakenly interpreted as a joint declaration. When Taylor's Scientific Memoirs ruled that the statement should be signed, Babbage wrote to Lovelace asking her to withdraw the paper. This was the first that she knew he was leaving it unsigned, and she wrote back refusing to withdraw the paper. The historian Benjamin Woolley theorised that "His actions suggested he had so enthusiastically sought Ada's involvement, and so happily indulged her&nbsp;... because of her 'celebrated name'."{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|pp277–80}} Their friendship recovered, and they continued to correspond. On 12 August 1851, when she was dying of cancer, Lovelace wrote to him asking him to be her executor, though this letter did not give him the necessary legal authority. Part of the terrace at Worthy Manor was known as ''Philosopher's Walk;'' it was there that Lovelace and Babbage were reputed to have walked while discussing mathematical principles.{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|p307}} First published computer program ", the first published computer algorithm\|alt=Diagram for the computation by the Engine of the Numbers of Bernoulli]] In 1840, Babbage was invited to give a seminar at the University of Turin about his Analytical Engine. Luigi Menabrea, a young Italian engineer and the future Prime Minister of Italy, transcribed Babbage's lecture into French, and this transcript was subsequently published in the Bibliothèque universelle de Genève in October 1842. Babbage's friend Charles Wheatstone commissioned Ada Lovelace to translate Menabrea's paper into English. She then augmented the paper with notes, which were added to the translation. Ada Lovelace spent the better part of a year doing this, assisted with input from Babbage. These notes, which are more extensive than Menabrea's paper, were then published in the September 1843 edition of Taylor's Scientific Memoirs under the initialism AAL.<ref>{{cite web \|lastGreen \|firstChristopher \|urlhttp://www.yorku.ca/christo/papers/Babbage-CogSci.htm \|titleCharles Babbage, the Analytical Engine, and the Possibility of a 19th-Century Cognitive Science \|publisherYork University \|year2001 \|access-date=2 September 2018}}</ref> Ada Lovelace's notes were labelled alphabetically from A to G. In Note G, she describes an algorithm for the Analytical Engine to compute Bernoulli numbers. It is considered to be the first published algorithm ever specifically tailored for implementation on a computer, and Ada Lovelace has often been cited as the first computer programmer for this reason.<ref>{{cite web\|lastSimonite\|firstTom\|urlhttps://www.newscientist.com/blogs/shortsharpscience/2009/03/ada-lovelace-day.html\|titleShort Sharp Science: Celebrating Ada Lovelace: the 'world's first programmer'\| workNew Scientist \|date24 March 2009\|archive-date27 March 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090327073325/https://www.newscientist.com/blogs/shortsharpscience/2009/03/ada-lovelace-day.html \|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|last1Parker\|first1Matt\|titleThings to Make and Do in the Fourth Dimension\|date2014\|publisherFarrar, Straus & Giroux\|isbn978-0-374-27565-5\|page261}}</ref> However, Babbage claims credit for this portion of the paper in his autobiography.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastBabbage \|firstCharles \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/passagesfromlife0000babb/mode/2up \|titlePassages from the life of a philosopher \|date1864 \|publisherNew Brunswick, N.J. : Rutgers University Press ; Piscataway, N.J. : IEEE Press \|othersInternet Archive \|isbn978-0-8135-2066-7 \|quote=We discussed together the various illustrations that might be introduced: I suggested several, but the selection was entirely her own. So also was the algebraic working out of the different problems, except, indeed, that relating to the numbers of Bernouilli, which I had offered to do to save Lady Lovelace the trouble. This she sent back to me for an amendment, having detected a grave mistake which I had made in the process.}}</ref> The engine was never completed and so the program was never tested.{{sfn\|Kim\|Toole\|1999}} In 1953, more than a century after her death, Ada Lovelace's notes on Babbage's Analytical Engine were republished as an appendix to B. V. Bowden's Faster than Thought: A Symposium on Digital Computing Machines.<ref>{{Cite book \|editorBowden, B.V. \|date1953 \|titleFaster than Thought: A Symposium on Digital Computing Machines \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/fasterthanthough00bvbo \|publisherPitman \|placeLondon \|oclc1053355 \|ol13581728M}}</ref> The engine has now been recognised as an early model for a computer and her notes as a description of a computer and software.<ref name"adaslegacy">{{cite book \|editor1-first Robin \|editor1-lastHammerman \|editor2-firstAndrew L. \|editor2-lastRussell\| titleAda's Legacy: Cultures of Computing from the Victorian to the Digital Age \|publisherMorgan & Claypool \|year2015 \|isbn978-1-97000-149-5 \|doi10.1145/2809523\|s2cid62018931 }}</ref>Insight into potential of computing devicesIn her notes, Ada Lovelace emphasised the difference between the Analytical Engine and previous calculating machines, particularly its ability to be programmed to solve problems of any complexity.{{Sfn\|Toole\|1998\|pp175–82}} She realised the potential of the device extended far beyond mere number crunching. In her notes, she wrote: {{Blockquote\|[The Analytical Engine] might act upon other things besides number, were objects found whose mutual fundamental relations could be expressed by those of the abstract science of operations, and which should be also susceptible of adaptations to the action of the operating notation and mechanism of the engine...Supposing, for instance, that the fundamental relations of pitched sounds in the science of harmony and of musical composition were susceptible of such expression and adaptations, the engine might compose elaborate and scientific pieces of music of any degree of complexity or extent.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Lovelace\|first1Ada\|last2Menabrea\|first2Luigi\|titleSketch of the Analytical Engine invented by Charles Babbage Esq.\|year1842\|journalScientific Memoirs\|publisherRichard Taylor\|page694}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|lastHooper\|firstRowan\|urlhttps://www.newscientist.com/article/dn22385-ada-lovelace-my-brain-is-more-than-merely-mortal.html\|titleAda Lovelace: My brain is more than merely mortal\| workNew Scientist \|date16 October 2012\|access-date16 October 2012}}</ref>}} This analysis was an important development from previous ideas about the capabilities of computing devices and anticipated the implications of modern computing one hundred years before they were realised. Walter Isaacson ascribes Ada's insight regarding the application of computing to any process based on logical symbols to an observation about textiles: "When she saw some mechanical looms that used punchcards to direct the weaving of beautiful patterns, it reminded her of how Babbage's engine used punched cards to make calculations."<ref name"Isaacson">{{cite web\|urlhttp://fortune.com/2014/09/18/walter-isaacson-the-women-of-eniac/ \|titleWalter Isaacson on the Women of ENIAC \|lastIsaacson \|firstWalter \| authorlinkWalter Isaacson \|date18 September 2014 \|workFortune}}</ref> This insight is seen as significant by writers such as Betty Toole and Benjamin Woolley, as well as the programmer John Graham-Cumming, whose project Plan 28 has the aim of constructing the first complete Analytical Engine.{{Sfn\|Toole\|1998\|pp2–3, 14}}{{Sfn\|Woolley\|1999\|pp272–77}}<ref>{{cite web \|lastKen t\|firstLeo \|urlhttp://www.humansinvent.com/#!/8947/the-10-year-plan-to-build-babbages-analytical-engine \|titleThe 10-year-plan to build Babbage's Analytical Engine \|publisherHumans Invent \|date17 September 2012 \|access-date16 October 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121014123843/http://www.humansinvent.com/#!/8947/the-10-year-plan-to-build-babbages-analytical-engine \|archive-date14 October 2012 \|url-statususurped}}</ref> According to the historian of computing and Babbage specialist Doron Swade: <blockquote>Ada saw something that Babbage in some sense failed to see. In Babbage's world his engines were bound by number...What Lovelace saw...was that number could represent entities other than quantity. So once you had a machine for manipulating numbers, if those numbers represented other things, letters, musical notes, then the machine could manipulate symbols of which number was one instance, according to rules. It is this fundamental transition from a machine which is a number cruncher to a machine for manipulating symbols according to rules that is the fundamental transition from calculation to computation—to general-purpose computation—and looking back from the present high ground of modern computing, if we are looking and sifting history for that transition, then that transition was made explicitly by Ada in that 1843 paper.{{Sfn\|Fuegi\|Francis\|2003}}</blockquote> Distinction between mechanism and logical structure Lovelace recognized the difference between the details of the computing mechanism, as covered in an 1834 article on the Difference Engine,<ref nameedinburgh1834>{{Cite journal\|urlhttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Edinburgh_Review/Volume_59/Babbage%27s_Calculating_Engine \|lastLardner\|first D.\|titleBabbage's calculating engine\|journal Edinburgh Review\|dateJuly 1834\|pages 263–327\|quoteIn WikiSource and also reprinted in The works of Charles Babbage, Vol 2, p.119ff\|access-date11 October 2022}}</ref> and the logical structure of the Analytical Engine, on which the article she was reviewing dwelt. She noted that different specialists might be required in each area. <blockquote>The [1834 article] chiefly treats it under its mechanical aspect, entering but slightly into the mathematical principles of which that engine is the representative, but giving, in considerable length, many details of the mechanism and contrivances by means of which it tabulates the various orders of differences. M. Menabrea, on the contrary, exclusively developes the analytical view; taking it for granted that mechanism is able to perform certain processes, but without attempting to explain how; and devoting his whole attention to explanations and illustrations of the manner in which analytical laws can be so arranged and combined as to bring every branch of that vast subject within the grasp of the assumed powers of mechanism. It is obvious that, in the invention of a calculating engine, these two branches of the subject are equally essential fields of investigation... They are indissolubly connected, though so different in their intrinsic nature, that perhaps the same mind might not be likely to prove equally profound or successful in both.<ref name="fourmilab.ch" />{{rp\|Note A}} </blockquote> Controversy over contribution Though Lovelace is often referred to as the first computer programmer, some biographers, computer scientists and historians of computing suggest otherwise. Allan G. Bromley, in the 1990 article Difference and Analytical Engines: {{Blockquote\|All but one of the programs cited in her notes had been prepared by Babbage from three to seven years earlier. The exception was prepared by Babbage for her, although she did detect a "bug" in it. Not only is there no evidence that Ada ever prepared a program for the Analytical Engine, but her correspondence with Babbage shows that she did not have the knowledge to do so.<ref>{{cite book \|lastBromley \|firstAllan G. \|author-linkAllan G. Bromley \|contributionDifference and Analytical Engines \|titleComputing Before Computers \|editor-firstWilliam \|editor-lastAspray \|publisherIowa State University Press \|locationAmes \|pages59–98 \|chapter-urlhttp://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/CBC-Ch-02.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/CBC-Ch-02.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|date1990 \|isbn0-8138-0047-1}} p. 89.</ref>}} Bruce Collier wrote that Lovelace "made a considerable contribution to publicizing the Analytical Engine, but there is no evidence that she advanced the design or theory of it in any way".<ref name"Collier 1990 p.">{{cite book \|lastCollier \|firstBruce \|titleThe Little Engines that Could've: The Calculating Machines of Charles Babbage \|date1990 \|publisherGarland Science \|isbn0-8240-0043-9 \|page181}}</ref> Eugene Eric Kim and Betty Alexandra Toole consider it "incorrect" to regard Lovelace as the first computer programmer, as Babbage wrote the initial programs for his Analytical Engine, although the majority were never published.{{sfn\|Kim\|Toole\|1999}} Bromley notes several dozen sample programs prepared by Babbage between 1837 and 1840, all substantially predating Lovelace's notes.<ref>{{cite journal \|lastBromley \|firstAllan G. \|dateJuly–September 1982 \|titleCharles Babbage's Analytical Engine, 1838 \|journalIEEE Annals of the History of Computing \|urlhttp://athena.union.edu/~hemmendd/Courses/cs80/an-engine.pdf \|pages197–217 \|volume4 \|issue3 \|doi10.1109/mahc.1982.10028 \|s2cid2285332 \|access-date25 December 2015 \|archive-date26 February 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210226094829/http://athena.union.edu/~hemmendd/Courses/cs80/an-engine.pdf \|url-statusdead }} p. 197.</ref> Dorothy K. Stein regards Lovelace's notes as "more a reflection of the mathematical uncertainty of the author, the political purposes of the inventor, and, above all, of the social and cultural context in which it was written, than a blueprint for a scientific development".<ref>{{cite journal \|lastStein \|firstDorothy K. \|author-linkDorothy Stein \|year1984 \|titleLady Lovelace's Notes: Technical Text and Cultural Context \|journalVictorian Studies \|pages33–67 \|volume28 \|issue1}} p. 34.</ref> Doron Swade has said that Ada only published the first computer program instead of actually writing it, but agrees that she was the only person to see the potential of the analytical engine as a machine capable of expressing entities other than quantities.<ref>{{cite speech \|lastSwade \|firstDoron \|author-linkDoron Swade \|titleCharles Babbage and Difference Engine No. 2 \|eventTalks at Google \|date12 May 2008 \|locationMountain View, CA \|publisherTalks at Google via YouTube \|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v7K5p_tBcrd0&t36m29s \| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211122/7K5p_tBcrd0\| archive-date2021-11-22 \| url-statuslive\|access-date=29 November 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In his book, Idea Makers, Stephen Wolfram defends Lovelace's contributions. While acknowledging that Babbage wrote several unpublished algorithms for the Analytical Engine prior to Lovelace's notes, Wolfram argues that "there's nothing as sophisticated—or as clean—as Ada's computation of the Bernoulli numbers. Babbage certainly helped and commented on Ada's work, but she was definitely the driver of it." Wolfram then suggests that Lovelace's main achievement was to distill from Babbage's correspondence "a clear exposition of the abstract operation of the machine—something which Babbage never did".<ref name"Wolfram">{{cite book \|lastWolfram \|firstStephen \|titleIdea Makers: Personal Perspectives on the Lives & Ideas of Some Notable People \|date2016 \|publisherWolfram Media \|isbn978-1-57955-003-5 \|pages45–98}}</ref> Commemoration<!--'Ada Lovelace Day' redirects here--> to Ada Lovelace in St James's Square, London\|alt=Plaque to Ada Lovelace that reads "English Heritage, Ada Countess of Lovelace, 1815–1852, Pioneer of Computing lived here"]] The computer language Ada, created on behalf of the United States Department of Defense, was named after Lovelace.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://www.ithistory.org/honor-roll/mrs-augusta-ada-king-countess-lovelace\|titleMrs. Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace\|date21 December 2015\|workIT History Society\|access-date21 December 2017\|archive-date15 June 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180615214345/http://www.ithistory.org/honor-roll/mrs-augusta-ada-king-countess-lovelace\|url-statusdead}}</ref> The reference manual for the language was approved on 10 December 1980 and the Department of Defense Military Standard for the language, MIL-STD-1815, was given the number of the year of her birth. In 1981, the Association for Women in Computing inaugurated its Ada Lovelace Award.<ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6z0aAQAAMAAJ&qthe+Augusta+Ada+Lovelace+Award+by+the+Association+for+Women+in+Computing \|titleAwards, Honors & Prizes: United States and Canada \|lastWebster \|firstValerie J. \|date2000 \|publisherGale Group \|isbn978-0-7876-3401-8 \|languageen}}</ref><ref name =Award>{{cite web \| url http://awc-hq.org/ada-lovelace-awards.html \| titleAssociation for Women in Computing \| access-date1 June 2017}}</ref> {{as of\|1998}}, the British Computer Society (BCS) has awarded the Lovelace Medal,<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.bcs.org/server.php?shownav.5822\|titleLovelace Lecture & Medal\|publisherBCS \|archive-date26 August 2006 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060826081022/https://www.bcs.org/server.php?shownav.5822 \|url-statusdead}}</ref> and in 2008 initiated an annual competition for women students.<ref nameBCSWomen /> BCSWomen sponsors the Lovelace Colloquium, an annual conference for women undergraduates.<ref nameBCSWomen>{{cite web \| urlhttp://www.aber.ac.uk/en/cs/lovelace-colloquium/ \| locationUK \| titleBCSWomen Lovelace Colloquium \| access-date4 March 2014 \| archive-date22 February 2014 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140222035717/http://www.aber.ac.uk/en/cs/lovelace-colloquium/ \| url-statusdead }}</ref> Ada College is a further-education college in Tottenham Hale, London, focused on digital skills.<ref>{{cite web\|last1Davis\|first1Anna\|titleNew college in north London 'will boost women in tech sector'\|urlhttps://www.standard.co.uk/news/education/new-college-in-north-london-will-boost-women-in-tech-sector-a3200201.html\|websiteLondon Evening Standard\|date10 March 2016\|access-date=16 March 2016}}</ref> Ada Lovelace Day is an annual event celebrated on the second Tuesday of October,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAda Lovelace Day – Celebrating the achievements of women in science, technology, engineering and maths \|urlhttps://findingada.com/ \|access-date2023-03-27 \|websitefindingada.com}}</ref> which began in 2009.<ref name"Independent 2009">{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/women/ada-lovelace-day-first-computer-programmer-forgotten-women-a8557416.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181008121529/https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/women/ada-lovelace-day-first-computer-programmer-forgotten-women-a8557416.html \|archive-date2018-10-08 \|url-accesslimited \|url-statuslive\|titleAda Lovelace Day: We should never forget the first computer programmer\|date8 October 2018\|websiteThe Independent\|access-date27 February 2019}}</ref> Its goal is to "...&nbsp;raise the profile of women in science, technology, engineering, and maths," and to "create new role models for girls and women" in these fields.<ref name="Independent 2009"/> The Ada Initiative was a non-profit organisation dedicated to increasing the involvement of women in the free culture and open source movements.<ref>{{citation \|urlhttps://lwn.net/Articles/471813/ \|titleAn update on the Ada Initiative \|workLWN \| lastAurora \| firstValerie \|date13 December 2011 \| access-date5 October 2012}}</ref> A specialist technical college, for pupils aged 16–19, in England is named "Ada, the National College for Digital Skills", it has campuses in Whitechapel, Tottenham Hale and Manchester.<ref>{{Cite report \|urlhttps://www.ada.ac.uk/_site/data/files/governance/0C8EE0AAEFF14E5148C41F1AE4D0E9C3.pdf \|titleInspection of Ada, the National College for Digital Skills \|dateMarch 14-17, 2023 \|publisherOfsted \|access-dateDecember 2, 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240718085354/https://www.ada.ac.uk/_site/data/files/governance/0C8EE0AAEFF14E5148C41F1AE4D0E9C3.pdf \|archive-dateJuly 18, 2024 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The building of the department of Engineering Mathematics at the University of Bristol is called the Ada Lovelace Building.<ref>{{cite web \|titleThe Ada Lovelace Building: a new home for Engineering Mathematics at Bristol \|urlhttps://engineering.blogs.bristol.ac.uk/ada-lovelace-building-new-home-engineering-maths/ \|websiteUniversity of Bristol \|date8 October 2020 \|access-date22 January 2024}}</ref> The Engineering in Computer Science and Telecommunications College building in Zaragoza University is called the Ada Byron Building.<ref>{{cite web \| titleAda Byron Building \| urlhttp://wikimapia.org/1641862/Ada-Byron-Building}}</ref> The computer centre in the village of Porlock, near where Lovelace lived, is named after her. Ada Lovelace House is a council-owned building in Kirkby-in-Ashfield, Nottinghamshire, near where Lovelace spent her infancy.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.chad.co.uk/news/town-centre-landmark-renovated-to-boost-kirkby-s-economy-1-8538257\|titleTown-centre landmark renovated to boost Kirkby's economy\|date11 May 2017\|workMansfield and Ashfield Chad\|access-date29 November 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://woodhead-construction.co.uk/ada-lovelace-house-officially-opened/\|titleAda Lovelace House Is Officially Opened\|date18 October 2017\|publisherWoodhead Construction\|access-date29 November 2018}}</ref> In 2012, a Google Doodle and blog post honoured her on her birthday.<ref name"Lovelace Google">{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/technology/2012/dec/10/ada-lovelace-honoured-google-doodle\|titleAda Lovelace honoured by Google doodle\|date10 December 2012\|newspaperThe Guardian \|locationLondon \|access-date10 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://blog.google/inside-google/doodles/honouring-computings-1843-visionary/\|titleHonouring computing's 1843 visionary, Lady Ada Lovelace \|workGoogle Doodles \|date9 December 2012 \|access-date10 December 2012}}</ref> In 2013, Ada Developers Academy was founded and named after her. Its mission is to diversify tech by providing women and gender-diverse people the skills, experience, and community support to become professional software developers to change the face of tech.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleHistory\|urlhttps://adadevelopersacademy.org/history/\|access-date2021-02-23\|websiteAda Developers Academy\|languageen-US}}</ref> On 17 September 2013, the BBC Radio 4 biography programme Great Lives devoted an episode to Ada Lovelace; she was sponsored by TV presenter Konnie Huq.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleSeries 31, Konnie Huq on Ada Lovelace\|urlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03b0ydy\|websiteGreat Lives\|publisher=BBC Radio 4}}</ref> As of November 2015, all new British passports have included an illustration of Lovelace and Babbage.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/473495/HMPO_magazine.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/473495/HMPO_magazine.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|titleIntroducing the new UK passport design\|publisherHM Passport Office\|access-date20 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/gallery/2015/nov/03/new-uk-passport-design-in-pictures\|titleNew UK passport design – in pictures\|firstAll photographs: HM Passport\|lastOffice\|date3 November 2015\|websiteThe Guardian}}</ref> In 2017, a Google Doodle honoured her with other women on International Women's Day.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://doodles.google/doodle/international-womens-day-2017/\|titleInternational Women's Day 2017 \|workGoogle Doodles \|date8 March 2017 \|access-date8 March 2017}}</ref> On 2 February 2018, Satellogic, a high-resolution Earth observation imaging and analytics company, launched a ÑuSat type micro-satellite named in honour of Ada Lovelace.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://spaceflightnow.com/2018/02/02/china-lofts-earthquake-research-craft-with-cluster-of-smaller-satellites/\|titleChina lofts earthquake research craft with cluster of smaller satellites \|firstStephen \|lastClark \|workSpaceflight Now \|date2018-02-02\|access-date4 February 2018}}</ref> In March 2018, The New York Times published a belated obituary for Ada Lovelace.<ref>{{cite web \|lastMiller \|firstClaire Cain \|date8 March 2018 \|titleA gifted mathematician who is now recognized as the first computer programmer \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/obituaries/overlooked-ada-lovelace.html \|url-accessregistration \|access-date2023-01-25 \|workThe New York Times \|id{{ProQuest\|2611777591}}}}</ref> On 27 July 2018, Senator Ron Wyden submitted, in the United States Senate, the designation of 9 October 2018 as National Ada Lovelace Day: "To honor the life and contributions of Ada Lovelace as a leading woman in science and mathematics". The resolution (S.Res.592)<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/senate-resolution/592\|titleS.Res.592 – 115th Congress (2017–2018): A resolution designating 9 October 2018, as "National Ada Lovelace Day" and honoring the life and legacy of Ada Lovelace, the first computer programmer.\|lastRon\|firstWyden\|date25 July 2018\|websitecongress.gov\|access-date9 October 2018}}</ref> was considered, and agreed to without amendment and with a preamble by unanimous consent. In November 2020 it was announced that Trinity College Dublin, whose library had previously held forty busts, all of them of men, was commissioning four new busts of women, one of whom was to be Lovelace.<ref>{{cite news \|firstSarah \|lastBurns \|titleFour new statues to end Trinity Long Room's 'men only' image \|urlhttps://www.irishtimes.com/culture/art-and-design/four-new-statues-to-end-trinity-long-room-s-men-only-image-1.4420412 \|newspaperThe Irish Times \|date2020-11-26\|access-date29 November 2020}}</ref> {{external media \| width210px \| floatright \| headerimage\| video1[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jO2P27tI57k “9 Millbank : Ada Lovelace Sculpture Takes Her Place In Westminster St Edward”], 7 March 2022.}} In March 2022, a statue of Ada Lovelace was installed at the site of the former Ergon House in the City of Westminster, London, honoring its scientific history. The redevelopment was part of a complex with Imperial Chemical House.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMillbank & Ergon House \|urlhttps://www.ericparryarchitects.co.uk/projects/millbank-ergon-house/ \|access-date2022-11-30 \|websiteEric Parry \|languageen-GB}}</ref> The statue was sculpted by Etienne and Mary Millner and based on the portrait by Margaret Sarah Carpenter. The sculpture was unveiled on International Women's Day, 2022. It stands on the 7th floor of Millbank Quarter overlooking the junction of Dean Bradley Street and Horseferry Road.<ref name"Millner">{{cite web \|titlePublic Art Proposal for Ergon House For approval by Westminster City Council \|urlhttps://docs.planning.org.uk/20210218/115/QOKTUIRPJVB00/jpazhx47qxqil6un.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://docs.planning.org.uk/20210218/115/QOKTUIRPJVB00/jpazhx47qxqil6un.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|websitePlanning Alerts – Document Repository \|access-date=7 March 2022}}</ref><!-- add citations tomorrow once it is unveiled; mention punch card puzzle --> In September 2022, Nvidia announced the Ada Lovelace graphics processing unit (GPU) microarchitecture.<ref name"ArsTechnica">{{cite news\|urlhttps://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2022/09/nvidias-ada-lovelace-gpu-generation-1599-for-rtx-4090-899-and-up-for-4080/\|titleNvidia's Ada Lovelace GPU generation: $1,599 for RTX 4090, $899 and up for 4080\|authorSam Machkovec\|date20 September 2022\|workArs Technica}}</ref> In July 2023, the Royal Mint issued four commemorative £2 coins in various metals to "honour the innovative contributions of computer science visionary Ada Lovelace and her legacy as a female trailblazer."<ref>{{cite web \|last1Rigby \|first1John \|titleCoins \|urlhttps://www.royalmint.com/shop/commemorative/innovation/ada-lovelace/ \|websiteRoyal Mint \|access-date31 July 2023}}</ref> Bicentenary (2015) The bicentenary of Ada Lovelace's birth was celebrated with a number of events, including:<ref>{{Cite web \|last\|first \|date\|titleAda Lovelace Day \|urlhttp://findingada.com/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151228135139/http://findingada.com/ \|archive-date28 December 2015 \|websiteFindingada.com \|viaInternet Archive}}</ref> * The Ada Lovelace Bicentenary Lectures on Computability, Israel Institute for Advanced Studies, 20 December 2015 – 31 January 2016.<ref>{{cite web\| urlhttp://findingada.com/event/ada-lovelace-bicentenary-lectures-on-computability/ \| titleAda Lovelace Bicentenary Lectures on Computability \| date31 January 2016 \| workAda Lovelace Day \| publisherFindingAda.com \| access-date11 January 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\| urlhttp://www.as.huji.ac.il/adalovelacelectures \| titleThe Ada Lovelace Bicentenary Lectures on Computability \| date31 January 2016 \| publisherIsrael Institute for Advanced Studies \| access-date=11 January 2016 }}</ref> * Ada Lovelace Symposium, University of Oxford, 13–14 October 2015.<ref>{{cite web\| urlhttp://podcasts.ox.ac.uk/series/ada-lovelace-symposium-celebrating-200-years-computer-visionary \| titleAda Lovelace Symposium – Celebrating 200 Years of a Computer Visionary \| workPodcasts \| publisherUniversity of Oxford \| locationUK \| access-date11 January 2016 }}</ref> Ada.Ada.Ada, a one-woman show about the life and work of Ada Lovelace (using an LED dress), premiered at Edinburgh International Science Festival on 11 April 2015,<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.sciencefestival.co.uk/brochure-downloads\|titleBrochure Downloads\|websiteEdinburgh International Science Festival\|access-date9 October 2018}}</ref> and continued to touring internationally to promote diversity on STEM at technology conferences,<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://elpais.com/tecnologia/2018/04/19/actualidad/1524125257_350138.html\|title4.400 bombillas para la silenciada historia de la mujer que escribió la primera 'app' en 1843\|trans-title4,400 light bulbs for the silenced story of the woman who wrote the first 'app' in 1843\|lastBusquets\|firstJordi Pueyo\|date19 April 2018\|workEl País\|access-date9 October 2018\|languagees\|issn1134-6582}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.siliconrepublic.com/discovery/ada-lovelace-day-zoe-philpott-inspirefest\|titleMeet the woman bringing the magic of Ada Lovelace to the masses\|lastGorey\|firstColm\|date11 October 2016\|websiteSilicon Republic\|access-date9 October 2018}}</ref> businesses, government and educational organisations.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://adatheshow.com/ \|titleAda.Ada.Ada. \|year2016 \|websiteadatheshow.com}}</ref><ref>{{Citation\|lastScratchweb\|titleAda.Ada.Ada\|date16 May 2017\|urlhttps://vimeo.com/217701947\|access-date9 October 2018}}</ref> Special exhibitions were displayed by the Science Museum in London, England<ref>{{cite web\| urlhttp://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/visitmuseum/Plan_your_visit/exhibitions/ada-lovelace \| titleAda Lovelace \|publisherScience Museum, London \| locationUK \| access-date11 January 2016 }}</ref> and the Weston Library (part of the Bodleian Library) in Oxford, England.<ref>{{cite web\| urlhttps://www.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/weston/news/2015/oct-09 \| titleBodleian Libraries celebrates Ada Lovelace's 200th birthday with free display and Wikipedia editathons \| publisherBodleian Libraries \| locationUK \| access-date11 January 2016 }}</ref> In popular culture portrait created for the Ada Initiative, which supported open technology and women\|altIllustration of Ada Lovelace's portrait in a gold frame]]Novels and playsLovelace is portrayed in Romulus Linney's 1977 play Childe Byron.<ref>{{cite web \|lastKlein \|firstAlvin \|author-linkAlvin Klein \|date13 May 1984 \|titleTheatre in review: A lusty Byron in Rockland \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1984/05/13/nyregion/theater-in-review-a-lusty-byron-in-rockland.html \|url-accesslimited \|id{{ProQuest\|425075032}} \|newspaperThe New York Times}}</ref> In Tom Stoppard's 1993 play Arcadia, the precocious teenage genius Thomasina Coverly—a character "apparently based" on Ada Lovelace (the play also involves Lord Byron)—comes to understand chaos theory, and theorises the second law of thermodynamics, before either is officially recognised.<ref name"newyorker13">{{cite magazine\|urlhttps://www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/tom-stoppards-arcadia-at-twenty \|titleTom Stoppard's 'Arcadia,' at Twenty \|firstBrad \|lastLeithauser \|date8 August 2013 \|magazine=The New Yorker}}</ref><ref>[http://www.tomw.net.au/arcadia.txt Profile], Gale Edwards, 1994, Director of "Arcadia" for the Sydney Theatre Company</ref> In the 1990 steampunk novel The Difference Engine by William Gibson and Bruce Sterling,<ref>{{cite book \|contributionThe Future Looms: Weaving Women and Cybernetics \|firstSadie\|lastPlant \|pages45–64 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZXU5aoJL0-QC&pgPA45 \|titleCyberspace/Cyberbodies/Cyberpunk: Cultures of Technological Embodiment \|editor1-firstMike \|editor1-lastFeatherstone \|editor2-firstRoger \|editor2-lastBurrows \|publisherSAGE Publications, in association with Theory, Culture & Society, School of Human Studies, University of Teesside \|year1995 \|isbn978-1-84860-914-3}}</ref> Lovelace delivers a lecture on the "punched cards" programme which proves Gödel's incompleteness theorems decades before their actual discovery. Lovelace and Mary Shelley as teenagers are the central characters in Jordan Stratford's steampunk series, The Wollstonecraft Detective Agency.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Moyer \|first1Edward \|titleCan Jane Austen + steampunk spark girls' science fire? \|urlhttps://www.cnet.com/uk/news/can-jane-austen-steampunk-spark-girls-science-fire/ \|access-date26 February 2017 \|date=13 April 2012}}</ref> Lovelace features in John Crowley's 2005 novel, ''Lord Byron's Novel: The Evening Land'', as an unseen character whose personality is forcefully depicted in her annotations and anti-heroic efforts to archive her father's lost novel.<ref>{{cite web \|titleByron's heir \|newspaperLos Angeles Times \|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2005-jun-05-bk-straub5-story.html \|firstPeter \|lastStraub \|author-linkPeter Straub \|date5 June 2005 \|archive-date10 November 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131110092446/https://articles.latimes.com/2005/jun/05/books/bk-straub5 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The 2015 play Ada and the Engine by Lauren Gunderson portrays Lovelace and Charles Babbage in unrequited love, and it imagines a post-death meeting between Lovelace and her father.<ref name"kqed">{{cite web \|urlhttp://ww2.kqed.org/arts/the-do-list/ada-and-the-memory-engine/ \|titleAda and the Memory Engine \|first Sam \|lastHurwitt \|publisherKQED \|archive-date6 September 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150906141059/https://ww2.kqed.org/arts/the-do-list/ada-and-the-memory-engine/ \|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref name"sfweekly">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.sfweekly.com/exhibitionist/2015/10/22/ada-and-the-memory-engine-love-by-the-numbers \|titleAda and the Memory Engine: Love by the Numbers \|workSF Weekly \|date22 October 2015 \|access-date14 November 2015 \|authorCostello, Elizabeth \|archive-date6 April 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160406052014/http://www.sfweekly.com/exhibitionist/2015/10/22/ada-and-the-memory-engine-love-by-the-numbers \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Lovelace and Babbage are also the main characters in Sydney Padua's webcomic and graphic novel The Thrilling Adventures of Lovelace and Babbage. The comic features extensive footnotes on the history of Ada Lovelace, and many lines of dialogue are drawn from actual correspondence.<ref>{{cite web \|lastDoctorow \|firstCory \|titleComic about Ada Lovelace and Charles Babbage \|urlhttp://boingboing.net/2009/10/05/comic-about-ada-love.html \|websiteBoingBoing \|access-date10 October 2014 \|date5 October 2009}}</ref> Film and television In the 1997 film Conceiving Ada, a computer scientist obsessed with Ada finds a way of communicating with her in the past by means of "undying information waves".<ref>{{cite web \|lastHolden \|firstStephen \|author-linkStephen Holden \|date26 February 1999 \|title'Conceiving Ada': Calling Byron's Daughter, Inventor of a Computer \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/library/film/022699ada-film-review.html \|id{{ProQuest\|2235172968}} \|newspaperThe New York Times}}</ref> Lovelace, identified as Ada Augusta Byron, is portrayed by Lily Lesser in the second series of The Frankenstein Chronicles aired on ITV in 2017. She is employed as an "analyst" to provide the workings of a life-sized humanoid automaton. The brass workings of the machine are reminiscent of Babbage's analytical engine. Her employment is described as keeping her occupied until she returns to her studies in advanced mathematics.<ref>{{cite web\|titleEpisode 2 - Not John Marlott\|urlhttp://www.itv.com/presscentre/ep2week45/frankenstein-chronicles\|websiteITV Press Centre\|access-date10 February 2025}}</ref> Lovelace and Babbage appear as characters in the second season of the ITV series Victoria (2017). Emerald Fennell portrays Lovelace in the episode, "The Green-Eyed Monster."<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.imdb.com/title/tt6327804/ \|titleThe Green-Eyed Monster \|date14 January 2018\|websiteIMDb}}</ref> "Lovelace" is the name of the operating system designed by the character Cameron Howe in Halt and Catch Fire, which aired on AMC in the US in 2015.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://whatchareading.com/still-fire-recapreview-halt-catch-fire-adventure/ \|titleStill On Fire: Recap/Review of Halt and Catch Fire "Adventure" \|lastBiscotti \|firstSteven \|date25 May 2015 \|access-date20 August 2023 \|website=What'cha Reading?}}</ref> Lovelace features as a character in "Spyfall, Part 2", the second episode of Doctor Who, series 12, which first aired on BBC One on 5&nbsp;January 2020.<ref name"DW">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.leicestermercury.co.uk/news/local-news/historical-computing-pioneer-ada-lovelace-3727259 \|titleHistorical computing pioneer Ada Lovelace from Hinckley stars in BBC's Doctor Who \|date2020-01-13 \|lastDawson \|firstNick \|workLeicester Mercury \|access-date2020-12-14}}</ref> The character was portrayed by Sylvie Briggs, alongside characterisations of Charles Babbage and Noor Inayat Khan.<ref name"DW"/>Computing and STEM Ada Lovelace Day * A computer language, initially developed by the US Department of Defense, is called Ada. * The Lovelace Medal awarded by the British Computer Society (BCS). * The Lovelace Lectures at the BCS sponsored by the Alan Turing Institute.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.bcs.org/events-calendar/2021/may/bcs-lovelace-lecture-202021-prof-marta-kwiatkowska/\|titleBCS Lovelace Lecture 2020/21 - Prof Marta Kwiatkowska &#124; BCS\|website=www.bcs.org}}</ref> * The Lovelace Lectures at Durham University.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.durham.ac.uk/departments/academic/engineering/about-us/departmental-lectures/lovelace-lecture-series/\|titleLovelace Lecture Series - Durham University\|firstDurham\|lastUniversity\|website=www.durham.ac.uk}}</ref> * The Ada Lovelace Award awarded by the Association for Women in Computing * The Ada Initiative supporting open technology and women is named after her. * Ada Lovelace Building, the engineering mathematics building at the University of Bristol.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2020-10-08 \|titleThe Ada Lovelace Building: a home for Engineering Mathematics at Bristol \|urlhttps://engineering.blogs.bristol.ac.uk/ada-lovelace-building-new-home-engineering-maths/ \|access-date2025-03-23 \|websiteengineering.blogs.bristol.ac.uk \|languageen-GB}}</ref> * Ada Lovelace Building, in Exeter Science Park.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://kta.uk.com/projects/ada-lovelace-building/\|titleAda Lovelace Building\|website=kat.uk}}</ref> * Ada Byron Building, in the Department of Computer Science and Systems Engineering at the University of Zaragoza.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://webdiis.unizar.es/gaz/location \| titleAda Byron Building\|website=webdiis.unizar.es }}</ref> * Ada Byron Research Centre in University of Malaga, Andalucía.{{Citation needed\|date=March 2025}} * Ada Lovelace Institute, a think tank dedicated to ensuring data and AI work for people and society.<ref>{{cite news \|titleAda Lovelace Institute \|urlhttps://www.turing.ac.uk/research/research-projects/ada-lovelace-institute \|access-date6 March 2025 \|workAlan Turing Institute}}</ref> * Ada Lovelace Centre for Digital Scholarship, Oxford{{Citation needed\|date=March 2025}} * Ada Lovelace Center for Digital Humanities at the FU Berlin.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.ada.fu-berlin.de \| titleAda Lovelace Center for Digital Humanities in Berlin \|website=ada.fu-berlin.de}}</ref> * ADA Lovelace Centre for Analytics, Data, Applications at Fraunhofer IIS originally called the ADA Lovelace Centre for Artificial Intelligence.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.iis.fraunhofer.de/en/profil/zukunftsinitiativen/adacenter.html\|titleADA Lovelace Center for Analytics, Data, Applications\|website=Fraunhofer Institute for Integrated Circuits IIS}}</ref> * Ada Lovelace Excellence Scholarship at the University of Southampton.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAda Lovelace Excellence Scholarship {{!}} Electronics and Computer Science {{!}} University of Southampton \|urlhttps://www.ecs.soton.ac.uk/Ada-scholarship \|access-date2025-03-23 \|websitewww.ecs.soton.ac.uk}}</ref> * Adafruit Industries * Ada Lovelace Centre, part of the Science and Technology Facilities Council, a UK government agency that carries out research in science and engineering.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://adalovelacecentre.ac.uk/about-us/\|titleScience and Technology Facilities Council: About us\|websiteadalovelacecentre.ac.uk\|date20 March 2024}}</ref> * The Cardano cryptocurrency platform, launched in 2017, uses Ada as the name for the cryptocurrency and Lovelace as the smallest sub-unit of an Ada.<ref name"Cardano">{{Cite web \|date19 March 2021 \|titleCardano (ADA) is now available on Coinbase \|urlhttps://blog.coinbase.com/cardano-ada-is-now-available-on-coinbase-dd30c1e0d93a \|access-date5 April 2021 \|websiteCoinbase \|quoteThe blockchain's native token, ADA, is named after the 19th century mathematician, Ada Lovelace \|archive-date20 September 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220920171211/https://blog.coinbase.com/cardano-ada-is-now-available-on-coinbase-dd30c1e0d93a \|url-statuslive}}</ref> * Ada, an artwork incorporating artificial intelligence house at Microsoft's Building 99.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/project/ada/\|titleAda\|website=Microsoft }}</ref> * In 2021, the code name of Nvidia's GPU architecture in its RTX 4000 series is Ada Lovelace. It is the first Nvidia architecture to feature both a first and last name.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastHampton \|firstJaime \|date20 September 2022 \|titleNvidia Introduces New Ada Lovelace GPU Architecture, OVX Systems, Omniverse Cloud \|urlhttps://www.hpcwire.com/2022/09/20/nvidia-introduces-new-ada-lovelace-architecture-ovx-systems-omniverse-cloud/ \|access-date20 October 2022 \|websiteHPCwire \|languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|authorAaron Klotz \|date20 September 2022 \|titleGeForce RTX 4090, RTX 4080 GPU Roundup \|urlhttps://www.tomshardware.com/news/geforce-rtx-4090-rtx-4080-gpu-roundup \|access-date20 October 2022 \|websiteTom's Hardware \|language=en}}</ref> * Ada Byron University Programming Contest at the Polytechnic University of Valencia.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://careers.edicomgroup.com/news/ada-byron-university-programming-contest/\|titleAda Byron University Programming Contest of the UPV\|firstContent\|lastManager\|date24 February 2020}}</ref>Other* A green plaque is to be found on Fordhook Avenue on the corner of 5 Station Parade, Uxbridge Road, Ealing{{Citation needed\|dateMarch 2025}} * Blue plaques are at Mallory Park and St James's Square.{{Citation needed\|date=March 2025}} * Ada Lovelace C of E High School in Greenford, specialising in music, digital technologies and languages.{{Citation needed\|date=March 2025}} * Ada Lovelace House, council offices in Nottinghamshire,<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://her.nottinghamshire.gov.uk/Monument/MNT27280/\|titleMNT27280 - Ada Lovelace House - Nottinghamshire Historic Environment Record\|websiteher.nottinghamshire.gov.uk}}</ref> later proposed to be let to small business.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.chad.co.uk/news/new-office-plan-for-ada-house-1164801\|titleNew office plan for Ada house\|date9 January 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://d2n2lep.org/280000-ada-lovelace-house-renovation-completed/\|title£280,000 Ada Lovelace House renovation completed\|date=11 May 2017}}</ref> * Ada Byron King Building at Nottingham Trent University * Ada Lovelace Suite at Seaham Hall.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://seaham-hall.co.uk/accommodation/ada-lovelace-suite/\|titleAda Lovelace Suite &#124; Seaham Hall Coastal Spa Resort, Durham\|date23 June 2022\|websiteseaham-hall.co.uk}}</ref> * The Lovelace Memorial is a Grade II Listed monument in Kirkby Mallory.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1187993\|titleLOVELACE MEMORIAL APPROXIMATELY 30 METRES SOUTH OF CHURCH OF ALL SAINTS, Kirkby Mallory, Peckleton & Stapleton - 1187993 &#124; Historic England\|website=historicengland.org.uk}}</ref> * A clone of Ada Lovelace appears in the 2023 video game Starfield <ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://screenrant.com/starfield-recruit-historical-companion-history-amelia-earhart-clone/\|titleYou Won't Believe Starfield Includes This Historical Figure As A Companion\|websitescreenrant.com\|access-date15 March 2025}}</ref> * Ada Lovelace is a playable leader in ''Sid Meier's Civilization VII''.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://civilization.2k.com/en-GB/civ-vii/game-guide/leaders/ada-lovelace/\|titleAda Lovelace leader, Sid Meier's Civilization VII\|websitecivilization.2k.com\|access-date5 March 2025}}</ref> Publications * Lovelace, Ada King. ''Ada, the Enchantress of Numbers: A Selection from the Letters of Lord Byron's Daughter and her Description of the First Computer. Mill Valley, CA: Strawberry Press, 1992. {{ISBN\|978-0-912647-09-8}}. {{cite book \|last1Menabrea \|first1Luigi Federico \|last2Lovelace \|first2Ada \|editorRichard Taylor \|titleScientific Memoirs \|date1843 \|volume3 \|pages666–731 \|chapterSketch of the Analytical Engine invented by Charles Babbage... with notes by the translator. Translated by Ada Lovelace \|chapter-urlhttp://www.fourmilab.ch/babbage/sketch.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230529203029/https://www.fourmilab.ch/babbage/sketch.html \|archive-date29 May 2023 \|locationLondon \|publisher=Richard and John E. Taylor}} Also available on Wikisource: The Menebrea article, The notes by Ada Lovelace. Publication history Six copies of the 1843 first edition of Sketch of the Analytical Engine'' with Ada Lovelace's "Notes"<ref name"fourmilab.ch" /> have been located. Three are held at Harvard University, one at the University of Oklahoma, and one at the United States Air Force Academy.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://id.lib.harvard.edu/alma/990030757610203941/catalog \|titleSketch of the analytical engine invented by Charles Babbage, Esq. \|websiteHarvard University Library \|access-date9 April 2019}}</ref> On 20 July 2018, the sixth copy was sold at auction to an anonymous buyer for £95,000.<ref>{{Cite web \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181010011141/https://www.mooreallen.co.uk/group/news-events/rare-book-by-worlds-first-computer-programmer-sells-for-95000 \|archive-date10 October 2018 \|urlhttps://www.mooreallen.co.uk/group/news-events/rare-book-by-worlds-first-computer-programmer-sells-for-95000 \|titleRare book by world's first computer programmer sells for £95,000 \|date23 July 2018 \|websitemooreallen.co.uk \|access-date9 April 2019}}</ref> A digital facsimile of one of the copies in the Harvard University Library is available online. In December 2016, a letter written by Ada Lovelace was forfeited by Martin Shkreli to the New York State Department of Taxation and Finance for unpaid taxes owed by Shkreli.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMangan \|firstDan \|date23 April 2018 \|titleFight brews over Shkreli's Wu-Tang album as 'pharma bro' gets banned by securities industry \|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2018/04/23/fight-brews-over-shkrelis-wu-tang-album-as-he-gets-banned-by-securities-industry.html \|access-date23 June 2020 \|websiteCNBC}}</ref>See also {{cols}} Ai-Da – humanoid robot, completed in 2019 * Code: Debugging the Gender Gap * List of pioneers in computer science * Timeline of women in science * Women in computing * Women in STEM fields {{colend}} Explanatory notes {{Notelist}} References Citations {{Reflist}} General and cited sources {{Refbegin\|30em}} * {{Citation \| lastBaum \| firstJoan \| titleThe Calculating Passion of Ada Byron \| publisherArchon \| year1986 \| isbn978-0-208-02119-9 \| url=https://archive.org/details/calculatingpassi00baum }}. * {{Citation \| last1Elwin \| first1Malcolm \| titleLord Byron's Family \| publisherJohn Murray \| year=1975}}. * {{Citation \| lastEssinger \| firstJames \| titleAda's algorithm: How Lord Byron's daughter Ada Lovelace launched the digital age \| publisherMelville House Publishing \| year2014 \| isbn978-1-61219-408-0}}. * {{Citation \| last1Fuegi \| first1J \| last2Francis \| first2J \| titleLovelace & Babbage and the creation of the 1843 'notes' \| journalAnnals of the History of Computing \| volume25 \| pages16–26 \| number4 \|dateOctober–December 2003 \| doi10.1109/MAHC.2003.1253887\| s2cid40077111 \| urlhttps://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/81bb/f32d2642a7a8c6b0a867379a4e9e99d872bc.pdf \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200215003909/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/81bb/f32d2642a7a8c6b0a867379a4e9e99d872bc.pdf \| url-statusdead \| archive-date2020-02-15 }}. * {{Citation \| last1Hammerman \| first1Robin \| last2Russell \| first2Andrew L. \| editor-first1Robin \| editor-first2Andrew L. \| editor-last1Hammerman \| editor-last2Russell \| titleAda's Legacy: Cultures of Computing from the Victorian to the Digital Age \| publisherAssociation for Computing Machinery and Morgan & Claypool \|year2015 \| doi10.1145/2809523\| isbn978-1-970001-51-8 \| s2cid62018931 }}. * {{Citation \| lastIsaacson \| firstWalter \|year2014 \| title The Innovators: How a Group of Hackers, Geniuses, and Geeks Created the Digital Revolution \| publisher=Simon & Schuster}}. * {{Cite journal \| last1Kim \| first1Eugene \| last2Toole \| first2Betty Alexandra \| titleAda and the First Computer \| journalScientific American \| volume280 \| issue5 \| pages66–71 \|year1999 \| bibcode1999SciAm.280e..76E \| doi10.1038/scientificamerican0599-76 }} * {{Cite journal \| lastLewis \| firstJudith S. \| titlePrincess of Parallelograms and her daughter: Math and gender in the nineteenth century English aristocracy \| journalWomen's Studies International Forum \| volume18 \| issue4 \| pages387–394 \| doi10.1016/0277-5395(95)80030-S \| date=July–August 1995 }} * {{Citation \| last1Marchand \| first1Leslie \| titleByron A Portrait \| publisherJohn Murray \| year=1971}}. * {{Citation \|lastMenabrea \|first Luigi Federico \|author-linkLuigi Federico Menabrea \|year 1843 \| titleSketch of the Analytical Engine Invented by Charles Babbage \| journal Scientific Memoirs \| volume3 \| urlhttp://www.fourmilab.ch/babbage/sketch.html \| access-date29 August 2008 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080915134651/http://www.fourmilab.ch/babbage/sketch.html \| archive-date15 September 2008 \| url-statuslive}} With notes upon the memoir by the translator. * Miller, Clair Cain. [https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/obituaries/overlooked-ada-lovelace.html "Ada Lovelace, 1815–1852,"] New York Times, 8 March 2018. * {{Citation \| last1Moore \| first1Doris Langley \| titleAda, Countess of Lovelace \| publisherJohn Murray \| year1977\|isbn0-7195-3384-8}}. * {{Citation \|lastMoore \|firstDoris Langley \|titleThe Late Lord Byron \|year 1961 \|publisherLippincott \| locationPhiladelphia \|oclc358063 \|isbn978-0-06-013013-8}}. * {{Citation \|lastStein \|firstDorothy \|titleAda: A Life and a Legacy \|year1985 \|publisherThe MIT Press \|locationCambridge, MA \|seriesMIT Press Series in the History of Computing \|isbn978-0-262-19242-2 \|url=https://archive.org/details/adalifeandlegacy00stei }}. * {{Citation \| firstBetty Alexandra \| lastToole \| titleAda, the Enchantress of Numbers: A Selection from the Letters of Ada Lovelace, and her Description of the First Computer \| year1992 \| publisherStrawberry Press \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idwlZQAAAAMAAJ \| isbn978-0-912647-09-8}}. * {{Citation \| firstBetty Alexandra \| lastToole \| titleAda, the Enchantress of Numbers: Prophet of the Computer Age \| year1998 \| publisherStrawberry Press \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgnvZAAAAMAAJ \| isbn978-0-912647-18-0}}. * {{Citation \| firstCatherine \| lastTurney \| titleByron's Daughter: A Biography of Elizabeth Medora Leigh \| year1972 \| publisherScribner \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ideE1aAAAAMAAJ \| isbn978-0-684-12753-8}} * {{Citation \| lastWoolley \| firstBenjamin \|dateFebruary 1999 \| title The Bride of Science: Romance, Reason, and Byron's Daughter \| publisherPan Macmillan \| placeAU \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idK8-sQgAACAAJ \| access-date7 April 2013 \| isbn978-0-333-72436-1}}. * {{Citation \| lastWoolley \| firstBenjamin \|dateFebruary 2002 \| orig-year1999 \| titleThe Bride of Science: Romance, Reason, and Byron's Daughter \| publisherMcGraw-Hill Ryerson \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVGMFAAAACAAJ \| access-date7 April 2013 \| isbn978-0-07-138860-3}}. {{Refend}} Further reading * Jennifer Chiaverini, 2017, Enchantress of Numbers, Dutton, 426 pp. * Christopher Hollings, Ursula Martin, and Adrian Rice, 2018, Ada Lovelace: The Making of a Computer Scientist, Bodleian Library, 114 pp. * Miranda Seymour, 2018, ''In Byron's Wake: The Turbulent Lives of Byron's Wife and Daughter: Annabella Milbanke and Ada Lovelace'', Pegasus, 547 pp. * Jenny Uglow (22 November 2018), "Stepping Out of Byron's Shadow", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXV, no. 18, pp.&nbsp;30–32. External links {{Wikiquote}} {{Wikisource\|Author:Augusta Ada Byron}} {{Commons category}} * [https://www.siliconrepublic.com/video/adas-army-zoe-philpott "Ada's Army gets set to rewrite history at Inspirefest 2018"] by Luke Maxwell, 4 August 2018 * {{OL author\|776398A}} * "[http://blog.stephenwolfram.com/2015/12/untangling-the-tale-of-ada-lovelace/ Untangling the Tale of Ada Lovelace]" by Stephen Wolfram, December 2015 * {{Cite web \| urlhttp://www.sdsc.edu/ScienceWomen/lovelace.html \| titleAda Lovelace: Founder of Scientific Computing \| workWomen in Science \| publisherSDSC \| access-date17 August 2001 \| archive-date25 December 2018 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181225024327/https://www.sdsc.edu/ScienceWomen/lovelace.html%20 \| url-statusdead }} * {{Cite web \| urlhttp://www.agnesscott.edu/lriddle/women/love.htm \| titleAda Byron, Lady Lovelace \| workBiographies of Women Mathematicians \| publisherAgnes Scott College}} * {{Cite web \| urlhttp://archiveshub.ac.uk/data/gb161dep.lovelacebyron1-460 \| archive-urlhttp://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20120424131314/http://archiveshub.ac.uk/data/gb161dep.lovelacebyron1-460 \| url-statusdead \| archive-date2012-04-24 \| titlePapers of the Noel, Byron and Lovelace families \| publisherArchives hub \| placeUK \|formatarchive }} * {{Cite web \| urlhttp://www.computerhistory.org/babbage/adalovelace/ \| workBabbage \| titleAda Lovelace & The Analytical Engine \| publisherComputer History}} * {{Cite web \| urlhttp://net.educause.edu/apps/er/review/reviewArticles/31240.html \| titleAda & the Analytical Engine \| publisherEducause \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090810090713/http://net.educause.edu/apps/er/review/reviewArticles/31240.html \| archive-date10 August 2009 \|formatarchive}} * {{Cite web \| urlhttp://www.g4tv.com/techtvvault/features/27659/Ada_Lovelace_Countess_of_Controversy.html \| workTech TV vault \| titleAda Lovelace, Countess of Controversy \| publisherG4 TV \| access-date25 February 2007 \| archive-date25 December 2018 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181225024305/https://www.syfy.com/syfywire/games \| url-statusdead }} * {{Cite web \| urlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20080306.shtml \| workIn Our Time \| publisherBBC Radio 4 \| titleAda Lovelace \| formatstreaming \| typeaudio \| placeUK \| date6 March 2008}} * {{Cite web \| urlhttp://www.cs.yale.edu/homes/tap/Files/ada-lovelace-notes.html \| titleAda Lovelace's Notes and The Ladies Diary \| publisher=Yale}} * {{Cite web \| urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vhRmEYMiphoU \| titleThe fascinating story Ada Lovelace \| date13 September 2015 \| publisherSabine Allaeys \|viaYouTube}} * {{Cite web \| urlhttp://www.brainpickings.org/index.php/2013/12/10/ada-lovelace-science-religion-letter/ \| titleAda Lovelace, the World's First Computer Programmer, on Science and Religion \| date10 December 2013 \| publisherMaria Popova (Brain) }} * {{Cite web \| urlhttp://www.brainpickings.org/2014/12/10/ada-lovelace-walter-isaacson-innovators/ \| titleHow Ada Lovelace, Lord Byron's Daughter, Became the World's First Computer Programmer \| date10 December 2014 \| publisherMaria Popova (Brain) }} * {{MacTutor Biography\|id=Lovelace}} {{Lord Byron}} {{Timelines of computing}} {{Portal bar\|Biography\|United Kingdom\|Computer programming\|Mathematics\|History of science\|Literature}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Lovelace, Ada}} Category:1815 births Category:1852 deaths Category:19th-century British women mathematicians Category:19th-century English writers Category:19th-century English mathematicians Category:19th-century English women writers Category:19th-century British inventors Category:19th-century English nobility Category:Ada (programming language) Category:Amateur mathematicians Category:British countesses Category:British women computer scientists Category:Burials in Nottinghamshire Ada Category:Computer designers Category:Daughters of barons Category:Deaths from cancer in England Category:Deaths from uterine cancer in the United Kingdom Category:English computer programmers Category:English people of Scottish descent Category:English women poets Category:Godwin family Category:Family of Lord Byron Category:Mathematicians from London Category:Women of the Victorian era Category:Burials at the Church of St Mary Magdalene, Hucknall Category:19th-century women inventors	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_Lovelace	2025-04-05T18:25:27.372912
980	August Derleth	{{Infobox writer \| name = August Derleth \| image = Studio portrait of August Derleth by Ephraim Burt Trimpey (cropped).jpg \| caption = Derleth in 1939 \| pseudonym = Stephen Grendon \| birth_name = August William Derleth \| birth_date = February 24, 1909 \| birth_place = Sauk City, Wisconsin, US \| death_date \| death_place Sauk City, Wisconsin, US \| occupation = Novelist, short story writer \| alma_mater \| genre Fantasy, Horror, Mystery, Regional, Science fiction \| movement = Weird Fiction \| notableworks \| spouse \| children = 2 \| signature = }} August William Derleth (February 24, 1909 – July 4, 1971) was an American writer and anthologist. He was the first book publisher of the writings of H. P. Lovecraft. He made contributions to the Cthulhu Mythos and the cosmic horror genre and helped found Arkham House, a publishing company which did much to introduce hardcover prints of United Kingdom supernatural fiction works to the United States. Derleth was also a leading American regional writer of his day, as well as prolific in several other genres, including historical fiction, poetry, detective fiction, science fiction, and biography. Notably, he created the fictional detective Solar Pons, a pastiche of Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes. A 1938 Guggenheim Fellow, Derleth considered his most serious work to be the ambitious Sac Prairie Saga, a series of fiction, historical fiction, poetry, and non-fiction naturalist works designed to memorialize life in the Wisconsin he knew. Derleth can also be considered a pioneering naturalist and conservationist in his writing. Life The son of William Julius Derleth and Rose Louise Volk, Derleth grew up in Sauk City, Wisconsin. He was educated in local parochial and public high school. Derleth wrote his first fiction at age 13. He was interested most in reading, and he made three trips to the library a week. He would save his money to buy books (his personal library exceeded 12,000 volumes later on in life). Some of his biggest influences were Ralph Waldo Emerson's essays, Walt Whitman, H. L. Mencken's The American Mercury, Samuel Johnson's The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia, Alexandre Dumas, Edgar Allan Poe, Walter Scott, and Henry David Thoreau's Walden. Forty rejected stories and three years later, according to anthologist Jim Stephens, he sold his first story, "Bat's Belfry", to Weird Tales magazine in 1926. Derleth wrote throughout his four years at the University of Wisconsin, where he received a B.A. in 1930. During this time he also served briefly as associate editor of Minneapolis-based Fawcett Publications Mystic Magazine. Returning to Sauk City in the summer of 1931, Derleth worked in a local canning factory and collaborated with childhood friend Mark Schorer (later Chairman of the University of California, Berkeley English Department). They rented a cabin, writing Gothic and other horror stories and selling them to Weird Tales magazine. Derleth won a place on the O'Brien Roll of Honor for Five Alone, published in Place of Hawks, but was first published in Pagany magazine. As a result of his early work on the Sac Prairie Saga, Derleth was awarded the prestigious Guggenheim Fellowship; his sponsors were Helen C. White, Nobel Prize-winning novelist Sinclair Lewis and poet Edgar Lee Masters of Spoon River Anthology fame. In the mid-1930s, Derleth organized a Ranger's Club for young people, served as clerk and president of the local school board, served as a parole officer, organized a local men's club and a parent-teacher association. He also lectured in American regional literature at the University of Wisconsin and was a contributing editor of Outdoors Magazine. With longtime friend Donald Wandrei, Derleth founded Arkham House in 1939. Its initial objective was to publish the works of H. P. Lovecraft, with whom Derleth had corresponded since his teenage years. At the same time, he began teaching a course in American Regional Literature at the University of Wisconsin. In 1941, he became literary editor of The Capital Times newspaper in Madison, a post he held until his resignation in 1960. His hobbies included fencing, swimming, chess, philately and comic-strips (Derleth reportedly used the funding from his Guggenheim Fellowship to bind his comic book collection, most recently valued in the millions of dollars, rather than to travel abroad as the award intended.). Derleth's true avocation, however, was hiking the terrain of his native Wisconsin lands, and observing and recording nature with an expert eye. Derleth once wrote of his writing methods, "I write very swiftly, from 750,000 to a million words yearly, very little of it pulp material." In 1948, he was elected president of the Associated Fantasy Publishers at the 6th World Science Fiction Convention in Toronto. He was married April 6, 1953, to Sandra Evelyn Winters. They divorced six years later. In 1960, Derleth began editing and publishing a magazine called Hawk and Whippoorwill, dedicated to poems of man and nature. Derleth died of a heart attack on July 4, 1971, and is buried in St. Aloysius Cemetery in Sauk City. In Derleth's biography, Dorothy M. Grobe Litersky stated that Derleth was bisexual, and maintained long-term romantic relationships with both men and women. This assertion has not been verified; no names were given of these romantic partners (in the interest of privacy according to Litersky), and no evidence or acknowledgement of Derleth having a bisexual or homosexual orientation has ever been found in his personal correspondence. Career Derleth wrote more than 150 short stories and more than 100 books during his lifetime. thumb\|Derleth in 1962 The Sac Prairie Saga Derleth wrote an expansive series of novels, short stories, journals, poems, and other works about Sac Prairie. Derleth intended this series to comprise up to 50 novels telling the projected life-story of the region from the 19th century onwards, with analogies to Balzac's Human Comedy and Proust's Remembrance of Things Past. This, and other early work by Derleth, made him a well-known figure among the regional literary figures of his time: early Pulitzer Prize winners Hamlin Garland and Zona Gale, as well as Sinclair Lewis, the last both an admirer and critic of Derleth. As Edward Wagenknecht wrote in Cavalcade of the American Novel, "What Mr. Derleth has that is lacking...in modern novelists generally, is a country. He belongs. He writes of a land and a people that are bone of his bone and flesh of his flesh. In his fictional world, there is a unity much deeper and more fundamental than anything that can be conferred by an ideology. It is clear, too, that he did not get the best, and most fictionally useful, part of his background material from research in the library; like Scott, in his Border novels, he gives, rather, the impression of having drunk it in with his mother's milk." Jim Stephens, editor of An August Derleth Reader, (1992), argues: "what Derleth accomplished....was to gather a Wisconsin mythos which gave respect to the ancient fundament of our contemporary life." The author inaugurated the Sac Prairie Saga with four novellas comprising Place of Hawks, published by Loring & Mussey in 1935. At publication, The Detroit News wrote: "Certainly with this book Mr. Derleth may be added to the American writers of distinction." Derleth's first novel, Still is the Summer Night, was published two years later by the famous Charles Scribners' editor Maxwell Perkins, and was the second in his Sac Prairie Saga. Village Year, the first in a series of journals – meditations on nature, Midwestern village American life, and more – was published in 1941 to praise from The New York Times Book Review: "A book of instant sensitive responsiveness...recreates its scene with acuteness and beauty, and makes an unusual contribution to the Americana of the present day." The New York Herald Tribune observed that "Derleth...deepens the value of his village setting by presenting in full the enduring natural background; with the people projected against this, the writing comes to have the quality of an old Flemish picture, humanity lively and amusing and loveable in the foreground and nature magnificent beyond." James Grey, writing in the St. Louis Dispatch concluded, "Derleth has achieved a kind of prose equivalent of the Spoon River Anthology." In the same year, Evening in Spring was published by Charles Scribners & Sons. This work Derleth considered among his finest. What The Milwaukee Journal called "this beautiful little love story", is an autobiographical novel of first love beset by small-town religious bigotry. The work received critical praise: The New Yorker considered it a story told "with tenderness and charm", while the Chicago Tribune concluded: "It's as though he turned back the pages of an old diary and told, with rekindled emotion, of the pangs of pain and the sharp, clear sweetness of a boy's first love." Helen Constance White, wrote in The Capital Times that it was "...the best articulated, the most fully disciplined of his stories." These were followed in 1943 with Shadow of Night, a Scribners' novel of which The Chicago Sun wrote: "Structurally it has the perfection of a carved jewel...A psychological novel of the first order, and an adventure tale that is unique and inspiriting." In November 1945, however, Derleth's work was attacked by his one-time admirer and mentor, Sinclair Lewis. Writing in Esquire, Lewis observed, "It is a proof of Mr. Derleth's merit that he makes one want to make the journey and see his particular Avalon: The Wisconsin River shining among its islands, and the castles of Baron Pierneau and Hercules Dousman. He is a champion and a justification of regionalism. Yet he is also a burly, bounding, bustling, self-confident, opinionated, and highly-sweatered young man with faults so grievous that a melancholy perusal of them may be of more value to apprentices than a study of his serious virtues. If he could ever be persuaded that he isn't half as good as he thinks he is, if he would learn the art of sitting still and using a blue pencil, he might become twice as good as he thinks he is – which would about rank him with Homer." Derleth good-humoredly reprinted the criticism along with a photograph of himself sans sweater, on the back cover of his 1948 country journal: Village Daybook. A lighter side to the Sac Prairie Saga is a series of quasi-autobiographical short stories known as the "Gus Elker Stories", amusing tales of country life that Peter Ruber, Derleth's last editor, said were "...models of construction and...fused with some of the most memorable characters in American literature." Most were written between 1934 and the late 1940s, though the last, "Tail of the Dog", was published in 1959 and won the Scholastic Magazine short story award for the year. The series was collected and republished in Country Matters in 1996. Walden West, published in 1961, is considered by many Derleth's finest work. This prose meditation is built out of the same fundamental material as the series of Sac Prairie journals, but is organized around three themes: "the persistence of memory...the sounds and odors of the country...and Thoreau's observation that the 'mass of men lead lives of quiet desperation. A blend of nature writing, philosophic musings, and careful observation of the people and place of "Sac Prairie". Of this work, George Vukelich, author of "North Country Notebook", writes: "Derleth's Walden West is...the equal of Sherwood Anderson's Winesburg,Ohio, Thornton Wilder's Our Town, and Edgar Lee Masters' Spoon River Anthology." This was followed eight years later by Return to Walden West, a work of similar quality, but with a more noticeable environmentalist edge to the writing, notes critic Norbert Blei. A close literary relative of the Sac Prairie Saga was Derleth's Wisconsin Saga, which comprises several historical novels. Detective fiction and "Solar Pons" Detective fiction represented another substantial body of Derleth's work. Most notable among this work was a series of 70 stories in affectionate pastiche of Sherlock Holmes, whose creator, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, he admired greatly. The stories feature a Holmes-styled British detective named Solar Pons, of 7B Praed Street in London. These included one published novel as well (Mr. Fairlie's Final Journey). The series was greatly admired by such notable writers and critics of mystery and detective fiction as Ellery Queen (Frederic Dannay), Anthony Boucher, Vincent Starrett, and Howard Haycraft. In his 1944 volume The Misadventures of Sherlock Holmes, Ellery Queen wrote of Derleth's "The Norcross Riddle", an early Pons story: "How many budding authors, not even old enough to vote, could have captured the spirit and atmosphere with as much fidelity?" Queen adds, "his choice of the euphonic Solar Pons is an appealing addition to the fascinating lore of Sherlockian nomenclature." Vincent Starrett, in his foreword to the 1964 edition of The Casebook of Solar Pons, wrote that the series is "as sparkling a galaxy of Sherlockian pastiches as we have had since the canonical entertainments came to an end." Despite close similarities to Doyle's creation, Pons lived in the post-World War I era, in the decades of the 1920s and 1930s. Though Derleth never wrote a Pons novel to equal The Hound of the Baskervilles, editor Peter Ruber wrote that "Derleth" produced more than a few Solar Pons stories almost as good as Sir Arthur's, and many that had better plot construction." Although these stories were a form of diversion for Derleth, Ruber, who edited The Original Text Solar Pons Omnibus Edition (2000), argued: "Because the stories were generally of such high quality, they ought to be assessed on their own merits as a unique contribution in the annals of mystery fiction, rather than suffering comparison as one of the endless imitators of Sherlock Holmes." Some of the stories were self-published, through a new imprint called "Mycroft & Moran", an appellation of humorous significance to Holmesian scholars. For approximately a decade, an active supporting group was the Praed Street Irregulars, patterned after the Baker Street Irregulars. In 1946, Conan Doyle's two sons made some attempts to force Derleth to cease publishing the Solar Pons series, but the efforts were unsuccessful, and were eventually withdrawn. Derleth's mystery and detective fiction also included a series of works set in Sac Prairie and featuring Judge Peck as the central character. Youth and children's fiction Derleth wrote many and varied children's works, including biographies meant to introduce younger readers to explorer Jacques Marquette, as well as Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. Arguably most important among his works for younger readers, however, is the Steve and Sim Mystery Series, also known as the Mill Creek Irregulars series. The ten-volume series, published between 1958 and 1970, is set in Sac Prairie of the 1920s and can thus be considered in its own right a part of the Sac Prairie Saga, as well as an extension of Derleth's body of mystery fiction. Robert Hood, writing in the New York Times said: "Steve and Sim, the major characters, are twentieth-century cousins of Huck Finn and Tom Sawyer; Derleth's minor characters, little gems of comic drawing." The first novel in the series, The Moon Tenders, does, in fact, involve a rafting adventure down the Wisconsin River, which led regional writer Jesse Stuart to suggest the novel was one that "older people might read to recapture the spirit and dream of youth." The connection to the Sac Prairie Saga was noted by the Chicago Tribune: "Once again a small midwest community in 1920s is depicted with perception, skill, and dry humor." Arkham House and the "Cthulhu Mythos" thumb\|alt=H. P. Lovecraft in front of a brick wall in Brooklyn\|H. P. Lovecraft on July 11, 1931 Derleth was a correspondent and friend of H. P. Lovecraft – when Lovecraft wrote about "le Comte d'Erlette" in his fiction, it was in homage to Derleth. Derleth invented the term "Cthulhu Mythos" to describe the fictional universe depicted in the series of stories shared by Lovecraft and other writers in his circle. When Lovecraft died in 1937, Derleth and Donald Wandrei assembled a collection of Lovecraft's stories and tried to get them published. Existing publishers showed little interest, so Derleth and Wandrei founded Arkham House in 1939 for that purpose. The name of the company derived from Lovecraft's fictional town of Arkham, Massachusetts, which features in many of his stories. In 1939, Arkham House published The Outsider and Others, a huge collection that contained most of Lovecraft's known short stories. Derleth and Wandrei soon expanded Arkham House and began a regular publishing schedule after its second book, Someone in the Dark, a collection of some of Derleth's own horror stories, was published in 1941. Following Lovecraft's death, Derleth wrote a number of stories based on fragments and notes left by Lovecraft. These were published in Weird Tales and later in book form, under the byline "H. P. Lovecraft and August Derleth", with Derleth calling himself a "posthumous collaborator". This practice has raised objections in some quarters that Derleth simply used Lovecraft's name to market what was essentially his own fiction; S. T. Joshi refers to the "posthumous collaborations" as marking the beginning of "perhaps the most disreputable phase of Derleth's activities". Dirk W. Mosig, S. T. Joshi, and Richard L. Tierney were dissatisfied with Derleth's invention of the term Cthulhu Mythos (Lovecraft himself used Yog-Sothothery) and his presentation of Lovecraft's fiction as having an overall pattern reflecting Derleth's own Christian world view, which they contrast with Lovecraft's depiction of an amoral universe. However, Robert M. Price points out that while Derleth's tales are distinct from Lovecraft's in their use of hope and his depiction of a struggle between good and evil, nevertheless the basis of Derleth's systemization are found in Lovecraft. He also suggests that the differences can be overstated: Derleth was more optimistic than Lovecraft in his conception of the Mythos, but we are dealing with a difference more of degree than kind. There are indeed tales wherein Derleth's protagonists get off scot-free (like "The Shadow in the Attic", "Witches' Hollow", or "The Shuttered Room"), but often the hero is doomed (e.g., "The House in the Valley", "The Peabody Heritage", "Something in Wood"), as in Lovecraft. And it must be remembered that an occasional Lovecraftian hero does manage to overcome the odds, e.g., in "The Horror in the Museum", "The Shunned House", and 'The Case of Charles Dexter Ward'. Derleth also treated Lovecraft's Great Old Ones as representatives of elemental forces, creating new fictional entities to flesh out this framework. Such debates aside, Derleth's founding of Arkham House and his successful effort to rescue Lovecraft from literary oblivion are widely acknowledged by practitioners in the horror field as seminal events in the field. For instance, Ramsey Campbell has acknowledged Derleth's encouragement and guidance during the early part of his own writing career, and Kirby McCauley has cited Derleth and Arkham House as an inspiration for his own anthology Dark Forces. Arkham House and Derleth published Dark Carnival, the first book by Ray Bradbury, as well. Brian Lumley cites the importance of Derleth to his own Lovecraftian work, and contends in a 2009 introduction to Derleth's work that he was "...one of the first, finest, and most discerning editors and publishers of macabre fiction." Important as was Derleth's work to rescue H.P. Lovecraft from literary obscurity at the time of Lovecraft's death, Derleth also built a body of horror and spectral fiction of his own; still frequently anthologized. The best of this work, recently reprinted in four volumes of short stories – most of which were originally published in Weird Tales, illustrates Derleth's original abilities in the genre. While Derleth considered his work in this genre less important than his most serious literary efforts, the compilers of these four anthologies, including Ramsey Campbell, note that the stories still resonate after more than 50 years. In 2009, The Library of America selected Derleth's story The Panelled Room for inclusion in its two-century retrospective of American Fantastic Tales. Other works Derleth also wrote many historical novels, as part of both the Sac Prairie Saga and the Wisconsin Saga. He also wrote history; arguably most notable among these was The Wisconsin: River of a Thousand Isles, published in 1942. The work was one in a series entitled "The Rivers of America", conceived by writer Constance Lindsay Skinner during the Great Depression as a series that would connect Americans to their heritage through the history of the great rivers of the nation. Skinner wanted the series to be written by artists, not academicians. Derleth, while not a trained historian, was, according to former Wisconsin state historian William F. Thompson, "...a very competent regional historian who based his historical writing upon research in the primary documents and who regularly sought the help of professionals... ." In the foreword to the 1985 reissue of the work by The University of Wisconsin Press, Thompson concluded: "No other writer, of whatever background or training, knew and understood his particular 'corner of the earth' better than August Derleth." Additionally, Derleth wrote a number of volumes of poetry. Three of his collections – Rind of Earth (1942), Selected Poems (1944), and The Edge of Night (1945) – were published by the Decker Press, which also printed the work of other Midwestern poets such as Edgar Lee Masters. Derleth was also the author of several biographies of other writers, including Zona Gale, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. He also wrote introductions to several collections of classic early 20th century comics, such as Buster Brown, Little Nemo in Slumberland, and Katzenjammer Kids, as well as a book of children's poetry entitled A Boy's Way, and the foreword to Tales from an Indian Lodge by Phebe Jewell Nichols. Derleth also wrote under the pen names Stephen Grendon, Kenyon Holmes and Tally Mason. Derleth's papers were donated to the Wisconsin Historical Society in Madison. Bibliography Awards O'Brien Roll of Honour for short story, 1933 Guggenheim fellow, 1938 See also August Derleth Award List of authors of new Sherlock Holmes stories List of horror fiction authors List of people from Wisconsin Mark Schorer Sherlock Holmes pastiches Notes References Meudt, Edna. 'August Derleth: "A simple, honorable man",' Wisconsin Academy Review, 19:2 (Summer, 1972) 8–11. Schorer, Mark. "An Appraisal of the Work of August Derleth", The Capital Times, July 9, 1971. Further reading Robert Bloch. "Two Great Editors". Is No 4 (Oct 1971). Reprint in Bloch's Out of My Head. Cambridge MA: NESFA Press, 1986, 71–79. Lin Carter. "A Day in Derleth Country". Is No 4 (Oct 1971). Reprint in Crypt of Cthulhu 1, No 6. John Howard. "The Ghosts of Sauk County". All Hallows 18 (1998); in Howard's Touchstones: Essays on the Fantastic. Staffordshire UK: Alchemy Press, 2014. David E. Schultz and S.T. Joshi (eds). Eccentric, Impractical Devils: The Letters of August Derleth and Clark Ashton Smith. NY: Hippocampus Press, 2020. External links The August Derleth Society A biography August Derleth Bibliography Derleth Collection guides at University of Wisconsin Libraries: papers; comics Derleth Collection guide at Syracuse University Works Category:1909 births Category:1971 deaths Category:University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni Category:20th-century American short story writers Category:American mystery writers Category:20th-century American novelists Category:Cthulhu Mythos writers Category:American horror writers Category:People from Sauk City, Wisconsin Category:Hugo Award–winning writers Category:Novelists from Wisconsin Category:American science fiction editors Category:Solar Pons Category:American anthologists Category:American male novelists Category:American male short story writers Category:Catholics from Wisconsin Category:20th-century Roman Catholics Category:Writers from Wisconsin Category:Writers of the Golden Age of Detective Fiction Category:Writers of Sherlock Holmes pastiches Category:American weird fiction writers Category:20th-century American male writers	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Derleth	2025-04-05T18:25:27.410898
981	Alps	{{Short description\|Major mountain range in central Europe}} {{Redirect\|Alpe\|the German river\|Alpe (river)\|‌other uses\|Alps (disambiguation)}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=March 2021}} {{Use Oxford spelling\|date=October 2019}} {{Infobox mountain \| name = Alps \| native_name = {{plainlist\| * {{native name\|fr\|Alpes}} * {{native name\|de\|Alpen}} * {{native name\|it\|Alpi}} * {{native name\|rm\|Alps}} * {{native name\|sl\|Alpe}} * (not including numerous dialects) }} \| photo = Alps 2007-03-13 10.10UTC 1px-250m.jpg \| photo_caption = Satellite view of the Alps \| country = {{hlist\|Austria\|France\|Germany\|Italy\|Liechtenstein\|Monaco\|Slovenia\|Switzerland}} \| subdivision1_type = Region \| geology = {{hlist\|Bündner schist\|flysch\|molasse}} \| age = Tertiary \| orogeny = Alpine orogeny \| area_km2 = 200000 \| area_ref \| length_km 1200 \| length_orientation \| length_ref \| width_km = 250 \| width_orientation \| width_ref \| highest = Mont Blanc<!--"Mont Blanc" is the common English name--> \| elevation_m = 4808.73 \| elevation_ref <ref name"BFM4809">{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.bfmtv.com/planete/le-mont-blanc-passe-de-4-810-metres-a-4-8087-metres-913753.html \|titleLe Mont-Blanc passe de 4.810 mètres à 4.808,7 mètres \|languagefr \|websitebfmtv.com \|access-date2023-05-24 \|archive-dateDecember 26, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181226080745/https://www.bfmtv.com/planete/le-mont-blanc-passe-de-4-810-metres-a-4-8087-metres-913753.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> \| coordinates {{coord\|45\|49\|58\|N\|06\|51\|54\|E\|formatdms\|display=inline}} \| coordinates_ref \| listing List of mountain ranges \| range_coordinates {{Coord\|46.58\|N\|8.62\|E\|formatdms\|display=inline,title}} \| range_coordinates_ref = <!-- Coordinates near Pizzo Centrale and Gotthard Pass --> \| map_image = Alpenrelief 01.jpg \| map_caption = Relief of the Alps. See also map with international borders marked. \| fetchwikidata = ALL \| mapframe = yes \| mapframe-stroke-width = 1 \| mapframe-stroke-color = #00ff00 }} (Italy) are a UNESCO World Heritage Site.]] The Alps ({{IPAc-en\|æ\|l\|p\|s}}){{efn\|{{langx\|fr\|Alpes}} {{IPA\|fr\|alp\|}}; {{langx\|de\|Alpen}} {{IPA\|de\|ˈalpn̩\|\|de-Alpen.ogg}}; {{langx\|it\|Alpi}} {{IPA\|it\|ˈalpi\|}}; {{langx\|rm\|Alps}} {{IPA\|rm\|alps\|}}; {{langx\|sl\|Alpe}} {{IPA\|sl\|ˈáːlpɛ\|}}.}} are some of the highest and most extensive mountain ranges in Europe,{{efn\|The Caucasus Mountains are higher, and the Urals longer.}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia \|titleAlps \|encyclopediaThe Hutchinson unabridged encyclopedia with atlas and weather guide \|date2014 \|publisherHelicon \|placeAbington, United Kingdom \|urlhttp://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/heliconhe/alps/0 \|url-accesssubscription \|access-dateMarch 7, 2015 \|archive-dateAugust 30, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180830110245/https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/heliconhe/alps/0 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> stretching approximately {{cvt\|1200\|km\|mi}} across eight Alpine countries (from west to east): Monaco, France, Switzerland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Germany, Austria and Slovenia.{{efn\|Depending on the definitions used, a small mountain range in western Hungary may also qualify as part of the Alps, although these are more typically classified as foothills, and Hungary is not considered to be an Alpine country.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastkutka \|firstpetr \|date2022-02-21 \|titleVíte, že jsou Alpy i v Maďarsku? Geografická zajímavost a tip na příjemný výlet \|urlhttps://svetobeznik.info/madarsko-alpy-zajimavost-vylet/ \|access-date2022-04-12 \|websiteSvětoběžník.info \|languagecs \|archive-dateDecember 20, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221220230955/https://svetobeznik.info/madarsko-alpy-zajimavost-vylet/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref>}}<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.alpconv.org/en/home/ \|titleThe Alpine Convention \|publisherAlpine Convention \|accessdate27 July 2023 \|quoteThe Alps are a fascinating and spectacular mountain range spanning eight countries: Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein, Monaco, Slovenia, and Switzerland. \|archive-dateOctober 22, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231022022616/https://www.alpconv.org/en/home \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The Alpine arch extends from Nice on the western Mediterranean to Trieste on the Adriatic and Vienna at the beginning of the Pannonian Basin. The mountains were formed over tens of millions of years as the African and Eurasian tectonic plates collided. Extreme shortening <!-- why shortening? --> caused by the event resulted in marine sedimentary rocks rising by thrusting and folding into high mountain peaks such as Mont Blanc and the Matterhorn. Mont Blanc spans the French–Italian border, and at {{cvt\|4809\|m\|0}} is the highest mountain in the Alps. The Alpine region area contains 82 peaks higher than {{cvt\|4000\|m}}. The altitude and size of the range affect the climate in Europe; in the mountains, precipitation levels vary greatly and climatic conditions consist of distinct zones. Wildlife such as ibex live in the higher peaks to elevations of {{cvt\|3400\|m\|0}}, and plants such as edelweiss grow in rocky areas in lower elevations as well as in higher elevations. Evidence of human habitation in the Alps goes back to the Palaeolithic era. A mummified man ("Ötzi"), determined to be 5,000 years old, was discovered on a glacier at the Austrian–Italian border in 1991.<ref nameotzi>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.iceman.it/en/the-iceman/ \|titleÖtzi the Iceman \|websitewww.iceman.it \|access-date2023-05-24 \|archive-dateOctober 1, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231001033128/https://www.iceman.it/en/the-iceman/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> By the 6th century BC, the Celtic La Tène culture was well established. Hannibal notably crossed the Alps with a herd of elephants, and the Romans had settlements in the region. In 1800, Napoleon crossed one of the mountain passes with an army of 40,000. The 18th and 19th centuries saw an influx of naturalists, writers, and artists, in particular, the Romanticists, followed by the golden age of alpinism as mountaineers began to ascend the peaks of the Alps. The Alpine region has a strong cultural identity. Traditional practices such as farming, cheesemaking, and woodworking still thrive in Alpine villages. However, the tourist industry began to grow early in the 20th century and expanded significantly after World War II, eventually becoming the dominant industry by the end of the century. The Winter Olympic Games have been hosted in the Swiss, French, Italian, Austrian and German Alps. {{As of\|2010\|post,}} the region is home to 14&nbsp;million people and has 120&nbsp;million annual visitors.<ref name "Chatré8">Chatré, Baptiste, et al. (2010), 8</ref> Etymology and toponymy {{See also\|Albion#Etymology}} ).]] The English word Alps comes from the Latin Alpes. The Latin word Alpes could possibly come from the adjective albus<ref name="etymonline.com"/> ("white"), or could possibly come from the Greek goddess Alphito, whose name is related to alphita, the "white flour"; alphos, a dull white leprosy; and finally the Proto-Indo-European word albʰós. Similarly, the river god Alpheus is also supposed to derive from the Greek alphos and means whitish.<ref>Smith, Jennifer Nimmo (2004). The river Alpheus in Greek, Christian and Byzantine thought. Byzantion</ref> In his commentary on the Aeneid of Virgil, the late fourth-century grammarian Maurus Servius Honoratus says that all high mountains are called Alpes by Celts.<ref>{{cite book \|authorMaurus Servius Honoratus \|titleServii Grammatici qui feruntur in Vergilii carmina commentarii \|chapterBook 10, line 13 \|chapter-urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0053%3Abook%3D10%3Acommline%3D13 \|languagela \|editorGeorgius Thilo \|access-dateFebruary 20, 2021 \|archive-dateNovember 6, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211106073851/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0053%3Abook%3D10%3Acommline%3D13 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the Latin Alpes might derive from a pre-Indo-European word alb "hill"; "Albania" is a related derivation. Albania, the name of the region known as the country of Albania, has been used as a name for several mountainous areas across Europe. In Roman times, "Albania" was a name for the eastern Caucasus, while in the English languages "Albania" (or "Albany") was occasionally used as a name for Scotland,<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame0&searchAlbania&searchmodenone \|titleOnline Etymology Dictionary \|publisherEtymonline.com \|dateMay 14, 1955 \|access-dateApril 18, 2012 \|archive-dateJuly 28, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170728055023/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame0&searchAlbania&searchmodenone \|url-statuslive }}</ref> although it is more likely derived from the Latin word albus,<ref name"etymonline.com">{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.etymonline.com/word/alp \|titleAlp &#124; Origin and meaning of alp by Online Etymology Dictionary \|access-dateDecember 16, 2018 \|archive-dateDecember 17, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181217110610/https://www.etymonline.com/word/alp \|url-status=live }}</ref> the colour white. In modern languages the term alp, alm, albe or alpe refers to a grazing pastures in the alpine regions below the glaciers, not the peaks.<ref nameSchmid93>{{cite journal \|doi10.1007/s00015-004-1113-x \|titleTectonic map and overall architecture of the Alpine orogen \|journalEclogae Geologicae Helvetiae \|volume97 \|year2004 \|last1Schmid \|first1Stefan M. \|last2Genschuh \|first2Bernhard \|last3Kissling \|first3Eduard \|last4Schuster \|first4Ralf \|issue1 \|bibcode2004SwJG...97...93S \|s2cid22393862 \|doi-accessfree\|page=93}}</ref> An alp refers to a high mountain pasture, typically near or above the tree line, where cows and other livestock are taken to be grazed during the summer months and where huts and hay barns can be found, sometimes constituting tiny hamlets. Therefore, the term "the Alps", as a reference to the mountains, is a misnomer.<ref name"Reynolds43ff" /><ref name"Fleming 4">Fleming (2000), 4</ref> The term for the mountain peaks varies by nation and language: words such as Horn, Kogel, Kopf, Gipfel, Spitze, Stock, and Berg are used in German-speaking regions; Mont, Pic, Tête, Pointe, Dent, Roche, and Aiguille in French-speaking regions; and Monte, Picco, Corno, Punta, Pizzo, or Cima in Italian-speaking regions.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 117–19</ref> Geography {{main\|Geography of the Alps}} The Alps are a crescent shaped geographic feature of central Europe that ranges in an {{cvt\|800\|km\|-1}} arc (curved line) from east to west and is {{cvt\|200\|km\|-1}} in width. The mean height of the mountain peaks is {{cvt\|2.5\|km\|1}}.<ref name"Ceben 22–24"/> The range stretches from the Mediterranean Sea north above the Po basin, extending through France from Grenoble, and stretching eastward through mid and southern Switzerland. The range continues onward toward Vienna, Austria, and southeast to the Adriatic Sea and Slovenia.<ref name "Chatré9">Chatré, Baptiste, et al. (2010), 9</ref><ref>Fleming (2000), 1</ref><ref name="Beattie xii–xiii"/> To the south it dips into northern Italy and to the north extends to the southern border of Bavaria in Germany.<ref name="Beattie xii–xiii">Beattie (2006), xii–xiii</ref> In areas like Chiasso, Switzerland, and Allgäu, Bavaria, the demarcation between the mountain range and the flatlands are clear; in other places such as Geneva, the demarcation is less clear. The Alps are found in the following countries: Austria (28.7% of the range's area), Italy (27.2%), France (21.4%), Switzerland (13.2%), Germany (5.8%), Slovenia (3.6%), Liechtenstein (0.08%) and Monaco (0.001%).<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.alpconv.org/en/convention/smallbites/thealps/default.html \|titleAlpine Convention - the Convention - the Alpine Convention in a nutshell - the Alps - Home \|access-dateMarch 9, 2019 \|archive-dateSeptember 25, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180925102533/http://www.alpconv.org/en/convention/smallbites/thealps/default.html \|url-statusdead}}</ref> , the second-highest range of the Alps]] The highest portion of the range is divided by the glacial trough of the Rhône valley, from Mont Blanc to the Matterhorn and Monte Rosa on the southern side, and the Bernese Alps on the northern. The peaks in the easterly portion of the range, in Austria and Slovenia, are smaller than those in the central and western portions.<ref name="Beattie xii–xiii" /> The variances in nomenclature in the region spanned by the Alps make classification of the mountains and subregions difficult, but a general classification is that of the Eastern Alps and Western Alps with the divide between the two occurring in eastern Switzerland according to geologist Stefan Schmid,<ref name=Schmid93/> near the Splügen Pass. valley of Tyrol, Austria]] The highest peaks of the Western Alps and Eastern Alps, respectively, are Mont Blanc, at {{cvt\|4810\|m\|ft\|-1}},<ref>Shoumtoff (2001), 23</ref> and Piz Bernina, at {{cvt\|4049\|m\|0}}. The second-highest major peaks are Monte Rosa, at {{cvt\|4634\|m\|0}}, and Ortler,<ref>Excluding the Piz Zupò and Piz Roseg located in the Bernina range, close to Piz Bernina.</ref> at {{cvt\|3905\|m\|-1}}, respectively. A series of lower mountain ranges run parallel to the main chain of the Alps, including the French Prealps in France and the Jura Mountains in Switzerland and France. The secondary chain of the Alps follows the watershed from the Mediterranean Sea to the Wienerwald, passing over many of the highest and most well-known peaks in the Alps. From the Colle di Cadibona to Col de Tende it runs westwards, before turning to the northwest and then, near the Colle della Maddalena, to the north. Upon reaching the Swiss border, the line of the main chain heads approximately east-northeast, a heading it follows until its end near Vienna.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/place/Alps\|titleAlps {{!}} Definition, Map, & Facts\|websiteEncyclopædia Britannica\|languageen\|access-dateFebruary 4, 2019\|archive-dateJune 13, 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150613024019/https://www.britannica.com/place/Alps\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The northeast end of the Alpine arc, directly on the Danube, which flows into the Black Sea, is the Leopoldsberg near Vienna. In contrast, the southeastern part of the Alps ends on the Adriatic Sea in the area around Trieste towards Duino and Barcola.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.alpenpaesse-wasserscheiden.at/italien/das-alpine-einzugsgebiet-der-adria-excl-po-gebiet-innerer-alpenbogen/das-triestiner-kuestengebiet/ \|titleDie Alpen: Hydrologie und Verkehrsübergänge (German) \|access-dateJune 14, 2020 \|archive-dateNovember 3, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211103195312/https://www.alpenpaesse-wasserscheiden.at/italien/das-alpine-einzugsgebiet-der-adria-excl-po-gebiet-innerer-alpenbogen/das-triestiner-kuestengebiet/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Passes {{main\|Principal passes of the Alps}} '' (Devil's Bridge) on the route to the Gotthard Pass; the currently used bridge from 1958 over the first drivable bridge from 1830]] The Alps have been crossed for war and commerce, and by pilgrims, students, and tourists. Crossing routes by road, train, or foot are known as passes, and usually consist of depressions in the mountains in which a valley leads from the plains and hilly pre-mountainous zones.{{sfn\|Coolidge\|Lake\|Knox\|1911\|p740}} Merchant traffic was supported by pack animals such as mules. In the late Middle Ages heavy carts and sleighs were in use on the alpine passes.<ref>{{cite book \|titleThe Alps: An Environmental History \|author1Jon Mathieu \|date2019 \|publisherPolity Press \|isbn9781509527748}}</ref> In the medieval period hospices were established by religious orders at the summits of many of the main passes.<ref name"Fleming 4" /> The most important passes are the Col de l'Iseran (the highest), the Col Agnel, the Brenner Pass, the Mont-Cenis, the Great St. Bernard Pass, the Col de Tende, the Gotthard Pass, the Semmering Pass, the Simplon Pass, and the Stelvio Pass.<ref name"Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopedia Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica; retrieved 6 August 2012.</ref> Crossing the Italian-Austrian border, the Brenner Pass separates the Ötztal Alps and Zillertal Alps and has been in use as a trading route since the 14th century. The lowest of the Alpine passes at {{cvt\|985\|m\|0}} is the Semmering crossing from Lower Austria to Styria. It has been in continuous use since the 12th century when a hospice was built there. A railroad with a tunnel {{cvt\|1\|mi\|orderflip}} long was built along the route of the pass in the mid-19th century. With a summit of {{cvt\|2469\|m\|0}}, the Great St Bernard Pass is one of the highest in the Alps, crossing the Italian-Swiss border east of the Pennine Alps along the flanks of Mont Blanc. The pass was used by Napoleon Bonaparte to cross 40,000 troops in 1800.<ref name"switz">{{cite web \|urlhttp://switzerland.isyours.com/e/guide/valais/grandstbernardhistory.html \|titleHistory of the Great St Bernard pass \|access-date8 August 2007 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20121208215024/http://switzerland.isyours.com/e/guide/valais/grandstbernardhistory.html \|archive-date8 December 2012}}</ref> {{wide image\|Versant sud val cenis.jpg\|750px\|caption=The col du Mont-Cenis ({{cvt\|2081\|m}}) at the centre left of the picture gives access to a large alpine lake, and further away to the Italian peninsula {{cvt\|12\|km}} beyond the pass.}} The Mont Cenis pass has been a major commercial and military road between Western Europe and Italy. The pass was crossed by many troops on their way to the Italian peninsula. From Constantine I, Pepin the Short and Charlemagne to Henry IV, Napoléon and more recently the German Gebirgsjägers during World War II.<ref>{{cite news \|lastThiers \|firstFrédéric \|titleRonce, le gardien silencieux du col du Mont-Cenis \|urlhttps://www.ledauphine.com/savoie/2016/08/09/les-forts-de-maurienne-en-topo-guide \|workLe Dauphiné libéré \|dateAugust 10, 2016 \|access-dateNovember 28, 2021 \|archive-dateNovember 28, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211128121141/https://www.ledauphine.com/savoie/2016/08/09/les-forts-de-maurienne-en-topo-guide \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In the 18th century the principal passes of the Alps were modernized by engineers to speed up passenger and freight transport.<ref>{{cite book \|titleThe Alps: An Environmental History \|author1Jon Mathieu \|date2019 \|publisherPolity Press \|isbn9781509527748}}</ref> The Mont Cenis pass has been supplanted by the Fréjus Rail Tunnel opening in 1871, while the Fréjus Road Tunnel opened 1980.<ref>{{cite book \|titleItalian Railways \|firstP. M. \|lastKalla-Bishop \|year1971 \|publisherDavid & Charles \|isbn0-7153-5168-0 \|pages41–42}}</ref> Railway lines could not be built in the Alps without tunnels and bridges. Apart from the Mont Cenis railway tunnel the Semmering railway tunnel and the Gotthard railway tunnel were built between 1854 and 1882. By the early 19th century eight trans-alpine railway lines had been put into operation.<ref>{{cite book \|titleThe Alps: An Environmental History \|author1Jon Mathieu \|date2019 \|publisherPolity Press \|isbn=9781509527748}}</ref> The Saint Gotthard Pass crosses from Central Switzerland to Ticino. In 1882 the {{convert\|15\|km\|mi\|abbron\|adjmid\|-long}} Saint Gotthard Railway Tunnel was opened connecting Lucerne in Switzerland, with Milan in Italy. 98 years later followed Gotthard Road Tunnel ({{cvt\|16.9\|km}} long) connecting the A2 motorway in Göschenen on the north side with Airolo on the south side, exactly like the railway tunnel. On 1 June 2016 the world's longest railway tunnel, the Gotthard Base Tunnel, was opened, which connects Erstfeld in canton of Uri with Bodio in canton of Ticino by two single tubes of {{cvt\|57.1\|km}}.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.tagesanzeiger.ch/wissen/technik/wer-hat-die-groesste-roehre/story/14922381 \|titleWer hat die grösste Röhre? \|trans-titleWho has the longest tube? \|typegraphical animation \|newspaperTages-Anzeiger \|locationZurich \|dateApril 14, 2016 \|languagede \|access-date11 May 2016 \|archive-dateApril 29, 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160429131605/http://www.tagesanzeiger.ch/wissen/technik/Wer-hat-die-groesste-Roehre/story/14922381 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> It is the first tunnel that traverses the Alps on a flat route.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.tagesanzeiger.ch/wissen/natur/was-die-tunnelbauer-im-gotthard-antrafen/story/11796993 \|titleWas die Tunnelbauer im Gotthard antrafen \|typegraphical animation \|newspaperTages-Anzeiger \|locationZurich \|date1 April 2016 \|languagede \|access-date11 May 2016 \|archive-dateMay 11, 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160511163138/http://www.tagesanzeiger.ch/wissen/natur/was-die-tunnelbauer-im-gotthard-antrafen/story/11796993? \|url-status=live }}</ref> From 11 December 2016, it has been part of the regular railway timetable and used hourly as standard ride between Basel/Lucerne/Zurich and Bellinzona/Lugano/Milan.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.fahrplanfelder.ch/en/welcome.html \|titleOfficial Timetable \|publisherSwiss Federal Office for Transport \|locationBern \|languageen, de, fr, it, rm \|access-dateMay 11, 2016 \|archive-dateJune 27, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220627184607/https://www.fahrplanfelder.ch/en/welcome.html \|url-status=dead}}</ref> The highest pass in the alps is the Col de l'Iseran in Savoy (France) at {{cvt\|2770\|m\|0}}, followed by the Stelvio Pass in northern Italy at {{cvt\|2756\|m\|0}}; the road was built in the 1820s.<ref name"Britannica" /> Highest mountains {{see also\|List of Alpine four-thousanders}} (shown along with the Mönch and the Jungfrau) has the tallest north face in the Alps.]] The Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme (UIAA) has defined a list of 82 "official" Alpine summits that reach at least {{cvt\|4000\|m\|ft\|0}}.<ref>{{cite journal \|titleThe 4000ers of the Alps: Official UIAA List \|journalUIAA-Bulletin \|issue145 \|dateMarch 1994 \|urlhttp://www.club4000.it/Articoli/Boll_uiaa.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100307064135/http://www.club4000.it/Articoli/Boll_uiaa.pdf \|archive-date=March 7, 2010}}</ref> The list includes not only mountains, but also subpeaks with little prominence that are considered important mountaineering objectives. Below are listed the 29 "four-thousanders" with at least {{cvt\|300\|m\|ft\|0}} of prominence. While Mont Blanc was first climbed in 1786 and the Jungfrau in 1811, most of the Alpine four-thousanders were climbed during the second half of the 19th century, notably Piz Bernina (1850), the Dom (1858), the Grand Combin (1859), the Weisshorn (1861) and the Barre des Écrins (1864); the ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865 marked the end of the golden age of alpinism. Karl Blodig (1859–1956) was among the first to successfully climb all the major 4,000&nbsp;m peaks. He completed his series of ascents in 1911.<ref>Michael Huxley, The Geographical magazine: Volume 59, Geographical Press, 1987</ref> Many of the big Alpine three-thousanders were climbed in the early 19th century, notably the Grossglockner (1800) and the Ortler (1804), although some of them were climbed only much later, such at Mont Pelvoux (1848), Monte Viso (1861) and La Meije (1877). The first British Mont Blanc ascent by a man was in 1788; the first ascent by a woman was in 1808. By the mid-1850s Swiss mountaineers had ascended most of the peaks and were eagerly sought as mountain guides. Edward Whymper reached the top of the Matterhorn in 1865 (after seven attempts), and in 1938 the last of the six great north faces of the Alps was climbed with the first ascent of the Eiger Nordwand (north face of the Eiger).<ref name = "Shoumatoff197ff">Shoumatoff (2001), 197–200</ref> <!--This is only a minimalist list with link to full detailed list. It is not supposed to be detailed. In ANY case, NO country flags, per Mos:Flags--> {\| class"wikitable" style"margin: 1em auto 1em auto;" \|+ The 29 Alpine four-thousanders with at least 300 metres of topographic prominence<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.bielefeldt.de/4000e.php?Sortsheight&Aufabdescending&ListeUIAA \|title4000&nbsp;m Peaks of the Alps \|publisherBielefeldt.de \|dateJuly 6, 2010 \|access-dateAugust 9, 2012 \|archive-dateApril 22, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210422212906/https://www.bielefeldt.de/4000e.php?Sortsheight&Aufabdescending&ListeUIAA \|url-statuslive }}</ref> ! align=left \| Name ! align=left \| Height ! align=left \| Name ! align=left \| Height ! align=left \| Name ! align=left \| Height \|- \| Mont Blanc \| {{cvt\|4810\|m\|ft\|0}} \| Grandes Jorasses \| {{cvt\|4208\|m\|ft\|0}} \| Barre des Écrins \| {{cvt\|4102\|m\|ft\|0}} \|- \| Monte Rosa \| {{cvt\|4634\|m\|ft\|0}} \| Alphubel \| {{cvt\|4206\|m\|ft\|0}} \| Schreckhorn \| {{cvt\|4078\|m\|ft\|0}} \|- \| Dom \| {{cvt\|4546\|m\|ft\|0}} \| Rimpfischhorn \| {{cvt\|4199\|m\|ft\|0}} \| Ober Gabelhorn \| {{cvt\|4063\|m\|ft\|0}} \|- \| Lyskamm \| {{cvt\|4532\|m\|ft\|0}} \| Aletschhorn \| {{cvt\|4194\|m\|ft\|0}} \| Gran Paradiso \| {{cvt\|4061\|m\|ft\|0}} \|- \| Weisshorn \| {{cvt\|4505\|m\|ft\|0}} \| Strahlhorn \| {{cvt\|4190\|m\|ft\|0}} \| Piz Bernina \| {{cvt\|4048\|m\|ft\|0}} \|- \| Matterhorn \| {{cvt\|4478\|m\|ft\|0}} \| Dent d'Hérens \| {{cvt\|4173\|m\|ft\|0}} \| Gross Fiescherhorn \| {{cvt\|4049\|m\|ft\|0}} \|- \| Dent Blanche \| {{cvt\|4357\|m\|ft\|0}} \| Breithorn \| {{cvt\|4160\|m\|ft\|0}} \| Gross Grünhorn \| {{cvt\|4043\|m\|ft\|0}} \|- \| Grand Combin \| {{cvt\|4309\|m\|ft\|0}} \| Jungfrau \| {{cvt\|4158\|m\|ft\|0}} \| Weissmies \| {{cvt\|4013\|m\|ft\|0}} \|- \| Finsteraarhorn \| {{cvt\|4274\|m\|ft\|0}} \| Aiguille Verte \| {{cvt\|4122\|m\|ft\|0}} \| Lagginhorn \| {{cvt\|4010\|m\|ft\|0}} \|- \| Zinalrothorn \| {{cvt\|4221\|m\|ft\|0}} \| Mönch \| {{cvt\|4110\|m\|ft\|0}} \| colspan"2"; style"text-align: center; \| list continued here \|} Geology and orogeny {{main\|Alpine orogeny\|Geology of the Alps}} Important geological concepts were established as naturalists began studying the rock formations of the Alps in the 18th century. In the mid-19th century, the now-defunct idea of geosynclines was used to explain the presence of "folded" mountain chains. This theory was replaced in the mid-20th century by the theory of plate tectonics.<ref name="Graciansky1ff" /> seen at the Arpenaz waterfall, shown here in a mid-18th-century drawing, was noted by 18th-century geologists.<ref name="Graciansky5">Graciansky (2011), 5</ref>]] The formation of the Alps (the Alpine orogeny) was an episodic process that began about 300&nbsp;million years ago.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 35</ref> In the Paleozoic Era the Pangaean supercontinent consisted of a single tectonic plate; it broke into separate plates during the Mesozoic Era and the Tethys sea developed between Laurasia and Gondwana during the Jurassic Period.<ref name"Graciansky1ff">Graciansky (2011), 1–2</ref> The Tethys was later squeezed between colliding plates causing the formation of mountain ranges called the Alpide belt, from Gibraltar through the Himalayas to Indonesia—a process that began at the end of the Mesozoic and continues into the present. The formation of the Alps was a segment of this orogenic process,<ref name"Graciansky1ff" /> caused by the collision between the African and the Eurasian plates<ref name"Gerrard9" /> that began in the late Cretaceous Period.<ref name"Gerrard16">Gerrard, (1990), 16</ref> Under extreme compressive stresses and pressure, marine sedimentary rocks were uplifted, forming characteristic recumbent folds, and thrust faults.<ref>Earth (2008), 142</ref> As the rising peaks underwent erosion, a layer of marine flysch sediments was deposited in the foreland basin, and the sediments became involved in younger folds as the orogeny progressed. Coarse sediments from the continual uplift and erosion were later deposited in foreland areas north of the Alps.<ref name"Gerrard9">Gerrard, (1990), 9</ref> These regions in Switzerland and Bavaria are well-developed, containing classic examples of flysch, which is sedimentary rock formed during mountain building.<ref nameSchmid102>Schmid (2004), 102</ref> in the Julian Alps]] The Alpine orogeny occurred in ongoing cycles through to the Paleogene causing differences in folded structures, with a late-stage orogeny causing the development of the Jura Mountains.<ref nameSchmid97>Schmid (2004), 97</ref> A series of tectonic events in the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods caused different paleogeographic regions.<ref nameSchmid97/> The Alps are subdivided by different lithology (rock composition) and nappe structures according to the orogenic events that affected them.<ref nameSchmid93/> The geological subdivision differentiates the Western, Eastern Alps, and Southern Alps: the Helveticum in the north, the Penninicum and Austroalpine system in the centre and, south of the Periadriatic Seam, the Southern Alpine system.<ref nameSchmid99/> (Italian-Swiss border), which consists of gneisses originally part of the African plate, and the base of the peak, which is part of the Eurasian plate.<ref name="Graciansky5"/>]] According to geologist Stefan Schmid, because the Western Alps underwent a metamorphic event in the Cenozoic Era while the Austroalpine peaks underwent an event in the Cretaceous Period, the two areas show distinct differences in nappe formations.<ref nameSchmid97/> Flysch deposits in the Southern Alps of Lombardy probably occurred in the Cretaceous or later.<ref nameSchmid97/> Peaks in France, Italy and Switzerland lie in the "Houillière zone", which consists of basement with sediments from the Mesozoic Era.<ref nameSchmid99>Schmid, 99</ref> High "massifs" with external sedimentary cover are more common in the Western Alps and were affected by Neogene Period thin-skinned thrusting whereas the Eastern Alps have comparatively few high peaked massifs.<ref nameSchmid102/> Similarly the peaks in eastern Switzerland extending to western Austria (Helvetic nappes) consist of thin-skinned sedimentary folding that detached from former basement rock.<ref name=Schmid103>Schmid (2004), 103</ref> In simple terms, the structure of the Alps consists of layers of rock of European, African, and oceanic (Tethyan) origin.<ref name"Graciansky29ff">Graciansky (2011), 29</ref> The bottom nappe structure is of continental European origin, above which are stacked marine sediment nappes, topped off by nappes derived from the African plate.<ref name"Graciansky31">Graciansky (2011), 31</ref> The Matterhorn is an example of the ongoing orogeny and shows evidence of great folding. The tip of the mountain consists of gneisses from the African plate; the base of the peak, below the glaciated area, consists of European basement rock. The sequence of Tethyan marine sediments and their oceanic basement is sandwiched between rock derived from the African and European plates.<ref name="Graciansky5"/> {{wide image\|Savine.JPG\|750px\|captionHaute Maurienne (Ambin and Vanoise massifs) and its exposed crystalline basement made of high-pressure subduction rocks such as blueschist and metaquartzite (picture taken at {{convert\|2400\|m\|dispor}})}}{{clear}} The core regions of the Alpine orogenic belt have been folded and fractured in such a manner that erosion produced the characteristic steep vertical peaks of the Swiss Alps that rise seemingly straight out of the foreland areas.<ref name="Gerrard16"/> Peaks such as Mont Blanc, the Matterhorn, and high peaks in the Pennine Alps, the Briançonnais, and Hohe Tauern consist of layers of rock from the various orogenies including exposures of basement rock.<ref>Beattie (2006), 6–8</ref> Due to the ever-present geologic instability, earthquakes continue in the Alps to this day.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.seismo.ethz.ch/en/knowledge/earthquake-country-switzerland/earthquakes-and-the-alps/ \|titleSED &#124; Earthquakes and the Alps \|access-dateFebruary 2, 2019 \|archive-dateFebruary 3, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190203030400/http://www.seismo.ethz.ch/en/knowledge/earthquake-country-switzerland/earthquakes-and-the-alps/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Typically, the largest earthquakes in the alps have been between magnitude 6 and 7 on the Richter scale.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.seismo.ethz.ch/static/100j/snapshot05/sn05_gal3_EN.html \|titleThe largest earthquakes in the Alps \|access-dateFebruary 2, 2019 \|archive-dateFebruary 2, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190202212340/http://www.seismo.ethz.ch/static/100j/snapshot05/sn05_gal3_EN.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Geodetic measurements show ongoing topographic uplift at rates of up to about 2.5&nbsp;mm per year in the North, Western and Central Alps, and at ~1&nbsp;mm per year in the Eastern and South-Western Alps.<ref name"Sternai-2019">{{Cite journal \|last1Sternai \|first1Pietro \|last2Sue \|first2Christian \|last3Husson \|first3Laurent \|last4Serpelloni \|first4Enrico \|last5Becker \|first5Thorsten W. \|last6Willett \|first6Sean D. \|last7Faccenna \|first7Claudio \|last8Di Giulio \|first8Andrea \|last9Spada \|first9Giorgio \|last10Jolivet \|first10Laurent \|last11Valla \|first11Pierre \|last12Petit \|first12Carole \|last13Nocquet \|first13Jean-Mathieu \|last14Walpersdorf \|first14Andrea \|last15Castelltort \|first15Sébastien \|dateMarch 2019 \|titlePresent-day uplift of the European Alps: Evaluating mechanisms and models of their relative contributions \|urlhttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.01.005 \|journalEarth-Science Reviews \|volume190 \|pages589–604 \|doi10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.01.005 \|bibcode2019ESRv..190..589S \|hdl10281/229017 \|s2cid96447591 \|issn0012-8252 \|hdl-accessfree}}</ref> The underlying mechanisms that jointly drive the present-day uplift pattern are the isostatic rebound due to the melting of the last glacial maximum ice-cap or long-term erosion, detachment of the Western Alpine subducting slab, mantle convection as well as ongoing horizontal convergence between Africa and Europe, but their relative contributions to the uplift of the Alps are difficult to quantify and likely to vary significantly in space and time.<ref name"Sternai-2019" /> Minerals The Alps are a source of minerals that have been mined for thousands of years. In the 8th to 6th centuries, BC during the Hallstatt culture, Celtic tribes mined copper; later the Romans mined gold for coins in the Bad Gastein area. Erzberg in Styria furnishes high-quality iron ore for the steel industry. Crystals, such as cinnabar, amethyst, and quartz, are found throughout much of the Alpine region. The cinnabar deposits in Slovenia are a notable source of cinnabar pigments.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 49–53</ref> Alpine crystals have been studied and collected for hundreds of years and began to be classified in the 18th century. Leonhard Euler studied the shapes of crystals, and by the 19th-century crystal hunting was common in Alpine regions. David Friedrich Wiser amassed a collection of 8000 crystals that he studied and documented. In the 20th century Robert Parker wrote a well-known work about the rock crystals of the Swiss Alps; at the same period a commission was established to control and standardize the naming of Alpine minerals.<ref>Roth, 10–17</ref> Glaciers {{see also\|List of glaciers in Switzerland}} by Alexander Keith Johnston was first published 1848 in The Physical Atlas.]] In the Miocene Epoch the mountains underwent severe erosion because of glaciation,<ref name"Gerrard16" /> which was noted in the mid-19th century by naturalist Louis Agassiz who presented a paper proclaiming the Alps were covered in ice at various intervals—a theory he formed when studying rocks near his Neuchâtel home which he believed originated to the west in the Bernese Oberland. Because of his work he came to be known as the "father of the ice-age concept" although other naturalists before him put forth similar ideas.<ref name"Shoumatoff63ff">Shoumatoff (2001), 63–68</ref> 's studies of the Unteraar Glacier in the 1840s showed that it moved at {{cvt\|100\|m\|0}} per year.<ref name="Shoumatoff63ff" />]] Agassiz studied glacier movement in the 1840s at the Unteraar Glacier where he found the glacier moved {{cvt\|100\|m\|0}} per year, more rapidly in the middle than at the edges. His work was continued by other scientists and now a permanent laboratory exists inside a glacier under the Jungfraujoch, devoted exclusively to the study of Alpine glaciers.<ref name="Shoumatoff63ff" /> Glaciers pick up rocks and sediment with them as they flow. This causes erosion and the formation of valleys over time. The Inn valley is an example of a valley carved by glaciers during the ice ages with a typical terraced structure caused by erosion. Eroded rocks from the most recent ice age lie at the bottom of the valley while the top of the valley consists of erosion from earlier ice ages.<ref name"Shoumatoff63ff" /> Glacial valleys have characteristically steep walls (reliefs); valleys with lower reliefs and talus slopes are remnants of glacial troughs or previously infilled valleys.<ref name"Gerrard132">Gerrard, (1990), 132</ref> Moraines, piles of rock picked up during the movement of the glacier, accumulate at edges, centre, and the terminus of glaciers.<ref name="Shoumatoff63ff" /> to the Sphinx Observatory, through a glacier at the Jungfraujoch]] Alpine glaciers can be straight rivers of ice, long sweeping rivers, spread in a fan-like shape (Piedmont glaciers), and curtains of ice that hang from vertical slopes of the mountain peaks. The stress of the movement causes the ice to break and crack loudly, perhaps explaining why the mountains were believed to be home to dragons in the medieval period. The cracking creates unpredictable and dangerous crevasses, often invisible under new snowfall, which causes the greatest danger to mountaineers.<ref name="Shoumatoff71ff"/> Glaciers end in ice caves (the Rhône Glacier), by trailing into a lake or river, or by shedding snowmelt on a meadow. Sometimes a piece of glacier will detach or break resulting in flooding, property damage, and loss of life.<ref name="Shoumatoff71ff">Shoumatoff (2001), 71–72</ref> High levels of precipitation cause the glaciers to descend to permafrost levels in some areas whereas in other, more arid regions, glaciers remain above about the {{cvt\|3500\|m\|0}} level.<ref name"Gerrard78">Gerrard, (1990), 78</ref> The {{cvt\|1817\|km2}} of the Alps covered by glaciers in 1876 had shrunk to {{cvt\|1342\|km2}} by 1973, resulting in decreased river run-off levels.<ref name"Gerrard108">Gerrard, (1990), 108</ref> Forty percent of the glaciation in Austria has disappeared since 1850, and 30% of that in Switzerland.<ref>Ceben (1998), 38</ref> Although the Alpine topography shows marked glacial morphologies,<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Sternai \|first1P. \|last2Herman \|first2F. \|last3Fox \|first3M. R. \|last4Castelltort \|first4S. \|date2011-07-13 \|titleHypsometric analysis to identify spatially variable glacial erosion \|journalJournal of Geophysical Research \|languageen \|volume116 \|issueF3 \|pagesF03001 \|doi10.1029/2010JF001823 \|bibcode2011JGRF..116.3001S \|issn0148-0227 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> the mechanisms by which glacial reshaping occurs are unclear. Numerical modeling suggests that glacial erosion propagates from low elevations to high elevations leading to an early increase of local relief followed by lowering of the mean orogen elevation.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Sternai \|first1Pietro \|last2Herman \|first2Frédéric \|last3Valla \|first3Pierre G. \|last4Champagnac \|first4Jean-Daniel \|date2013-04-15 \|titleSpatial and temporal variations of glacial erosion in the Rhône valley (Swiss Alps): Insights from numerical modeling \|urlhttps://hal-insu.archives-ouvertes.fr/insu-00853433/file/Sternai-EPSL-2013.pdf \|journalEarth and Planetary Science Letters \|languageen \|volume368 \|pages119–131 \|doi10.1016/j.epsl.2013.02.039 \|bibcode2013E&PSL.368..119S \|s2cid14687787 \|issn0012-821X}}</ref> Rivers and lakes {{main\|List of valleys of the Alps}} on the Königssee in Bavaria is a popular tourist destination.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 31</ref>]] The Alps provide lowland Europe with drinking water, irrigation, and hydroelectric power.<ref>Chatré, Baptiste, et al. (2010), 5</ref> Although the area is only about 11% of the surface area of Europe, the Alps provide up to 90% of water to lowland Europe, particularly to arid areas and during the summer months. Cities such as Milan depend on 80% of water from Alpine runoff.<ref name "Chatré9"/><ref name"Benniston et al. 2011, 1">Benniston et al. (2011), 1</ref><ref>Price, Martin. Mountains: Globally Important Eco-systems. University of Oxford</ref> Water from the rivers is used in at least 550 hydroelectricity power plants, considering only those producing at least 10MW of electricity.<ref>Alpine Convention (2010), 8</ref> Major European rivers flow from the Alps, such as the Rhine, the Rhône, the Inn, and the Po, all of which have headwaters in the Alps and flow into neighbouring countries, finally emptying into the North Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, the Adriatic Sea and the Black Sea. Other rivers such as the Danube have major tributaries flowing into them that originate in the Alps.<ref name = "Chatré9"/> The Rhône is second to the Nile as a freshwater source to the Mediterranean Sea; the river begins as glacial meltwater, flows into Lake Geneva, and from there to France where one of its uses is to cool nuclear power plants.<ref name"Benniston et al. 2011, 3">Benniston et al. (2011), 3</ref> The Rhine originates in a {{convert\|30\|km2\|abbron\|adjon}} area in Switzerland and represents almost 60% of water exported from the country.<ref name"Benniston et al. 2011, 3"/> Tributary valleys, some of which are complicated, channel water to the main valleys which can experience flooding during the snowmelt season when rapid runoff causes debris torrents and swollen rivers.<ref name="Ceben 1998, 31">Ceben (1998), 31</ref> The rivers form lakes, such as Lake Geneva, a crescent-shaped lake crossing the Swiss border with Lausanne on the Swiss side and the town of Evian-les-Bains on the French side. In Germany, the medieval St. Bartholomew's chapel was built on the south side of the Königssee, accessible only by boat or by climbing over the abutting peaks.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 24, 31</ref> like Lake Garda are characterised by warmer microclimates than the surrounding areas.]] Additionally, the Alps have led to the creation of large lakes in Italy. For instance, the Sarca, the primary inflow of Lake Garda, originates in the Italian Alps.<ref name"EnBrit">{{cite encyclopedia \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/place/Lake-Garda \|titleLake Garda \|encyclopediaEncyclopedia Britannica \|access-dateAugust 27, 2018 \|archive-dateAugust 28, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180828142322/https://www.britannica.com/place/Lake-Garda \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The Italian Lakes are a popular tourist destination since the Roman Era for their mild climate. Scientists have been studying the impact of climate change and water use. For example, each year more water is diverted from rivers for snowmaking in the ski resorts, the effect of which is yet unknown. Furthermore, the decrease of glaciated areas combined with a succession of winters with lower-than-expected precipitation may have a future impact on the rivers in the Alps as well as an effect on the water availability to the lowlands.<ref name"Benniston et al. 2011, 1"/><ref>Chatré, Baptiste, et al. (2010), 13</ref> Climate {{main\|Climate of the Alps\|High Alps}} The Alps are a classic example of what happens when a temperate area at lower altitude gives way to higher-elevation terrain. Elevations around the world that have cold climates similar to those of the polar regions have been called Alpine. A rise from sea level into the upper regions of the atmosphere causes the temperature to decrease (see adiabatic lapse rate). The effect of mountain chains on prevailing winds is to carry warm air belonging to the lower region into an upper zone, where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of temperature, often accompanied by precipitation in the form of snow or rain.{{sfn\|Coolidge\|Lake\|Knox\|1911\|p=737}} The height of the Alps is sufficient to divide the weather patterns in Europe into a wet north and dry south because moisture is sucked from the air as it flows over the high peaks.<ref>Fleming (2000), 3</ref> with pine trees growing on the hillside (2007; the surface is {{cvt\|180\|m}} lower than 150 years ago)]] The severe weather in the Alps has been studied since the 18th century; particularly the weather patterns such as the seasonal foehn wind. Numerous weather stations were placed in the mountains early in the early 20th century, providing continuous data for climatologists.<ref name"Ceben 22–24">Ceben (1998), 22–24</ref> Some of the valleys are quite arid such as the Aosta Valley in Italy, the Maurienne in France, the Valais in Switzerland, and northern Tyrol.<ref name"Ceben 22–24" /> The areas that are not arid and receive high precipitation experience periodic flooding from rapid snowmelt and runoff.<ref name="Ceben 1998, 31"/> The mean precipitation in the Alps ranges from a low of {{cvt\|2600\|mm\|in}} per year to {{cvt\|3600\|mm\|in}} per year, with the higher levels occurring at high altitudes. At altitudes between {{cvt\|1000\|and\|3,000\|m}}, snowfall begins in November and accumulates through to April or May when the melt begins. Snow lines vary from {{cvt\|2400\|to\|3,000\|m}}, above which the snow is permanent and the temperatures hover around the freezing point even during July and August. High-water levels in streams and rivers peak in June and July when the snow is still melting at the higher altitudes.<ref>Ceben (1998), 34–36</ref> The Alps are split into five climatic zones, each with different vegetation. The climate, plant life, and animal life vary among the different sections or zones of the mountains. The lowest zone is the colline zone, which exists between {{cvt\|500\|and\|1000\|m}}, depending on the location. The montane zone extends from {{cvt\|800\|to\|1,700\|m}}, followed by the sub-Alpine zone from {{cvt\|1600\|to\|2,400\|m}}. The Alpine zone, extending from tree line to the snow line, is followed by the glacial zone, which covers the glaciated areas of the mountain. Climatic conditions show variances within the same zones; for example, weather conditions at the head of a mountain valley, extending directly from the peaks, are colder and more severe than those at the mouth of a valley which tend to be less severe and receive less snowfall.<ref>Viazzo (1980), 17</ref> ;Climate change Various models of climate change have been projected into the 22nd century for the Alps, with an expectation that a trend toward increased temperatures will have an effect on snowfall, snowpack, glaciation, and river runoff.<ref>Benniston (2011), 3–4</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleIPCC regional fact sheet - Mountains \|urlhttps://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/factsheets/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Regional_Fact_Sheet_Mountains.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/factsheets/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Regional_Fact_Sheet_Mountains.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Significant changes, of both natural and anthropogenic origins, have already been diagnosed from observations,<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Huss \|first1Matthias \|last2Hock \|first2Regine \|last3Bauder \|first3Andreas \|last4Funk \|first4Martin \|dateMay 1, 2010 \|title100-year mass changes in the Swiss Alps linked to the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation \|journalGeophysical Research Letters \|languageen \|volume37 \|issue10 \|pagesL10501 \|doi10.1029/2010GL042616 \|issn1944-8007 \|bibcode2010GeoRL..3710501H \|urlhttp://doc.rero.ch/record/20213/files/hus_msc_sm.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://doc.rero.ch/record/20213/files/hus_msc_sm.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Zampieri \|first1Matteo \|last2Scoccimarro \|first2Enrico \|last3Gualdi \|first3Silvio \|dateJanuary 1, 2013 \|titleAtlantic influence on spring snowfall over the Alps in the past 150 years \|journalEnvironmental Research Letters \|languageen \|volume8 \|issue3 \|pages034026 \|doi10.1088/1748-9326/8/3/034026 \|issn1748-9326 \|doi-accessfree \|bibcode2013ERL.....8c4026Z}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Zampieri \|first1Matteo \|last2Scoccimarro \|first2Enrico \|last3Gualdi \|first3Silvio \|last4Navarra \|first4Antonio \|dateJanuary 15, 2015 \|titleObserved shift towards earlier spring discharge in the main Alpine rivers \|journalScience of the Total Environment \|seriesTowards a better understanding of the links between stressors, hazard assessment and ecosystem services under water scarcity \|volume503–504 \|pages222–232 \|doi10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.06.036 \|pmid25005239 \|hdl2122/9055 \|bibcode2015ScTEn.503..222Z}}</ref> including a 5.6% reduction per decade in snow cover duration over the last 50 years, which also highlights climate change adaptation needs due to impacts on the climate and regional socio-economic activities.<ref name"10.1038/s41558-022-01575-3">{{cite journal \|last1Carrer \|first1Marco \|last2Dibona \|first2Raffaella \|last3Prendin \|first3Angela Luisa \|last4Brunetti \|first4Michele \|titleRecent waning snowpack in the Alps is unprecedented in the last six centuries \|journalNature Climate Change \|dateFebruary 2023 \|volume13 \|issue2 \|pages155–160 \|doi10.1038/s41558-022-01575-3 \|bibcode2023NatCC..13..155C \|languageen \|issn1758-6798 \|doi-accessfree\|hdl11577/3477269 \|hdl-accessfree }}</ref> Ecology {{main\|Alps conifer and mixed forests}} Flora {{main\|Flora of the Alps}} )]] Thirteen thousand species of plants have been identified in the Alpine regions.<ref name "Chatré8"/> Alpine plants are grouped by habitat and soil type which can be limestone or non-calcareous. The habitats range from meadows, bogs, and woodland (deciduous and coniferous) areas to soil-less scree and moraines, and rock faces and ridges.<ref name"Reynolds43ff">Reynolds, (2012), 43–45</ref> A natural vegetation limit with altitude is given by the presence of the chief deciduous trees—oak, beech, ash and sycamore maple. These do not reach the same elevation, nor are they often found growing together, but their upper limit corresponds accurately enough to the change from a temperate to a colder climate that is further proved by a change in the presence of wild herbaceous vegetation.{{sfn\|Coolidge\|Lake\|Knox\|1911\|p=738}} This limit usually lies about {{cvt\|1200\|m}} above the sea on the north side of the Alps, but on the southern slopes it often rises to {{cvt\|1500\|m}}, sometimes even to {{cvt\|1700\|m}}.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 75</ref> )]] Above the forestry, there is often a band of dwarf pine trees (Pinus mugo), which is in turn superseded by Alpenrosen, dwarf shrubs, typically Rhododendron ferrugineum (on acid soils) or Rhododendron hirsutum (on alkaline soils).<ref>Beattie (2006), 17</ref> Although Alpenrose prefers acidic soil, the plants are found throughout the region.<ref name="Reynolds43ff" /> Above the tree line is the area defined as "alpine" where in the alpine meadow plants are found that have adapted well to harsh conditions of cold temperatures, aridity, and high altitudes. The alpine area fluctuates greatly because of regional fluctuations in tree lines.<ref>Körner (2003), 9</ref> Alpine plants such as the Alpine gentian grow in abundance in areas such as the meadows above the Lauterbrunnental. Gentians are named after the Illyrian king Gentius, and 40 species of the early-spring blooming flower grow in the Alps, in a range of {{cvt\|1500\|to\|2,400\|m}}.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 85</ref> Writing about the gentians in Switzerland D. H. Lawrence described them as "darkening the day-time, torch-like with the smoking blueness of Pluto's gloom."<ref>qtd in Beattie (2006), 17</ref> Gentians tend to "appear" repeatedly as the spring blooming takes place at progressively later dates, moving from the lower altitude to the higher altitude meadows where the snow melts much later than in the valleys. On the highest rocky ledges, the spring flowers bloom in the summer.<ref name="Reynolds43ff" /> in Bavaria]] ]] At these higher altitudes, the plants tend to form isolated cushions. In the Alps, several species of flowering plants have been recorded above {{cvt\|4000\|m}}, including Ranunculus glacialis, Androsace alpina and Saxifraga biflora. Eritrichium nanum, commonly known as the King of the Alps, is the most elusive of the alpine flowers, growing on rocky ridges at {{cvt\|2600\|to\|3,750\|m}}.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 87</ref> Perhaps the best known of the alpine plants is Edelweiss which grows in rocky areas and can be found at altitudes as low as {{cvt\|1200\|m}} and as high as {{cvt\|3400\|m}}.<ref name"Reynolds43ff" /> The plants that grow at the highest altitudes have adapted to conditions by specialization such as growing in rock screes that give protection from winds.<ref name "Sharp14ff">Sharp (2002), 14</ref> The extreme and stressful climatic conditions give way to the growth of plant species with secondary metabolites important for medicinal purposes. Origanum vulgare, Prunella vulgaris, Solanum nigrum, and Urtica dioica are some of the more useful medicinal species found in the Alps.<ref>Kala, C.P. and Ratajc, P. 2012.[https://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10531-012-0246-x "High altitude biodiversity of the Alps and the Himalayas: ethnobotany, plant distribution and conservation perspective".] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171014101137/https://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10531-012-0246-x \|dateOctober 14, 2017 }} Biodiversity and Conservation, 21 (4): 1115–1126.</ref> Human interference has nearly exterminated the trees in many areas, and, except for the beech forests of the Austrian Alps, forests of deciduous trees are rarely found after the extreme deforestation between the 17th and 19th centuries.<ref>Gerrard (1990), 225</ref> The vegetation has changed since the second half of the 20th century, as the high alpine meadows cease to be harvested for hay or used for grazing which eventually might result in a regrowth of the forest. In some areas, the modern practice of building ski runs by mechanical means has destroyed the underlying tundra from which the plant life cannot recover during the non-skiing months, whereas areas that still practice a natural piste type of ski slope building preserve the fragile underlayers.<ref name "Sharp14ff"/> Fauna The Alps are a habitat for 30,000 species of wildlife, ranging from the tiniest snow fleas to brown bears, many of which have made adaptations to the harsh cold conditions and high altitudes to the point that some only survive in specific micro-climates either directly above or below the snow line.<ref name "Chatré8"/><ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 90, 96, 101</ref> The largest mammal to live in the highest altitudes are the alpine ibex, which have been sighted as high as {{cvt\|3000\|m}}. The ibex live in caves and descend to eat the succulent alpine grasses.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 104</ref> Classified as antelopes,<ref name"Reynolds43ff" /> chamois are smaller than ibex and found throughout the Alps, living above the tree line and are common in the entire alpine range.<ref>Rupicapra rupicapra [Linnaeus, 1758] [http://www.ultimateungulate.com/Artiodactyla/Rupicapra_rupicapra.html] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140406102837/http://www.ultimateungulate.com/artiodactyla/rupicapra_rupicapra.html\|date=April 6, 2014}}</ref> Areas of the eastern Alps are still home to brown bears. In Switzerland the canton of Bern was named for the bears but the last bear is recorded as having been killed in 1792 above Kleine Scheidegg by three hunters from Grindelwald.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 101</ref> Many rodents such as voles live underground. Marmots live almost exclusively above the tree line as high as {{cvt\|2700\|m}}. They hibernate in large groups to provide warmth,<ref name"Shoumatoff102ff">Shoumatoff (2001), 102–103</ref> and can be found in all areas of the Alps, in large colonies they build beneath the alpine pastures.<ref name"Reynolds43ff" /> Golden eagles and bearded vultures are the largest birds to be found in the Alps; they nest high on rocky ledges and can be found at altitudes of {{cvt\|2400\|m}}. The most common bird is the alpine chough which can be found scavenging at climber's huts or the Jungfraujoch, a high-altitude tourist destination.<ref name="Shoumatoff97ff">Shoumatoff (2001), 97–98</ref> has adapted to alpine conditions.]] Reptiles such as adders and vipers live up to the snow line; because they cannot bear the cold temperatures they hibernate underground and soak up the warmth on rocky ledges.<ref name "Shoumatoff95ff">Shoumatoff (2001), 96</ref> The high-altitude Alpine salamanders have adapted to living above the snow line by giving birth to fully developed young rather than laying eggs. Brown trout can be found in the streams up to the snow line.<ref name "Shoumatoff95ff"/> Molluscs such as the wood snail live up the snow line. Popularly gathered as food, the snails are now protected.<ref name="Shoumatoff88ff">Shoumatoff (2001), 88–89</ref> Several species of moths live in the Alps, some of which are believed to have evolved in the same habitat up to 120&nbsp;million years ago, long before the Alps were created. Blue butterflies can commonly be seen drinking from the snowmelt; some species of blues fly as high as {{cvt\|1800\|m}}.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 93</ref> The butterflies tend to be large, such as those from the swallowtail Parnassius family, with a habitat that ranges to {{cvt\|1800\|m}}. Twelve species of beetles have habitats up to the snow line; the most beautiful and formerly collected for its colours but now protected is Rosalia alpina.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 91</ref> Spiders, such as the large wolf spider, live above the snow line and can be seen as high as {{cvt\|400\|m}}. Scorpions can be found in the Italian Alps.<ref name="Shoumatoff88ff" /> Some of the species of moths and insects show evidence of having been indigenous to the area from as long ago as the Alpine orogeny. In Émosson in Valais, Switzerland, dinosaur tracks were found in the 1970s, dating probably from the Triassic Period.<ref>Reynolds (2012), 75</ref> History {{main\|History of the Alps}} Prehistory , Rock Drawings in Valcamonica, Italy, which was recognized by UNESCO in 1979 and was Italy's first recognized World Heritage Site]] mummy as shown in Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, France. The original mummy and his remains and personal belongings are on exhibit at the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology in Bolzano, South Tyrol, Italy.]] When the ice melted after the Würm glaciation, Paleolithic settlements were established along the lake shores and in cave systems. Evidence of human habitation has been found in caves near the Vercors Cave System, close to Grenoble and Echirolles. In Austria, the Mondsee lake shows evidence of houses built on piles. Standing stones have been found in the Alpine areas of France and Italy. About 200,000 drawings and etchings have been documented, and are known as the Rock Drawings in Valcamonica.<ref name="Beattie25ff">Beattie, (2006), 25</ref> A mummy of a Neolithic human, known as Ötzi, was discovered on the Similaun. His clothing lets modern people assume that he was an alpine farmer, while the location and manner of his death suggests that Ötzi was traveling.<ref name"Beattie21ff">Beattie, (2006), 21</ref> Analysis of the mitochondrial DNA of Ötzi, has shown that he belongs to the K1 subclade.<ref>{{Cite journal \|urlhttp://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822%2808%2901254-2 \|titleLuca Ermini et al., "Complete Mitochondrial Genome Sequence of the Tyrolean Iceman," Current Biology, vol. 18, no. 21 (30 October 2008), pp. 1687–1693 \|journalCurrent Biology \|dateNovember 2008 \|volume18 \|issue21 \|pages1687–1693 \|doi10.1016/j.cub.2008.09.028 \|access-dateAugust 6, 2012 \|archive-dateJune 12, 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120612013201/http://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(08)01254-2 \|url-statuslive \|last1Ermini \|first1Luca \|last2Olivieri \|first2Cristina \|last3Rizzi \|first3Ermanno \|last4Corti \|first4Giorgio \|last5Bonnal \|first5Raoul \|last6Soares \|first6Pedro \|last7Luciani \|first7Stefania \|last8Marota \|first8Isolina \|last9De Bellis \|first9Gianluca \|last10Richards \|first10Martin B. \|last11Rollo \|first11=Franco }}</ref> His remains and personal belongings are on exhibit at the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology in Bolzano, South Tyrol, Italy. From the 13th to the 6th century BC much of the Alps was settled by the Germanic peoples, Lombards, Alemanni, Bavarii, and Franks.<ref>Beattie, (2006), 31, 34</ref> Celt tribes settled in modern-day Switzerland between 1500 and 1000 BC. The Raeti lived in the eastern regions, while the west was occupied by the Helvetii and the Allobroges settled in the Rhône valley and in Savoy. The Ligures and Adriatic Veneti lived in Northwest Italy and Triveneto respectively. The Celts mined salt in areas such as Salzburg, where evidence was found of the Hallstatt culture.<ref name="Beattie25ff" /> By the 6th century BC the La Tène culture was well established in the region,<ref>Fleming (2000), 2</ref> and became known for high quality Celtic art.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 131</ref> Between 430 and 400 BC prolonged warfare in the Alps resulted in the devastation of agricultural land and human settlements, ultimately triggering the enslavement of men, women, and children, goods had to be imported as a result. The Etruscan civilization responded to raids by the Massalia and acquired absolute control over the Alpine trade routes. Aggressors in modern-day Italy were dealt with and an alliance was formed with the Celts. The grip of the Etruscan settlements broke down, as the Roman political system expanded, so as to take control over Alpine trade routes that connected human settlements in the Alps with settlements in the Mediterranean.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleIron Age Slaving and Enslavement in Northwest Europe \|author1Karim Mata \|publisherArchaeopress Publishing Limited \|year2019 \|isbn9781789694192 \|page18}}</ref> During the Second Punic War in 218 BC, the Carthage general Hannibal initiated one of the most celebrated achievements of any military force in ancient warfare, recorded as Hannibal crossing the Alps.<ref name="Lancel">Lancel, Serge, (1999), 71</ref> The Roman people built roads along the Alpine mountain passes, which continued to be used through the medieval period. Roman road markers can still be found on the Alpine mountain passes.<ref>Prevas (2001), 68–69</ref> During the Gallic Wars in 58 BC Julius Caesar defeated the Helvetii. The Rhaetian continued to resist but their territory was eventually conquered when the Romans crossed the Danube valley and defeated the Brigantes.<ref name"Beattie27ff">Beattie, (2006), 27</ref> The Romans built settlements in the Alps. In towns such as Aosta, Martigny, Lausanne, and Partenkirchen remains of villas, arenas, and temples have been discovered.<ref>Beattie, (2006), 28–31</ref> Christianity, feudalism, and Napoleonic wars Alexander Suvorov crossing the Alps in 1799, by Vasily Surikov]] ]] Christianity was established in the Alps by the Roman people. Monasteries and churches were constructed, even at high Alpine altitudes. The Franks expanded their Carolingian Empire, while the Baiuvarii introduced feudalism in the eastern Alps. The construction of castles in the Alps supported the growing number of dukedoms and kingdoms. Castello del Buonconsiglio in Trento, still has intricate frescoes, and excellent examples of Gothic art. The Château de Chillon is preserved as an example of medieval architecture.<ref>Beattie, (2006), 32, 34, 37, 43</ref> There are several important alpine saints and one such one is Saint Maurice.<ref>Mershman, Francis. "St. Maurice", The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. 10. New York City: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 6 March 2013</ref> Much of the medieval period was a time of power struggles between competing dynasties such as the House of Savoy, the Visconti of Milan, and the House of Habsburg.<ref>Beattie, (2006), 41, 46, 48</ref> The Great St Bernard Hospice, built in the 9th or 10th centuries, at the summit of the Great Saint Bernard Pass was a shelter for humans and destination for pilgrims.<ref>Beattie, (2006), 73, 75–76</ref> In 1291, to protect themselves from incursions by the House of Habsburg, four Alpine cantons drew up the Federal Charter of 1291, which is considered to be a declaration of independence from neighboring kingdoms. After a series of battles fought in the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries, more cantons joined the confederacy and by the 16th century, Switzerland was established as a sovereign state.<ref>Beattie, (2006), 56, 66</ref> In the Alps, the War of the Spanish Succession fallout resulted in a 1713 treaty, part of the Peace of Utrecht, which relocated the Western Alps border along the watersheds. Historically, the Alps were used to determine the borders of political and administrative gangs, but the Peace of Utrecht was the first significant body of treaty that considered geographical conditions. The Alps were carved up and borders were agreed, so that enclaves in the Alps could be eliminated.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleThe Alps: An Environmental History \|author1Jon Mathieu \|publisherPolity Press \|year2019 \|isbn9781509527748 \|page}}</ref> During the Napoleonic Wars in the late 18th century and early 19th century, Napoleon annexed territory formerly controlled by the House of Habsburg, and the House of Savoy. In 1798, the Helvetic Republic was established, two years later an army across the Great St Bernard Pass.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 182–183</ref> In 1799 the Russian imperial military engaged the revolutionary French army in the Alps, this episode has been recorded as significant achievement in mountain warfare.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleAt War's Summit \|author1Alexander Statiev \|publisherCambridge University Press \|year2018 \|isbn9781108684170 \|page12}}</ref> In October 1799 the troops commanded by Alexander Suvorov were surrounded in the Alps by much larger French troops. The Russian troops broke out, mauled the French troops, and retreated through the Panix Pass.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleBattlefield Emotions 1500-1800: Practices, Experience, Imagination \|editor1Cornelis van der Haven \|editor2Erika Kuijpers \|publisherPalgrave Macmillan UK \|year2016 \|isbn9781137564900 \|page=96}}</ref> After the fall of Napoleon, many alpine countries developed heavy protections to prevent further invasion. Thus, Savoy built a series of fortifications to protect the major alpine passes, such as the col du Mont-Cenis, which was crossed by Charlemagne to obliterate the Lombards. In the 19th century, the monasteries built in the Alps to shelter humans became tourist destinations. The Benedictines had built monasteries in Lucerne, and Oberammergau. The Cistercians built their temple at Lake Constance. Meanwhile, the Augustinians maintained abbeys in Savoy and one in Interlaken.<ref>Beattie, (2006), 69-70</ref> Exploration {{main\|Exploration of the High Alps}} ]] Radiocarbon-dated charcoal placed around 50,000 years ago was found in the Drachloch (Dragon's Hole) cave above the village of Vattis in the canton of St. Gallen, proving that the high peaks were visited by prehistoric people. Seven bear skulls from the cave may have been buried by the same prehistoric people.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 108</ref> The peaks, however, were mostly ignored except for a few notable examples, and long left to the exclusive attention of the people of the adjoining valleys.{{sfn\|Coolidge\|Lake\|Knox\|1911\|p748}}<ref name"Shoumatoff188ff">Shoumatoff (2001), 188–191</ref> The mountain peaks were seen as terrifying, the abode of dragons and demons, to the point that people blindfolded themselves to cross the Alpine passes.<ref>Fleming (2000), 6</ref> The glaciers remained a mystery and many still believed the highest areas to be inhabited by dragons.<ref>Fleming (2000), 12</ref> Charles VII of France ordered his chamberlain to climb Mont Aiguille in 1356. The knight reached the summit of Rocciamelone where he left a bronze triptych of three crosses, a feat which he conducted with the use of ladders to traverse the ice.<ref>Fleming (2000), 5</ref> In 1492, Antoine de Ville climbed Mont Aiguille, without reaching the summit, an experience he described as "horrifying and terrifying."<ref name="Shoumatoff188ff" /> Leonardo da Vinci was fascinated by variations of light in the higher altitudes, and climbed a mountain—scholars are uncertain which one; some believe it may have been Monte Rosa. From his description of a "blue like that of a gentian" sky it is thought that he reached a significantly high altitude.<ref>qtd in Shoumatoff (2001), 193</ref> In the 18th century four Chamonix men almost made the summit of Mont Blanc but were overcome by altitude sickness and snowblindness.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 192–194</ref> shown in, Descent from Mont-Blanc, by Christian von Mechel]] Conrad Gessner was the first naturalist to ascend the mountains in the 16th century, to study them, writing that in the mountains he found the "theatre of the Lord".<ref>Fleming (2000), 8</ref> By the 19th century more naturalists began to arrive to explore, study and conquer the high peaks.<ref name"Fleming vii">Fleming (2000), vii</ref> Two men who first explored the regions of ice and snow were Horace-Bénédict de Saussure (1740–1799) in the Pennine Alps,<ref>Fleming (2000), 27</ref> and the Benedictine monk of Disentis Placidus a Spescha (1752–1833).<ref name"Fleming vii" /> Born in Geneva, Saussure was enamoured with the mountains from an early age; he left a law career to become a naturalist and spent many years trekking through the Bernese Oberland, the Savoy, the Piedmont and Valais, studying the glaciers and geology, as he became an early proponent of the theory of rock upheaval.<ref>Fleming (2000), 12–13, 30, 27</ref> Saussure, in 1787, was a member of the third ascent of Mont Blanc—today the summits of all the peaks have been climbed.<ref name "Shoumatoff197ff"/> The Romantics and Alpinists by Caspar David Friedrich]] Albrecht von Haller's poem Die Alpen, published in 1732 described the mountains as an area of mythical purity.<ref>Beattie, (2006), 121–123</ref> Jean-Jacques Rousseau presented the Alps as a place of allure and beauty, in his novel Julie, or the New Heloise, published in 1761. Later the first wave of Romanticism such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, and J. M. W. Turner came to admire the Alpine scenery;<ref>Goethe en Suisse et dans les Alpes: Voyages de 1775, 1779 et 1797</ref> Wordsworth visited the area in 1790, writing of his experiences in The Prelude (1799). Schiller later wrote the play William Tell (1804), which tells the story of the legendary Swiss marksman William Tell as part of the greater Swiss struggle for independence from the Habsburg Empire in the early 14th century. At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Alpine countries began to see an influx of poets, artists, and musicians,<ref name="Fleming 2000, 83">Fleming (2000), 83</ref> as visitors came to experience the sublime effects of monumental nature.<ref>Beattie, (2006), 125–126</ref> In 1816, Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley and his wife Mary Shelley visited Geneva and all three were inspired by the scenery in their writings.<ref name="Fleming 2000, 83"/> During these visits Shelley wrote the poem "Mont Blanc", Byron wrote "The Prisoner of Chillon" and the dramatic poem Manfred, and Mary Shelley, who found the scenery overwhelming, conceived the idea for the novel Frankenstein in her villa on the shores of Lake Geneva amid a thunderstorm. When Coleridge travelled to Chamonix, he declaimed, in defiance of Shelley, who had signed himself "Atheos" in the guestbook of the Hotel de Londres near Montenvers,<ref>Geoffrey Hartman, [https://archive.today/20130415150259/http://litthe.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/1/4.full "Gods, Ghosts, and Shelley's 'Atheos'"], Literature and Theology, Volume 24, Issue 1, pp. 4–18</ref> "Who would be, who could be an atheist in this valley of wonders".<ref>Beattie, (2006), 127–133</ref> By the mid-19th century scientists began to arrive en masse to study the geology and ecology of the region.<ref>Beattie, (2006), 139</ref> From the beginning of the 19th century, the tourism and mountaineering development of the Alps began. In the early years of the "golden age of alpinism" initially scientific activities were mixed with sport, for example by the physicist John Tyndall, with the first ascent of the Matterhorn by Edward Whymper being the highlight. In the later years, the "silver age of alpinism", the focus was on mountain sports and climbing. The first president of the Alpine Club, John Ball, is considered the discoverer of the Dolomites, which for decades were the focus of climbers like Paul Grohmann, Michael Innerkofler and Angelo Dibona.<ref>{{cite journal \|titleCliffhanger at the top of the world \|authorFleming, Fergus \|dateNovember 3, 2000 \|journalThe Guardian \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2000/nov/04/historybooks.books \|access-dateJanuary 3, 2021 \|archive-dateApril 14, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210414090959/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2000/nov/04/historybooks.books \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>Gilles Modica "1865: the Golden Age of Mountaineering" (2016), pp 10.</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.dolomythos.com/de/lexikon/besteigung-berge.asp \|titleDie Besteigung der Berge - Die Dolomitgipfel werden erobert (German: The ascent of the mountains - the dolomite peaks are conquered) \|access-dateJanuary 3, 2021 \|archive-dateNovember 24, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201124230906/https://www.dolomythos.com/de/lexikon/besteigung-berge.asp \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The Nazis , such as the Early Netherlandish Ghent Altarpiece which sustained significant damage.]] In autumn 1932, Adolf Hitler commissioned the first of a series of refurbishments, which eventually turned a mountain cottage, later named Berghof, into a fortified citadel. This domestic, but representative, fortification had two small bedrooms, and a full bathroom, planned by the Munich architect and NSDAP member Josef Neumaier. Guests, such as Rudolf Hess, stayed over, sleeping in tents or over the garage.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleHitler at Home \|author1Despina Stratigakos \|publisherYale University Press \|year2015 \|isbn9780300187601 \|page}}</ref> The Alps, Adolf Hitler, and improbable powerful organizations have been subject to crime fiction.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleNazis on the Run: How Hitler's Henchmen Fled Justice \|author1Gerald Steinacher \|publisherOUP Oxford \|year2011 \|isbn9780191653766 \|pagexvi}}</ref> The Alps acted as a geographical barrier to Italy, and the Alps for centuries were permeated with established smuggling routes, known as green line. After World War II, members of the Schutzstaffel that feared prosecution as war criminals, known in modern English only as SS, disappeared into a crowd of refugees.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleNazis on the Run: How Hitler's Henchmen Fled Justice \|author1Gerald Steinacher \|publisherOUP Oxford \|year2011 \|isbn9780191653766 \|page3}}</ref> Massive numbers of refugees entered Italy illegally, by navigating the Alps.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleNazis on the Run: How Hitler's Henchmen Fled Justice \|author1Gerald Steinacher \|publisherOUP Oxford \|year2011 \|isbn9780191653766 \|page15}}</ref> Undocumented migrants Smugglers of humans claim that crossing the Alps is less dangerous, or deadly, than traveling 355&nbsp;km on water between Tripoli and Lampedusa with a tramp ship (carretta del mare) or a dinghy. Undocumented migrants, visa overstayers, false tourists, asylum seekers, and other clandestine humans, lose their lives crossing the Alps. The exact number of smuggled humans who die a brutal death in the Alps can only be estimated.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleThe History of Migration in Europe: Perspectives from Economics, Politics and Sociology \|editor1Francesca Fauri \|publisherTaylor & Francis \|year2014 \|isbn9781317678281 \|page}}</ref> Largest Alpine cities The largest city within the Alps is the city of Grenoble in France. Other larger and important cities within the Alps with over 100,000 inhabitants are in Tyrol with Bolzano/Bozen (Italy), Trento (Italy) and Innsbruck (Austria). Larger cities outside the Alps are Milan, Verona, Turin (Italy), Munich (Germany), Graz, Vienna, Salzburg (Austria), Ljubljana, Maribor, Kranj (Slovenia), Zurich, Geneva (Switzerland), Nice and Lyon (France). Cities with over 100,000 inhabitants in the Alps are: {\| class="wikitable sortable zebra" \|- ! Rank !! Municipality !! Inhabitants !! Country !! Region \|- \| align"right" \| 1 \|\| Grenoble \|\| align"right" \| 162,780 \|\| France \|\| Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes \|- \| align"right" \| 2 \|\| Innsbruck \|\| align"right" \| 132,236 \|\| Austria \|\| Tyrol \|- \| align"right" \| 3 \|\| Trento \|\| align"right" \| 117,417 \|\| Italy \|\| Trentino-South Tyrol \|- \| align"right" \| 4 \|\| Bolzano/Bozen \|\| align"right" \| 106,951 \|\| Italy \|\| Trentino-South Tyrol \|} Alpine people and culture {{further\|Transhumance in the Alps\|Swiss folklore}} The population of the region is 14&nbsp;million spread across eight countries.<ref name "Chatré8"/> On the rim of the mountains, on the plateaus, and on the plains the economy consists of manufacturing and service jobs whereas in the higher altitudes and the mountains farming is still essential to the economy.<ref>Chartes et. el. (2010), 14</ref> Farming and forestry continue to be mainstays of Alpine culture, industries that provide for export to the cities and maintain the mountain ecology.<ref name"Chartes et. el. 2010, 5">Chartes et. el. (2010), 5</ref> The Alpine regions are multicultural and linguistically diverse. Dialects are common and vary from valley to valley and region to region. In the Slavic Alps alone 19 dialects have been identified. Some of the Romance dialects spoken in the French, Swiss and Italian alps of Aosta Valley derive from Arpitan, while the southern part of the western range is related to Occitan; the German dialects derive from Germanic tribal languages.<ref name"Shoumataff 2001, 114–166">Shoumataff (2001), 114–166</ref> Romansh, spoken by two percent of the population in southeast Switzerland, is an ancient Rhaeto-Romanic language derived from Latin, remnants of ancient Celtic languages and perhaps Etruscan.<ref name"Shoumataff 2001, 114–166"/> is known for its production of salt, dating back to prehistoric times.]] Much of the Alpine culture is unchanged since the medieval period when skills that guaranteed survival in the mountain valleys and the highest villages became mainstays, leading to strong traditions of carpentry, woodcarving, baking, pastry-making, and cheesemaking.<ref name = "Shoumatoff123ff">Shoumataff (2001), 123–126</ref> Farming has been a traditional occupation for centuries, although it became less dominant in the 20th century with the advent of tourism. Grazing and pasture land are limited because of the steep and rocky topography of the Alps. In mid-June, cows are moved to the highest pastures close to the snowline, where they are watched by herdsmen who stay in the high altitudes often living in stone huts or wooden barns during the summers.<ref name "Shoumatoff123ff"/> Villagers celebrate the day the cows are herded up to the pastures and again when they return in mid-September. The Almabtrieb, Alpabzug, Alpabfahrt, Désalpes ("coming down from the alps") is celebrated by decorating the cows with garlands and enormous cowbells while the farmers dress in traditional costumes.<ref name "Shoumatoff123ff"/> are used.]] Cheesemaking is an ancient tradition in most Alpine countries. A wheel of cheese from the Emmental in Switzerland can weigh up to {{cvt\|45\|kg\|-1}}, and the Beaufort in Savoy can weigh up to {{cvt\|70\|kg\|lb\|-1}}. Owners of the cows traditionally receive from the cheesemakers a portion about the proportion of the cows' milk from the summer months in the high alps. Haymaking is an important farming activity in mountain villages that have become somewhat mechanized in recent years, although the slopes are so steep that scythes are usually necessary to cut the grass. Hay is normally brought in twice a year, often also on festival days.<ref name = "Shoumatoff123ff"/> In the high villages, people live in homes built according to medieval designs that withstand cold winters. The kitchen is separated from the living area (called the stube, the area of the home heated by a stove), and second-floor bedrooms benefit from rising heat. The typical Swiss chalet originated in the Bernese Oberland. Chalets often face south or downhill and are built of solid wood, with a steeply gabled roof to allow accumulated snow to slide off easily. Stairs leading to upper levels are sometimes built on the outside, and balconies are sometimes enclosed.<ref name = "Shoumatoff123ff"/><ref>Shoumataff (2001), 134</ref> Food is passed from the kitchen to the stube, where the dining room table is placed. Some meals are communal, such as fondue, where a pot is set in the middle of the table for each person to dip into. Other meals are still served traditionally on carved wooden plates. Furniture has been traditionally elaborately carved and in many Alpine countries, carpentry skills are passed from generation to generation. (4–7&nbsp;cm) is by the strict architectural regulations in the region bordering the national parks of Vanoise-Grand Paradis.]] Roofs are traditionally constructed from Alpine rocks such as pieces of schist, gneiss, or slate.<ref>Shoumataff (2001), 131, 134</ref> Such chalets are typically found in the higher parts of the valleys, as in the Maurienne valley in Savoy, where the amount of snow during the cold months is important. The inclination of the roof cannot exceed 40%, allowing the snow to stay on top, thereby functioning as insulation from the cold.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.cauesavoie.org/wp-content/uploads/Fascicule-haute-maurienne.pdf \|titleCahier d'architecture Haute Maurienne/Vanoise \|access-dateMarch 15, 2014 \|archive-dateNovember 3, 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131103230446/http://www.cauesavoie.org/wp-content/uploads/Fascicule-haute-maurienne.pdf \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In the lower areas where the forests are widespread, wooden tiles are traditionally used. Commonly made of Norway spruce, they are called "tavaillon". In the German-speaking parts of the Alps (Austria, Bavaria, South Tyrol, Liechtenstein and Switzerland) and also Slovenia, there is a strong tradition of Alpine folk culture. Old traditions are carefully maintained among inhabitants of Alpine areas, even though this is seldom obvious to the visitor: many people are members of cultural associations where the Alpine folk culture is cultivated. At cultural events, traditional folk costume (in German Tracht) is expected: typically lederhosen for men and dirndls for women. Visitors can get a glimpse of the rich customs of the Alps at public Volksfeste. Even when large events feature only a little folk culture, all participants take part with gusto. Good opportunities to see local people celebrating the traditional culture occur at the many fairs, wine festivals, and firefighting festivals which fill weekends in the countryside from spring to autumn. Alpine festivals vary from country to country. Frequently they include music (e.g. the playing of Alpenhorns), dance (e.g. Schuhplattler), sports (e.g. wrestling marches and archery), as well as traditions with pagan roots such as the lighting of fires on Walpurgis Night and Saint John's Eve. Many areas celebrate Fastnacht in the weeks before Lent. Folk costume also continues to be worn for most weddings and festivals.<ref>Shoumataff (2001), 129, 135</ref><ref name"marcopolo1">Anita Ericson, Österreich [Marco Polo travel guide], 13th edition, Marco Polo, Ostfildern (Germany), 2017, Pp. 21f.</ref> Tourism {{further\|List of national parks in the Alps\|Tourism in Austria\|Tourism in France\|Tourism in Germany\|Tourism in Italy\|Tourism in Switzerland\|}} , Oberallgäu, Bavaria, Germany]] , Veneto, Italy]] running the Lauberhorn in 1966]] The Alps are one of the more popular tourist destinations in the world with many resorts such as Oberstdorf, in Bavaria, Saalbach in Austria, Davos in Switzerland, Chamonix in France, and Cortina d'Ampezzo in Italy recording more than a million annual visitors. With over 120&nbsp;million visitors a year, tourism is integral to the Alpine economy with much of it coming from winter sports, although summer visitors are also an important component.<ref name"Bart">Bartaletti, Fabrizio.[http://alpsknowhow.cipra.org/background_topics/alps_and_tourism/alps_and_tourism_chapter_introduction.html "What Role Do the Alps Play within World Tourism?"] {{Webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090427175833/http://alpsknowhow.cipra.org/background_topics/alps_and_tourism/alps_and_tourism_chapter_introduction.html \|date=April 27, 2009}}. Commission Internationale pour la Protection des Alpes. CIRPA.org. Retrieved August 9, 2012</ref> The tourism industry began in the early 19th century when foreigners visited the Alps, travelled to the bases of the mountains to enjoy the scenery, and stayed at the spa-resorts. Large hotels were built during the Belle Époque; cog-railways, built early in the 20th century, brought tourists to ever-higher elevations, with the Jungfraubahn terminating at the Jungfraujoch, well above the eternal snow-line, after going through a tunnel in Eiger. During this period winter sports were slowly introduced: in 1882 the first figure skating championship was held in St. Moritz, and downhill skiing became a popular sport with English visitors early in the 20th century,<ref name="Bart" /> as the first ski-lift was installed in 1908 above Grindelwald.<ref>Beattie (2006), 198</ref> In the first half of the 20th century the Olympic Winter Games were held three times in Alpine venues: the 1924 Winter Olympics in Chamonix, France; the 1928 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, Switzerland; and the 1936 Winter Olympics in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany. During World War II the winter games were cancelled but after that time the Winter Games have been held in St. Moritz (1948), Cortina d'Ampezzo (1956), Innsbruck, Austria (1964 and 1976), Grenoble, France, (1968), Albertville, France, (1992), and Turin (2006).<ref>[http://www.olympic.org/olympic-games "21 Past Olympic Games"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171031180752/https://www.olympic.org/olympic-games \|dateOctober 31, 2017}}. Olympic.org. Retrieved August 13, 2012</ref> In 1930, the Lauberhorn Rennen (Lauberhorn Race), was run for the first time on the Lauberhorn above Wengen;<ref>[http://www.lauberhorn.ch/en/about/history/history Lauberhorn History] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120813074247/http://www.lauberhorn.ch/en/about/history/history \|dateAugust 13, 2012 }}. Retrieved August 14, 2012.</ref> the equally demanding Hahnenkamm was first run in the same year in Kitzbühl, Austria.<ref>[http://www.hahnenkamm.com/hkr-history.html "Hahenkamm Races Kitzbuhel"] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110219001756/http://www.hahnenkamm.com/hkr-history.html \|dateFebruary 19, 2011 }}. HKR.com. Retrieved August 13, 2012,</ref> Both races continue to be held each January on successive weekends. The Lauberhorn is the more strenuous downhill race at {{cvt\|4.5\|km}} and poses danger to racers who reach {{cvt\|130\|km/h}} within seconds of leaving the start gate.<ref>[http://www.lauberhorn.ch/en/Rennen/overview/downhill Lauberhorn Downhill] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304142035/http://www.lauberhorn.ch/en/Rennen/overview/downhill \|dateMarch 4, 2016}}. Retrieved August 14, 2012.</ref> During the post-World War I period, ski lifts were built in Swiss and Austrian towns to accommodate winter visitors, and summer tourism continued to be important. By the mid-20th century the popularity of downhill skiing increased greatly as it became more accessible and in the 1970s several new villages were built in France devoted almost exclusively to skiing, such as Les Menuires. Until this point, Austria and Switzerland had been the traditional and more popular destinations for winter sports, and by the end of the 20th century and into the early 21st century, France, Italy, and Tyrol began to see increases in winter visitors.<ref name"Bart" /> Since the 1980s tourism expansion and easy global access generate grave concerns regarding the loss of traditional Alpine culture and many uncertainties about sustainable development.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Briand \|first1F. \|last2Dubost \|first2M. \|last3Pitt \|first3D. \|last4Rambaud \|first4D. \|titleThe Alps - A system under pressure \|date1989 \|publisherIUCN \|isbn2-88032-983-3 \|page128 \|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/232298139}}</ref> As a likely result of climatic change, the number of high altitude ski resorts and piste km is in decline since 2015, with snow-making machines installed at many sites.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://marmotamaps.com/de/blog/skigebiete-der-alpen-die-entwicklung/ \|titleSki resorts of the Alps: the development, 'Marmota Maps' \|dateNovember 15, 2019 \|access-date17 October 2021 \|archive-dateOctober 17, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211017225402/https://marmotamaps.com/de/blog/skigebiete-der-alpen-die-entwicklung/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Avalanche/snow-slide * 17th-century French-Italian border avalanche: in the 17th century about 2500 people were killed by an avalanche in a village on the French-Italian border. * 19th century Zermatt avalanche: in the 19th century, 120 homes in a village near Zermatt were destroyed by an avalanche.<ref>Fleming (2000), 89–90</ref> * December 13, 1916 Marmolada-mountain-avalanche * 1950–1951 winter-of-terror avalanches * February 10, 1970 Val d'Isère avalanche * February 9, 1999 Montroc avalanche * February 21, 1999 Evolène avalanche * February 23, 1999, Galtür avalanche, the deadliest avalanche in the Alps in 40 years * July 2014 Mont-Blanc avalanche * January 13, 2016 Les-Deux-Alpes avalanche * January 18, 2016 Valfréjus avalanche * July 3, 2022 Marmolada serac collapse Transportation Interregio train following the Lake Brienz shoreline, near Niederried in Switzerland]] The region is serviced by {{cvt\|4200\|km}} of roads used by six million vehicles per year.<ref name "Chatré8"/> Train travel is well established in the Alps, with, for instance {{cvt\|120\|km}} of track for every {{cvt\|1000\|km2}} in a country such as Switzerland.<ref>[http://www.swissworld.org/en/economy/transport/rail/ "Rail".] {{Webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130527113029/http://www.swissworld.org/en/economy/transport/rail/ \|dateMay 27, 2013 }} Swissworld.org. Retrieved August 20, 2012,</ref> Most of Europe's highest railways are located there. In 2007, the new {{convert\|34.57\|km\|mi\|abbron\|adjmid\|-long}} Lötschberg Base Tunnel was opened, which circumvents the 100 years older Lötschberg Tunnel. With the opening of the {{convert\|57.1\|km\|mi\|abbron\|adjmid\|-long}} Gotthard Base Tunnel on June 1, 2016, it bypasses the Gotthard Tunnel built in the 19th century and realizes the first flat route through the Alps.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.alptransit-portal.ch/en/landingpage/ \|titleWelcome to the AlpTransit Portal \|publisherSwiss Federal Archives SFA \|locationBern \|access-dateJune 3, 2016 \|archive-dateAugust 16, 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160816144532/https://www.alptransit-portal.ch/en/landingpage/ \|url-status=live }}</ref> Some high mountain villages are car-free either because of inaccessibility or by choice. Wengen, and Zermatt (in Switzerland) are accessible only by cable car or cog-rail trains. Avoriaz (in France), is car-free, with other Alpine villages considering becoming car-free zones or limiting the number of cars for reasons of sustainability of the fragile Alpine terrain.<ref>Hudson (2000), 107</ref> The lower regions and larger towns of the Alps are well-served by motorways and main roads, but higher mountain passes and byroads, which are amongst the highest in Europe, can be treacherous even in summer due to steep slopes. Many passes are closed in winter. Several airports around the Alps (and some within), as well as long-distance rail links from all neighbouring countries, afford large numbers of travellers easy access.<ref name = "Chatré8"/> {{Clear}} Notes {{notelist}} References {{reflist\|22em}} Works cited {{refbegin\|30em}} * Alpine Convention. (2010). [https://issuu.com/alpconv/docs/vademecum The Alps: People and pressures in the mountains, the facts at a glance] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211128114440/https://issuu.com/alpconv/docs/vademecum \|dateNovember 28, 2021 }} * Allaby, Michael et al. The Encyclopedia of Earth. (2008). Berkeley: University of California Press. {{ISBN\|978-0-520-25471-8}} * Beattie, Andrew. (2006). The Alps: A Cultural History. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN\|978-0-19-530955-3}} * Benniston, Martin, et al. (2011). "Impact of Climatic Change on Water and Natural Hazards in the Alps". Environmental Science and Policy. Volume 30. 1–9 * Cebon, Peter, et al. (1998). Views from the Alps: Regional Perspectives on Climate Change. Cambridge MA: MIT Press. {{ISBN\|978-0-262-03252-0}} * Chatré, Baptiste, et al. (2010). The Alps: People and Pressures in the Mountains, the Facts at a Glance. Permanent Secretariat of the Alpine Convention (alpconv.org). Retrieved August 4, 2012. {{ISBN\|978-88-905158-2-8}} * {{EB1911 \|wstitleAlps \|volume1 \|last1Coolidge \|first1 William Augustus Brevoort \|author-link1W. A. B. Coolidge \|last2 Lake \|first2Philip \|author-link2Philip Lake \|last3Knox \|first3 Howard Vincent \|pages737–754 \|short1}} * De Graciansky, Pierre-Charles et al. (2011). The Western Alps, From Rift to Passive Margin to Orogenic Belt. Amsterdam: Elsevier. {{ISBN\|978-0-444-53724-9}} * Feuer, A.B. (2006). Packs On!: Memoirs of the 10th Mountain Division in World War II. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books. {{ISBN\|978-0-8117-3289-5}} * Fleming, Fergus. (2000). Killing Dragons: The Conquest of the Alps. New York: Grove. {{ISBN\|978-0-8021-3867-5}} * Gerrard, AJ. (1990) Mountain Environments: An Examination of the Physical Geography of Mountains. Boston: MIT Press. {{ISBN\|978-0-262-07128-4}} * Halbrook, Stephen P. (1998). Target Switzerland: Swiss Armed Neutrality in World War II. Rockville Center, NY: Sarpedon. {{ISBN\|978-1-885119-53-7}} * Halbrook, Stephen P. (2006). The Swiss and the Nazis: How the Alpine Republic Survived in the Shadow of the Third Reich. Havertown, PA: Casemate. {{ISBN\|978-1-932033-42-7}} * Hudson, Simon. (2000). Snow Business: A Study of the International Ski Industry. New York: Cengage {{ISBN\|978-0-304-70471-2}} * Körner, Christian. (2003). Alpine Plant Life. New York: Springer Verlag. {{ISBN\|978-3-540-00347-2}} * Lancel, Serge. (1999). Hannibal. Oxford: Blackwell. {{ISBN\|978-0-631-21848-7}} * Mitchell, Arthur H. (2007). ''Hitler's Mountain. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. {{ISBN\|978-0-7864-2458-0}} * Prevas, John. (2001). Hannibal Crosses The Alps: The Invasion Of Italy And The Punic Wars. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press. {{ISBN\|978-0-306-81070-1}} * Reynolds, Kev. (2012) The Swiss Alps. Cicerone Press. {{ISBN\|978-1-85284-465-3}} * Roth, Philipe. (2007). Minerals first Discovered in Switzerland. Lausanne, CH: Museum of Geology. {{ISBN\|978-3-9807561-8-1}} * Schmid, Stefan M. (2004). "Regional tectonics: from the Rhine graben to the Po plain, a summary of the tectonic evolution of the Alps and their forelands". Basel: Geologisch-Paläontologisches Institut * Sharp, Hilary. (2002). Trekking and Climbing in the Western Alps. London: New Holland. {{ISBN\|978-0-8117-2954-3}} * Shoumatoff, Nicholas and Nina. (2001). The Alps: Europe's Mountain Heart. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. {{ISBN\|978-0-472-11111-4}} * Viazzo, Pier Paolo. (1980). Upland Communities: Environment, Population and Social Structure in the Alps since the Sixteenth Century''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN\|978-0-521-30663-8}} {{refend}} External links * [http://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/gallery/individual.php?db_date=September 17, 2005 Satellite photo of the Alps], taken on August 31, 2005, by MODIS aboard Terra * [http://www.alpine-space.eu Official website of the Alpine Space Programme] This EU-co-funded programme co-finances transnational projects in the Alpine region {{Mountains of France}} {{Italy topics}} {{Subject bar\|auto=1\|Alps\|Mountains\|Geography\|Europe\|Austria\|France\|Germany\|Hungary\|Italy\|Monaco\|Slovenia\|Switzerland}} {{Authority control}} Category:Geography of Europe Category:Mountain ranges of Austria Category:Mountain ranges of France Category:Mountain ranges of Germany Category:Mountain ranges of Hungary Category:Mountain ranges of Italy Category:Mountain ranges of Liechtenstein Category:Mountain ranges of Monaco Category:Mountain ranges of Slovenia Category:Mountain ranges of Switzerland Category:Physiographic provinces	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alps	2025-04-05T18:25:27.487872
983	Albert Camus	{{Short description\|French philosopher and writer (1913–1960)}} {{Redirect\|Camus}} {{good article}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=January 2025}} {{use British English\|date=June 2019}} {{Infobox philosopher \| image = Albert Camus, gagnant de prix Nobel, portrait en buste, posé au bureau, faisant face à gauche, cigarette de tabagisme.jpg \| caption = Portrait from New York World-Telegram and The Sun Photograph Collection, 1957 \| region = Western philosophy \| birth_date {{birth date\|1913\|11\|7\|dfyes}} \| birth_place = Mondovi, French Algeria \| death_date {{death date and age\|dfyes\|1960\|1\|4\|1913\|11\|7}} \| death_place = Villeblevin, France \| alma_mater = University of Algiers \| notable_works = The Stranger / The Outsider<br/>The Myth of Sisyphus<br/>The Rebel<br/>The Plague \| awards = Nobel Prize in Literature (1957) \| spouse {{ubl \| {{marriage\|Simone Hié\|1934\|1936\|enddiv}} \| {{marriage\|Francine Faure\|1940}}}} \| signature = Albert Camus signature.svg \| signature_size = 150px \| signature_alt = Albert Camus signature \| school_tradition = {{plainlist\| * Continental philosophy * Absurdism * Existentialism * French Nietzscheanism<ref>{{cite book\|lastSchrift\|firstAlan D.\|year2010\|chapterFrench Nietzscheanism\|titlePoststructuralism and Critical Theory's Second Generation\|editor-lastSchrift\|editor-firstAlan D.\|publisherAcumen\|locationDurham, UK\|seriesThe History of Continental Philosophy\|volume6\|pages19–46\|isbn978-1-84465-216-7\|chapter-urlhttps://www.nietzsche-en-france.fr/app/download/12288269526/SCHRIFT+-+French+Nietzscheanism.pdf}}</ref> * Syndicalist anarchism }} \| main_interests = Ethics, human nature, justice, politics, philosophy of suicide \| notable_ideas = Absurdism }} Albert Camus ({{IPAc-en\|k\|æ<!--Syllabication is widely debated and /mu:/ as a separate syllable is the most common transcription-->\|ˈ\|m\|uː}}<ref>[http://www.dictionary.com/browse/camus "Camus"]. ''Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.</ref> {{respell\|ka\|MOO}}; {{IPA\|fr\|albɛʁ kamy\|lang\|Fr-Albert Camus.oga}}; 7 November 1913&nbsp;– 4 January 1960) was a French philosopher, author, dramatist, journalist, world federalist,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleA Democratic World Parliament \|urlhttps://www.democracywithoutborders.org/files/PreliminaryContents.pdf \|last1Leinen \|last2 Bummel \|first1Jo \|first2Andreas \|websitedemocracywithoutborders.com \|pages1, 2 \|access-date=12 January 2024}}</ref> and political activist. He was the recipient of the 1957 Nobel Prize in Literature at the age of 44, the second-youngest recipient in history. His works include The Stranger, The Plague, The Myth of Sisyphus, The Fall and The Rebel. Camus was born in French Algeria to pied-noir parents. He spent his childhood in a poor neighbourhood and later studied philosophy at the University of Algiers. He was in Paris when the Germans invaded France during World War II in 1940. Camus tried to flee but finally joined the French Resistance where he served as editor-in-chief at Combat'', an outlawed newspaper. After the war, he was a celebrity figure and gave many lectures around the world. He married twice but had many extramarital affairs. Camus was politically active; he was part of the left that opposed Joseph Stalin and the Soviet Union because of their totalitarianism. Camus was a moralist and leaned towards anarcho-syndicalism. He was part of many organisations seeking European integration. During the Algerian War (1954–1962), he kept a neutral stance, advocating a multicultural and pluralistic Algeria, a position that was rejected by most parties. Philosophically, Camus's views contributed to the rise of the philosophy known as absurdism. Some consider Camus's work to show him to be an existentialist, even though he himself firmly rejected the term throughout his lifetime. Biography Early years and education ]] Albert Camus was born on 7 November 1913 in a working-class neighbourhood in Mondovi (present-day Dréan), in French Algeria. His mother, Catherine Hélène Camus ({{née\|Sintès}}), was French with Balearic Spanish ancestry. She was deaf and illiterate.{{sfn\|Carroll\|2013\|p50}} He never knew his father, Lucien Camus, a poor French agricultural worker killed in action while serving with a Zouave regiment in October 1914, during World War I. Camus, his mother, and other relatives lived without many basic material possessions during his childhood in the Belcourt section of Algiers. Camus was a second-generation French inhabitant of Algeria, which was a French territory from 1830 until 1962. His paternal grandfather, along with many others of his generation, had moved to Algeria for a better life during the first decades of the 19th century. Hence, he was called a {{lang\|fr\|pied-noir}} – a slang term for people of French and other European descent born in Algeria. His identity and poor background had a substantial effect on his later life.{{sfnm\|1a1Sherman\|1y2009\|1p10\|2a1Hayden\|2y2016\|2p7\|3a1Lottman\|3y1979\|3p11\|4a1Carroll\|4y2007\|4pp2–3}} Nevertheless, Camus was a French citizen and enjoyed more rights than Arab and Berber Algerians under {{lang\|fr\|indigénat}}.{{sfn\|Carroll\|2007\|pp2–3}} During his childhood, he developed a love for football and swimming.{{sfn\|Sherman\|2009\|p=11}} Under the influence of his teacher Louis Germain, Camus gained a scholarship in 1924 to continue his studies at a prestigious lyceum (secondary school) near Algiers.{{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|p=8}} Germain immediately noticed his lively intelligence and his desire to learn. In middle school, he gave Camus free lessons to prepare him for the 1924 scholarship competition – despite the fact that his grandmother had a plan for him to be a manual worker so that he could immediately contribute to the maintenance of the family. Camus maintained great gratitude and affection towards Louis Germain throughout his life and he dedicated his speech for accepting the Nobel Prize to Germain. Having received the news of the awarding of the prize, he wrote: <blockquote>But when I heard the news, my first thought, after my mother, was of you. Without you, without the affectionate hand you extended to the small poor child that I was, without your teaching and example, none of all this would have happened.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAlbert Camus Wins the Nobel Prize & Sends a Letter of Gratitude to His Elementary School Teacher (1957) \|lastCamus \|firstAlbert \|url https://www.openculture.com/2014/05/albert-camus-sends-a-letter-of-gratitude-to-his-elementary-school-teacher-1957.html \|access-date7 January 2024 \|languageen}}</ref></blockquote> In a letter dated 30 April 1959, Germain lovingly reciprocated the warm feelings towards his former pupil, calling him "my little Camus".<ref>{{Cite web \|titleI embrace you with all my heart – Letters of Note \|url https://lettersofnote.com/2013/11/07/i-embrace-you-with-all-my-heart/ \|date7 November 2013 \|websitelettersofnote.com \|access-date7 January 2024 \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleLettre de Monsieur Germain à Albert Camus \|trans-titleLetter of Mister Germain to Albert Camus \|urlhttps://compagnieaffable.com/2015/10/04/lettre-de-monsieur-germain-a-albert-camus/ \|websitecompagnieaffable.com \|date4 October 2015 \|access-date9 January 2024 \|language=fr}}</ref> In 1930, at the age of 17, Camus was diagnosed with tuberculosis.{{sfn\|Sherman\|2009\|p11}} Because it is a transmitted disease, he moved out of his home and stayed with his uncle Gustave Acault, a butcher, who influenced the young Camus. It was at that time he turned to philosophy, with the mentoring of his philosophy teacher Jean Grenier. He was impressed by ancient Greek philosophers and Friedrich Nietzsche.{{sfn\|Sherman\|2009\|p11}} During that time, he was only able to study part time. To earn money, he took odd jobs, including as a private tutor, car parts clerk, and assistant at the Meteorological Institute.{{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|p=9}} In 1933, Camus enrolled at the University of Algiers and completed his licence de philosophie (BA) in 1936 after presenting his thesis on Plotinus.<ref>{{harvnb\|Sherman\|2009\|p11\|ps: Camus's thesis was titled "Rapports de l'hellénisme et du christianisme à travers les oeuvres de Plotin et de saint Augustin" ('Relationship of Greek and Christian Thought in Plotinus and St. Augustine') for his ''diplôme d'études supérieures'' (roughly equivalent to an MA thesis).}}</ref> Camus developed an interest in early Christian philosophers, but Nietzsche and Arthur Schopenhauer had paved the way towards pessimism and atheism. Camus also studied novelist-philosophers such as Stendhal, Herman Melville, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, and Franz Kafka.{{sfn\|Simpson\|2019\|locBackground and Influences}} In 1933, he also met Simone Hié, then a partner of Camus's friend, who later became his first wife.{{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|p9}} Camus played as goalkeeper for the Racing Universitaire d'Alger junior team from 1928 to 1930.{{sfn\|Clarke\|2009\|p488}} The sense of team spirit, fraternity, and common purpose appealed to him enormously.{{sfn\|Lattal\|1995}} In match reports, he was often praised for playing with passion and courage. Any football ambitions, however, disappeared when he contracted tuberculosis.{{sfn\|Clarke\|2009\|p488}} Camus drew parallels among football, human existence, morality, and personal identity. For him, the simplistic morality of football contradicted the complicated morality imposed by authorities such as the state and church.{{sfn\|Clarke\|2009\|p488}}Formative yearsIn 1934, Camus was in a relationship with Simone Hié.{{sfnm\|1a1Cohn\|1y1986\|1p30\|2a1Hayden\|2y2016\|p9}} Simone had an addiction to morphine, a drug she used to ease her menstrual pains. His uncle Gustave did not approve of the relationship, but Camus married Hié to help her fight the addiction. He subsequently discovered she was in a relationship with her doctor at the same time and the couple later divorced.{{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|p9}} Camus joined the French Communist Party (PCF) in early 1935. He saw it as a way to "fight inequalities between Europeans and 'natives' in Algeria", even though he was not a Marxist. He explained: "We might see communism as a springboard and asceticism that prepares the ground for more spiritual activities." Camus left the PCF a year later.{{sfnm\|1a1Todd\|1y2000\|1pp249–250\|2a1Sherman\|2y2009\|2p12}} In 1936, the independence-minded Algerian Communist Party (PCA) was founded, and Camus joined it after his mentor Grenier advised him to do so. Camus's main role within the PCA was to organise the {{lang\|fr\|Théâtre du Travail}} ('Workers' Theatre'). Camus was also close to the {{lang\|fr\|Parti du Peuple Algérien}} (Algerian People's Party [PPA]), which was a moderate anti-colonialist/nationalist party. As tensions in the interwar period escalated, the Stalinist PCA and PPA broke ties. Camus was expelled from the PCA for refusing to toe the party line. This series of events sharpened his belief in human dignity. Camus's mistrust of bureaucracies that aimed for efficiency instead of justice grew. He continued his involvement with theatre and renamed his group {{lang\|fr\|Théâtre de l'Equipe}} ('Theatre of the Team'). Some of his scripts were the basis for his later novels.{{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|pp=10–11}} In 1938, Camus began working for the leftist newspaper {{lang\|fr\|Alger républicain}} (founded by Pascal Pia), as he had strong anti-fascist feelings, and the rise of fascist regimes in Europe was worrying him. By then, Camus had also developed strong feelings against authoritarian colonialism as he witnessed the harsh treatment of the Arabs and Berbers by French authorities. {{lang\|fr\|Alger républicain}} was banned in 1940 and Camus flew to Paris to take a new job at {{lang\|fr\|Paris-Soir}} as layout editor. In Paris, he almost completed his "first cycle" of works dealing with the absurd and the meaningless: the novel ''L'Étranger (The Outsider [UK] or The Stranger [US]), the philosophical essay Le Mythe de Sisyphe (The Myth of Sisyphus), and the play Caligula. Each cycle consisted of a novel, an essay, and a theatrical play.{{sfnm\|1a1Hayden\|1y2016\|1pp12-13\|2a1Sherman\|2y2009\|2pp12–13}} World War II, Resistance and Combat Soon after Camus moved to Paris, the outbreak of World War II began to affect France. Camus volunteered to join the army but was not accepted because he had once had tuberculosis. As the Germans were marching towards Paris, Camus fled. He was laid off from {{lang\|fr\|Paris-Soir}} and ended up in Lyon, where he married pianist and mathematician Francine Faure on 3 December 1940.{{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|pp13–14}} Camus and Faure moved back to Algeria (Oran), where he taught in primary schools.{{sfn\|Sherman\|2009\|p13}} Because of his tuberculosis, he moved to the French Alps on medical advice. There he began writing his second cycle of works, this time dealing with revolt – a novel, La Peste (The Plague), and a play, Le Malentendu (The Misunderstanding). By 1943 he was known because of his earlier work. He returned to Paris, where he met and became friends with Jean-Paul Sartre. He also became part of a circle of intellectuals, which included Simone de Beauvoir and André Breton. Among them was the actress María Casares, who later had an affair with Camus.{{sfnm\|1a1Hayden\|1y2016\|p14\|2a1Sherman\|2y2009\|2p13}} Camus took an active role in the underground resistance movement against the Germans during the French Occupation. Upon his arrival in Paris, he started working as a journalist and editor of the banned newspaper Combat. Camus used a pseudonym for his Combat articles and used false ID cards to avoid being captured. He continued writing for the paper after the liberation of France,{{sfnm\|1a1Hayden\|1y2016\|2a1Sherman\|2y2009\|2p23}} composing almost daily editorials under his real name.{{sfn\|Carroll\|2013\|p278}} During that period he composed four Lettres à un Ami Allemand'' ('Letters to a German Friend'), explaining why resistance was necessary.{{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|p15}}Post–World War II{{external media\| float right\| width 230px \| video1 [https://www.c-span.org/video/?97122-1/albert-camus-life Presentation by Olivier Todd on Albert Camus: A Life, 15 December 1997], C-SPAN}} After the War, Camus lived in Paris with Faure, who gave birth to twins, Catherine and Jean, in 1945.{{sfn\|Willsher\|2011}} Camus was now a celebrated writer known for his role in the Resistance. He gave lectures at various universities in the United States and Latin America during two separate trips. He also visited Algeria once more, only to leave disappointed by the continued oppressive colonial policies, which he had warned about many times. During this period he completed the second cycle of his work, with the book {{lang\|fr\|L'Homme révolté}} (The Rebel). Camus attacked totalitarian communism while advocating libertarian socialism and anarcho-syndicalism.{{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|p17}} Upsetting many of his colleagues and contemporaries in France with its rejection of communism, the book brought about the final split between Camus and Sartre. His relations with the Marxist Left deteriorated further during the Algerian War.{{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|pp16–17}} Camus was a strong supporter of European integration in various marginal organisations working towards that end.{{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|p18}} In 1944, he founded the {{lang\|fr\|Comité français pour la féderation européenne}} ('French Committee for the European Federation' [CFFE]), declaring that Europe "can only evolve along the path of economic progress, democracy, and peace if the nation-states become a federation."{{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|p18}} In 1947–48, he founded the {{lang\|fr\|Groupes de Liaison Internationale}} (GLI), a trade union movement in the context of revolutionary syndicalism ({{lang\|fr\|syndicalisme révolutionnaire}}).{{sfnm\|1a1Todd\|1y2000\|1pp249–250\|2a1Schaffner\|2y2006\|2p107}} His main aim was to express the positive side of surrealism and existentialism, rejecting the negativity and the nihilism of André Breton. Camus also raised his voice against the Soviet invasion of Hungary and the totalitarian tendencies of Franco's regime in Spain.{{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|p=18}} Camus had numerous affairs, particularly an irregular and eventually public affair with the Spanish-born actress María Casares, with whom he had extensive correspondence.{{sfnm\|1a1Sherman\|1y2009\|1pp14–17\|2a1Zaretsky\|2y2018}} Faure did not take this affair lightly. She had a mental breakdown and needed hospitalisation in the early 1950s. Camus, who felt guilty, withdrew from public life and was slightly depressed for some time.{{sfn\|Sherman\|2009\|p17}} In 1957, Camus received the news that he was to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. This came as a shock to him; he anticipated André Malraux would win the award. At age 44, he was the second-youngest recipient of the prize, after Rudyard Kipling, who was 41. After this he began working on his autobiography {{lang\|fr\|Le Premier Homme}} (The First Man) in an attempt to examine "moral learning". He also turned to the theatre once more.{{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|p19}} Financed by the money he received with his Nobel Prize, he adapted and directed for the stage Dostoyevsky's novel Demons. The play opened in January 1959 at the Antoine Theatre in Paris and was a critical success.{{sfn\|Sherman\|2009\|p18}} ]] During these years, he published posthumously the works of the philosopher Simone Weil, in the series "Espoir" ('Hope') which he had founded for Éditions Gallimard. Weil had great influence on his philosophy,<ref name = "Basset"> {{cite book \|author=Jeanyves GUÉRIN, Guy BASSET \|title=Dictionnaire Albert Camus \|year=2013 \|isbn= 978-2-221-14017-8 \|publisher = Groupe Robert Laffont}} </ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|lastBunn \|firstPhilip D. \|date2 January 2022 \|titleTranscendent Rebellion: The Influence of Simone Weil on Albert Camus' Esthetics \|urlhttps://doi.org/10.1080/10457097.2021.1997529 \|journalPerspectives on Political Science \|volume51 \|issue1 \|pages35–43 \|doi10.1080/10457097.2021.1997529 \|s2cid242044336 \|issn1045-7097}}</ref> since he saw her writings as an "antidote" to nihilism.<ref>[https://academic.oup.com/litthe/article-abstract/20/3/286/1021593 Stefan Skrimshire, 2006, A Political Theology of the Absurd? Albert Camus and Simone Weil on Social Transformation, Literature and Theology, Volume 20, Issue 3, September 2006, Pages 286–300]</ref><ref>[https://www.academia.edu/29937662/Albert_Camus_Simone_Weil_and_the_Absurd Rik Van Nieuwenhove, 2005, Albert Camus, Simone Weil and the Absurd, Irish Theological Quarterly, 70, 343]</ref> Camus described her as "the only great spirit of our times".<ref name = "Hellman"> {{cite book \|author=John Hellman \|title=Simone Weil: An Introduction to Her Thought \|pages = 1–23 \|year=1983 \|isbn=978-0-88920-121-7 \|publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press}} </ref> Death , France. It reads: "From the General Council of the Yonne Department, in homage to the writer Albert Camus whose remains lay in vigil at the Villeblevin town hall on the night of 4 to 5 January 1960"]] , where he died in a car crash on 4 January 1960]] Camus died on 4 January 1960 at the age of 46, in a car accident near Sens, in Le Grand Fossard in the small town of Villeblevin. He had spent the New Year's holiday of 1960 at his house in Lourmarin, Vaucluse with his family and his publisher Michel Gallimard of Éditions Gallimard, along with Gallimard's wife, Janine, and daughter, Anne. Camus's wife and children went back to Paris by train on 2 January, but Camus decided to return in Gallimard's luxurious Facel Vega FV2. The car crashed into a plane tree on a long straight stretch of the Route nationale 5 (now the RN 6 or D606). Camus, who was in the passenger seat, died instantly, while Gallimard died five days later. Janine and Anne Gallimard escaped without injuries.{{sfnm\|1a1Sherman\|1y2009\|1p19\|2a1Simpson\|2y2019\|2locLife}} 144 pages of a handwritten manuscript entitled Le premier Homme ('The First Man') were found in the wreckage. Camus had predicted that this unfinished novel based on his childhood in Algeria would be his finest work.{{sfn\|Willsher\|2011}} Camus was buried in the Lourmarin Cemetery, Vaucluse, France, where he had lived.{{sfn\|Bloom\|2009\|p52}} Jean-Paul Sartre read a eulogy, paying tribute to Camus's heroic "stubborn humanism".{{sfn\|Simpson\|2019\|loc Life}} William Faulkner wrote his obituary, saying, "When the door shut for him he had already written on this side of it that which every artist who also carries through life with him that one same foreknowledge and hatred of death is hoping to do: I was here."<ref>{{Cite magazine \|titleWithout God or Reason \|date1 January 2021 \|magazineCommonweal \|urlhttps://www.commonwealmagazine.org/without-god-or-reason \|lastJensen \|firstMorten Høi \|access-date2 April 2022}}</ref>Literary career on 13 December 1957, three days after accepting the Nobel Prize in Literature]] Camus's first publication was a play called {{lang\|fr\|Révolte dans les Asturies}} (Revolt in the Asturias), written with three friends in May 1936. The subject was the 1934 revolt by Spanish miners that was brutally suppressed by the Spanish government, resulting in 1,500 to 2,000 deaths. In May 1937 he wrote his first book, {{lang\|fr\|L'Envers et l'Endroit}} (Betwixt and Between, also translated as The Wrong Side and the Right Side). Both were published by Edmond Charlot's small publishing house.{{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|p=11}} Camus separated his work into three cycles. Each cycle consisted of a novel, an essay, and a play. The first was the cycle of the absurd consisting of ''L'Étranger, Le Mythe de Sysiphe, and Caligula. The second was the cycle of the revolt which included La Peste (The Plague), L'Homme révolté (The Rebel), and Les Justes (The Just Assassins). The third, the cycle of the love, consisted of Nemesis. Each cycle was an examination of a theme with the use of a pagan myth and including biblical motifs.{{sfn\|Sharpe\|2015\|pp=41–44}} The books in the first cycle were published between 1942 and 1944, but the theme was conceived earlier, at least as far back as 1936.{{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|p23}} With this cycle, Camus aimed to pose a question on the human condition, discuss the world as an absurd place, and warn humanity of the consequences of totalitarianism.{{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|p41}} Camus began his work on the second cycle while he was in Algeria, in the last months of 1942, just as the Germans were reaching North Africa.{{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|p14}} In the second cycle, Camus used Prometheus, who is depicted as a revolutionary humanist, to highlight the nuances between revolution and rebellion. He analyses various aspects of rebellion, its metaphysics, and its connection to politics, and then examines it under the lens of modernity, historicity, and the absence of a God.{{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|pp45–47}} After receiving the Nobel Prize, Camus gathered, clarified, and published his pacifist leaning views at {{lang\|fr\|Actuelles III: Chronique algérienne 1939–1958}} (Algerian Chronicles''). He then decided to distance himself from the Algerian War as he found the mental burden too heavy. He turned to theatre and the third cycle which was about love and the goddess Nemesis, the Greek and Roman goddess of Revenge.{{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|p=19}} Two of Camus's works were published posthumously. The first entitled La mort heureuse (A Happy Death) (1971) is a novel that was written between 1936 and 1938. It features a character named Patrice Mersault, comparable to The Stranger{{'}}s Meursault. There is scholarly debate about the relationship between the two books. The second was an unfinished novel, Le Premier homme (The First Man, published in 1994), which Camus was writing before he died. It was an autobiographical work about his childhood in Algeria and its publication in 1994 sparked a widespread reconsideration of Camus's allegedly unrepentant colonialism.{{sfn\|Carroll\|2007}} {\| class="wikitable" \|+Works of Camus by genre and cycle, <small>according to Matthew Sharpe{{sfn\|Sharpe\|2015\|p=44}}</small> \|- ! Years ! Pagan myth ! Biblical motif ! Novel ! Plays \|- \| 1937–42\|\| Sisyphus\|\| Alienation, exile\|\| The Stranger (''L'Étranger)\|\|Caligula,<br/>The Misunderstanding (Le Malentendu) \|- \| 1943–52\|\| Prometheus\|\| Rebellion \|\| The Plague (La Peste)\|\| The State of Siege (L'État de siège)<br/> The Just (Les Justes) \|- \| 1952–58\|\| \|\| Guilt, the fall; exile & the kingdom; <br/>John the Baptist, Christ \|\| The Fall (La Chute) \|\| Adaptations of The Possessed'' (Dostoevsky); <br/> Faulkner's Requiem for a Nun \|- \| 1958– \|\| Nemesis\|\| The Kingdom\|\| The First Man (Le Premier Homme)\|\| \|} Political stance Camus was a moralist; he claimed morality should guide politics. While he did not deny that morals change over time, he rejected the classical Marxist view that historical material relations define morality.{{sfn\|Aronson\|2017\|loc=Introduction}} Camus was also strongly critical of Marxism–Leninism, which he considered totalitarian, especially in the case of the Soviet Union. Camus rebuked those sympathetic to the Soviet model and their "decision to call total servitude freedom".{{sfn\|Foley\|2008\|pp75–76}} A proponent of libertarian socialism, he stated that the Soviet Union was not socialist and the United States was not liberal.{{sfn\|Sherman\|2009\|pp185–87}} His critique of the Soviet Union caused him to clash with others on the political left, most notably with his on-again/off-again friend Jean-Paul Sartre.{{sfn\|Aronson\|2017\|loc=Introduction}} Active in the French Resistance to the Nazi occupation of France during World War II, Camus wrote for and edited the Resistance journal Combat. Of the French collaboration with the German occupiers, he wrote: "Now the only moral value is courage, which is useful here for judging the puppets and chatterboxes who pretend to speak in the name of the people."{{sfn\|Bernstein\|1997}} After France's liberation, Camus remarked: "This country does not need a Talleyrand, but a Saint-Just."{{sfn\|Bronner\|2009\|p74}} The reality of the postwar tribunals soon changed his mind: Camus publicly reversed himself and became a lifelong opponent of capital punishment.{{sfn\|Bronner\|2009\|p74}} Camus had anarchist sympathies, which intensified in the 1950s, when he came to believe that the Soviet model was morally bankrupt.{{sfnm\|1a1Dunwoodie\|1y1993\|1p86\|2a1Marshall\|2y1993\|2p445}} Camus was firmly against any kind of exploitation, authority, or property, as well as the State and centralization.{{sfn\|Dunwoodie\|1993\|p87}} However, he opposed revolution, separating the rebel from the revolutionary and believing that the belief in "absolute truth", most often assuming the guise of history or reason, inspires the revolutionary and leads to tragic results.<ref name":0">{{Cite web \|lastMoses \|firstMichael \|date2022 \|titleLiberty's Claims on Man and Citizen in the Life and Writings of Albert Camus \|urlhttps://theihs.org/academic-events/faculty-and-graduate-discussion-colloquia/ihs-discussion-colloquia/libertys-claims-on-man-and-citizen-in-the-life-and-writings-of-albert-camus/ \|access-date \|websiteInstitute for Humane Studies \|languageen-US \|archive-date7 December 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211207222849/https://theihs.org/academic-events/faculty-and-graduate-discussion-colloquia/ihs-discussion-colloquia/libertys-claims-on-man-and-citizen-in-the-life-and-writings-of-albert-camus/ \|url-statusdead }}</ref> He believed that rebellion is spurred by our outrage over the world's lack of transcendent significance, while political rebellion is our response to attacks against the dignity and autonomy of the individual.<ref name":0" /> Camus opposed political violence, tolerating it only in rare and very narrowly defined instances, as well as revolutionary terror, which he accused of sacrificing innocent lives on the altar of history.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastSimpson \|firstDavid \|titleAlbert Camus \|urlhttps://iep.utm.edu/albert-camus/ \|access-date\|websiteInternet Encyclopedia of Philosophy \|language=en-US}}</ref> Philosophy professor David Sherman considers Camus an anarcho-syndicalist.{{sfn\|Sherman\|2009\|p185}} Graeme Nicholson considers Camus an existentialist anarchist.{{sfn\|Nicholson\|1971\|p14}} The anarchist André Prudhommeaux first introduced him at a meeting of the {{lang\|fr\|Cercle des Étudiants Anarchistes}} ('Anarchist Student Circle') in 1948 as a sympathiser familiar with anarchist thought. Camus wrote for anarchist publications such as {{lang\|fr\|Le Libertaire}} ('The Libertarian'), {{lang\|la\|La Révolution prolétarienne}} ('The Proletarian Revolution'), and {{lang\|es\|Solidaridad Obrera}} ('Workers' Solidarity'), the organ of the anarcho-syndicalist Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT, 'National Confederation of Labor').{{sfnm\|1a1Dunwoodie\|1y1993\|1pp87-87\|1ps: See also appendix p 97\|2a1Hayden\|2y2016\|2p=18}} Camus kept a neutral stance during the Algerian Revolution (1954–1962). While he was against the violence of the National Liberation Front (FLN), he acknowledged the injustice and brutalities imposed by colonialist France. He was supportive of Pierre Mendès France's Unified Socialist Party (PSU) and its approach to the crisis; Mendès France advocated for reconciliation. Camus also supported a like-minded Algerian militant, Aziz Kessous. Camus traveled to Algeria to negotiate a truce between the two belligerents but was met with distrust by all parties.{{sfnm\|1a1Sherman\|1y2009\|1pp17–18 & 188\|2a1Cohn\|2y1986\|2pp30 & 38}} In one often-misquoted incident, Camus confronted an Algerian critic during his 1957 Nobel Prize acceptance speech in Stockholm, rejecting the false equivalence of justice with revolutionary terrorism: "People are now planting bombs in the tramways of Algiers. My mother might be on one of those tramways. If that is justice, then I prefer my mother."<ref>{{Cite web \|last1Scialabba \|first1George \|titleResistance, Rebellion, and Writing \|workBookforum \|dateApril 2013 \|urlhttps://www.bookforum.com/print/2001/albert-camus-s-dispatches-on-the-algerian-crisis-appear-in-english-for-the-first-time-11228 \|languageen-US \|access-date8 August 2021 }}</ref>{{sfn\|Sherman\|2009\|p191}} Critics have labelled the response as reactionary and a result of a colonialist attitude.{{sfnm\|1a1Sherman\|1y2009\|1p19\|2a1Simpson\|2y2019\|3a1Marshall\|3y1993\|3p=584}} Camus was sharply critical of the proliferation of nuclear weapons and the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.{{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|p87}} In the 1950s, Camus devoted his efforts to human rights. In 1952, he resigned from his work for UNESCO when the UN accepted Spain, under the leadership of the caudillo General Francisco Franco, as a member.{{sfn\|Sherman\|2009\|p17}} Camus maintained his pacifism and resisted capital punishment anywhere in the world. He wrote an essay against capital punishment in collaboration with Arthur Koestler, the writer, intellectual, and founder of the League Against Capital Punishment, entitled {{lang\|fr\|Réflexions sur la peine capitale}} ('Reflections on Capital Punishment'), published by Calmann-Levy in 1957.{{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|p=73 & 85}} Along with Albert Einstein, Camus was one of the sponsors of the Peoples' World Convention (PWC), also known as Peoples' World Constituent Assembly (PWCA), which took place between 1950 and 1951 at Palais Electoral in Geneva, Switzerland.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Einstein \|first1Albert \|urlhttp://archive.org/details/einsteinonpeace00eins \|titleEinstein on peace \|last2Nathan \|first2Otto \|last3Norden \|first3Heinz \|date1968 \|publisherNew York, Schocken Books \|othersInternet Archive \|pages539, 670, 676}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|title[Carta] 1950 oct. 12, Genève, [Suiza] [a] Gabriela Mistral, Santiago, Chile [manuscrito] Gerry Kraus. \|urlhttp://www.bibliotecanacionaldigital.gob.cl/bnd/623/w3-article-137193.html \|access-date19 October 2023 \|websiteBND: Archivo del Escritor}}</ref> Role in Algeria between 1905 and 1955]] Born in Algeria to French parents, Camus was familiar with the institutional racism of France against Arabs and Berbers, but he was not part of a rich elite. He lived in very poor conditions as a child, but was a citizen of France and as such was entitled to citizens' rights; members of the country's Arab and Berber majority were not.{{sfn\|Carroll\|2007\|pp=3–4}} Camus was a vocal advocate of the "new Mediterranean Culture". This was his vision of embracing the multi-ethnicity of the Algerian people, in opposition to "Latiny", a popular pro-fascist and antisemitic ideology among other pieds-noirs – French or Europeans born in Algeria. For Camus, this vision encapsulated the Hellenic humanism which survived among ordinary people around the Mediterranean Sea.{{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|p141–143}} His 1938 address on "The New Mediterranean Culture" represents Camus's most systematic statement of his views at this time. Camus also supported the Blum–Viollette proposal to grant Algerians full French citizenship in a manifesto with arguments defending this assimilative proposal on radical egalitarian grounds.{{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|p145}} In 1939, Camus wrote a stinging series of articles for the {{lang\|fr\|Alger républicain}} on the atrocious living conditions of the inhabitants of the Kabylie highlands. He advocated for economic, educational, and political reforms as a matter of emergency.{{sfn\|Sharpe\|2015\|p=356}} In 1945, following the Sétif and Guelma massacre after Arabs revolted against French mistreatment, Camus was one of only a few mainland journalists to visit the colony. He wrote a series of articles reporting on conditions and advocating for French reforms and concessions to the demands of the Algerian people.{{sfn\|Foley\|2008\|pp=150–151}} When the Algerian War began in 1954, Camus was confronted with a moral dilemma. He identified with the pieds-noirs such as his own parents and defended the French government's actions against the revolt. He argued the Algerian uprising was an integral part of the "new Arab imperialism" led by Egypt and an "anti-Western" offensive orchestrated by Russia to "encircle Europe" and "isolate the United States".{{sfn\|Sharpe\|2015\|p322}} Although favoring greater Algerian autonomy or even federation, though not full-scale independence, he believed the pieds-noirs and Arabs could co-exist. During the war, he advocated a civil truce that would spare the civilians. It was rejected by both sides, who regarded it as foolish. Behind the scenes, he began working for imprisoned Algerians who faced the death penalty.{{sfn\|Foley\|2008\|p161}} His position drew much criticism from the left and later postcolonial literary critics, such as Edward Said, who were opposed to European imperialism and charged that Camus's novels and short stories are plagued with colonial depictions – or conscious erasures – of Algeria's Arab population.{{sfn\|Amin\|2021\|pp31–32}} In their eyes, Camus was no longer the defender of the oppressed.{{sfn\|Carroll\|2007\|pp7–8}} Camus once said that the troubles in Algeria "affected him as others feel pain in their lungs".{{sfn\|Sharpe\|2015\|p9}}PhilosophyExistentialismEven though Camus is mostly connected to absurdism,{{sfn\|Sherman\|2009\|p3}} he is routinely categorized as an existentialist, a term he rejected on several occasions.{{sfnm\|1a1Sharpe\|1y2015\|1p3\|2a1Sherman\|2y2009\|2p3}} Camus himself said his philosophical origins lay in ancient Greek philosophy, Nietzsche, and 17th-century moralists, whereas existentialism arose from 19th- and early 20th-century philosophy such as Søren Kierkegaard, Karl Jaspers, and Martin Heidegger.{{sfnm\|1a1Foley\|1y2008\|1pp1–2\|2a1Sharpe\|2y2015\|2p29}} He also said his work, The Myth of Sisyphus, was a criticism of various aspects of existentialism.{{sfn\|Foley\|2008\|pp2}} Camus rejected existentialism as a philosophy, but his critique was mostly focused on Sartrean existentialism and – though to a lesser extent – on religious existentialism. He thought that the importance of history held by Marx and Sartre was incompatible with his belief in human freedom.{{sfnm\|1a1Foley\|1y2008\|1p3\|2a1Sherman\|2y2009\|2p3}} David Sherman and others also suggest the rivalry between Sartre and Camus also played a part in his rejection of existentialism.{{sfnm\|1a1Sherman\|1y2009\|1p4\|2a1Simpson\|2y2019\|2locExistentialism}} David Simpson argues further that his humanism and belief in human nature set him apart from the existentialist doctrine that existence precedes essence.{{sfn\|Simpson\|2019\|loc Existentialism}} On the other hand, Camus focused most of his philosophy around existential questions. The absurdity of life and that it inevitably ends in death is highlighted in his acts. His belief was that the absurd – life being void of meaning, or man's inability to know that meaning if it were to exist – was something that man should embrace. His opposition to Christianity and his commitment to individual moral freedom and responsibility are only a few of the similarities with other existential writers.{{sfnm\|1a1Sharpe\|1y2015\|1pp5–6\|2a1Simpson\|2y2019\|2loc Existentialism}} Camus addressed one of the fundamental questions of existentialism: the problem of suicide. He wrote: "There is only one really serious philosophical question, and that is suicide."<ref>"You cannot give coherence to murder if you refuse it to suicide. A spirit penetrated by the idea of the absurd undoubtedly admits the murder of fatality, but would not be able to accept the murder of reasoning. In comparison, murder and suicide are one and the same thing, which must be taken or left together." {{Cite book \|titleL'Homme revolté \|trans-titleThe Rebel \|publisherGallimard \|locationParis \|date1951 \|page17 \|language=fr}}</ref> Camus viewed the question of suicide as arising naturally as a solution to the absurdity of life.{{sfn\|Aronson\|2017\|locIntroduction}}AbsurdismMany existentialist writers have addressed the Absurd, each with their own interpretation of what it is and what makes it important. Kierkegaard suggests that the absurdity of religious truths prevents people from reaching God rationally.{{sfn\|Foley\|2008\|pp5–6}} Sartre recognizes the absurdity of individual experience. Camus's thoughts on the Absurd begin with his first cycle of books and the literary essay The Myth of Sisyphus, his major work on the subject. In 1942, he published the story of a man living an absurd life in The Stranger. He also wrote a play about the Roman emperor Caligula, pursuing an absurd logic, which was not performed until 1945. His early thoughts appeared in his first collection of essays, Betwixt and Between, in 1937. Absurd themes were expressed with more sophistication in his second collection of essays, {{lang\|fr\|Noces}} (Nuptials) in 1938. In these essays, Camus reflects on the experience of the Absurd.{{sfn\|Sherman\|2009\|p23}} Aspects of the notion of the Absurd can also be found in The Plague.{{sfn\|Sherman\|2009\|p8}} in 1961 by the French painter Louis Bénist, on which is engraved an extract from Nuptials (essays): “Here, I understand the concept of glory: the freedom to love boundlessly.”.]] Camus follows Sartre's definition of the Absurd: "That which is meaningless. Thus man's existence is absurd because his contingency finds no external justification".{{sfn\|Foley\|2008\|pp5–6}} The Absurd is created because man, who is placed in an unintelligent universe, realises that human values are not founded on a solid external component; as Camus himself explains, the Absurd is the result of the "confrontation between human need and the unreasonable silence of the world".{{sfn\|Foley\|2008\|p6}} Even though absurdity is inescapable, Camus does not drift towards nihilism. But the realization of absurdity leads to the question: Why should someone continue to live? Suicide is an option that Camus firmly dismisses as the renunciation of human values and freedom. Rather, he proposes we accept that absurdity is a part of our lives and live with it.{{sfn\|Foley\|2008\|p=7-10}} The turning point in Camus's attitude to the Absurd occurs in a collection of four letters to an anonymous German friend, written between July 1943 and July 1944. The first was published in the {{lang\|fr\|Revue Libre}} in 1943, the second in the {{lang\|fr\|Cahiers de Libération}} in 1944, and the third in the newspaper {{lang\|fr\|Libertés}}, in 1945. The four letters were published as {{lang\|fr\|Lettres à un ami allemand}} ('Letters to a German Friend') in 1945, and were included in the collection Resistance, Rebellion, and Death. Camus regretted the continued reference to himself as a "philosopher of the absurd". He showed less interest in the Absurd shortly after publishing The Myth of Sisyphus. To distinguish his ideas, scholars sometimes refer to the Paradox of the Absurd, when referring to "Camus's Absurd".{{sfn\|Curtis\|1972\|p335-348}}RevoltCamus articulated the case for revolting against any kind of oppression, injustice, or whatever disrespects the human condition. He was cautious enough, however, to set the limits on the rebellion.{{sfnm\|1a1Sharpe\|1y2015\|1p18\|2a1Simpson\|2y2019\|2locRevolt}} The Rebel explains in detail his thoughts on the issue. There, he builds upon the absurd, described in The Myth of Sisyphus, but goes further. In the introduction, where he examines the metaphysics of rebellion, he concludes with the phrase "I revolt, therefore we exist" implying the recognition of a common human condition.{{sfn\|Foley\|2008\|pp55–56}} Camus also delineates the difference between revolution and rebellion and notices that history has shown that the rebel's revolution might easily end up as an oppressive regime; he therefore places importance on the morals accompanying the revolution.{{sfn\|Foley\|2008\|pp56–58}} Camus poses a crucial question: Is it possible for humans to act in an ethical and meaningful manner in a silent universe? According to him, the answer is yes, as the experience and awareness of the Absurd creates the moral values and also sets the limits of our actions.{{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|pp43–44}} Camus separates the modern form of rebellion into two modes. First, there is the metaphysical rebellion, which is "the movement by which man protests against his condition and against the whole of creation". The other mode, historical rebellion, is the attempt to materialize the abstract spirit of metaphysical rebellion and change the world. In this attempt, the rebel must balance between the evil of the world and the intrinsic evil which every revolt carries, and not cause any unjustifiable suffering.{{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|pp50–55}}Legacy , Galicia, (Spain).]] Camus's novels and philosophical essays are still influential. After his death, interest in Camus followed the rise – and diminution – of the New Left. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, interest in his alternative road to communism resurfaced.{{sfn\|Sherman\|2009\|pp207–208}} He is remembered for his skeptical humanism and his support for political tolerance, dialogue, and civil rights.{{sfn\|Sharpe\|2015\|pp 241–242}} Although Camus has been linked to anti-Soviet communism, reaching as far as anarcho-syndicalism, some neoliberals have tried to associate him with their policies; for instance, the French President Nicolas Sarkozy suggested that his remains be moved to the Panthéon, an idea that was criticised by Camus's surviving family and angered many on the Left.{{sfnm\|1a1Zaretsky\|1y2013\|1pp3–4\|2a1Sherman\|2y2009\|2p208}} American heavy metal band Avenged Sevenfold stated that their album Life Is But a Dream... was inspired by the work of Camus.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAVENGED SEVENFOLD Announces 'Life Is But a Dream...' Album, Shares 'Nobody' Music Video \|urlhttps://blabbermouth.net/news/avenged-sevenfold-announces-life-is-but-a-dream-album-shares-nobody-music-video \|websiteBlabbermouth\|date14 March 2023 }}</ref> Albert Camus also served as the inspiration for the Aquarius Gold Saint Camus in the classic anime and manga Saint Seiya.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAquarius Camus: 5 Facts+ All you Need to Know \|urlhttps://cavzod.net/aquarius-camus-facts/ \|access-date19 October 2023 \|languageen-US}}</ref> Tributes In Tipasa, Algeria, inside the Roman ruins, facing the sea and Mount Chenoua, a stele was erected in 1961 in honor of Albert Camus with this phrase in French extracted from his work {{lang\|fr\|Noces à Tipasa}}: "I understand here what is called glory: the right to love beyond measure" ({{langx\|fr\|Je comprends ici ce qu'on appelle gloire : le droit d'aimer sans mesure}}).<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://tipaza.typepad.fr/mon_weblog/2012/10/au-sujet-de-la-st%C3%A8le-de-camus-dans-les-ruines-de-tipaza.html\|title Au sujet de la stèle de Camus dans les ruines de Tipaza}}</ref> The French Post published a stamp with his likeness on 26 June 1967.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.laposte.fr/toutsurletimbre/connaissance-du-timbre/dicotimbre/timbres/albert-camus-1514\|title La Poste}}</ref> Works The works of Albert Camus include:{{sfn\|Hughes\|2007\|pxvii}}Novels * A Happy Death (La Mort heureuse; written 1936–38, published 1971) * The Stranger (''L'Étranger, often translated as The Outsider'', though an alternate meaning of {{lang\|fr\|l'étranger}} is 'foreigner'; 1942) * The Plague (La Peste, 1947) * The Fall (La Chute, 1956) * The First Man (Le premier homme; incomplete, published 1994) Short stories * Exile and the Kingdom (''L'exil et le royaume; collection, 1957), containing the following short stories: "The Adulterous Woman" (La Femme adultère) "The Renegade or a Confused Spirit" (Le Renégat ou un esprit confus) "The Silent Men" (Les Muets) "The Guest" (L'Hôte) "Jonas, or the Artist at Work" (Jonas, ou l'artiste au travail) "The Growing Stone" (La Pierre qui pousse) Academic theses * Christian Metaphysics and Neoplatonism (Métaphysique chrétienne et néoplatonisme; 1935): the thesis that enabled Camus to teach in secondary schools in France Non-fiction * Betwixt and Between (L'envers et l'endroit, also translated as The Wrong Side and the Right Side; collection, 1937) * Nuptials (Noces, 1938) * The Myth of Sisyphus (Le Mythe de Sisyphe, 1942) * The Rebel (L'Homme révolté, 1951) * Algerian Chronicles (Chroniques algériennes; 1958, first English translation published 2013) * Resistance, Rebellion, and Death (collection, 1961) * Notebooks 1935–1942 (Carnets, mai 1935&nbsp;— fevrier 1942, 1962) * Notebooks 1942–1951 (Carnets II: janvier 1942-mars 1951, 1965) * Lyrical and Critical Essays (collection, 1968) * American Journals (Journaux de voyage, 1978) * Notebooks 1951–1959 (2008). Published as Carnets Tome III: Mars 1951 – December 1959 (1989) * Correspondence (1944–1959) The correspondence of Albert Camus and María Casares, with a preface by his daughter, Catherine (2017) Plays * Caligula (written 1938, performed 1945) * The Misunderstanding (Le Malentendu, 1944) * The State of Siege (L'État de Siège, 1948) * The Just Assassins (Les Justes, 1949) * Requiem for a Nun (Requiem pour une nonne'', adapted from William Faulkner's novel by the same name; 1956) * The Possessed (Les Possédés, adapted from Fyodor Dostoyevsky's novel Demons; 1959) Essays * The Crisis of Man (Lecture at Columbia University, 28 March 1946) * Neither Victims nor Executioners (series of essays in Combat, 1946) * Why Spain? (essay for the theatrical play ''L'Etat de Siège, 1948) * Summer (L'Été, 1954){{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|p=18}} * Reflections on the Guillotine (Réflexions sur la guillotine; extended essay, 1957){{sfn\|Hayden\|2016\|p=86}} * Create Dangerously (Essay on Realism and Artistic Creation''; lecture at the University of Uppsala in Sweden, 1957){{sfn\|Sharpe\|2015\|p20}} References Footnotes{{Reflist}}Sources{{cite journal \|lastAmin\|firstNasser\|date2021\|titleThe Colonial Politics of the Plague: Reading Camus in 2020\|url https://lcc.ac.uk/?r3dlcc-journal-volume-9-number-1-spring-2021#28 \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://londonchurchillcollege.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/LCC-Journal-Volume-9-Number-1-Spring-2021.pdf#page28 \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|url-statuslive \|journal Journal of Contemporary Development & Management Studies\|volume9 Spring 2021\|pages28–38}} {{cite book\|lastAronson\|firstRonald\|titleCamus and Sartre: The Story of a Friendship and the Quarrel that Ended it\|year2004\|publisherUniversity of Chicago Press\|isbn978-0-22602-796-8}} * {{cite encyclopedia\|lastAronson\|firstRonald\|titleAlbert Camus\|encyclopedia The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy\|editorEdward N. Zalta\|editor-link Edward N. Zalta\|urlhttps://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2017/entries/camus/\|year 2017}} * {{cite news\|last1Bernstein \|first1Richard \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/19/books/books-of-the-times-camus-as-a-principled-rebel-among-poseurs.html \|titleBOOKS OF THE TIMES; Camus as a Principled Rebel Among Poseurs\|newspaperThe New York Times \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060510104040/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res9806EED9113FF93AA25751C1A961958260 \|archive-date10 May 2006 \|date19 December 1997}} * {{cite book\|lastBloom\|firstHarold \|author-linkHarold Bloom\|titleAlbert Camus\|year2009\|publisherInfobase Publishing\|isbn=978-1-4381-1515-3}} * {{cite book \|lastBronner \|firstStephen Eric\|author-linkStephen Bronner\|titleCamus: Portrait of a Moralist\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTyOjcCm8XDMC&pgPA74\|year2009\|publisherUniversity of Chicago Press\|isbn978-0-226-07567-9}} * {{Cite book\|titleAlbert Camus the Algerian: Colonialism, Terrorism, Justice\|lastCarroll\|firstDavid\|date4 May 2007\|publisherColumbia University Press\|isbn978-0-231-51176-6\|language=en}} * {{Cite book \|lastCarroll \|firstSean B. \|titleBrave Genius: A Scientist, a Philosopher, and Their Daring Adventures from the French Resistance to the Nobel Prize \|publisherCrown \|year2013 \|isbn978-0-307-95234-9 \|locationNew York \|languageEnglish}} * {{cite journal\|lastClarke\|first Liam \|titleFootball as a metaphor: learning to cope with life, manage emotional illness and maintain health through to recovery \| journalJournal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing \| publisherWiley \| volume16 \| issue5 \| year2009 \| issn1351-0126 \| doi10.1111/j.1365-2850.2009.01403.x \|pmid19538606 \| pages488–492 }} * {{cite journal\|lastCohn\|firstRobert Greer\|titleThe True Camus\|journalThe French Review\|volume60\|issue1\|pages30–38\|year1986\|jstor=393607}} * {{Cite journal\|lastCurtis\|firstJerry L.\|date1 August 1972\|titleThe absurdity of rebellion\|journalMan and World\|languageen\|volume5\|issue3\|pages335–348\|doi10.1007/bf01248640\|s2cid144571561\|issn0025-1534}} * {{cite journal\|lastDunwoodie \| firstPeter \| titleAlbert Camus and the Anarchist Alternative \| journalAustralian Journal of French Studies \| publisherLiverpool University Press \| volume30 \| issue1 \| year1993 \| issn0004-9468 \| doi10.3828/ajfs.30.1.84 \| pages=84–104 }} * {{cite book\|lastFoley\|firstJohn\|titleAlbert Camus: From the Absurd to Revolt\|year2008\|publisherMcGill-Queen's University Press\|isbn978-0-7735-3467-4}} * {{cite book\|lastHayden\|firstPatrick\|titleCamus and the Challenge of Political Thought: Between Despair and Hope\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZYeRCwAAQBAJ&pgPT26\|date9 February 2016\|publisherSpringer\|isbn978-1-137-52583-3\|doi10.1057/9781137525833}} * {{cite book\|lastHughes\|firstEdward J. \|titleThe Cambridge Companion to Camus\|date26 April 2007\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn978-1-139-82734-8}} * {{cite web \|lastLattal\|firstAshley\|year1995\|urlhttp://www.users.muohio.edu/shermalw/honors_2001_fall/honors_papers_2000/lattal.html \|titleAlbert Camus \|publisherUsers.muohio.edu \|access-date=17 October 2009}} * {{cite book\|lastLottman\|firstHerbert \|author-linkHerbert Lottman\|titleAlbert Camus: A Biography\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idUJY8PgAACAAJ\|year1979\|publisherAxis\|isbn=978-1-870845-12-0}} * {{cite book\|last Marshall\|firstPeter H.\|author-linkPeter Marshall (author, born 1946)\|titleDemanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism\|year1993\|publisherFontana\|isbn=978-0-00-686245-1}} * {{cite journal\|lastNicholson\|first Graeme\|author-linkGraeme Nicholson\|title Camus and Heidegger: Anarchists\|journalUniversity of Toronto Quarterly\|volume 41\|year1971\|pages 14–23\|urlhttps://www.muse.jhu.edu/article/559809\|doi 10.3138/utq.41.1.14\|s2cid154840020\|access-date 4 May 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190504181134/https://www.muse.jhu.edu/article/559809\|archive-date 4 May 2019\|url-status= dead}} {{cite book\|lastSchaffner\|firstAlain \|titleAlbert Camus: l'exigence morale : hommage à Jacqueline Lévi-Valensi (L'esprit des lettres)\|editorAgnès Spiquel \|publisherEditions Le Manuscrit\|year2006 \|isbn978-2-7481-7101-3\|languagefr}} {{cite book\|lastSharpe\|firstMatthew \|author-link\|titleCamus, Philosophe: To Return to our Beginnings\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idpdZ0CgAAQBAJ&pgPA9\|date3 September 2015\|publisherBrill\|isbn978-90-04-30234-1}} * {{cite book\|lastSherman\|firstDavid \|titleCamus\|date30 January 2009\|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons\|isbn978-1-4443-0328-5}} * {{cite encyclopedia\|lastSimpson\|firstDavid\|titleAlbert Camus (1913–1960)\|encyclopedia The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy\|year2019 \|url https://www.iep.utm.edu/camus/\|issn=2161-0002 }} * {{cite book\|lastTodd\|firstOlivier \|author-linkOliver Todd\|titleAlbert Camus: A Life \|publisherCarroll & Graf \|year2000 \|isbn=978-0-7867-0739-3}} * {{Cite news \|lastWillsher \|firstKim \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/aug/07/albert-camus-killed-by-kgb \|titleAlbert Camus might have been killed by the KGB for criticising the Soviet Union, claims newspaper \|date7 August 2011 \|workThe Guardian}} * {{cite magazine\|lastZaretsky\|firstRobert\|urlhttps://lareviewofbooks.org/article/no-longer-the-person-i-was-the-dazzling-correspondence-of-albert-camus-and-maria-casares/#!\|title'No Longer the Person I Was': The Dazzling Correspondence of Albert Camus and Maria Casarès\|magazineLos Angeles Review of Books\|year2018}} * {{cite book\|lastZaretsky\|firstRobert\|titleLife Worth Living\|date7 November 2013\|publisherHarvard University Press\|isbn978-0-674-72837-0}} Further reading Selected biographies <!--extensive 'further reading' removed 2015-09-20, see history - largely non-English--> * {{cite book\|lastThody\|firstPhilip Malcolm Waller\|author-linkPhilip Thody\|titleAlbert Camus: A Study of His Work\|year1957\|publisherHamish Hamilton}} * {{cite book\|lastBrisville\|firstJean-Claude\|author-linkJean-Claude Brisville\|titleCamus\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/camus0000bris\|url-accessregistration\|year1959\|publisherGallimard}} * {{cite book\|lastParker\|firstEmmett \|titleAlbert Camus: The Artist in the Arena\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/albertcamusartis00park\|url-accessregistration\|year1965\|publisherUniv of Wisconsin Press\|isbn978-0-299-03554-9}} * {{cite book\|lastKing\|firstAdele \|author-linkAdele King\|titleAlbert Camus\|year1964\|publisherGrove Press}} * {{cite book\|lastMcCarthy\|firstPatrick \|titleCamus: A Critical Study of His Life and Work\|date1982 \|publisherHamish Hamilton\|isbn978-0-241-10603-7}} * {{cite book\|lastSprintzen\|firstDavid \|titleCamus: A Critical Examination\|dateFebruary 1991\|publisherTemple University Press\|isbn978-0-87722-827-1}} * {{cite book\|lastKing\|firstAdele \|author-linkAdele King\|titleCamus's L'Etranger: Fifty Years on\|date12 June 1992\|publisherPalgrave Macmillan UK\|isbn=978-1-349-22003-8}} * {{cite book\|lastBloom\|firstHarold \|author-linkHarold Bloom\|titleAlbert Camus\|year2009\|publisherInfobase Publishing\|isbn978-1-4381-1515-3\|refnone}} * {{cite book\|authorPierre Louis Rey\|titleCamus: l'homme révolté\|year2006\|publisherGallimard\|isbn=978-2-07-031828-5}} * {{cite book\|lastHawes\|firstElizabeth \|author-linkElizabeth Hawes\|titleCamus, a Romance\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/camusromance00hawe\|url-accessregistration\|year2009\|publisherGrove Press\|isbn978-0-8021-1889-9}}External links {{wikiquote\|Albert Camus}} [http://camusbibliography.boisestate.edu/ Albert Camus. Selective and Cumulative Bibliography] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304043919/http://camusbibliography.boisestate.edu/ \|date4 March 2016 }} [http://www.uflib.ufl.edu/spec/camus/default.htm Gay-Crosier Camus collection] at University of Florida Library [http://www.camus-society.com/ Albert Camus Society UK] {{FadedPage\|idCamus, Albert\|nameAlbert Camus\|author=yes}} * {{Nobelprize}} {{Camus}} {{Navboxes \|title=Articles related to Albert Camus \|list= {{The Stranger (Camus novel)}} {{Nobel Prize in Literature Laureates 1951-1975}} {{1957 Nobel Prize winners}} {{Continental philosophy}} {{Existentialism}} {{Social and political philosophy}} {{Philosophical pessimism}} }} {{Portal bar\|France\|Biography}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Camus, Albert}} Category:1913 births Category:1960 deaths Category:20th-century atheists Category:20th-century French dramatists and playwrights Category:20th-century French essayists Category:20th-century French journalists Category:20th-century French male writers Category:20th-century French novelists Category:20th-century French philosophers Category:20th-century French short story writers Category:Absurdist writers Category:Anarcho-syndicalists Category:Anti-Stalinist left Category:Atheist philosophers Category:Communist members of the French Resistance Category:Counterculture of the 1940s Category:Counterculture of the 1950s Category:Existentialists Category:French anarchists Category:French anti-capitalists Category:French anti–death penalty activists Category:French anti-fascists Category:French atheists Category:French humanists Category:French male essayists Category:French Nobel laureates Category:French pacifists Category:French people of Spanish descent Category:French socialists Category:French syndicalists Category:Legion of Honour refusals Category:Libertarian socialists Category:Modernist writers Category:Nobel laureates in Literature Category:People from Dréan Category:People of French Algeria Category:Philosophers of death Category:Philosophers of pessimism Category:Pieds-noirs Category:Road incident deaths in France Category:University of Algiers alumni Category:Writers of pessimistic fiction	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Camus	2025-04-05T18:25:27.526910
984	Agatha Christie	{{Short description\|English mystery and detective writer (1890–1976)}} {{About\|the English author\|other uses\|Agatha Christie (disambiguation)}} {{Good article}} {{Use British English\|date=January 2024}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=May 2024}} <!-- This article uses spaced en dashes where appropriate, not em dashes (see MOS:ENDASH) --> {{Infobox writer <!-- for more information see :Template:Infobox writer/doc --> \| honorific_prefix = Dame \| name = Agatha Christie \| honorific_suffix {{post-nominals\|countryGBR\|size=100%\|DBE}} \| image = Agatha Christie.png \| alt = Black and white portrait photograph of Christie as a middle-aged woman \| caption = Christie in 1958 \| pseudonym = Mary Westmacott \| birth_name = Agatha Mary Clarissa Miller \| birth_date {{Birth date\|dfy\|1890\|9\|15}} \| birth_place = Torquay, Devon, England \| death_date {{Death date and age\|dfy\|1976\|1\|12\|1890\|9\|15}} \| death_place = Winterbrook House, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, England \| resting_place = Church of St Mary, Cholsey, Oxfordshire, England \| occupation = {{flatlist\| Novelist short story writer playwright poet memoirist }} \| genre = {{flatlist\| Murder mystery detective story crime fiction thriller }} \| movement = Golden Age of Detective Fiction \| notableworks = {{flatlist\| Murder on the Orient Express The Murder of Roger Ackroyd Death on the Nile The Murder at the Vicarage Partners in Crime The A.B.C. Murders And Then There Were None The Mousetrap }} \| spouses = {{plainlist\| {{Marriage\|Archibald Christie\|1914\|1928\|end=div}} {{Marriage\|Max Mallowan\|1930}} }} \| children = Rosalind Hicks \| relatives = James Watts (nephew) \| signature = Agatha Christie's signature.svg \| website = {{Official URL}} }} Dame Agatha Mary Clarissa Christie, Lady Mallowan, {{post-nominals\|countryGBR\|size100%\|DBE}} ({{née\|Miller}}; 15&nbsp;September 1890&nbsp;– 12&nbsp;January 1976) was an English author known for her 66 detective novels and 14 short story collections, particularly those revolving around fictional detectives Hercule Poirot and Miss Marple. She also wrote the world's longest-running play, the murder mystery The Mousetrap, which has been performed in the West End of London since 1952. A writer during the "Golden Age of Detective Fiction", Christie has been called the "Queen of Crime"—a nickname now trademarked by her estate—or the "Queen of Mystery".<ref name"Trademark"/><ref name"Moniker"/> She also wrote six novels under the pseudonym Mary Westmacott. In 1971, she was made a Dame (DBE) by Queen Elizabeth II for her contributions to literature. She is the best-selling fiction writer of all time, her novels having sold more than two billion copies.<ref name"Moniker">{{cite news \|titleAgatha Christie: Lucy Worsley on the Mystery Queen \|urlhttps://www.pbs.org/show/agatha-christie-lucy-worsley-on-the-mystery-queen/ \|access-date21 February 2024 \|agencyPBS \|quoteAgatha Christie is the most successful novelist of all time, outsold only by Shakespeare and the Bible.}}</ref> Christie was born into a wealthy upper-middle-class family in Torquay, Devon, and was largely home-schooled. She was initially an unsuccessful writer with six consecutive rejections, but this changed in 1920 when The Mysterious Affair at Styles, featuring detective Hercule Poirot, was published. Her first husband was Archibald Christie; they married in 1914 and had one child before divorcing in 1928. Following the breakdown of her marriage and the death of her mother in 1926, she made international headlines by going missing for eleven days. During both World Wars, she served in hospital dispensaries, acquiring a thorough knowledge of the poisons that featured in many of her novels, short stories, and plays. Following her marriage to archaeologist Max Mallowan in 1930, she spent several months each year on digs in the Middle East and used her first-hand knowledge of this profession in her fiction. According to UNESCO's Index Translationum, she remains the most-translated individual author.<ref>{{cite web \|titleMost translated author \|urlhttps://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/67389-most-translated-author \|websiteGuinness World Records \|date7 March 2017}}</ref> Her novel And Then There Were None is one of the top-selling books of all time, with approximately 100 million copies sold. Christie's stage play The Mousetrap holds the world record for the longest initial run. It opened at the Ambassadors Theatre in the West End on 25&nbsp;November 1952, and by 2018 there had been more than 27,500 performances. The play was temporarily closed in 2020 because of COVID-19 lockdowns in London before it reopened in 2021. ]] In 1955, Christie was the first recipient of the Mystery Writers of America's Grand Master Award. Later that year, Witness for the Prosecution received an Edgar Award for best play. In 2013, she was voted the best crime writer and The Murder of Roger Ackroyd the best crime novel ever by 600 professional novelists of the Crime Writers' Association. In 2015, And Then There Were None was named the "World's Favourite Christie" in a vote sponsored by the author's estate.<ref>{{cite web \|titleResult of world's favourite Christie global vote \|urlhttps://www.agathachristie.com/en/news/2015/worlds-favourite-christie \|websiteAgatha Christie \|date22 December 2015\|access-date23 June 2023}}</ref> Many of Christie's books and short stories have been adapted for television, radio, video games, and graphic novels. More than 30 feature films are based on her work. Life and career 1890–1907: childhood and adolescence Agatha Mary Clarissa Miller<!-- Christie comes from her first marriage. --> was born on 15&nbsp;September 1890, into a wealthy upper middle class family in Torquay, Devon. She was the youngest of three children born to Frederick Alvah Miller, "a gentleman of substance",<ref name":5">{{cite news \|date13 January 1976 \|titleObituary. Dame Agatha Christie \|page16 \|workThe Times \|quote'My father,' she [Christie] recalled, 'was a gentleman of substance, and never did a handsturn in his life, and he was a most agreeable man.'}}</ref> and his wife Clarissa "Clara" Margaret (née Boehmer).<ref name"Morgan1984">{{cite book \|lastMorgan \|firstJanet P. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idw4paAAAAMAAJ \|titleAgatha Christie: A Biography \|date1984 \|publisherHarperCollins \|isbn978-0-00-216330-9 \|locationLondon \|access-date25 May 2020 \|archive-date12 May 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210512060208/https://books.google.com/books?idw4paAAAAMAAJ \|url-statuslive}}</ref>{{rp\|1–4}}<ref name":1">Marriage Register. St Peter's Church, Bayswater [Notting Hill], Middlesex, 1878, No. 399, p. 200.</ref><ref>Birth Certificate. General Register Office for England and Wales, 1890 September Quarter, Newton Abbot, volume 5b, p. 151. [Christie's forenames were not registered.]</ref><ref name":2">Baptism Register. Parish of Tormohun, Devon, 1890, No. 267, [n.p.].</ref> Christie's mother Clara was born in Dublin in 1854{{Refn\|Most biographers give Christie's mother's place of birth as Belfast but do not provide sources. Current primary evidence, including census entries (place of birth Dublin), her baptism record (Dublin), and her father's service record and regimental history (when her father was in Dublin), indicates she was almost certainly born in Dublin in the first quarter of 1854.<ref>1871 England Census. Class: RG10; Piece: 3685; Folio: 134; p. 44</ref><ref>[https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C178476 Statement of Services] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191026071323/https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C178476 \|date26 October 2019 }}: Frederick Boehmer, 91st Foot. The National Archives, Kew. WO 76/456, p. 57. [Also states his daughter Clarissa Margaret was baptised in Dublin.]</ref><ref name"Goff"/>\|grouplower-alpha}} to British Army officer Frederick Boehmer<ref name"Goff">{{cite book \|lastGoff \|firstGerald Lionel Joseph \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/historicalrecord00goffuoft \|titleHistorical records of the 91st Argyllshire Highlanders, now the 1st Battalion Princess Louise's Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders, containing an account of the Regiment in 1794, and of its subsequent services to 1881 \|publisherR. Bentley \|year1891 \|pagesxv, [https://archive.org/details/historicalrecord00goffuoft/page/218 218–19, 322]}}</ref> and his wife Mary Ann (née West). Boehmer died in Jersey in 1863,{{Refn\|Boehmer's death registration states he died at age 49 from bronchitis after retiring from the army,<ref name"Jerseyburials"/> but Christie and her biographers have consistently claimed he was killed in a riding accident while still a serving officer.<ref name"Auto1993"/>{{rp\|5}}<ref>{{cite book \|lastRobyns \|firstGwen \|titleThe Mystery of Agatha Christie \|publisherDoubleday & Company, Inc \|year1978 \|isbn0-385-12623-9 \|locationGarden City, NY \|page13}}</ref><ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|2}}<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|9–10}}\|grouplower-alpha}} leaving his widow to raise Clara and her brothers on a meagre income.<ref name"Jerseyburials">{{cite book \|titleBurials in the Parish of St Helier, in the Island of Jersey \|year1863 \|page303}}</ref><ref name"thompson"/>{{rp\|10}} Two weeks after Boehmer's death, Mary's sister, Margaret West, married widowed dry-goods merchant Nathaniel Frary Miller, a US citizen.<ref>[https://www.familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:S3HY-6LM7-W15?i299 Marriage Register]. Parish of Westbourne, Sussex, 1863, No. 318, p. 159.</ref> To assist Mary financially, Margaret and Nathaniel agreed to foster nine-year-old Clara; the family settled in Timperley, Cheshire.<ref>[https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C7314015 Naturalisation Papers] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191024232807/https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C7314015 \|date24 October 2019 }}: Miller, Nathaniel Frary, from the United States. Certificate 4798 issued 25 August 1865. The National Archives, Kew. HO 1/123/4798.</ref> The couple had no children together, but Nathaniel had a 17-year-old son, Frederick "Fred", from his previous marriage. Fred was born in New York City and travelled extensively after leaving his Swiss boarding school.<ref name"thompson"/>{{rp\|12}} He and Clara were married in London in 1878.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|2–5}}<ref name":1"/> Their first child, Margaret "Madge" Frary, was born in Torquay in 1879.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|6}}<ref>Birth Certificate. General Register Office for England and Wales, 1879 March Quarter, Newton Abbot, volume 5b, p. 162.</ref> The second, Louis Montant "Monty", was born in Morristown, New Jersey, in 1880,<ref>{{cite news \|date26 June 1880 \|titleBirths \|page1 \|workLondon Evening Standard}}</ref> while the family was on an extended visit to the United States.<ref name"Auto1993">{{cite book \|lastChristie \|firstAgatha \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/agathachristieau00chri \|titleAgatha Christie: An Autobiography \|publisherDodd, Mead & Company \|year1977 \|isbn0-396-07516-9 \|locationNew York City \|url-access=registration}}</ref>{{rp\|7}} When Fred's father died in 1869,<ref>Death Certificate. General Register Office for England and Wales, 1869 June Quarter, Westbourne, volume 02B, p. 230.</ref> he left Clara £2,000 (approximately {{Inflation\|indexUK\|value2000\|start_year1869\|r-4\|fmteq\|cursign£}}); in 1881 they used this to buy the leasehold of a villa in Torquay named Ashfield.<ref>{{cite news \|date5 October 1880 \|titleAuctions. Torquay \|page1 \|workWestern Times [Exeter, Devon]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|date20 May 1881 \|titleArrivals \|page4 \|workTorquay Times}}</ref> It was here that their third and last child, Agatha, was born in 1890.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|6–7}}<ref name":2"/> She described her childhood as "very happy".<ref name"Auto1993"/>{{rp\|3}} The Millers lived mainly in Devon but often visited her step-grandmother/great-aunt Margaret Miller in Ealing and maternal grandmother Mary Boehmer in Bayswater.<ref name"Auto1993"/>{{rp\|26–31}} A year was spent abroad with her family, in the French Pyrenees, Paris, Dinard, and Guernsey.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|15, 24–25}} Because her siblings were so much older, and there were few children in their neighbourhood, Christie spent much of her time playing alone with her pets and imaginary companions.<ref name"Auto1993"/>{{rp\|9–10, 86–88}} She eventually made friends with other girls in Torquay, noting that "one of the highlights of my existence" was her appearance with them in a youth production of Gilbert and Sullivan's The Yeomen of the Guard, in which she played the hero, Colonel Fairfax.<ref name="Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|23–27}} According to Christie, Clara believed she should not learn to read until she was eight; thanks to her curiosity, she was reading by the age of four.<ref name"Auto1993"/>{{Rp\|13}} Her sister had been sent to a boarding school, but their mother insisted that Christie receive her education at home. As a result, her parents and sister supervised her studies in reading, writing and basic arithmetic, a subject she particularly enjoyed. They also taught her music, and she learned to play the piano and the mandolin.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|8, 20–21}} Christie was a voracious reader from an early age. Some of her earliest memories were of reading children's books by Mrs Molesworth and Edith Nesbit. When a little older, she moved on to the surreal verse of Edward Lear and Lewis Carroll.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|18–19}} As an adolescent, she enjoyed works by Anthony Hope, Walter Scott, Charles Dickens, and Alexandre Dumas.<ref name"Auto1993"/>{{rp\|111, 136–37}} In April 1901, aged 10, she wrote her first poem, "The Cow Slip".<ref name"film">{{cite AV media \|titleThe Mystery of Agatha Christie – A Trip With David Suchet (Directed by Claire Lewins) \|publisher=Testimony Films (for ITV)}}</ref> By 1901, her father's health had deteriorated, because of what he believed were heart problems.<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|33}} Fred died in November 1901 from pneumonia and chronic kidney disease.<ref>Death Certificate. General Register Office for England and Wales, 1901 December Quarter, Brentford, volume 3A, p. 71. ("Cause of Death. Bright's disease, chronic. Pneumonia. Coma and heart failure.")</ref> Christie later said that her father's death when she was 11 marked the end of her childhood.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|32–33}} The family's financial situation had, by this time, worsened. Madge married the year after their father's death and moved to Cheadle, Cheshire; Monty was overseas, serving in a British regiment.<ref name"thompson"/>{{rp\|43, 49}} Christie now lived alone at Ashfield with her mother. In 1902, she began attending Miss Guyer's Girls' School in Torquay but found it difficult to adjust to the disciplined atmosphere.<ref name"Auto1993"/>{{rp\|139}} In 1905, her mother sent her to Paris, where she was educated in a series of {{Lang\|fr\|pensionnats}} (boarding schools), focusing on voice training and piano playing. Deciding she lacked the temperament and talent, she gave up her goal of performing professionally as a concert pianist or an opera singer.<ref name"thompson"/>{{rp\|59–61}} 1907–1926: early literary attempts, marriage, literary success After completing her education, Christie returned to England to find her mother ailing. They decided to spend the winter of 1907–1908 in the warm climate of Egypt, which was then a regular tourist destination for wealthy Britons.<ref name"Auto1993"/>{{rp\|155–57}} They stayed for three months at the Gezirah Palace Hotel in Cairo. Christie attended many dances and other social functions; she particularly enjoyed watching amateur polo matches. While they visited some ancient Egyptian monuments such as the Great Pyramid of Giza, she did not exhibit the great interest in archaeology and Egyptology that developed in her later years.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|40–41}} Returning to Britain, she continued her social activities, writing and performing in amateur theatrics. She also helped put on a play called The Blue Beard of Unhappiness with female friends.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|45–47}} At 18, Christie wrote her first short story, "The House of Beauty", while recovering in bed from an illness. It consisted of about 6,000 words about "madness and dreams", subjects of fascination for her. Her biographer Janet Morgan has commented that, despite "infelicities of style", the story was "compelling".<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|48–49}} (The story became an early version of her story "The House of Dreams".)<ref>{{cite web \|titleThe House of Dreams \|urlhttp://www.agathachristie.com/christies-work/stories/the-house-of-dreams/377 \|access-date27 June 2020 \|websiteagathachristie.com \|archive-date25 May 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140525200925/http://www.agathachristie.com/christies-work/stories/the-house-of-dreams/377 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Other stories followed, most of them illustrating her interest in spiritualism and the paranormal. These included "The Call of Wings" and "The Little Lonely God". Magazines rejected all her early submissions, made under pseudonyms (including Mac Miller, Nathaniel Miller, and Sydney West); some submissions were later revised and published under her real name, often with new titles.<ref name="Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|49–50}} Around the same time, Christie began work on her first novel, Snow Upon the Desert. Writing under the pseudonym Monosyllaba, she set the book in Cairo and drew upon her recent experiences there. She was disappointed when the six publishers she contacted declined the work.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|50–51}}<ref name"curran">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.agathachristie.com/about-christie/christie-experts/john-curran-75-facts-about-christie \|title75 facts about Christie \|last1Curran \|first1John \|websiteThe Home of Agatha Christie \|publisherAgatha Christie Limited \|access-date21 July 2017 \|archive-date29 July 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170729055754/http://www.agathachristie.com/about-christie/christie-experts/john-curran-75-facts-about-christie \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Clara suggested that her daughter ask for advice from the successful novelist Eden Phillpotts, a family friend and neighbour, who responded to her enquiry, encouraged her writing, and sent her an introduction to his own literary agent, Hughes Massie, who also rejected Snow Upon the Desert but suggested a second novel.<ref name="Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|51–52}} Meanwhile, Christie's social activities expanded, with country house parties, riding, hunting, dances, and roller skating.<ref name"Auto1993"/>{{rp\|165–66}} She had short-lived relationships with four men and an engagement to another.<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|64–67}} In October 1912, she was introduced to Archibald "Archie" Christie at a dance given by Lord and Lady Clifford at Ugbrooke, about {{convert\|12\|mi\|km}} from Torquay. The son of a barrister in the Indian Civil Service, Archie was a Royal Artillery officer who was seconded to the Royal Flying Corps in April 1913.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/28725/page/3914 \|page3914 \|titleWar Office, Regular Forces \|issue28725 \|date3 June 1913 \|publisherThe London Gazette}}</ref> The couple quickly fell in love. Three months after their first meeting, Archie proposed marriage, and Agatha accepted.<ref name="Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|54–63}} of the British Red Cross. She is pictured in 1915 outside her childhood home of Ashfield.]] With the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, Archie was sent to France to fight. They married on Christmas Eve 1914 at Emmanuel Church, Clifton, Bristol, close to the home of his mother and stepfather, when Archie was on home leave.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Curtis \|first1Fay \|date24 December 2014 \|titleDesert Island Doc: Agatha Christie's wartime wedding \|urlhttp://www.bristolmuseums.org.uk/blog/desert-island-doc-agatha-christies-wartime-wedding \|publisherBristol Museums, Galleries & Archives \|access-date30 December 2014 \|archive-date31 December 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141231122809/http://www.bristolmuseums.org.uk/blog/desert-island-doc-agatha-christies-wartime-wedding/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>Marriage Register. Parish of Emmanuel, Clifton, 1914, No. 305, p. 153.</ref> Rising through the ranks, he was posted back to Britain in September 1918 as a colonel in the Air Ministry. Christie involved herself in the war effort as a member of the Voluntary Aid Detachment of the British Red Cross. From October 1914 to May 1915, then from June 1916 to September 1918, she worked 3,400 hours in the Town Hall Red Cross Hospital, Torquay, first as a Voluntary Aid Detachment nurse (unpaid) then as a dispenser at £16 (approximately {{Inflation\|indexUK\|value16\|start_year1917\|r-1\|fmteq\|cursign£}}) a year from 1917 after qualifying as an apothecary's assistant.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{Rp\|69}}<ref name"BRC">{{cite web \|titleAgatha Christie – British Red Cross \|urlhttps://vad.redcross.org.uk/Agatha-Christie \|access-date26 October 2019 \|publisherBritish Red Cross \|archive-date25 October 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191025223408/https://vad.redcross.org.uk/Agatha-Christie \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Her war service ended in September 1918 when Archie was reassigned to London, and they rented a flat in St. John's Wood.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|73–74}} Christie had long been a fan of detective novels, having enjoyed Wilkie Collins's The Woman in White and The Moonstone, and Arthur Conan Doyle's early Sherlock Holmes stories. She wrote her first detective novel, The Mysterious Affair at Styles, in 1916. It featured Hercule Poirot, a former Belgian police officer with "magnificent moustaches" and a head "exactly the shape of an egg",<ref name":16">{{cite book \|lastOsborne \|firstCharles \|titleThe Life and Crimes of Agatha Christie: A Biographical Companion to the Works of Agatha Christie \|publisherSt. Martin's Press \|year2001 \|isbn0-312-28130-7 \|locationNew York City}}</ref>{{Rp\|13}} who had taken refuge in Britain after Germany invaded Belgium. Christie's inspiration for the character came from Belgian refugees living in Torquay, and the Belgian soldiers she helped to treat as a volunteer nurse during the First World War.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|75–79}}<ref name":17">{{cite book \|last1Fitzgibbon \|first1Russell H. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/agathachristieco00fitz \|titleThe Agatha Christie Companion \|publisherThe Bowling Green State University Popular Press \|year1980 \|locationBowling Green, Ohio \|url-accessregistration}}</ref>{{Rp\|17–18}} Her original manuscript was rejected by Hodder & Stoughton and Methuen. After keeping the submission for several months, John Lane at The Bodley Head offered to accept it, provided that Christie change how the solution was revealed. She did so, and signed a contract committing her next five books to The Bodley Head, which she later felt was exploitative.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|79, 81–82}} It was published in 1920.<ref name"film"/> Christie settled into married life, giving birth to her only child, Rosalind Margaret Clarissa (later Hicks), in August 1919 at Ashfield.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|79}}<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|340, 349, 422}} Archie left the Air Force at the end of the war and began working in the City financial sector on a relatively low salary. They still employed a maid.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|80–81}} Her second novel, The Secret Adversary (1922), featuring new detective couple Tommy and Tuppence, was also published by The Bodley Head. It earned her £50 (approximately {{Inflation\|indexUK\|value50\|start_year1922\|r-2\|fmteq\|cursign£}}). A third novel, Murder on the Links, again featured Poirot, as did the short stories commissioned by Bruce Ingram, editor of The Sketch magazine, from 1923.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|83}} She now had no difficulty selling her work.<ref name=":16"/>{{rp\|33}} In 1922, the Christies joined an around-the-world promotional tour for the British Empire Exhibition, led by Major Ernest Belcher. Leaving their daughter with Agatha's mother and sister, in 10 months they travelled to South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, and Canada.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|86–103}}<ref>{{cite book \|lastPrichard \|firstMathew \|titleThe Grand Tour: Around The World With The Queen Of Mystery \|publisherHarperCollins Publishers \|year2012 \|isbn978-0-06-219122-9 \|locationNew York City}}</ref> They learned to surf prone in South Africa; then, in Waikiki, they were among the first Britons to surf standing up, and extended their time there by three months to practise.<ref>{{cite news \|lastJones \|firstSam \|date29 July 2011 \|titleAgatha Christie's Surfing Secret Revealed \|newspaperThe Guardian \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/jul/29/agatha-christie-hercule-poirot-surfing-secret \|access-date30 July 2011 \|archive-date15 December 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131215093338/http://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/jul/29/agatha-christie-hercule-poirot-surfing-secret \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|date29 July 2011 \|titleAgatha Christie 'one of Britain's first stand-up surfers' \|workThe Daily Telegraph \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/8670354/Agatha-Christie-one-of-Britains-first-stand-up-surfers.html \|access-date30 July 2011 \|archive-date29 July 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110729225835/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/8670354/Agatha-Christie-one-of-Britains-first-stand-up-surfers.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> She is remembered at the Museum of British Surfing as having said about surfing, "Oh it was heaven! Nothing like rushing through the water at what seems to you a speed of about two hundred miles an hour. It is one of the most perfect physical pleasures I have known."<ref>{{Cite web \|date24 March 2019 \|titleAgatha Christie began riding surfboards standing up at Waikiki - Museum of British Surfing \|urlhttps://www.museumofbritishsurfing.org.uk/timeline/agatha-christie-began-riding-surfboards-standing-up-at-waikiki/ \|access-date1 September 2022 \|language=en-GB}}</ref> When they returned to England, Archie resumed work in the city, and Christie continued to work hard at her writing. After living in a series of apartments in London, they bought a house in Sunningdale, Berkshire, which they renamed Styles after the mansion in Christie's first detective novel.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{Rp\|124–25}}<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|154–55}} Christie's mother, Clarissa Miller, died in April 1926. They had been close, and the loss sent Christie into a deep depression.<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|168–72}} In August 1926, reports appeared in the press that Christie had gone to a village near Biarritz to recuperate from a "breakdown" caused by "overwork".<ref name":6">{{cite news \|date20 August 1926 \|titleA Penalty of Realism \|page6 \|workThe Evening News \|locationPortsmouth, Hampshire}}</ref> 1926: disappearance '', 15 December 1926, announcing that Christie had been found. Missing for 11 days, she was found at the Swan Hydropathic Hotel in Harrogate, Yorkshire.\|altNewspaper article with portraits of Agatha and Archie Christie]] In August 1926, Archie asked Christie for a divorce. He had fallen in love with Nancy Neele, a friend of Major Belcher.<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|173–74}} On 3{{nbsp}}December 1926, the pair quarrelled after Archie announced his plan to spend the weekend with friends, unaccompanied by his wife. Late that evening, Christie disappeared from their home in Sunningdale. The following morning, her car, a Morris Cowley, was discovered at Newlands Corner in Surrey, parked above a chalk quarry with an expired driving licence and clothes inside.<ref>{{cite news \|date6 December 1926 \|title100 Police Scour Downs for Missing Woman Novelist \|page1 \|workYorkshire Evening Post}}</ref><ref name"ChristieLife">{{cite web \|titleChristie's Life: 1925–1928 A Difficult Start \|urlhttp://www.agathachristie.com/about-christie#christies-life \|websiteThe Home of Agatha Christie \|access-date12 February 2017 \|archive-date7 December 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151207094654/http://www.agathachristie.com/about-christie/#christies-life \|url-statuslive}}</ref> It was feared that she might have drowned herself in the Silent Pool, a nearby beauty spot.<ref>{{cite news \|titleAgatha Christie's real-life mystery at the Silent Pool \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/local/surrey/hi/people_and_places/history/newsid_9005000/9005502.stm\|access-date10 November 2022 \|publisherBBC News \|date17 September 2010}}</ref> The disappearance quickly became a news story. The press sought to satisfy their readers' "hunger for sensation, disaster, and scandal".<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|224}} Home Secretary William Joynson-Hicks pressured police, and a newspaper offered a £100 reward ({{Inflation\|indexUK\|value100\|start_year1927\|r-2\|fmteq\|cursign£}}). More than 1,000 police officers, 15,000 volunteers, and several aeroplanes searched the rural landscape. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle gave a spirit medium one of Christie's gloves to find her.{{Refn\|Dorothy L. Sayers, who visited the "scene of the disappearance", later incorporated details in her book Unnatural Death.<ref name"thorpe"/>\|grouplower-alpha}} Christie's disappearance made international headlines, including featuring on the front page of The New York Times.<ref>{{cite news \|titleWhen the World's Most Famous Mystery Writer Vanished \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/11/books/agatha-christie-vanished-11-days-1926.html \|access-date12 November 2020 \|newspaperThe New York Times \|date11 June 2019 \|archive-date31 October 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201031092245/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/11/books/agatha-christie-vanished-11-days-1926.html \|url-statuslive \|last1Jordan \|first1Tina}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|titleThe original Gone Girl: Agatha Christie's mysterious disappearance \|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/the-original-gone-girl-agatha-christie-s-mysterious-disappearance-9839497.html \|access-date17 September 2022 \|newspaperThe Independent}}</ref> Despite the extensive manhunt, she was not found for another 10 days.<ref name"thorpe">{{cite news \|lastThorpe \|firstVanessa \|date15 October 2006 \|titleChristie's most famous mystery solved at last \|newspaperThe Guardian \|locationLondon \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/uk/2006/oct/15/books.booksnews \|access-date21 May 2013 \|archive-date5 October 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131005125638/http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2006/oct/15/books.booksnews \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|date15 December 1926 \|titleMrs Christie Found in a Yorkshire Spa \|page1 \|newspaperThe New York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1926/12/15/archives/mrs-christie-found-in-a-yorkshire-spa-missing-novelist-under-an.html \|url-accesssubscription \|access-date16 September 2009 \|archive-date13 November 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131113125813/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?resF60C17FE3C591B7A93C7A81789D95F428285F9 \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Harrogate">{{cite news \|date3 December 2009 \|titleAgatha Christie's Harrogate mystery \|workBBC News \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/local/york/hi/people_and_places/history/newsid_8393000/8393552.stm \|access-date17 March 2013 \|archive-date16 July 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130716003934/http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/york/hi/people_and_places/history/newsid_8393000/8393552.stm \|url-statuslive}}</ref> On 4 December, the day after she went missing, it is now known she had tea in London and visited Harrods department store where she marvelled at the spectacle of the store's Christmas display.<ref>{{cite news \|titleWhat really happened when Agatha Christie went missing \|urlhttps://www.thetimes.com/culture/books/article/what-really-happened-when-agatha-christie-went-missing-7qgw5strl \|access-date4 December 2023 \|workThe Times}}</ref> On 14&nbsp;December 1926, she was located at the Swan Hydropathic Hotel in Harrogate, Yorkshire, {{convert\|184\|mi\|km}} north of her home in Sunningdale, registered as "Mrs Tressa{{Refn\|The notice placed by Christie in The Times (11 December 1926, p.1) gives the first name as Teresa, but her hotel register signature more naturally reads Tressa; newspapers reported that Christie used Tressa on other occasions during her disappearance (including joining a library).<ref name"Leedsp1"/>\|grouplower-alpha}} Neele" (the surname of her husband's lover) from "{{Sic\|Capetown}} S.A." (South Africa).<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.classic-lodge.co.uk/the-old-swan/agatha-christie/ \|titleThe Details of this Strange Case ... \|year2019 \|websiteClassic Lodges \|access-date27 October 2019 \|archive-date27 October 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191027031930/https://www.classiclodges.co.uk/the-old-swan/agatha-christie/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The next day, Christie left for her sister's residence at Abney Hall, Cheadle, where she was sequestered "in guarded hall, gates locked, telephone cut off, and callers turned away".<ref name"Leedsp1">{{cite news \|date16 December 1926 \|titleWhat We Want to Know about Mrs. Christie \|page1 \|workThe Leeds Mercury}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|date16 December 1926 \|titleMy Point is This. What I want to Know About Mrs. Christie \|page4 \|workThe Leeds Mercury}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|date16 December 1926 \|titleMedium Looks for Mrs. Christie \|page9 \|workThe Leeds Mercury}}</ref><ref name":3">{{cite news \|date17 December 1926 \|titleTwo Doctors Examine Mrs. Christie \|page1 \|work=The Leeds Mercury}}</ref> Christie's autobiography makes no reference to the disappearance.<ref name"Auto1993"/> Two doctors diagnosed her with "an unquestionable genuine loss of memory",<ref name":3"/><ref>{{cite news \|date17 December 1926 \|titleMrs Christie. Doctors Certify Loss of Memory \|page12 \|workWestern Daily Press}}</ref> yet opinion remains divided over the reason for her disappearance. Some, including her biographer Morgan, believe she disappeared during a fugue state.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{Rp\|154–59}}<ref name"thorpe"/><ref name"disfugue">{{cite magazine \|date17 March 2012 \|titleDissociative Fugue \|urlhttp://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/hide-and-seek/201203/dissociative-fugue-the-mystery-agatha-christie \|magazinePsychology Today \|access-date17 March 2013}}</ref> The author Jared Cade concluded that Christie planned the event to embarrass her husband but did not anticipate the resulting public melodrama.<ref>{{Citation \|lastCade \|firstJared \|titleAgatha Christie and the Missing Eleven Days \|year1997 \|publisherPeter Owen \|isbn0-7206-1112-1}}</ref>{{Rp\|121}} Christie's biographer Laura Thompson provides an alternative view that Christie disappeared during a nervous breakdown, conscious of her actions but not in emotional control of herself.<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|220–21}} Public reaction at the time was largely negative, supposing a publicity stunt or an attempt to frame her husband for murder.<ref>{{Citation \|lastAdams \|firstCecil \|titleWhy did mystery writer Agatha Christie mysteriously disappear? \|date2 April 1982 \|urlhttp://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/361/why-did-mystery-writer-agatha-christie-mysteriously-disappear \|newspaperThe Chicago Reader \|access-date19 May 2008 \|archive-date18 September 2008 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080918082312/http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/361/why-did-mystery-writer-agatha-christie-mysteriously-disappear \|url-statuslive}}</ref>{{Refn\|grouplower-alpha\|Christie hinted at a nervous breakdown, saying to a woman with similar symptoms, "I think you had better be very careful; it is probably the beginning of a nervous breakdown."<ref name"Auto1993"/>{{rp\|337}}}} 1927–1976: second marriage and later life in Istanbul, where the hotel claims she wrote her 1934 novel Murder on the Orient Express\|altColour photograph of a hotel room with Christie memorabilia on the walls]] In January 1927, Christie, looking "very pale", sailed with her daughter and secretary to Las Palmas, Canary Islands, to "complete her convalescence",<ref>{{cite news \|date24 January 1927 \|titleMrs. Christie Leaves \|page1 \|workDaily Herald}}</ref> returning three months later.<ref>[https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C9438379 Inwards Passenger Lists] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191030035258/https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C9438379 \|date30 October 2019 }}. The National Archives, Kew. Board of Trade: Commercial and Statistical Department and successors, BT26/837/112.</ref>{{Refn\|Christie's authorised biographer includes an account of specialist psychiatric treatment following Christie's disappearance, but the information was obtained second or third hand after her death.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|148–49, 159}}\|grouplower-alpha}} Christie petitioned for divorce and was granted a decree nisi against her husband in April 1928, which was made absolute in October 1928. Archie married Nancy Neele a week later.<ref>{{cite news \|date6 November 1928 \|titleCol. Christie Married \|page5 [Includes divorce details] \|workGloucestershire Echo}}</ref> Christie retained custody of their daughter, Rosalind, and kept the Christie surname for her writing.<ref name":17"/>{{Rp\|21}}<ref>{{cite news \|date21 April 1928 \|titleMrs. Christie. Novelist Granted Decree Nisi \|page17 \|workThe Yorkshire Post}}</ref> Reflecting on the period in her autobiography, Christie wrote, "So, after illness, came sorrow, despair and heartbreak. There is no need to dwell on it."<ref name"Auto1993"/>{{Rp\|340}} In 1928, Christie left England and took the (Simplon) Orient Express to Istanbul and then to Baghdad.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{Rp\|169–70}} In Iraq, she became friends with archaeologist Leonard Woolley and his wife, who invited her to return to their dig in February 1930.<ref name"Auto1993"/>{{Rp\|376–77}} On that second trip, she met archaeologist Max Mallowan, 13 years her junior.<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|284}} In a 1977 interview, Mallowan recounted his first meeting with Christie, when he took her and a group of tourists on a tour of his expedition site in Iraq.<ref name"max">{{cite web \|titleInterview with Max Mallowan \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/archive/agatha_christie/12508.shtml \|access-date21 July 2017 \|workBBC \|archive-date27 July 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170727080059/http://www.bbc.co.uk/archive/agatha_christie/12508.shtml \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Christie and Mallowan married in Edinburgh in September 1930.<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|295–96}}<ref>Marriage Certificate. Scotland{{snd}}Statutory Register of Marriages, 685/04 0938, 11 September 1930, District of St Giles, Edinburgh.</ref> Their marriage lasted until Christie's death in 1976.<ref name"thompson">{{Citation \|lastThompson \|firstLaura \|titleAgatha Christie: An English Mystery \|year2008 \|placeLondon \|publisherHeadline Review \|isbn978-0-7553-1488-1}}</ref>{{Rp\|413–14}} She accompanied Mallowan on his archaeological expeditions, and her travels with him contributed background to several of her novels set in the Middle East.<ref name"max"/> Other novels (such as Peril at End House) were set in and around Torquay, where she was raised.<ref name":16"/>{{Rp\|95}} Christie drew on her experience of international train travel when writing her 1934 novel Murder on the Orient Express.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{Rp\|201}} The Pera Palace Hotel in Istanbul, the eastern terminus of the railway, claims the book was written there and maintains Christie's room as a memorial to the author.<ref>{{cite web \|date19 September 2018 \|titleWorld-famous Author Agatha Christie and The Mysterious Story of Her Lost 11 Days \|urlhttps://blog.perapalace.com/en/story-of-pera/agatha-christie-and-the-story-of-her-lost-11-days/ \|access-date2 May 2020 \|websitePera Palace Hotel \|languageen-US \|archive-date6 August 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200806092428/https://blog.perapalace.com/en/story-of-pera/agatha-christie-and-the-story-of-her-lost-11-days/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref>{{Refn\|Other authors claim Christie wrote Murder on the Orient Express whilst at a dig at Arpachiyah.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{Rp\|206}}<ref name":16"/>{{Rp\|111}}\|group=lower-alpha}} \|alt=Colour photograph of the front of a three-storey house]] Christie and Mallowan first lived in Cresswell Place in Chelsea, and later in Sheffield Terrace, Holland Park, Kensington. Both properties are now marked by blue plaques. In 1934, they bought Winterbrook House in Winterbrook, a hamlet near Wallingford.<ref>{{cite web \|titleDame Agatha Christie & Sir Max Mallowan \|urlhttp://www.oxonblueplaques.org.uk/plaques/christie.html \|access-date20 May 2020 \|websiteOxfordshire Blue Plaques Scheme \|archive-date29 May 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200529092532/http://www.oxonblueplaques.org.uk/plaques/christie.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> This was their main residence for the rest of their lives and the place where Christie did much of her writing.<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|365}} This house also bears a blue plaque. Christie led a quiet life despite being known in Wallingford; from 1951 to 1976 she served as president of the local amateur dramatic society.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.sinodunplayers.org.uk/w2011/heritage \|titleSinodun Players \|websiteSinodun Players \|access-date9 February 2018 \|archive-date10 February 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180210002936/http://www.sinodunplayers.org.uk/w2011/heritage \|url-status=live}}</ref> The couple acquired the Greenway Estate in Devon as a summer residence in 1938;<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|310}} it was given to the National Trust in 2000.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAgatha's Greenway \|urlhttps://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/greenway/features/agathas-greenway \|access-date30 April 2020 \|websiteNational Trust \|languageen \|archive-date16 April 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200416121515/https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/greenway/features/agathas-greenway \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Christie frequently stayed at Abney Hall, Cheshire, which was owned by her brother-in-law, James Watts, and based at least two stories there: a short story, "The Adventure of the Christmas Pudding", in the story collection of the same name and the novel After the Funeral.<ref name"Auto1993"/>{{Rp\|126}}<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|43}} One Christie compendium notes that "Abney became Agatha's greatest inspiration for country-house life, with all its servants and grandeur being woven into her plots. The descriptions of the fictional Chimneys, Stonygates, and other houses in her stories are mostly Abney Hall in various forms."<ref>{{Citation \|last1Wagstaff \|first1Vanessa \|titleAgatha Christie: A Reader's Companion \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/agathachristiere00wags/page/14 \|page[https://archive.org/details/agathachristiere00wags/page/14 14] \|year2004 \|publisherAurum Press \|isbn1-84513-015-4 \|last2Poole \|first2=Stephen}}</ref> at 58 Sheffield Terrace, Holland Park, London\|alt=Colour photograph of a wall plaque stating Christie "lived here 1934–1941"]] , Oxfordshire. Her final home, Christie lived here with her husband from 1934 until her death in 1976.]] During World War II, Christie moved to London and lived in a flat at the Isokon in Hampstead, while working in the pharmacy at University College Hospital (UCH), London, where she updated her knowledge of poisons.<ref>Worsley, Lucy (2022) Agatha Christie, Hodder & Stoughton</ref> Her later novel The Pale Horse was based on a suggestion from Harold Davis, the chief pharmacist at UCH. In 1977, a thallium poisoning case was solved by British medical personnel who had read Christie's book and recognised the symptoms she described.<ref>{{cite journal \|titleThallium poisoning in fact and in fiction \|journalThe Pharmaceutical Journal \|date25 November 2006 \|volume277 \|page648 \|urlhttps://www.pharmaceutical-journal.com/opinion/column/thallium-poisoning-in-fact-and-in-fiction-/-vexed-question-of-the-geographical-origins-of-the-meat-filled-pasty-/-how-illegal-ch/10002699.article \|access-date6 September 2019 \|archive-date6 September 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190906164450/https://www.pharmaceutical-journal.com/opinion/column/thallium-poisoning-in-fact-and-in-fiction-/-vexed-question-of-the-geographical-origins-of-the-meat-filled-pasty-/-how-illegal-ch/10002699.article \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>John Emsley, [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/the-poison-prescribed-by-agatha-christie-thanks-to-the-mystery-writer-the-deadly-properties-of-thallium-sulphate-have-become-common-knowledge-corrected-1534450.html "The poison prescribed by Agatha Christie"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150925153802/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/the-poison-prescribed-by-agatha-christie-thanks-to-the-mystery-writer-the-deadly-properties-of-thallium-sulphate-have-become-common-knowledge-corrected-1534450.html \|date25 September 2015 }}, The Independent, 20 July 1992.</ref> The British intelligence agency MI5 investigated Christie after a character called Major Bletchley appeared in her 1941 thriller N or M?, which was about a hunt for a pair of deadly fifth columnists in wartime England.<ref name"Richard Norton-Taylor">{{cite news \|authorRichard Norton-Taylor \|date4 February 2013 \|titleAgatha Christie was investigated by MI5 over Bletchley Park mystery \|newspaperThe Guardian \|locationLondon \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2013/feb/04/agatha-christie-mi5-bletchley \|access-date29 March 2013 \|archive-date23 September 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170923050939/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2013/feb/04/agatha-christie-mi5-bletchley \|url-statuslive}}</ref> MI5 was concerned that Christie had a spy in Britain's top-secret codebreaking centre, Bletchley Park. The agency's fears were allayed when Christie told her friend, the codebreaker Dilly Knox, "I was stuck there on my way by train from Oxford to London and took revenge by giving the name to one of my least lovable characters."<ref name"Richard Norton-Taylor"/> Christie was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Literature in 1950.<ref name":17"/>{{Rp\|23}} In honour of her many literary works, Christie was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1956 New Year Honours.<ref>{{cite news \|date30 December 1955 \|titleCentral Chancery of the Orders of Knighthood \|page11 \|publisherThe London Gazette \|issueSupplement: 40669 \|urlhttps://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/40669/supplement/11 \|access-date18 April 2020 \|archive-date30 July 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200730132159/https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/40669/supplement/11 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> She was co-president of the Detection Club from 1958 to her death in 1976.<ref name":16"/>{{Rp\|93}} In 1961, she was awarded an honorary Doctor of Literature degree by the University of Exeter.<ref name":17"/>{{Rp\|23}} In the 1971 New Year Honours, she was promoted to Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE),<ref>{{cite news \|date31 December 1970 \|titleD.B.E. \|page7 \|publisherThe London Gazette \|issueSupplement: 45262 \|urlhttps://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/45262/supplement/7 \|access-date18 April 2020 \|archive-date19 September 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200919115510/https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/45262/supplement/7 \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|lastKastan \|firstDavid Scott \|titleThe Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature \|publisherOxford University Press \|year2006 \|isbn978-0-19-516921-8 \|volume1 \|page467}}</ref><ref>{{Citation \|lastReitz \|firstCaroline \|titleChristie, Agatha \|date2006 \|urlhttps://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195169218.001.0001/acref-9780195169218-e-0098 \|encyclopediaThe Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature \|publisherOxford University Press \|languageen \|doi10.1093/acref/9780195169218.001.0001 \|isbn978-0-19-516921-8 \|access-date24 October 2019 \|archive-date16 November 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191116150129/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195169218.001.0001/acref-9780195169218-e-0098 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> three years after her husband had been knighted for his archaeological work.<ref>{{cite news \|date31 May 1968 \|titleKnights Bachelor \|page6300 \|workThe London Gazette \|issueSupplement: 44600 \|urlhttps://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/44600/supplement/6300 \|access-date18 April 2020 \|archive-date1 February 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200201043648/https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/44600/supplement/6300 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> After her husband's knighthood, Christie could also be styled Lady Mallowan.<ref name":16"/>{{Rp\|343}} From 1971 to 1974, Christie's health began to fail, but she continued to write. Her last novel was Postern of Fate in 1973.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{Rp\|368–72}}<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|477}} Textual analysis suggested that Christie may have begun to develop Alzheimer's disease or other dementia at about this time.<ref>{{cite news \|lastDevlin \|firstKate \|date4 April 2009 \|titleAgatha Christie 'had Alzheimer's disease when she wrote final novels' \|workThe Daily Telegraph \|locationLondon \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/5101619/Agatha-Christie-had-Alzheimers-disease-when-she-wrote-final-novels.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090408043419/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/5101619/Agatha-Christie-had-Alzheimers-disease-when-she-wrote-final-novels.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-date8 April 2009 \|access-date28 August 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|lastFlood \|firstAlison \|date3 April 2009 \|titleStudy claims Agatha Christie had Alzheimer's \|workThe Guardian \|locationLondon \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2009/apr/03/agatha-christie-alzheimers-research \|url-statuslive \|access-date28 August 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090801003533/http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2009/apr/03/agatha-christie-alzheimers-research \|archive-date1 August 2009}}</ref> Personal qualities In 1946, Christie said of herself: "My chief dislikes are crowds, loud noises, gramophones and cinemas. I dislike the taste of alcohol and do not like smoking. I do like sun, sea, flowers, travelling, strange foods, sports, concerts, theatres, pianos, and doing embroidery."<ref>{{cite news \|date30 April 1946 \|titleThe Real Agatha Christie \|page6 \|workThe Sydney Morning Herald \|urlhttps://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/17978243 \|access-date9 November 2019 \|archive-date8 March 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210308032612/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/17978243 \|url-status=live}}</ref> Christie was a lifelong, "quietly devout"<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|183}} member of the Church of England, attended church regularly, and kept her mother's copy of The Imitation of Christ by her bedside.<ref name"thompson"/>{{rp\|30, 290}} After her divorce, she stopped taking the sacrament of communion.<ref name="thompson"/>{{rp\|263}} The Agatha Christie Trust For Children was established in 1969,<ref>{{cite web \|titleData for financial year ending 05 April 2018 – The Agatha Christie Trust For Children \|urlhttps://beta.charitycommission.gov.uk/charity-details/?subid0&regid260295 \|access-date7 November 2019 \|websiteRegistered Charities in England and Wales \|archive-date15 August 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200815140412/https://beta.charitycommission.gov.uk/charity-details/?subid0&regid260295 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> and shortly after Christie's death a charitable memorial fund was set up to "help two causes that she favoured: old people and young children".<ref>{{cite news \|date27 April 1976 \|titleAgatha Christie memorial fund \|page16 \|work=The Times}}</ref> Christie's obituary in The Times notes that "she never cared much for the cinema, or for wireless and television." Further, {{blockquote\|Dame Agatha's private pleasures were gardening{{snd}}she won local prizes for horticulture{{snd}}and buying furniture for her various houses. She was a shy person: she disliked public appearances, but she was friendly and sharp-witted to meet. By inclination as well as breeding, she belonged to the English upper middle class. She wrote about, and for, people like herself. That was an essential part of her charm.<ref name":5"/>}} Death and estate Death and burial at St Mary's Church, Cholsey, Oxfordshire\|altColour photograph of a sandstone headstone]] Christie died on 12&nbsp;January 1976 at age 85 from natural causes at her home at Winterbrook House.<ref name":0">{{cite news \|date12 January 1976 \|title1976: Crime writer Agatha Christie dies \|workBBC on this Day \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/12/newsid_4440000/4440120.stm \|access-date30 October 2019 \|archive-date12 January 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210112131733/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/12/newsid_4440000/4440120.stm \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|date14 January 1976 \|titleDeaths \|page26 \|workThe Times}}</ref> Upon her death, two West End theatres{{snd}}the St. Martin's, where The Mousetrap was playing, and the Savoy, which was home to a revival of Murder at the Vicarage{{snd}}dimmed their outside lights in her honour.<ref name":16"/>{{Rp\|373}} She was buried in the nearby churchyard of St Mary's, Cholsey, in a plot she had chosen with her husband 10 years previously. The simple funeral service was attended by about 20 newspaper and TV reporters, some having travelled from as far away as South America. Thirty wreaths adorned Christie's grave, including one from the cast of her long-running play The Mousetrap and one sent "on behalf of the multitude of grateful readers" by the Ulverscroft Large Print Book Publishers.<ref>{{cite book \|lastYurdan \|firstMarilyn \|titleOxfordshire Graves and Gravestones \|publisherThe History Press \|year2010 \|isbn978-0752452579 \|location=Stroud}}</ref> Mallowan, who remarried in 1977, died in 1978 and was buried next to Christie.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.stmaryscholsey.org/history/agatha-christie/ \|titleSt. Marys Cholsey – Agatha Christie \|websiteSt Marys Cholsey \|access-date18 April 2020 \|archive-date23 September 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200923060702/https://www.stmaryscholsey.org/history/agatha-christie/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> {{anchor\|Christie Estate}} Estate and subsequent ownership of works Christie was unhappy about becoming "an employed wage slave",<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|428}} and for tax reasons set up a private company in 1955, Agatha Christie Limited, to hold the rights to her works. In about 1959 she transferred her 278-acre home, Greenway Estate, to her daughter, Rosalind Hicks.<ref name"rosalind_obit_telegraph">[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1476488/Rosalind-Hicks.html "Obituary: Rosalind Hicks"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210308122431/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1476488/Rosalind-Hicks.html \|date8 March 2021 }}, The Daily Telegraph, 13 November 2004. Retrieved 25 January 2015.</ref><ref name":4">{{cite web \|date12 January 1976 \|title1976: Crime writer Agatha Christie dies \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/12/newsid_4440000/4440120.stm \|access-date30 October 2019 \|websiteBBC on this Day \|archive-date12 January 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210112131733/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/12/newsid_4440000/4440120.stm \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 1968, when Christie was almost 80, she sold a 51% stake in Agatha Christie Limited (and the works it owned) to Booker Books (better known as Booker Author's Division), which by 1977 had increased its stake to 64%.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{Rp\|355\|quoteIn the summer of 1968 a subsidiary [of Booker McConnel], Bookers Books, acquired a fifty-one percent holding in Agatha Christie Ltd (subsequently increased to sixty-four percent).}}<ref>{{cite news \|date16 September 1977 \|titleBooker is ready for more \|page4 \|workThe Newcastle Journal}}</ref> Agatha Christie Limited still owns the worldwide rights for more than 80 of Christie's novels and short stories, 19 plays, and nearly 40 TV films.<ref name="guardianchorion"/> In the late 1950s, Christie had reputedly been earning around £100,000 (approximately {{Inflation\|indexUK\|value100000\|start_year1958\|r-5\|fmteq\|cursign£}}) per year. Christie sold an estimated 300 million books during her lifetime.<ref>{{cite news \|title1976: Crime writer Agatha Christie dies \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/12/newsid_4440000/4440120.stm \|websitebbc \|date12 January 1976 \|access-date30 September 2020 \|archive-date12 January 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210112131733/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/12/newsid_4440000/4440120.stm \|url-statuslive}}</ref> At the time of her death in 1976, "she was the best-selling novelist in history."<ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgYL2DAAAQBAJ&pgPA4 \|titleQueering Agatha Christie: Revisiting the Golden Age of Detective Fiction \|lastBernthal \|firstJ. C. \|date2016 \|publisherSpringer \|isbn978-3-319-33533-9 \|pages1–24 \|languageen \|access-date31 December 2020 \|archive-date1 August 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200801014811/https://books.google.com/books?idgYL2DAAAQBAJ&pgPA4 \|url-status=live}}</ref> One estimate of her total earnings from more than a half-century of writing is $20&nbsp;million (approximately ${{Inflation\|US\|20\|1976\|r1}}&nbsp;million in {{Inflation/year\|US}}).<ref>{{cite magazine \|titleBooks:Agatha Christie: The Queen of the Maze \|urlhttps://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,913961-1,00.html \|magazineTime \|date26 January 1976 \|access-date4 October 2020 \|archive-date22 October 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151022102218/http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,913961-1,00.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> As a result of her tax planning, her will left only £106,683{{Refn\|According to other sources, her estate was valued at £147 810.<ref>[https://probatesearch.service.gov.uk/Calendar#calendar "Find a will"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190919054031/https://probatesearch.service.gov.uk/Calendar#calendar \|date19 September 2019 }}. Gov.uk. Retrieved 22 November 2020</ref>\|grouplower-alpha}} (approximately {{Inflation\|indexUK\|value106683\|start_year1976\|r-3\|fmteq\|cursign£}}) net, which went mostly to her husband and daughter along with some smaller bequests.<ref name":0"/><ref>{{cite news \|date1 May 1976 \|title£106,000 will of Dame Agatha Christie \|page2 \|workThe Times}}</ref> Her remaining 36% share of Agatha Christie Limited was inherited by Hicks, who preserved her mother's works, image, and legacy until her own death 28 years later.<ref name"rosalind_obit_telegraph"/> The family's share of the company allowed them to appoint 50% of the board and the chairman, and retain a veto over new treatments, updated versions, and republications of her works.<ref name"rosalind_obit_telegraph"/><ref name"birminghampost">[http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Agatha+Christie+begins+new+chapter+after+pounds+10m+selff.-a060775079 Agatha Christie begins new chapter after £10m selloff] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140517120417/http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Agatha+Christie+begins+new+chapter+after+pounds+10m+selff.-a060775079 \|date17 May 2014 }}, The Free Library, 4 June 1998.</ref> in Devon, Christie's summer home from 1938. The estate was used as a setting for some of her plots, including ''Dead Man's Folly. The final episode of Agatha Christie's Poirot'' was also filmed here in 2013.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/greenway/visitor-information/article-1355807820842 \|titlePoirot investigates his last mystery at Greenway \|workNationalTrust.org.uk \|access-date28 April 2014 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140629174354/http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/greenway/visitor-information/article-1355807820842/ \|archive-date=29 June 2014}}</ref>]] In 2004, Hicks' obituary in The Telegraph noted that she had been "determined to remain true to her mother's vision and to protect the integrity of her creations" and disapproved of "merchandising" activities.<ref name"rosalind_obit_telegraph"/> Upon her death on 28&nbsp;October 2004, the Greenway Estate passed to her son Mathew Prichard. After his stepfather's death in 2005, Prichard donated Greenway and its contents to the National Trust.<ref name"rosalind_obit_telegraph"/><ref>{{cite news \|lastTaylor \|firstJerome \|titleThe Big Question: How big is the Agatha Christie industry, and what explains her enduring appeal? \|workThe Independent \|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/features/the-big-question-how-big-is-the-agatha-christie-industry-and-what-explains-her-enduring-appeal-1631296.html \|access-date6 March 2015 \|archive-date2 April 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150402122640/http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/features/the-big-question-how-big-is-the-agatha-christie-industry-and-what-explains-her-enduring-appeal-1631296.html \|url-status=live}}</ref> Christie's family and family trusts, including great-grandson James Prichard, continue to own the 36% stake in Agatha Christie Limited,<ref name"guardianchorion">[https://www.theguardian.com/media/2012/feb/29/acorn-media-bys-stake-agatha-christie Acorn Media buys stake in Agatha Christie estate] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170426063718/https://www.theguardian.com/media/2012/feb/29/acorn-media-bys-stake-agatha-christie \|date26 April 2017 }}, The Guardian, 29 December 2012.</ref> and remain associated with the company. In 2020, James Prichard was the company's chairman.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.agathachristie.com/about-agatha-christie-limited \|titleAbout Agatha Christie Limited \|websiteThe Home of Agatha Christie \|access-date18 April 2020 \|archive-date6 May 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210506184730/https://www.agathachristie.com/about-agatha-christie-limited \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Mathew Prichard also holds the copyright to some of his grandmother's later works including The Mousetrap.<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|427}} Christie's work continues to be developed in a range of adaptations.<ref>{{cite web \|date14 September 2017 \|titleWhy do we still love the 'cosy crime' of Agatha Christie? \|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/long_reads/agatha-christie-cosy-crime-novels-murder-mystery-writer-why-we-love-a7942901.html \|access-date16 November 2019 \|websiteThe Independent \|archive-date16 November 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191116150547/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/long_reads/agatha-christie-cosy-crime-novels-murder-mystery-writer-why-we-love-a7942901.html \|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1998, Booker sold its shares in Agatha Christie Limited (at the time earning £2,100,000, approximately {{Inflation\|indexUK\|value2100000\|start_year1998\|r-5\|fmteq\|cursign£}} annual revenue) for £10,000,000 (approximately {{Inflation\|indexUK\|value10000000\|start_year1998\|r-5\|fmteq\|cursign£}}) to Chorion, whose portfolio of authors' works included the literary estates of Enid Blyton and Dennis Wheatley.<ref name"birminghampost"/> In February 2012, after a management buyout, Chorion began to sell off its literary assets.<ref name"guardianchorion"/> This included the sale of Chorion's 64% stake in Agatha Christie Limited to Acorn Media UK.<ref>{{cite news \|lastSweney \|firstMark \|date29 February 2012 \|titleAcorn Media buys stake in Agatha Christie estate \|newspaperThe Guardian \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/media/2012/feb/29/acorn-media-bys-stake-agatha-christie \|access-date16 March 2012 \|archive-date14 May 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140514214701/http://www.theguardian.com/media/2012/feb/29/acorn-media-bys-stake-agatha-christie \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2014, RLJ Entertainment Inc. (RLJE) acquired Acorn Media UK, renamed it Acorn Media Enterprises, and incorporated it as the RLJE UK development arm.<ref>{{cite web \|date2020 \|titleRLJ Entertainment \|urlhttp://www.rljentertainment.com/ \|access-date18 April 2020 \|websiteRLJ Entertainment \|archive-date8 April 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200408132819/https://www.rljentertainment.com/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In late February 2014, media reports stated that the BBC had acquired exclusive TV rights to Christie's works in the UK (previously associated with ITV) and made plans with Acorn's co-operation to air new productions for the 125th anniversary of Christie's birth in 2015.<ref>[http://www.radiotimes.com/news/2014-02-28/david-walliams-heralds-new-era-for-bbc-as-the-new-home-of-agatha-christie-adaptations "New era for BBC as the new home of Agatha Christie adaptations"] {{Webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140323181201/http://www.radiotimes.com/news/2014-02-28/david-walliams-heralds-new-era-for-bbc-as-the-new-home-of-agatha-christie-adaptations \|date23 March 2014 }}, Radio Times, 28 February 2014. Retrieved 25 January 2015.</ref> As part of that deal, the BBC broadcast Partners in Crime<ref>{{cite web \|titlePartners in Crime – Episode Guide \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p02vf6rn/episodes/guide \|access-date16 April 2016 \|workBBC One \|archive-date29 July 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150729020634/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p02vf6rn/episodes/guide \|url-statuslive}}</ref> and And Then There Were None,<ref>{{cite web \|date28 December 2015 \|titleAnd Then There Were None \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b06v2v52 \|access-date16 April 2016 \|workBBC One \|archive-date25 March 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160325074038/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b06v2v52 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> both in 2015.<ref>{{cite news \|date24 August 2016 \|titleBBC One plans lots more Agatha Christie \|languageen-GB \|workBBC News \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-37174913 \|access-date24 June 2020 \|archive-date23 January 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210123005213/https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-37174913 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Subsequent productions have included The Witness for the Prosecution<ref>{{cite web \|titleThe Witness for the Prosecution \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b086z959 \|access-date18 April 2020 \|websiteBBC One \|languageen-GB \|archive-date12 September 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200912105735/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b086z959 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> but plans to televise Ordeal by Innocence at Christmas 2017 were delayed because of controversy surrounding one of the cast members.<ref>{{cite news \|date5 January 2018 \|titleEd Westwick removed from BBC Agatha Christie drama Ordeal By Innocence \|workBBC News \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-42577505 \|access-date23 January 2018 \|archive-date30 January 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180130090823/http://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-42577505 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The three-part adaptation aired in April 2018.<ref>{{cite web \|titleOrdeal by Innocence \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b09ytrgg \|access-date11 January 2019 \|workBBC One \|archive-date2 December 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181202144005/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b09ytrgg \|url-statuslive}}</ref> A three-part adaptation of The A.B.C. Murders starring John Malkovich and Rupert Grint began filming in June 2018 and was first broadcast in December 2018.<ref>{{cite web \|date24 May 2018 \|titleAll-star cast announced for new BBC One Agatha Christie thriller The ABC Murders \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2018/abc-murders \|access-date11 January 2019 \|workBBC \|archive-date12 November 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181112123655/https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2018/abc-murders \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"ABC">{{cite web \|date15 December 2018 \|titleThe ABC Murders Begins on BBC One on Boxing Day at 9pm \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/the-abc-murders \|access-date20 December 2018 \|publisherBBC Media Centre \|archive-date19 December 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181219232938/https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/the-abc-murders \|url-statuslive}}</ref> A two-part adaptation of The Pale Horse was broadcast on BBC1 in February 2020.<ref>[http://www.mammothscreen.com/company-news/bbc-one-announces-new-agatha-christie-thriller-the-pale-horse/ BBC One announces new Agatha Christie thriller The Pale Horse] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200925042653/http://www.mammothscreen.com/company-news/bbc-one-announces-new-agatha-christie-thriller-the-pale-horse/ \|date25 September 2020 }}, 24 June 2019, Mammoth Screen</ref> Death Comes as the End will be the next BBC adaptation.<ref>Paul Hirons, "[https://thekillingtimestv.wordpress.com/2018/12/29/death-comes-as-the-end-to-be-the-next-bbc-agatha-christie-adaptation/ Death Comes As The End to be the next BBC Agatha Christie adaptation] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210122185018/https://thekillingtimestv.wordpress.com/2018/12/29/death-comes-as-the-end-to-be-the-next-bbc-agatha-christie-adaptation/ \|date22 January 2021 }}", The Killing Times. 29 December 2018</ref> Since 2020, reissues of Christie's Miss Marple and Hercule Poirot novels by HarperCollins have removed "passages containing descriptions, insults or references to ethnicity".<ref>{{cite web \|lastSimpson \|firstCraig \|titleAgatha Christie classics latest to be rewritten for modern sensitivities \|websiteThe Telegraph \|date25 March 2023 \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2023/03/25/agatha-christie-classics-latest-rewritten-modern-sensitivities/ \| access-date26 March 2023}}</ref> Works {{Main\|Agatha Christie bibliography}} Works of fiction Hercule Poirot and Miss Marple '', March 1933]] Christie's first published book, The Mysterious Affair at Styles, was released in 1920 and introduced the detective Hercule Poirot, who appeared in 33 of her novels and more than 50 short stories. Over the years, Christie grew tired of Poirot, much as Doyle did with Sherlock Holmes.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{Rp\|230}} By the end of the 1930s, Christie wrote in her diary that she was finding Poirot "insufferable", and by the 1960s she felt he was "an egocentric creep".<ref name":19">{{cite book \|lastGross \|firstJohn \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/newoxfordbooklit00gros_551 \|titleThe New Oxford Book of Literary Anecdotes \|publisherOxford University Press \|year2006 \|isbn978-0199543410 \|page[https://archive.org/details/newoxfordbooklit00gros_551/page/n281 267] \|url-accesslimited}}</ref> Thompson believes Christie's occasional antipathy to her creation is overstated, and points out that "in later life she sought to protect him against misrepresentation as powerfully as if he were her own flesh and blood".<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|282}} Unlike Doyle, she resisted the temptation to kill her detective off while he was still popular.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{Rp\|222}} She married off Poirot's "Watson", Captain Arthur Hastings, in an attempt to trim her cast commitments.<ref name"Auto1993"/>{{Rp\|268}} Miss Jane Marple was introduced in a series of short stories that began publication in December 1927 and were subsequently collected under the title The Thirteen Problems.<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|278}} Marple was a genteel, elderly spinster who solved crimes using analogies to English village life.<ref name":16"/>{{Rp\|47, 74–76}} Christie said, "Miss Marple was not in any way a picture of my grandmother; she was far more fussy and spinsterish than my grandmother ever was", but her autobiography establishes a firm connection between the fictional character and Christie's step-grandmother Margaret Miller ("Auntie-Grannie"){{Refn\|Christie's familial relationship to Margaret Miller (née West) was complex. As well as being Christie's maternal great-aunt, Miller was Christie's father's step-mother as well as Christie's mother's foster mother and step-mother-in-law{{snd}}hence the appellation "Auntie-Grannie".\|grouplower-alpha}} and her "Ealing cronies".<ref name"Auto1993"/>{{Rp\|422–23}}<ref name"BBCdustyClues">{{cite news \|lastMills \|firstSelina \|date15 September 2008 \|titleDusty clues to Christie unearthed \|workBBC News \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/today/hi/today/newsid_7612000/7612534.stm \|access-date29 April 2020 \|archive-date28 March 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120328000220/http://news.bbc.co.uk/today/hi/today/newsid_7612000/7612534.stm \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Both Marple and Miller "always expected the worst of everyone and everything, and were, with almost frightening accuracy, usually proved right".<ref name"Auto1993"/>{{rp\|422}} Marple appeared in 12 novels and 20 stories. During the Second World War, Christie wrote two novels, Curtain and Sleeping Murder, featuring Hercule Poirot and Miss Marple, respectively. Both books were sealed in a bank vault, and she made over the copyrights by deed of gift to her daughter and her husband to provide each with a kind of insurance policy.<ref name"thompson"/>{{rp\|344}}<ref name":16"/>{{rp\|190}} Christie had a heart attack and a serious fall in 1974, after which she was unable to write.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|372}} Her daughter authorised the publication of Curtain in 1975,<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{rp\|375}} and Sleeping Murder was published posthumously in 1976.<ref name":16"/>{{rp\|376}} These publications followed the success of the 1974 film version of Murder on the Orient Express.<ref name"Auto1993"/>{{Rp\|497}}<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://mainecrimewriters.com/2018/01/25/dame-agatha-and-her-orient-express/ \|titleDame Agatha and Her Orient Express \|lastVaughan \|firstSusan \|date25 January 2018 \|websiteMaine Crime Writers \|access-date20 March 2019 \|archive-date13 June 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180613072515/https://mainecrimewriters.com/2018/01/25/dame-agatha-and-her-orient-express/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Shortly before the publication of Curtain, Poirot became the first fictional character to have an obituary in The New York Times, which was printed on page one on 6 August 1975.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.poirot.us/obituary.php \|titlePoirot's Obituary \|lastHobbs \|firstJD \|date6 August 1975 \|publisherPoirot \|access-date11 April 2020 \|placeUS \|archive-date1 May 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200501223503/http://www.poirot.us/obituary.php \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1975/08/06/archives/hercule-poirot-is-dead-famed-belgian-detective-hercule-poirot-the.html \|titleHercule Poirot Is Dead; Famed Belgian Detective \|lastLask \|firstThomas \|date6 August 1975 \|workThe New York Times \|access-date16 October 2020 \|placeUS \|archive-date7 November 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171107112341/http://www.nytimes.com/1975/08/06/archives/hercule-poirot-is-dead-famed-belgian-detective-hercule-poirot-the.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Christie never wrote a novel or short story featuring both Poirot and Miss Marple.<ref name":16"/>{{Rp\|375}} In a recording discovered and released in 2008, Christie revealed the reason for this: "Hercule Poirot, a complete egoist, would not like being taught his business or having suggestions made to him by an elderly spinster lady. Hercule Poirot{{snd}}a professional sleuth{{snd}}would not be at home at all in Miss Marple's world."<ref name"BBCdustyClues"/> In 2013, the Christie family supported the release of a new Poirot story, The Monogram Murders, written by British author Sophie Hannah.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.agathachristie.com/the-monogram-murders \|titleThe Monogram Murders \|publisherAgatha Christie.com \|access-date11 April 2015 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150403183934/http://www.agathachristie.com/the-monogram-murders/ \|archive-date3 April 2015}}</ref> Hannah later published several more Poirot mysteries, Closed Casket in 2016, The Mystery of Three Quarters in 2018.<ref name":7">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.agathachristie.com/news/2016/an-interview-with-sophie-hannah \|titleAn interview with Sophie Hannah \|websiteThe Home of Agatha Christie \|date22 August 2016 \|languageen-US \|access-date29 April 2020 \|archive-date31 August 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190831125357/https://www.agathachristie.com/news/2016/an-interview-with-sophie-hannah \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|date2020 \|titleThe Mystery of Three Quarters \|urlhttps://www.harpercollins.com/9780062792341/the-mystery-of-three-quarters/ \|access-date29 April 2020 \|websiteHarperCollins Publishers \|archive-date13 August 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180813045824/http://www.harpercollins.com/9780062792341/the-mystery-of-three-quarters/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The Killings at Kingfisher Hill in 2020, ''Hercule Poirot's Silent Night'' in 2023 with a sixth instalment being commissioned in 2024.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.thebookseller.com/news/agatha-christie-fans-gather-in-golden-age-dress-for-harpercollins-sold-out-a-christie-for-christmas \| title=Agatha Christie fans gather in Golden Age dress for HarperCollins' sold-out 'A Christie for Christmas' }}</ref> In 2021, following the success of Sophie Hannah's outings with Poirot, the Christie family support the release of a collection of Miss Marple short stories. Called Marple, the collection was released in 2022 and each story was written by a different author. This included Naomi Alderman, Leigh Bardugo, Alyssa Cole, Lucy Foley, Elly Griffiths, Natalie Haynes, Jean Kwok, Val McDermid, Karen M. McManus, Dreda Say Mitchell, Kate Mosse and Ruth Ware.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.agathachristie.com/en/news/2021/introducing-a-new-collection-starring-jane-marple \| titleIntroducing a New Collection Starring Jane Marple \| date31 August 2021 }}</ref> Formula and plot devices Christie has been called the "Duchess of Death", the "Mistress of Mystery", and the "Queen of Crime".<ref name":17"/>{{Rp\|15}} Early in her career, a reporter noted that "her plots are possible, logical, and always new".<ref name":6"/> According to Hannah, "At the start of each novel, she shows us an apparently impossible situation and we go mad wondering 'How can this be happening?'. Then, slowly, she reveals how the impossible is not only possible but the only thing that could have happened."<ref name":7"/> {{Multiple image \| direction = vertical \| width = 215 \| image1 = South face of Abney Hall, looking north (Cheadle, Manchester - 20 May 2007).jpg \| image2 = Hotel Old Cataract.jpg \| caption1 = Abney Hall, Cheshire, the inspiration for Christie novel settings such as Chimneys and Stonygates \| caption2 = Christie used inspiration from her stay at the Old Cataract Hotel on the banks of the River Nile in Aswan, Egypt, for her 1937 novel Death on the Nile. \| align \| total_width }} Christie developed her storytelling techniques during what has been called the "Golden Age" of detective fiction.<ref name":20"/> Author Dilys Winn called Christie "the doyenne of Coziness", a sub-genre which "featured a small village setting, a hero with faintly aristocratic family connections, a plethora of red herrings and a tendency to commit homicide with sterling silver letter openers and poisons imported from Paraguay".<ref>{{cite book \|lastWinn \|firstDilys \|titleMurder Ink: The Mystery Reader's Companion \|publisherWorkman Publishing \|year1977 \|locationNew York \|page3}}</ref> At the end, in a Christie hallmark, the detective usually gathers the surviving suspects into one room, explains the course of their deductive reasoning, and reveals the guilty party; but there are exceptions where it is left to the guilty party to explain all (such as And Then There Were None and Endless Night).<ref name"me">{{cite journal \|lastMezel \|firstKathy \|s2cid162411534 \|date2007 \|titleSpinsters, Surveillance, and Speech: The Case of Miss Marple, Miss Mole, and Miss Jekyll \|journalThe Journal of Modern Literature \|volume30 \|issue2 \|pages103–20 \|doi10.2979/JML.2007.30.2.103 \|jstor4619330\| issn 0022-281X }}</ref><ref name"be">{{cite journal \|lastBeehler \|firstSharon A. \|date1998 \|titleClose vs. Closed Reading: Interpreting the Clues \|journalThe English Journal \|volume77 \|issue6 \|pages39–43 \|doi10.2307/818612 \|jstor818612}}</ref> Christie did not limit herself to quaint English villages{{snd}}the action might take place on a small island (And Then There Were None), an aeroplane (Death in the Clouds), a train (Murder on the Orient Express), a steamship (Death on the Nile), a smart London flat (Cards on the Table), a resort in the West Indies (A Caribbean Mystery), or an archaeological dig (Murder in Mesopotamia){{snd}}but the circle of potential suspects is usually closed and intimate: family members, friends, servants, business associates, fellow travellers.<ref name":8"/>{{Rp\|37}} Stereotyped characters abound (the {{Lang\|fr\|femme fatale}}, the stolid policeman, the devoted servant, the dull colonel), but these may be subverted to stymie the reader; impersonations and secret alliances are always possible.<ref name":8">{{cite book \|lastCurran \|firstJohn \|titleAgatha Christie's Secret Notebooks: Fifty Years of Mysteries in the Making \|publisherHarperCollins \|year2009 \|isbn978-0-06-200652-3 \|locationLondon}}</ref>{{Rp\|58}} There is always a motive{{snd}}most often, money: "There are very few killers in Christie who enjoy murder for its own sake."<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|379, 396}} Professor of Pharmacology Michael C. Gerald noted that "in over half her novels, one or more victims are poisoned, albeit not always to the full satisfaction of the perpetrator."<ref name":11">{{cite book \|lastGerald \|firstMichael C. \|titleThe Poisonous Pen of Agatha Christie \|publisherUniversity of Texas Press \|year1993 \|isbn0-292-76535-5 \|locationAustin, Texas}}</ref>{{Rp\|viii}} Guns, knives, garrottes,<!-- "garrottes" has a double t in BrEng --> tripwires, blunt instruments, and even a hatchet were also used, but "Christie never resorted to elaborate mechanical or scientific means to explain her ingenuity,"<ref name":12">{{cite book \|lastCurran \|firstJohn \|titleAgatha Christie: Murder in the Making \|publisherHarperCollins \|year2011 \|isbn978-0062065445 \|locationLondon}}</ref>{{Rp\|57}} according to John Curran, author and literary adviser to the Christie estate.<ref>{{cite web \|date2020 \|titleJohn Curran author \|urlhttps://www.harpercollins.com/author/cr-105484/john-curran/ \|access-date11 April 2020 \|websiteHarperCollinsPublishers \|archive-date11 April 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200411084002/https://www.harpercollins.com/author/cr-105484/john-curran/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Many of her clues are mundane objects: a calendar, a coffee cup, wax flowers, a beer bottle, a fireplace used during a heat wave.<ref name=":8"/>{{Rp\|38}} According to crime writer P. D. James, Christie was prone to making the unlikeliest character the guilty party. Alert readers could sometimes identify the culprit by identifying the least likely suspect.<ref name":9">{{cite book \|lastJames \|firstP.D. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idfcGke2wlt0UC&pgPT26 \|titleTalking About Detective Fiction \|publisherRandom House \|year2009 \|isbn978-0-307-39882-6 \|access-date4 April 2016 \|archive-date19 November 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161119174118/https://books.google.com/books?idfcGke2wlt0UC&pgPT26 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Christie mocked this insight in her foreword to Cards on the Table: "Spot the person least likely to have committed the crime and in nine times out of ten your task is finished. Since I do not want my faithful readers to fling away this book in disgust, I prefer to warn them beforehand that this is not that kind of book."<ref name":10">{{cite book \|lastGillian \|firstGill \|titleAgatha Christie: The Woman and Her Mysteries \|publisherThe Free Press \|year1990 \|isbn002911702X \|locationNew York City}}</ref>{{Rp\|135–36}} On BBC Radio 4's Desert Island Discs in 2007, Brian Aldiss said Christie had told him she wrote her books up to the last chapter, then decided who the most unlikely suspect was, after which she would go back and make the necessary changes to "frame" that person.<ref name"Brian Aldiss claims Agatha tells method">{{cite web \|lastAldiss \|firstBrian\|author-linkBrian Aldiss \|titleBBC Radio 4 – Factual – Desert Island Discs \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/factual/desertislanddiscs_20070128.shtml \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090211235326/http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/factual/desertislanddiscs_20070128.shtml \|archive-date11 February 2009 \|access-date22 February 2009 \|workBBC}}</ref> Based upon a study of her working notebooks, Curran describes how Christie would first create a cast of characters, choose a setting, and then produce a list of scenes in which specific clues would be revealed; the order of scenes would be revised as she developed her plot. Of necessity, the murderer had to be known to the author before the sequence could be finalised and she began to type or dictate the first draft of her novel.<ref name":8"/> Much of the work, particularly dialogue, was done in her head before she put it on paper.<ref name"Auto1993"/>{{Rp\|241–45}}<ref name":10"/>{{Rp\|33}} In 2013, the 600 members of the Crime Writers' Association chose The Murder of Roger Ackroyd as "the best whodunit{{nbsp}}... ever written".<ref name":18">{{cite news \|lastBrown \|firstJonathan \|date5 November 2013 \|titleAgatha Christie's The Murder of Roger Ackroyd voted best crime novel ever \|workThe Independent \|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/news/agatha-christies-the-murder-of-roger-ackroyd-voted-best-crime-novel-ever-8923395.html \|access-date19 February 2014 \|archive-date4 November 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191104035244/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/news/agatha-christies-the-murder-of-roger-ackroyd-voted-best-crime-novel-ever-8923395.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Author Julian Symons observed, "In an obvious sense, the book fits within the conventions{{nbsp}}... The setting is a village deep within the English countryside, Roger Ackroyd dies in his study; there is a butler who behaves suspiciously{{nbsp}}... Every successful detective story in this period involved a deceit practised upon the reader, and here the trick is the highly original one of making the murderer the local doctor, who tells the story and acts as Poirot's Watson."<ref name":20">{{cite book \|lastSymons \|firstJulian\|author-linkJulian Symons \|titleMortal Consequences: A History from the Detective Story to the Crime Novel \|publisherHarper & Row, Publishers \|year1972 \|locationNew York City}}</ref>{{Rp\|106–07}} Critic Sutherland Scott stated, "If Agatha Christie had made no other contribution to the literature of detective fiction she would still deserve our grateful thanks" for writing this novel.<ref>{{cite book \|lastScott \|firstSutherland \|titleBlood in Their Ink \|publisherStanley Paul \|year1953 \|locationLondon \|quoteCited in Fitzgibbon (1980). p. 19.}}</ref> In September 2015, to mark her 125th birthday, And Then There Were None was named the "World's Favourite Christie" in a vote sponsored by the author's estate.<ref name":15">{{cite web \|lastFlood \|firstAlison \|date2 September 2015 \|titleAnd Then There Were None declared world's favourite Agatha Christie novel \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/sep/01/and-then-there-were-none-declared-worlds-favourite-agatha-christie-novel \|websiteThe Guardian \|access-date16 May 2017 \|archive-date30 July 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170730203411/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/sep/01/and-then-there-were-none-declared-worlds-favourite-agatha-christie-novel \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The novel is emblematic of both her use of formula and her willingness to discard it. "And Then There Were None carries the 'closed society' type of murder mystery to extreme lengths," according to author Charles Osborne.<ref name":16"/>{{Rp\|170}} It begins with the classic set-up of potential victim(s) and killer(s) isolated from the outside world, but then violates conventions. There is no detective involved in the action, no interviews of suspects, no careful search for clues, and no suspects gathered together in the last chapter to be confronted with the solution. As Christie herself said, "Ten people had to die without it becoming ridiculous or the murderer being obvious."<ref name"Auto1993"/>{{Rp\|457}} Critics agreed she had succeeded: "The arrogant Mrs. Christie this time set herself a fearsome test of her own ingenuity{{nbsp}}... the reviews, not surprisingly, were without exception wildly adulatory."<ref name":16"/>{{Rp\|170–71}} Character stereotypes and racism {{About\|\|information on Christie's book originally titled Ten Little Niggers\|And Then There Were None}} Christie included stereotyped descriptions of characters in her work, especially before 1945 (when such attitudes were more commonly expressed publicly), particularly in regard to Italians, Jews, and non-Europeans.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{Rp\|264–66}} For example, she described "men of Hebraic extraction, sallow men with hooked noses, wearing rather flamboyant jewellery" in the short story "The Soul of the Croupier" from the collection The Mysterious Mr Quin. In 1947, the Anti-Defamation League in the US sent an official letter of complaint to Christie's American publishers, Dodd, Mead and Company, regarding perceived antisemitism in her works. Christie's British literary agent later wrote to her US representative, authorising American publishers to "omit the word 'Jew' when it refers to an unpleasant character in future books."<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|386}} In The Hollow, published in 1946, one of the characters is described by another as "a Whitechapel Jewess with dyed hair and a voice like a corncrake&nbsp;... a small woman with a thick nose, henna red hair and a disagreeable voice". To contrast with the more stereotyped descriptions, Christie portrayed some "foreign" characters as victims, or potential victims, at the hands of English malefactors, such as, respectively, Olga Seminoff (''Hallowe'en Party) and Katrina Reiger (in the short story "How Does Your Garden Grow?"). Jewish characters are often seen as un-English (such as Oliver Manders in Three Act Tragedy''), but they are rarely the culprits.<ref>{{Citation \|lastPendergast \|firstBruce \|titleEveryman's Guide to the Mysteries of Agatha Christie \|page399 \|year2004 \|locationVictoria, BC, Canada \|publisherTrafford \|isbn1-4120-2304-1}}</ref> In 2023, the Telegraph reported that several Agatha Christie novels have been edited to remove "passages containing descriptions, insults or references to ethnicity". Poirot and Miss Marple mysteries written between 1920 and 1976 have had passages reworked or removed in new editions published by HarperCollins, in order to strip them of language and descriptions that modern audiences find offensive, especially those involving the characters Christie's protagonists encounter outside the UK. Sensitivity readers had made the edits, which were evident in digital versions of the new editions, including the entire Miss Marple run and selected Poirot novels set to be released or that have been released since 2020.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Simpson \|first1Craig \|titleAgatha Christie classics latest to be rewritten for modern sensitivities \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2023/03/25/agatha-christie-classics-latest-rewritten-modern-sensitivities/ \|access-date29 March 2023 \|workThe Telegraph \|date25 March 2023}}</ref> Other detectives In addition to Hercule Poirot and Miss Marple, Christie also created amateur detectives Thomas (Tommy) Beresford and his wife, Prudence "Tuppence" née Cowley, who appear in four novels and one collection of short stories published between 1922 and 1974. Unlike her other sleuths, the Beresfords were only in their early twenties when introduced in The Secret Adversary, and were allowed to age alongside their creator.<ref name":16"/>{{Rp\|19–20}} She treated their stories with a lighter touch, giving them a "dash and verve" which was not universally admired by critics.<ref name":17"/>{{Rp\|63}} Their last adventure, Postern of Fate, was Christie's last novel.<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|477}} Harley Quin was "easily the most unorthodox" of Christie's fictional detectives.<ref name":17"/>{{Rp\|70}} Inspired by Christie's affection for the figures from the Harlequinade, the semi-supernatural Quin always works with an elderly, conventional man called Satterthwaite. The pair appear in 14 short stories, 12 of which were collected in 1930 as The Mysterious Mr. Quin.<ref name":16"/>{{Rp\|78, 80}}<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Vervel \|first1Marc \|title'Mystery' Beyond Reason: Mr. Quin, a Revealer of the Powers of Fiction According to Agatha Christie? \|journalClues: A Journal of Detection \|date2022 \|volume40 \|issue2 \|pages39–48 \|urlhttps://mcfarlandbooks.com/wp-content/uploads/5-Vervel-Clu402.pdf \|access-date18 April 2023}}</ref> Mallowan described these tales as "detection in a fanciful vein, touching on the fairy story, a natural product of Agatha's peculiar imagination".<ref name":16"/>{{Rp\|80}} Satterthwaite also appears in a novel, Three Act Tragedy, and a short story, "Dead Man's Mirror", both of which feature Poirot.<ref name":16"/>{{Rp\|81}} Another of her lesser-known characters is Parker Pyne, a retired civil servant who assists unhappy people in an unconventional manner.<ref name":16"/>{{Rp\|118–19}} The 12 short stories which introduced him, Parker Pyne Investigates (1934), are best remembered for "The Case of the Discontented Soldier", which features Ariadne Oliver, "an amusing and satirical self-portrait of Agatha Christie". Over the ensuing decades, Oliver reappeared in seven novels. In most of them she assists Poirot.<ref name":16"/>{{Rp\|120}} Plays {{Multiple image <!-- Essential parameters -->\| align = right \| direction = vertical \| header \| width 230 <!-- Image 1 -->\| image1 = 59th Year^ The 'West End', London. - panoramio.jpg \| width1 \| alt1 \| caption1 = The Mousetrap, the world's longest-running play, showing at the West End's St Martin's Theatre in 2011, with the sign signifying the 59th year of the production <!-- Image 2 -->\| image2 = Mousetrap 22461.JPG \| width2 \| alt2 \| caption2 The wooden counter in the foyer of St Martin's Theatre showing 22,461 performances of The Mousetrap (pictured in November 2006). Attendees often get their photo taken next to it.<ref name"Mousetrap record"/> }} In 1928, Michael Morton adapted The Murder of Roger Ackroyd for the stage under the name of Alibi.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{Rp\|177}} The play enjoyed a respectable run, but Christie disliked the changes made to her work and, in future, preferred to write for the theatre herself. The first of her own stage works was Black Coffee, which received good reviews when it opened in the West End in late 1930.<ref>Thompson, Laura (2008), Agatha Christie: An English Mystery, London: Headline Review, p. 277, 301. ISBN 978-0-7553-1488-1</ref> She followed this up with adaptations of her detective novels: And Then There Were None in 1943, Appointment with Death in 1945, and The Hollow in 1951.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{Rp\|242, 251, 288}} In the 1950s, "the theatre&nbsp;... engaged much of Agatha's attention."<ref>Thompson, Laura (2008), Agatha Christie: An English Mystery, London: Headline Review, p. 360. ISBN 978-0-7553-1488-1</ref> She next adapted her short radio play into The Mousetrap, which premiered in the West End in 1952, produced by Peter Saunders and starring Richard Attenborough as the original Detective Sergeant Trotter.<ref name"Mousetrap record"/> Her expectations for the play were not high; she believed it would run no more than eight months.<ref name"Auto1993"/>{{Rp\|500}} The Mousetrap has long since made theatrical history as the world's longest-running play, staging its 27,500th performance in September 2018.<ref name"Mousetrap record">{{cite news \|lastMoss \|firstStephen \|date21 November 2012 \|titleThe Mousetrap at 60: Why is this the world's longest-running play? \|workThe Guardian \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/stage/2012/nov/20/mousetrap-60-years-agatha-christie \|access-date8 April 2020 \|archive-date10 August 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200810022443/https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2012/nov/20/mousetrap-60-years-agatha-christie \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|lastBrantley \|firstBen \|date26 January 2012 \|titleLondon Theater Journal: Comfortably Mousetrapped \|workThe New York Times \|urlhttp://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/01/26/london-theater-journal-comfortably-mousetrapped/ \|access-date26 January 2012 \|archive-date30 September 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190930221446/https://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/01/26/london-theater-journal-comfortably-mousetrapped/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>[https://www.the-mousetrap.co.uk/Online The Mousetrap website] {{Webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150623162102/https://www.the-mousetrap.co.uk/Online/\|date23 June 2015}}, the-mousetrap.co.uk. Retrieved 2 June 2015.</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://uk.the-mousetrap.co.uk/the-history/ \|titleThe History \|websiteThe Mousetrap \|languageen-GB \|access-date25 April 2020 \|archive-date19 January 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190119121315/https://uk.the-mousetrap.co.uk/the-history/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The play temporarily closed in March 2020, when all UK theatres shut due to the coronavirus pandemic,<ref>{{cite web \|date17 March 2020 \|titleThe West End and UK Theatre venues shut down until further notice due to coronavirus \|urlhttps://www.londontheatredirect.com/news/the-west-end-and-uk-theatre-venues-shut-down-until-further-notice-due-to-coronavirus \|access-date5 May 2020 \|websiteLondon Theatre Direct \|languageen \|archive-date8 May 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200508232524/https://www.londontheatredirect.com/news/the-west-end-and-uk-theatre-venues-shut-down-until-further-notice-due-to-coronavirus \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|date22 April 2020 \|titleThe London theatres that are closed due to coronavirus \|urlhttps://www.standard.co.uk/go/london/theatre/london-theatres-west-end-closed-coronavirus-a4388676.html \|access-date5 May 2020 \|websiteEvening Standard \|languageen \|archive-date19 April 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200419211926/https://www.standard.co.uk/go/london/theatre/london-theatres-west-end-closed-coronavirus-a4388676.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> before it re-opened on 17 May 2021.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Lawson \|first1Mark \|titleThe case of the Covid-compliant murder: how The Mousetrap is snapping back to life \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/stage/2021/may/05/case-covid-compliant-mousetrap-snapping-back-agatha-christie-whodunnit \|newspaperThe Guardian \|locationLondon \|access-date20 July 2022 \|languageen \|date5 May 2021}}</ref> In 1953, she followed this with Witness for the Prosecution, whose Broadway production won the New York Drama Critics' Circle award for best foreign play of 1954 and earned Christie an Edgar Award from the Mystery Writers of America.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{Rp\|300}}<ref name":12"/>{{Rp\|262}} ''Spider's Web, an original work written for actress Margaret Lockwood at her request, premiered in the West End in 1954 and was also a hit.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{Rp\|297, 300}} Christie became the first female playwright to have three plays running simultaneously in London: The Mousetrap, Witness for the Prosecution and Spider's Web.<ref>{{cite news \|titleEveryone loves an old-fashioned murder mystery \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/theatre/everyone-loves-an-old-fashioned-murder-mystery/article25664054.ece \|newspaperThe Hindu \|date4 December 2018 \|access-date29 August 2020 \|last1Phukan \|first1Vikram \|archive-date20 May 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210520060606/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/theatre/everyone-loves-an-old-fashioned-murder-mystery/article25664054.ece \|url-statuslive}}</ref> She said, "Plays are much easier to write than books, because you can see'' them in your mind's eye, you are not hampered by all that description which clogs you so terribly in a book and stops you from getting on with what's happening."<ref name"Auto1993"/>{{Rp\|459}} In a letter to her daughter, Christie said being a playwright was "a lot of fun!"<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|474}} As Mary Westmacott Christie published six mainstream novels under the name Mary Westmacott, a pseudonym which gave her the freedom to explore "her most private and precious imaginative garden".<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|366–67}}<ref name":16"/>{{Rp\|87–88}} These books typically received better reviews than her detective and thriller fiction.<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|366}} Of the first, ''Giant's Bread published in 1930, a reviewer for The New York Times'' wrote, "...{{nbsp}}her book is far above the average of current fiction, in fact, comes well under the classification of a 'good book'. And it is only a satisfying novel that can claim that appellation."<ref>{{cite news \|date17 August 1930 \|titleBook Review \|page7 \|workThe New York Times}}</ref> It was publicized from the very beginning that "Mary Westmacott" was a pen name of a well-known author, although the identity behind the pen name was kept secret; the dust jacket of ''Giant's Bread'' mentions that the author had previously written "under her real name...half a dozen books that have each passed the thirty thousand mark in sales." (In fact, though this was technically true, it disguised Christie's identity through understatement. By the publication of ''Giant's Bread'', Christie had published 10 novels and two short story collections, all of which had sold considerably more than 30,000 copies.) After Christie's authorship of the first four Westmacott novels was revealed by a journalist in 1949, she wrote two more, the last in 1956.<ref name="thompson"/>{{Rp\|366}} The other Westmacott titles are: Unfinished Portrait (1934), Absent in the Spring (1944), The Rose and the Yew Tree (1948), ''A Daughter's a Daughter (1952), and The Burden (1956). Non-fiction works Christie published a few non-fiction works. Come, Tell Me How You Live, about working on an archaeological dig, was drawn from her life with Mallowan. The Grand Tour: Around the World with the Queen of Mystery is a collection of correspondence from her 1922 Grand Tour of the British Empire, including South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada. Agatha Christie: An Autobiography'' was published posthumously in 1977 and adjudged the Best Critical/Biographical Work at the 1978 Edgar Awards.<ref name":14">{{cite web \|urlhttp://theedgars.com/awards/ \|titleEdgars Database – Search the Edgars Database \|websiteThe Edgars \|access-date29 April 2020 \|archive-date28 March 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190328055509/http://theedgars.com/awards/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Titles Many of Christie's works from 1940 onward have titles drawn from literature, with the original context of the title typically printed as an epigraph.<ref>{{cite book \|lastHopkins \|firstLisa \|titleShakespearean Allusion in Crime Fiction \|publisherSpringer \|year2016 \|isbn978-1137538741\|editor-lastHopkins\|editor-firstL. \|locationCham, Switzerland \|pages63–103 \|chapter=Who Owns the Wood? Appropriating A Midsummer Night's Dream}}</ref> The inspirations for some of Christie's titles include: William Shakespeare's works: Sad Cypress, By the Pricking of My Thumbs, There is a Tide{{nbsp}}..., Absent in the Spring, and The Mousetrap, for example. Osborne notes that "Shakespeare is the writer most quoted in the works of Agatha Christie";<ref name=":16"/>{{Rp\|164}} * The Bible: Evil Under the Sun, The Burden, and The Pale Horse; * Other works of literature: ''The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side'' (from Tennyson's "The Lady of Shalott"), The Moving Finger (from Edward FitzGerald's translation of the Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám), The Rose and the Yew Tree (from T. S. Eliot's Four Quartets), Postern of Fate (from James Elroy Flecker's "Gates of Damascus"), Endless Night (from William Blake's "Auguries of Innocence"), N or M? (from the Book of Common Prayer), and Come, Tell Me How You Live (from Lewis Carroll's Through the Looking-Glass). Christie biographer Gillian Gill said, "Christie's writing has the sparseness, the directness, the narrative pace, and the universal appeal of the fairy story, and it is perhaps as modern fairy stories for grown-up children that Christie's novels succeed."<ref name":10"/>{{Rp\|208}} Reflecting a juxtaposition of innocence and horror, numerous Christie titles were drawn from well-known children's nursery rhymes: And Then There Were None (from "Ten Little Niggers", a rhyme also published as "Ten Little Indians", both of which were also used for the book's title in some printings),<ref>{{Cite book \|lastMcAllister \|firstPam \|titleThe Bedside, Bathtub & Armchair Companion to Agatha Christie \|publisherContinuum \|year2001 \|isbn0-8264-1375-7 \|editor-lastRiley \|editor-firstDick \|edition2nd \|locationNew York City; London \|pages144–45 \|chapterTen Little Who? \|editor2-lastMcAllister \|editor2-firstPam \|editor3-lastCassiday \|editor3-firstBruce \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idzd3yIaoBjrMC&pgPA144 \|access-date21 August 2020 \|archive-date2 September 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210902084912/https://books.google.com/books?idzd3yIaoBjrMC&pgPA144 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> One, Two, Buckle My Shoe (from "One, Two, Buckle My Shoe"), Five Little Pigs (from "This Little Piggy"), Crooked House (from "There Was a Crooked Man"), A Pocket Full of Rye (from "Sing a Song of Sixpence"), Hickory Dickory Dock (from "Hickory Dickory Dock"), and Three Blind Mice (from "Three Blind Mice").<ref name":10"/>{{Rp\|207–08}} Critical reception Christie is regularly referred to as the "Queen of Crime"—which is now trademarked by the Christie estate—or "Queen of Mystery", and is considered a master of suspense, plotting, and characterisation.<ref name"Trademark">{{cite news \|titleQUEEN OF CRIME Trademark of Agatha Christie Limited \|urlhttps://trademarks.justia.com/792/71/queen-of-79271301.html \|access-date7 October 2022 \|websiteJustia}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|lastWagoner \|firstMary S. \|titleAgatha Christie \|publisherTwayne Publishers \|year1986 \|isbn0-8057-6936-6 \|locationBoston}}</ref><ref>{{Citation \|titleThe Bedside, Bathtub & Armchair Companion to Agatha Christie \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idzd3yIaoBjrMC \|page240 \|year2001 \|editor-lastRiley \|editor-firstDick \|edition2nd \|locationNew York City; London \|publisherContinuum \|isbn978-0826413758 \|editor2-lastMcAllister \|editor2-firstPam \|editor3-lastCassiday \|editor3-firstBruce \|access-date21 August 2020 \|archive-date1 May 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210501105414/https://books.google.com/books?idzd3yIaoBjrMC \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|lastEngelhardt \|firstSandra \|titleThe Investigators of Crime in Literature \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0olaAAAAMAAJ \|page83 \|year2003 \|locationMarburg \|publisherTectum Verlag \|isbn978-0805769364 \|access-date4 July 2020 \|archive-date16 July 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200716005148/https://books.google.com/books?id0olaAAAAMAAJ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 1955, she became the first recipient of the Mystery Writers of America's Grand Master Award.<ref name":14"/> She was named "Best Writer of the Century" and the Hercule Poirot series of books was named "Best Series of the Century" at the 2000 Bouchercon World Mystery Convention.<ref>{{Cite web \|date22 September 2015 \|titleWinners and Nominees 2000s \|urlhttp://www.bouchercon.com/anthony-awards/winners-and-nominees/2000s/ \|access-date1 July 2020 \|websiteBouchercon \|languageen \|archive-date9 June 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180609172627/http://www.bouchercon.com/anthony-awards/winners-and-nominees/2000s/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2013, she was voted "best crime writer" in a survey of 600 members of the Crime Writers' Association of professional novelists.<ref name":18"/> However, the writer Raymond Chandler criticised the artificiality of her books, as did writer Julian Symons.<ref>{{cite book \|lastChandler \|firstRaymond \|author-linkRaymond Chandler \|urlhttps://www.fadedpage.com/showbook.php?pid20140930 \|titleThe Simple Art of Murder \|publisherHoughton Mifflin Company \|year1950 \|chapterThe Simple Art of Murder: An Essay \|access-date4 May 2020 \|archive-date21 October 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201021050156/https://www.fadedpage.com/showbook.php?pid20140930 \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name":20"/>{{Rp\|100–30}} The literary critic Edmund Wilson described her prose as banal and her characterisations as superficial.<ref>{{cite magazine \|lastWilson \|firstEdmund \|author-linkEdmund Wilson \|date14 October 1944 \|titleWhy Do People Read Detective Stories? \|magazineThe New Yorker \|urlhttps://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1944/10/14/why-do-people-read-detective-stories \|access-date4 May 2020 \|archive-date10 August 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200810154925/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1944/10/14/why-do-people-read-detective-stories \|url-statuslive}}</ref>{{Refn\|Wilson's 1945 essay, "Who Cares Who Killed Roger Ackroyd?" was dismissive of the detective fiction genre in general but did not mention Christie by name.<ref>{{cite magazine \|lastWilson \|firstEdmund \|author-linkEdmund Wilson \|titleWho Cares Who Killed Roger Ackroyd? \|urlhttp://archives.newyorker.com/?iid18408&startpagepage0000061#folio058 \|url-accesssubscription \|magazineThe New Yorker \|date20 January 1945 \|access-date25 November 2017 \|archive-date1 December 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171201033959/http://archives.newyorker.com/?iid18408&startpagepage0000061#folio058 \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleEdmund Wilson on Crime Fiction \|urlhttp://www.crazyoik.co.uk/workshop/edmund_wilson_on_crime_fiction.htm \|access-date23 June 2020 \|websiteThe Crazy Oik \|archive-date23 December 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171223115044/http://www.crazyoik.co.uk/workshop/edmund_wilson_on_crime_fiction.htm \|url-statuslive}}</ref>\|group=lower-alpha}} {{quote box \| width = 25% \| quote = "With Christie&nbsp;... we are dealing not so much with a literary figure as with a broad cultural phenomenon, like Barbie or the Beatles." \| source —Joan Acocella writing in The New Yorker<ref>{{cite magazine \|lastAcocella \|firstJoan \|titleQueen of Crime \|urlhttps://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2010/08/16/queen-of-crime \|access-date29 April 2020 \|magazineThe New Yorker \|languageen \|archive-date23 September 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200923235430/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2010/08/16/queen-of-crime \|url-status=live}}</ref> \| style = padding:1.5em \| fontsize=85% }} In 2011, Christie was named by the digital crime drama TV channel Alibi as the second most financially successful crime writer of all time in the United Kingdom, after James Bond author Ian Fleming, with total earnings around £100&nbsp;million.<ref>{{cite news \|date2011 \|titleCrime Writer Rich List \|workAlibi \|urlhttps://alibi.uktv.co.uk/articles/article/crime-writer-rich-list/ \|access-date22 September 2020 \|archive-date19 September 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200919160514/https://alibi.uktv.co.uk/articles/article/crime-writer-rich-list/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2012, Christie was among the people selected by the artist Peter Blake to appear in a new version of his most famous work, the Beatles' ''Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band'' album cover, "to celebrate the British cultural figures he most admires".<ref>{{cite news \|date13 November 2016 \|titleNew faces on Sgt Pepper album cover for artist Peter Blake's 80th birthday \|workThe Guardian \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2012/apr/02/peter-blake-sgt-pepper-cover-revisited \|access-date13 November 2016 \|archive-date5 November 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161105095109/https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2012/apr/02/peter-blake-sgt-pepper-cover-revisited \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|date13 November 2016 \|titleSir Peter Blake's new Beatles' Sgt Pepper's album cover \|workBBC \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-17583026 \|access-date21 July 2018 \|archive-date3 January 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170103234105/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-17583026 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> On the record-breaking longevity of Christie's The Mousetrap which had marked its 60th anniversary in 2012, Stephen Moss in The Guardian wrote, "the play and its author are the stars".<ref name="Mousetrap record"/> In 2015, marking the 125th anniversary of her birth date, 25 contemporary mystery writers and one publisher gave their views on Christie's works. Many of the authors had read Christie's novels first, before other mystery writers, in English or in their native language, influencing their own writing, and nearly all still viewed her as the "Queen of Crime" and creator of the plot twists used by mystery authors. Nearly all had one or more favourites among Christie's mysteries and found her books still good to read nearly 100 years after her first novel was published. Just one of the 25 authors held with Wilson's views.<ref>{{cite news \|authorDoyle, Martin \|date15 September 2015 \|titleAgatha Christie: genius or hack? Crime writers pass judgment and pick favourites \|newspaperThe Irish Times \|urlhttp://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/agatha-christie-genius-or-hack-crime-writers-pass-judgment-and-pick-favourites-1.2351699 \|access-date7 December 2015 \|archive-date27 January 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160127070034/http://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/agatha-christie-genius-or-hack-crime-writers-pass-judgment-and-pick-favourites-1.2351699 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Book sales In her prime, Christie was rarely out of the bestseller list.<ref>{{cite web \|titleand then there were 75 facts about the queen of crime agatha christie \|urlhttps://www.gamesindustry.biz/articles/and-then-there-were-75-facts-about-the-queen-of-crime-agatha-christie \|websitegamesindustry \|date24 October 2005 \|access-date1 October 2020 \|archive-date1 May 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210501105411/https://www.gamesindustry.biz/articles/and-then-there-were-75-facts-about-the-queen-of-crime-agatha-christie \|url-statuslive}}</ref> She was the first crime writer to have 100,000 copies of 10 of her titles published by Penguin on the same day in 1948.<ref>{{cite web \|titleSpecial Stamps to commemorate Agatha Christie – the biggest-selling novelist of all time \|urlhttps://rmspecialstamps.com/collections/agatha-christie/#:~:textSince%20her%20debut%20in%201920,in%201948%20%2D%20A%20Penguin%20Million. \|websitermspecialstamps \|access-date1 October 2020 \|archive-date1 March 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210301135136/https://rmspecialstamps.com/collections/agatha-christie/#:~:textSince%20her%20debut%20in%201920,in%201948%20%2D%20A%20Penguin%20Million. \|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleWhere Are They Now? \|urlhttps://www.penguin.com/penguin80/original-10/ \|websitePenguin \|access-date1 October 2020 \|archive-date19 September 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200919165531/https://www.penguin.com/penguin80/original-10/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> {{As of\|2018\|}}, Guinness World Records listed Christie as the best-selling fiction writer of all time.<ref name"Guinness"/> {{As of\|2020\|}}, her novels had sold more than two billion copies in 44 languages.<ref name"Guinness">{{cite news \|titleFive record-breaking book facts for National Bookshop Day \|urlhttps://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/news/2018/10/5-page-turning-book-facts \|access-date12 November 2020 \|agencyGuinness World Records \|archive-date27 October 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201027042029/https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/news/2018/10/5-page-turning-book-facts \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Half the sales are of English-language editions, and half are translations.<ref>{{cite web \|date4 October 2018 \|titleFive record-breaking book facts for National Bookshop Day \|urlhttps://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/news/2018/10/5-page-turning-book-facts \|access-date28 April 2020 \|websiteGuinness World Records \|languageen-GB \|quote78 crime novels have sold an estimated 2{{nbsp}}billion copies in 44 languages \|archive-date9 May 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200509115438/https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/news/2018/10/5-page-turning-book-facts/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleAbout Agatha Christie \|urlhttp://www.agathachristie.com/about-christie \|date2020 \|publisherAgatha Christie Ltd \|access-date29 April 2020 \|quoteHer books have sold over a billion copies in the English language and a billion in translation. \|archive-date7 December 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151207094654/http://www.agathachristie.com/about-christie/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> According to Index Translationum, {{As of\|2020\|lcy}}, she was the most-translated individual author.<ref name"UNESCO">{{cite web \|authorUNESCO Statistics \|titleIndex Translationum – "Top 50" Author \|urlhttp://www.unesco.org/xtrans/bsstatexp.aspx?crit1L5&nTypmin&topN50 \|access-date29 April 2020 \|workOfficial website of UNESCO \|publisherUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) \|archive-date12 June 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140612072938/http://www.unesco.org/xtrans/bsstatexp.aspx?crit1L5&nTypmin&topN50 \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleWho is the world's most translated author? \|urlhttps://thewordpoint.com/blog/worlds-most-translated-author \|access-date10 June 2020 \|websitethewordpoint.com \|date23 May 2015 \|languageen \|archive-date10 June 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200610072031/https://thewordpoint.com/blog/worlds-most-translated-author \|url-status=live}}</ref> Christie is one of the most-borrowed authors in UK libraries.<ref>{{cite web \|titleList:The most borrowed library books and authors in UK 2011–2012 Children's library borrowing continues to increase \|urlhttps://www.infodocket.com/2013/02/08/list-the-most-borrowed-library-books-in-uk-2011-2012-childrens-library-borrowing-continues-to-increase/ \|websiteinfodocket \|date8 February 2013 \|access-date2 October 2020 \|archive-date5 December 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201205022150/https://www.infodocket.com/2013/02/08/list-the-most-borrowed-library-books-in-uk-2011-2012-childrens-library-borrowing-continues-to-increase/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titlecrime fiction steals top slot in UK library loans \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/feb/05/fiction-runs-away-with-uk-library-loans-lee-child \|websitethegurdian \|date5 February 2016 \|access-date2 October 2020 \|archive-date29 June 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200629105931/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/feb/05/fiction-runs-away-with-uk-library-loans-lee-child \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|titleJacqueline Wilson most loaned author \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/arts_and_culture/8512613.stm \|websitebbc \|date12 February 2010 \|access-date3 October 2020 \|archive-date25 January 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210125140822/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/arts_and_culture/8512613.stm \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleSorry, Harry Potter – it is Danielle Steel who casts the greatest spell over UK library readers \|urlhttps://inews.co.uk/news/harry-potter-danielle-steel-most-borrowed-uk-library-books-225966 \|websiteinews \|date23 November 2018 \|access-date3 October 2020 \|archive-date1 March 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210301015524/https://inews.co.uk/news/harry-potter-danielle-steel-most-borrowed-uk-library-books-225966 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> She is also the UK's best-selling spoken-book author. In 2002, 117,696 Christie audiobooks were sold, in comparison to 97,755 for J. K. Rowling, 78,770 for Roald Dahl and 75,841 for J. R. R. Tolkien.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAgatha Christie Inspires Video Game \|urlhttps://www.writerswrite.com/agatha-christie-inspires-video-game-102605177 \|websitewriterswrite \|access-date1 October 2020 \|archive-date28 October 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201028122645/https://www.writerswrite.com/agatha-christie-inspires-video-game-102605177 \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|titleBest Sellers of All Time: Fiction \|urlhttps://www.audible.com/ep/article-best-sellers-all-time-fiction?ipRedirectOverridetrue&overrideBaseCountrytrue&pf_rd_pbac5e436-7dfa-47d0-b492-98f01c3a5af3&pf_rd_rX3BWC4GT5652MSR17V3F \|viaaudible \|access-date1 October 2020 \|archive-date1 May 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210501105414/https://www.audible.com/ep/article-best-sellers-all-time-fiction?ipRedirectOverridetrue&overrideBaseCountrytrue&pf_rd_pbac5e436-7dfa-47d0-b492-98f01c3a5af3&pf_rd_rX3BWC4GT5652MSR17V3F \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2015, the Christie estate claimed And Then There Were None was "the best-selling crime novel of all time",<ref>{{cite web \|title125 Years of Agatha Christie \|urlhttps://www.agathachristie.com/about-christie/125-years-of-agatha-christie \|websiteThe Home of Agatha Christie \|languageen-US \|access-date3 May 2020 \|archive-date27 January 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210127200520/https://www.agathachristie.com/about-christie/125-years-of-agatha-christie \|url-statuslive}}</ref> with approximately 100 million sales, also making it one of the highest-selling books of all time.<ref name":15"/><ref>{{cite news \|lastMcClurg \|firstJocelyn \|date18 May 2016 \|titleAgatha Christie hits USA Today's list \|workUSA Today \|urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/story/life/books/2016/05/18/agatha-christie-and-then-there-were-none-fall-books-usa-today-best-selling-books/84500896/ \|access-date4 May 2020 \|archive-date4 July 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200704022630/https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/books/2016/05/18/agatha-christie-and-then-there-were-none-fall-books-usa-today-best-selling-books/84500896/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> More than two million copies of her books were sold in English in 2020.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAgatha Christie mysteries are still raking in the cash a century on \|urlhttps://www.marketplace.org/2020/09/28/agatha-christie-mysteries-still-raking-the-cash-100-years-later/ \|websitemarketplace.org \|date28 September 2020 \|access-date12 March 2021 \|archive-date24 January 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210124192602/https://www.marketplace.org/2020/09/28/agatha-christie-mysteries-still-raking-the-cash-100-years-later/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Legacy in the West End marking The Mousetrap as the world's longest-running play]] In 2016, the Royal Mail marked the centenary of Christie's first detective story by issuing six first-class postage stamps of her works: The Mysterious Affair at Styles, The Murder of Roger Ackroyd, Murder on the Orient Express, And Then There Were None, The Body in the Library, and A Murder is Announced. The Guardian reported that, "Each design incorporates microtext, UV ink and thermochromic ink. These concealed clues can be revealed using either a magnifying glass, UV light or body heat and provide pointers to the mysteries' solutions."<ref>{{cite news \|lastFlood \|firstAlison \|date15 September 2016 \|titleNew Agatha Christie stamps deliver hidden clues \|workThe Guardian \|locationLondon \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/sep/15/new-agatha-christie-stamps-deliver-hidden-clues \|access-date10 April 2020 \|archive-date6 August 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200806191428/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/sep/15/new-agatha-christie-stamps-deliver-hidden-clues \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleRoyal Mail issues Special Stamps to celebrate Agatha Christie \|urlhttps://www.agathachristie.com/news/2016/royal-mail-issues-special-stamps-to-celebrate-agatha-christie \|access-date4 May 2020 \|websiteThe Home of Agatha Christie \|date15 September 2016 \|languageen-US \|archive-date8 March 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210308134551/https://www.agathachristie.com/news/2016/royal-mail-issues-special-stamps-to-celebrate-agatha-christie \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Her characters and her face appeared on the stamps of many countries like Dominica and the Somali Republic.<ref>{{cite web \|date7 October 2017 \|titleAgatha Christie Postage Stamps, 1996–2016 \|urlhttps://www.literaryladiesguide.com/gallery/agatha-christie-postage-stamps-1996-2016/ \|access-date5 September 2020 \|websiteliteraryladiesguide \|archive-date13 August 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200813001109/https://www.literaryladiesguide.com/gallery/agatha-christie-postage-stamps-1996-2016/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2020, Christie was commemorated on a £2 coin by the Royal Mint for the first time to mark the centenary of her first novel, The Mysterious Affair at Styles.<ref>{{cite web \|dateJanuary 2020 \|titleNew coins 2020 celebrate Agatha Christie Tokyo Olympians George III VE day \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/money/2020/jan/01/new-coins-2020-celebrate-agatha-christie-tokyo-olympians-george-iii-ve-day \|access-date5 September 2020 \|websitethegurdian \|archive-date14 August 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200814000052/https://www.theguardian.com/money/2020/jan/01/new-coins-2020-celebrate-agatha-christie-tokyo-olympians-george-iii-ve-day \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2023 a life-size bronze statue of Christie sitting on a park bench holding a book was unveiled in Wallingford, Oxfordshire.<ref>Ella Creamer. "[https://www.theguardian.com/books/2023/sep/11/agatha-christie-statue-takes-seat-on-bench-in-oxfordshire-town Agatha Christie statue takes seat on bench in Oxfordshire town]". The Guardian, 11 September 2023.</ref> Adaptations {{Main\|Adaptations of Agatha Christie}} Christie's works have been adapted for cinema and television. The first was the 1928 British film The Passing of Mr. Quin. Poirot's first film appearance was in 1931 in Alibi, which starred Austin Trevor as Christie's sleuth.<ref name":13">{{cite book \|lastPalmer \|firstScott \|titleThe Films of Agatha Christie \|publisherB.T. Batsford Ltd \|year1993 \|isbn0-7134-7205-7 \|locationLondon}}</ref>{{Rp\|14–18}} Margaret Rutherford played Marple in a series of films released in the 1960s. Christie liked her acting, but considered the first film "pretty poor" and thought no better of the rest.<ref name="thompson"/>{{Rp\|430–31}} She felt differently about the 1974 film Murder on the Orient Express, directed by Sidney Lumet, which featured major stars and high production values; her attendance at the London premiere was one of her last public outings.<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|476, 482}}<ref name":13"/>{{Rp\|57}} In 2017, a new film version was released, directed by Kenneth Branagh, who also starred, wearing "the most extravagant mustache moviegoers have ever seen".<ref>{{cite web \|lastDebruge \|firstPeter \|date2 November 2017 \|titleFilm Review: 'Murder on the Orient Express' \|urlhttps://variety.com/2017/film/reviews/murder-on-the-orient-express-review-1202605173/ \|access-date10 April 2020 \|websiteVariety \|archive-date24 April 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200424095929/https://variety.com/2017/film/reviews/murder-on-the-orient-express-review-1202605173/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Branagh has since directed two more adaptations of Christie, Death on the Nile (2022) and its sequel A Haunting in Venice (2023), the latter an adaptation of her 1969 novel ''Hallowe'en Party''.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastWiseman \|firstAndreas \|date1 October 2019 \|titleFox & Kenneth Branagh's All-Star Agatha Christie Movie 'Death On The Nile' Begins Production In UK \|urlhttps://deadline.com/2019/10/death-nile-movie-agatha-christie-begins-production-uk-1202749028/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191002133821/https://deadline.com/2019/10/death-nile-movie-agatha-christie-begins-production-uk-1202749028/ \|archive-date2 October 2019 \|access-date1 November 2023 \|websiteDeadline Hollywood}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastVlessing \|firstEtan \|date19 July 2023 \|titleKenneth Branagh Battles Supernatural Forces in 'Haunting in Venice' Trailer \|urlhttps://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/kenneth-branagh-haunting-in-venice-trailer-1235539800/ \|access-date1 November 2023 \|magazine=The Hollywood Reporter}}</ref> The television adaptation ''Agatha Christie's Poirot (1989–2013), with David Suchet in the title role, ran for 70 episodes over 13 series. It received nine BAFTA award nominations and won four BAFTA awards in 1990–1992.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://awards.bafta.org/keyword-search?keywordspoirot \|titleBAFTA Awards Database \|workBAFTA.org \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttp://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20130529070546/http://awards.bafta.org/keyword-search?keywordspoirot \|archive-date29 May 2013 \|access-date10 April 2020}}</ref> The television series Miss Marple'' (1984–1992), with Joan Hickson as "the BBC's peerless Miss Marple", adapted all 12 Marple novels.<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|500}} The French television series {{Lang\|fr\|Les Petits Meurtres d'Agatha Christie}} (2009–2012, 2013–2020), adapted 36 of Christie's stories.<ref>{{cite web \|titleLes Petits Meurtres d'Agatha Christie \|urlhttps://www.agathachristie.com/film-and-tv/les-petits-meurtres-dagatha-christie \|websiteThe Home of Agatha Christie \|languageen-US \|access-date3 May 2020 \|archive-date10 April 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200410201059/https://www.agathachristie.com/film-and-tv/les-petits-meurtres-dagatha-christie \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleLes petits meurtres d'Agatha Christie \|urlhttps://www.france.tv/france-2/les-petits-meurtres-d-agatha-christie/ \|access-date3 May 2020 \|websiteFrance TV \|languagefr \|archive-date22 December 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191222055412/https://www.france.tv/france-2/les-petits-meurtres-d-agatha-christie/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Christie's books have also been adapted for BBC Radio, a video game series, and graphic novels.<ref>{{cite web \|titleBBC Radio 4 Extra – Hercule Poirot – Episode guide \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03js5pl/episodes/guide \|access-date5 May 2020 \|websiteBBC \|languageen-GB \|archive-date8 March 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210308150251/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03js5pl/episodes/guide \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleBBC Radio 4 Extra – Miss Marple – Episode guide \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03p87br/episodes/guide \|access-date5 May 2020 \|websiteBBC \|languageen-GB \|archive-date9 March 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210309054615/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03p87br/episodes/guide \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleGames \|urlhttps://www.agathachristie.com/games \|websiteThe Home of Agatha Christie \|languageen-US \|access-date5 May 2020 \|archive-date26 April 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200426051701/https://www.agathachristie.com/games \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleAgatha Christie Graphic Novels Series \|urlhttps://www.goodreads.com/series/61511-agatha-christie-graphic-novels \|websitegoodreads \|access-date5 May 2020 \|archive-date8 March 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210308125311/https://www.goodreads.com/series/61511-agatha-christie-graphic-novels \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Interests and influences Pharmacology During the First World War, Christie took a break from nursing to train for the Apothecaries Hall Examination.<ref name":11"/>{{Rp\|xi}} While she subsequently found dispensing in the hospital pharmacy monotonous, and thus less enjoyable than nursing, her new knowledge provided her with a background in potentially toxic drugs. Early in the Second World War, she brought her skills up to date at Torquay Hospital.<ref name="Auto1993"/>{{Rp\|235, 470}} As Michael C. Gerald puts it, her "activities as a hospital dispenser during both World Wars not only supported the war effort but also provided her with an appreciation of drugs as therapeutic agents and poisons{{nbsp}}... These hospital experiences were also likely responsible for the prominent role physicians, nurses, and pharmacists play in her stories."<ref name":11"/>{{Rp\|viii}} There were to be many medical practitioners, pharmacists, and scientists, naïve or suspicious, in Christie's cast of characters; featuring in Murder in Mesopotamia, Cards on the Table, The Pale Horse, and ''Mrs. McGinty's Dead'', among many others.<ref name":11"/> Gillian Gill notes that the murder method in Christie's first detective novel, The Mysterious Affair at Styles, "comes right out of Agatha Christie's work in the hospital dispensary".<ref name":10"/>{{Rp\|34}} In an interview with journalist Marcelle Bernstein, Christie stated, "I don't like messy deaths{{nbsp}}... I'm more interested in peaceful people who die in their own beds and no one knows why."<ref>{{cite news \|date8 March 1970 \|titleAgatha Christie: 'Queen of Crime' Is a Gentlewoman \|page60, quoted in Gerald (1993), p. 4 \|workLos Angeles Times}}</ref> With her expert knowledge, Christie had no need of poisons unknown to science, which were forbidden under Ronald Knox's "Ten Rules for Detective Fiction".<ref name":12"/>{{Rp\|58}} Arsenic, aconite, strychnine, digitalis, nicotine, thallium, and other substances were used to dispatch victims in the ensuing decades.<ref name":11"/> Archaeology {{quote box \| align = right \| width = 30%\| \| source Agatha Christie<ref name"Auto1993"/>{{rp\|364}} \| quote = The lure of the past came up to grab me. To see a dagger slowly appearing, with its gold glint, through the sand was romantic. The carefulness of lifting pots and objects from the soil filled me with a longing to be an archaeologist myself. }} In her youth, Christie showed little interest in antiquities.<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|68}} After her marriage to Mallowan in 1930, she accompanied him on annual expeditions, spending three to four months at a time in Syria and Iraq at excavation sites at Ur, Nineveh, Tell Arpachiyah, Chagar Bazar, Tell Brak, and Nimrud.<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|301, 304, 313, 414}} The Mallowans also took side trips whilst travelling to and from expedition sites, visiting Italy, Greece, Egypt, Iran, and the Soviet Union, among other places.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{Rp\|188–91, 199, 212}}<ref name"Auto1993"/>{{Rp\|429–37}} Their experiences travelling and living abroad are reflected in novels such as Murder on the Orient Express, Death on the Nile, and Appointment with Death.<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|514 (n. 6)}}<ref>{{cite web \|titleAgatha Christie and Archaeology \|urlhttps://blogs.ncl.ac.uk/speccoll/2018/10/03/agatha-christie-and-archaeology/ \|access-date28 April 2020 \|websiteSpecial Collections. Newcastle University \|date3 October 2018 \|archive-date12 August 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200812201814/https://blogs.ncl.ac.uk/speccoll/2018/10/03/agatha-christie-and-archaeology/ \|url-status=live}}</ref> For the 1931 digging season at Nineveh, Christie bought a writing table to continue her own work; in the early 1950s, she paid to add a small writing room to the team's house at Nimrud.<ref name"thompson"/>{{Rp\|301}}<ref name":16"/>{{Rp\|244}} She also devoted time and effort each season in "making herself useful by photographing, cleaning, and recording finds; and restoring ceramics, which she especially enjoyed".<ref>{{cite journal \|lastLubelski \|firstAmy \|date2002 \|titleMuseums: In the Field with Agatha Christie \|urlhttp://www.archaeology.org/0203/reviews/christie.html \|journalArchaeology \|volume55 \|issue2 \|quoteChristie always accompanied Mallowan on his excavations, making herself useful by photographing, cleaning, and recording finds; and restoring ceramics, which she especially enjoyed. \|access-date29 March 2012 \|archive-date7 May 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120507083710/http://www.archaeology.org/0203/reviews/christie.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name":17"/>{{Rp\|20–21}} She also provided funds for the expeditions.<ref name="thompson"/>{{Rp\|414}} Many of the settings for Christie's books were inspired by her archaeological fieldwork in the Middle East; this is reflected in the detail with which she describes them{{snd}}for instance, the temple of Abu Simbel as depicted in Death on the Nile{{snd}}while the settings for They Came to Baghdad were places she and Mallowan had recently stayed.<ref name"Morgan1984"/>{{Rp\|212, 283–84}} Similarly, she drew upon her knowledge of daily life on a dig throughout Murder in Mesopotamia.<ref name":8"/>{{Rp\|269}} Archaeologists and experts in Middle Eastern cultures and artefacts featured in her works include Dr Eric Leidner in Murder in Mesopotamia and Signor Richetti in Death on the Nile.<ref>{{cite book \|lastSova \|firstDawn B \|titleAgatha Christie A to Z: The Essential Reference to Her Life & Writings \|publisherFacts On File, Inc \|year1996 \|isbn0-8160-3018-9 \|location=New York City}}</ref>{{Rp\|187, 226–27}} After the Second World War, Christie chronicled her time in Syria in Come, Tell Me How You Live, which she described as "small beer{{snd}}a very little book, full of everyday doings and happenings".<ref name"mallowan2">{{cite book \|lastChristie Mallowan \|firstAgatha \|titleCome, Tell Me How You Live \|date1990 \|publisherFontana Books \|isbn0-00-637594-4 \|locationLondon\|orig-year1946}}</ref>{{Rp\|(Foreword)}} From 8{{nbsp}}November 2001 to March 2002, The British Museum presented a "colourful and episodic exhibition" called Agatha Christie and Archaeology: Mystery in Mesopotamia which illustrated how her activities as a writer and as the wife of an archaeologist intertwined.<ref>{{cite news \|lastGlancey \|firstJonathan \|date17 November 2001 \|titleForbidden pleasures \|workThe Guardian \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/travel/2001/nov/17/iraq.culturaltrips \|access-date28 April 2020 \|archive-date8 March 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210308191240/https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2001/nov/17/iraq.culturaltrips \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In popular culture Some of Christie's fictional portrayals have explored and offered accounts of her disappearance in 1926. The film Agatha (1979), with Vanessa Redgrave, has Christie sneaking away to plan revenge against her husband; Christie's heirs sued unsuccessfully to prevent the film's distribution.<ref>{{cite web \|authorAxmaker, Sean \|titleAgatha \|urlhttp://www.tcm.com/this-month/article/1083600%7C0/Agatha.html \|access-date17 June 2017 \|workTurner Classic Movies \|archive-date14 January 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180114183823/http://www.tcm.com/this-month/article/1083600%7C0/Agatha.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The Doctor Who episode "The Unicorn and the Wasp" (17 May 2008) stars Fenella Woolgar as Christie, and explains her disappearance as being connected to aliens. The film Agatha and the Truth of Murder (2018) sends her undercover to solve the murder of Florence Nightingale's goddaughter, Florence Nightingale Shore. A fictionalised account of Christie's disappearance is also the central theme of a Korean musical, Agatha.<ref>{{cite web \|titleMusical Agatha \|urlhttp://www.visitseoul.net/en/article/article.do?_methodview&m0004009001001&p06&art_id78125&langen \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150416100240/http://www.visitseoul.net/en/article/article.do?_methodview&m0004009001001&p06&art_id78125&langen \|archive-date16 April 2015 \|access-date10 April 2015 \|websiteVisit Seoul \|publisherSeoul Metropolitan Government}}</ref> The Christie Affair, a Christie-like mystery story of love and revenge by author Nina de Gramont, was a 2022 novel loosely based on Christie's disappearance.<ref>{{cite web \|titleThe Christie Affair \|urlhttps://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/nina-de-gramont/the-christie-affair/ \|publisherSt. Martin's Press}}</ref> Other portrayals, such as the Hungarian film Kojak Budapesten (1980), create their own scenarios involving Christie's criminal skills. In the TV play Murder by the Book (1986), Christie (Dame Peggy Ashcroft) murders one of her fictional-turned-real characters, Poirot. Christie features as a character in Gaylord Larsen's Dorothy and Agatha and The London Blitz Murders by Max Allan Collins.<ref>{{cite book \|lastLarsen \|firstGaylord \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/dorothyagatha00lars \|titleDorothy and Agatha: A Mystery Novel \|publisherDutton \|year1990 \|isbn978-0-525-24865-1 \|locationNew York City; London \|access-date23 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|lastCollins \|firstMax Allan \|titleThe London Blitz Murders \|publisherBerkley Prime Crime \|year2004 \|isbn978-0-425-19805-6 \|locationNew York City}}</ref> The American television program Unsolved Mysteries devoted a segment to her famous disappearance, with Agatha portrayed by actress Tessa Pritchard. A young Agatha is depicted in the Spanish historical television series Gran Hotel (2011) in which she finds inspiration to write her new novel while aiding local detectives. In the alternative history television film Agatha and the Curse of Ishtar (2018), Christie becomes involved in a murder case at an archaeological dig in Iraq.<ref>{{cite news \|lastHogan \|firstMichael \|date15 December 2019 \|titleAgatha and the Curse of Ishtar review – A cut-price Christie for Christmas is still quite a treat \|languageen-GB \|workThe Telegraph \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/tv/2019/12/15/agatha-curse-ishtar-review-a-cut-price-christie-christmas-still/ \|access-date29 April 2020 \|issn0307-1235 \|archive-date6 January 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200106004751/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/tv/2019/12/15/agatha-curse-ishtar-review-a-cut-price-christie-christmas-still/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2019, Honeysuckle Weeks portrayed Christie in "No Friends Like Old Friends" (September 16, 2019), episode 1 of season 3 of the Canadian television period detective series Frankie Drake Mysteries when Christie helps visiting private detective Frankie Drake solve the disappearance and poisoning of an old friend. In 2020, Heather Terrell, under the pseudonym of Marie Benedict, published The Mystery of Mrs. Christie, a fictional reconstruction of Christie's December 1926 disappearance. The novel was on the USA Today and The New York Times Best Seller lists.<ref>{{Cite web \|date30 September 2020 \|titleThe Mystery of Mrs. Christie \|urlhttps://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/marie-benedict/the-mystery-of-mrs-christie/ \|access-date30 May 2022 \|websiteKirkus Reviews}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleThe Mystery of Mrs. Christie \|urlhttps://www.authormariebenedict.com/the-mystery-of-mrs-christie.html \|access-date30 May 2022 \|websiteMARIE BENEDICT \|languageen}}</ref> In December 2020, Library Reads named Terrell a Hall of Fame author for the book.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMarie Benedict \|urlhttps://libraryreads.org/hof/marie-benedict \|access-date30 May 2022 \|websiteLibraryReads \|languageen-US \|archive-date19 October 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221019163933/https://libraryreads.org/hof/marie-benedict \|url-statusdead}}</ref> Andrew Wilson has written four novels featuring Agatha Christie as a detective: A Talent For Murder (2017), A Different Kind of Evil (2018), Death In A Desert Land (2019) and I Saw Him Die (2020).<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.fantasticfiction.com/w/andrew-wilson/ \|titleAndrew Wilson}}</ref> Christie was portrayed by Shirley Henderson in the 2022 comedy/mystery film See How They Run.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://variety.com/2021/film/news/see-how-they-run-sam-rockwell-saoirse-ronan-1235030099/ \|titleStar-Studded Searchlight Murder Mystery 'See How They Run' Reveals Full Cast, First Look Image \|websiteVariety \|firstMatt \|lastDonnelly \|date29 July 2021\|access-date11 June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|lastN'Duka \|firstAmanda \|title'Gangs of London's Pippa Bennett-Warner Joins Saoirse Ronan In Tom George-Directed Murder Mystery Thriller From Searchlight Pictures \|urlhttps://deadline.com/2021/05/pippa-bennett-warner-saoirse-ronan-tom-george-murder-mystery-thriller-searchlight-pictures-1234753364/ \|websiteDeadline Hollywood \|date10 May 2021 \|access-date11 June 2023}}</ref> See also * Agatha Christie indult – an oecumenical request to which Christie was signatory seeking permission for the occasional use of the Tridentine (Latin) mass in England and Wales * Agatha Awards – literary awards for mystery and crime writers * Agatha Christie Award (Japan) – literary award for unpublished mystery novels * List of solved missing person cases Notes {{Notelist}} References {{Reflist\|32em}} Further reading {{div col}} * {{Citation \|author-link Amanda Adams \|lastAdams \|firstAmanda \|year2010 \|titleLadies of the Field: Early Women Archaeologists and Their Search for Adventure \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ideFe9BwAAQBAJ \|placeVancouver \|publisherDouglas & McIntyre \|isbn978-1-55365-433-9}}. * {{cite web \|titleAgatha Christie – the explorer & archaeologist \|urlhttp://agathachristie.com/cms-media/assets/PR_-_Agatha_Christie_-_the_Explorer.pdf \|publisherAgatha Christie Limited \|access-date1 March 2012 \|url-statusdead \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20091007221242/http://www.agathachristie.com/cms-media/assets/PR_-_Agatha_Christie_-_the_Explorer.pdf \|archive-date=7 October 2009}} * Bernthal, J.C. (2022). Agatha Christie: A Companion to the Mystery Fiction. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. {{ISBN\|9781476676203\|}}. * Curran, John (2009). ''Agatha Christie's Secret Notebooks: Fifty Years of Mysteries in the Making. London: HarperCollins. {{ISBN\|978-0-06-200652-3\|}}. * Curran, John (2011). [https://books.google.com/books?id=5MTS-U9F9qsC Agatha Christie: Murder in the Making]. London: HarperCollins. {{ISBN\|978-0062065445\|}}. * Curran, John. [https://www.agathachristie.com/about-christie/christie-experts/john-curran-75-facts-about-christie "75 facts about Christie"]. The Home of Agatha Christie. Agatha Christie Limited. Retrieved 21 July 2017. * Gerald, Michael C. (1993). The Poisonous Pen of Agatha Christie. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. {{ISBN\|978-0292728646}}. * {{Citation \|lastHoltorf \|firstCornelius \|year2007 \|titleArchaeology is a Brand! The meaning of archaeology in contemporary popular culture \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9YKjaVzqfP8C \|locationOxford, England \|publisherArchaeopress \|isbn=978-1598741797}}. * {{cite magazine \|lastLubelski \|firstAmy \|titleMuseums: In the Field with Agatha Christie \|magazineArchaeology \|dateMarch–April 2002 \|volume55 \|issue2 \|urlhttp://www.archaeology.org/0203/reviews/christie.html \|access-date = 28 April 2020}} * {{Citation \|titleAgatha Christie: An Autobiography \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKk-LAEHExtkC \|lastMallowan \|firstAgatha Christie \|year1977 \|publisherDodd, Mead & Co \|locationNew York City \|isbn=0-396-07516-9}}. * {{Citation \|isbn0-553-35049-8 \|titleCome, Tell Me How You Live \|firstAgatha Christie \|lastMallowan \|placeToronto, New York City \|publisherBantam Books \|year1985 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/cometellmehowyou0000mall}}. * Morgan, Janet P. (1984). [https://books.google.com/books?id=kl2HDgAAQBAJ Agatha Christie: A Biography]. London: HarperCollins. {{ISBN\|978-0-00-216330-9}}. Retrieved 8 March 2015. * Prichard, Mathew (2012). The Grand Tour: Around The World With The Queen Of Mystery. New York, NY: HarperCollins. {{ISBN\|978-0-06-219122-9}}. * {{Citation \|titleThe New Bedside, Bathtub & Armchair Companion to Agatha Christie \|year1993 \|orig-date1979 \|publisherUngar Pub Co \|isbn9780804467254 \|editor-lastRiley \|editor-firstDick \|editor2-lastMcAllister \|editor2-first=Pam}} * {{cite journal \|author1-link Michael Roaf \|last1Roaf \|first1Michael \|first2Robert \|last2Killick \|year1987 \|titleA Mysterious Affair of Styles: The Ninevite 5 Pottery of Northern Mesopotamia \|journalIraq \|volume49 \|pages199–230 \|doi10.2307/4200273 \|jstor4200273 \|s2cid=193083936}} * {{Citation \|lastThomas \|firstW. G. \|titleMurder in Mesopotamia: Agatha Christie and Archaeology \|urlhttp://www.gwthomas.org/murderinmeso.htm \|url-statusdead \|archive-url https://archive.today/20130414235457/http://www.gwthomas.org/murderinmeso.htm \|archive-date = 14 April 2013}}. * Thompson, Laura (2008), [https://books.google.com/books?id=pyWqDwAAQBAJ Agatha Christie: An English Mystery''], London: Headline Review, {{ISBN\|978-0-7553-1488-1}}. * {{cite web \|titleTravel and Archaeology \|urlhttp://agathachristie.com/about-christie/travel-and-archeology/ \|publisherAgatha Christie Limited \|access-date29 February 2012 \|url-statusdead \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20081009185216/http://www.agathachristie.com/about-christie/travel-and-archeology/ \|archive-date=9 October 2008}} {{div col end}} External links {{Sister project links \| wikt no \| c :Category:Agatha Christie \| n no \| q Agatha Christie \| s Author:Agatha Mary Clarissa Christie \| author no \| b no \| v no}} {{Library resources box \| onlinebooksby = yes \| by = yes \| viaf = 71388952 \| label = Agatha Christie}} * {{Official website}} * [https://storage.googleapis.com/agatha-christie-assets/archive/pdfs/christie-reading-list.pdf A Christie reading list] (on official website) * {{IMDb name}} * [https://arheve.org/en/christie-a Works by Agatha Christie in the online library ARHEVE.org] * {{StandardEbooks\|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/agatha-christie}} * {{Gutenberg author}} * {{Internet Archive author}} * {{OL author}} * [http://oxonblueplaques.org.uk/plaques/christie.html Agatha Christie/Sir Max Mallowan's] blue plaque at Cholsey * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070115120530/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/mystery/marple/christie.html Agatha Christie profile on PBS.org] * [http://www.famousauthors.org/agatha-christie Agatha Christie profile on FamousAuthors.org] * [http://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/80000490 Agatha Christie recording, oral history] at the Imperial War Museum * [http://lib-archives.ex.ac.uk/Record.aspx?&idEUL+MS+99 Agatha Christie business papers] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231001025230/http://lib-archives.ex.ac.uk/Record.aspx?&idEUL+MS+99 \|date1 October 2023 }} at the University of Exeter * [https://www.vowelor.com/book/shocking-real-murders-agatha-christie-review/ "Shocking Real Murders"] (book released to mark the 125th anniversary of Christie's birth) * [http://www.poirot.us/disappear.php Hercule Poirot Central] {{Agatha Christie}} {{Navboxes\|list1= {{Hercule Poirot}} {{Miss Marple}} {{And Then There Were None}} {{The Unexpected Guest}} {{Agatha Christie video games}} }} {{Portal bar\|Biography\|Literature\|England}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Christie, Agatha}} Category:1890 births Category:1976 deaths Category:20th-century English novelists Category:20th-century English dramatists and playwrights Category:20th-century English women writers Category:20th-century English memoirists Category:20th-century English short story writers Category:20th-century pseudonymous writers Category:Anthony Award winners Category:Booker authors' division Category:English autobiographers Category:British detective fiction writers Category:British women in World War I Category:English women memoirists Category:English women short story writers Category:Burials in Oxfordshire Category:Cozy mystery writers Category:Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire Category:Edgar Award winners Category:English people of American descent Category:English crime fiction writers Category:English mystery writers Category:English short story writers Category:English women dramatists and playwrights Category:Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature Category:Women mystery writers Category:Formerly missing British people Category:British ghost story writers Category:Members of the Detection Club Category:Missing person cases in England Category:People from Cholsey Category:People from Sunningdale Category:Pseudonymous women writers Category:Wives of knights Category:English women mystery writers Category:English women historical novelists Category:Writers of the Golden Age of Detective Fiction Category:Writers of historical mysteries Category:Writers from Torquay Category:British women in World War II Category:Voluntary Aid Detachment nurses Category:Mythopoeic writers	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agatha_Christie	2025-04-05T18:25:27.631283

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